X . ni.
£13 <t
^ %
* , $
Encyclopedia Britannic^;
Or, A
DICTIONARY
O F
ARTS, SCIENCES, &c.
On a Plan entirely New:
By Which,
THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS
Arc digefted into the Form of Diftind
TREATISES or SYSTEMS,
COMPREHENDING
The History, Theory, and Practice, of each,
according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;
and full EXPLANATIONS given of the
VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE,
WHETHER
Relating to Natural and Artificial Objeds, or to Matters Ecclesiastical,
Civil, Military, Commercial, <6t.
TOGETHER WITH
A DESCPJPTION of all the Countries, I! A General HISTORY, Ancient and Modern*
Cities, Principal Mo u n t a i n s, Seas, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and
Rivers, drc. throughout the World ; It States;
and
An Account of the LIVES of the mofl Eminent Persons in every Nation,
from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times.
THE WHOLE COMPILED FROM
THE WRITINGS OF THE BEST AUTHORS, IN SEVERAL LANGUAGES; THE MOST APPROVED DICTIONARIES,
AS WELL OF GENERAL SCIENCE AS OF PARTICULAR BRANCHES; THE TRANSACTIONS, JOURNALS, AND MEMOIRS, OF LEARNED
SOCIETIES, BOTH AT HOME AND ABROAD; THE MS. LECTURES OF EMINENT PROFESSORS ON DIFFERENT SCIENCES;
AND A VARIETY OF ORIGINAL MATERIALS, FURNISHED BY AN EXTENSIVE CORRESPONDENCE.
The Second Edition; greatly Improved and Enlarged.
ILLUSTRATED WITH ABOVE TWO HUNDRED COPPERPLATES.
VOL. III.
INDOCn DISCANT, ET AMENT MEMINISSE^ PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
Printed for J. Balfour and Co. W. Gordon, J. Bell, J. Dickson, C. Elliot, W. Creech,,
J. McCli es h, A. Bell, J. Hu tton, and C. M'a cfarqu h ar.
MDCCLXXVIII.
^3. ft R K
y B
\ 1965
0A
io
A NEW
Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, See.
C.
C A A C A A
C THE third letter, and fecond confonant, of the
!' 5 alphabet, is pronounced like i before the vowels
aa a‘ a, o, and u ; but like s before e, i, andj/.
As an abbreviature, C ftands forCaius, Carolus, Cx-
far, condemno, &c. and CC for confdibus.
As a numeral, C fignifies too, CC 200, &c.
C, in mufic, placed after the cliff, intimates that the
mufic is in common time, which is either quick or flow,
as it is joined with allegro or adagio : if alone, it is
ufually adagio. If the C be croffed or turned, the
firft requires the air to be played quick, and the lall
very quick.
CAA-apia, in botany, the name of a Brafilian
plant, deferibed by Marcgrave, Pifo, and others; the
root of which fo much refembles the ipecacuanha in its
virtues, that fome have erroneoufly called it by the fame
name.. It is an aftringent and emetic as the ipecacuan¬
ha ; but it pofieffes both thefe qualities in a much
weaker degree, and is therefore neceflarily given in a
larger dofe, a whole dram being the quantity com¬
monly given at once. The Braiilians bruife the whole
plant, and exprefs the juice, which they take internally,
apd alfo apply it externally to wounds made by poifon-
ed arrows and by the bites of ferpents. Some have
fuppofed the root of this plant to be the white ipeca¬
cuanha ; but this is an error, that being little different
from the grey.
CAABA, or Caabah, properly fignifies a fquare
ftone building ; but is particularly applied by the Ma¬
hometans to the temple of Mecca, built, as they pre¬
tend, by Abraham and Iffimael his fon.
Before the time of Mahomet, this temple was a place
of worfhip for the idolatrous Arabs, and is faid to have
contained no lefs than 360 different images, equalling
in number the days of the Arabian year. They were
all deftroyed by Mahomet, who fandlitied the Caaba,
and appointed it to be the chief place of worfliip for
all true believers. The temple is in length, from north
to fouth, about 24 cubits; its breadth from eaft to
weft, is 23 ; and its height, 27. The door, which is on
the eaft fide, ftands about four cubits from the ground;
the floor being level with the bottom of the door. In
the corner next this door is the black Jlone, fo much ce¬
lebrated among the Mahometans. On the north fide
of the caaba, within a femicircular inelofure 50 cubits
long, lies the ‘white Jlotie, faid to be the fepulchre of
Iftimael, which receives the rain-water from the caaba
by a fpout formerly of wood, but now of gold. The Caaba.
black ftone, according to the Mahometans, was brought
down from heaven by Gabriel at the creation of the
world ; and originally of a white colour ; but contrac¬
ted the blacknefs that now appears on it, from the
guilt of thofe fins committed by the fons of men. It is
fet in -filver, and fixed in the fouth-eaft corner of the
caaba, looking towards Bafra, about feven fpans from
the ground. This ftone, upon which there is the fi¬
gure of a human head, is held in the higheft eftima-
tion among the Arabs ; all the pilgrims killing it with
great devotion, and fome even calling it the right-hand
of God. Its blacknefs, which is only fuperficial, is pro¬
bably owing to the kiffes and touches of fo many peo¬
ple. After the Karmatians had taken Mecca, they
carried away this precious,ftone, and could by no means
be prevailed upon to reftore it; but finding at laft that
they were unable to prevent the concourfe of pilgrims
to Mecca, they fent it ba>ck of their own accord, after
having kept it 22 years.
The double roof of the caaba is fupported within by
three octagonal pillars of aloes-wood ; between which,
on a bar of iron, hang fome filver lamps. The outfide
is covered with rich black damalk, adorned with an
embroidered band of gold, which is changed every
year, and was formerly fent by the khalifs, afterwards
by the fultans of Egypt, and is now provided by the
Turkilh emperors. The caaba, at fome diftance, is al-
moft furrounded by a circular inclofure of pillars, join¬
ed towards the bottom by a low balluftrade', and to¬
wards the top by bars of filver. Juft without this inner
inclofure, on the fouth, north, and weft fides of the
caaba, are three buildings, which are the oratories or
places where three of the orthodox fedlsaffemblc to per-,
form their devotions. Towards the fouth-eaft ftands
an edifice which covers the well Zemzem,the treafury,
and the cupola of A1 Abbas. Formerly there was an¬
other cupola, that went under the name of the hemi-
cycle, or cupola of Judaea : but whether or not any re¬
mains of that are now to be feen, is unknown ; nor is it
eafy to obtain information in this refped, all Chriftians
being denied accefs to this holy place. At a fmall di¬
ftance from thp caaba, on the .eaft fide, is the Jlatibu
or place of Abraham ; where is another ftone much re-
fpedfted by the Mahometans ; and where they pretend
to (hew the footfteps of the patriarch, telling us he flood
on it when he built the caaba. Here the fourth feft
9 K 2 of
CAB [ 1548 ] CAB
Caaba of Arabs, viz. that of A1 Shafei, aflembk for religious
II purpofes.
Cab’ The fquare colonnade, or great piazza, that at a
confiderable diftance inclores thefe buildings, confifts,
according to A1 Jannabi, of 448 pillars, and has no
lefs than 38 gates. Mr Sale compares this piazza to
that of the royal exchange at London, but allows it
to be much larger. It is covered with fmall domes or
cupolas, from the four corners of which rife as many
minarets or fteeples, with double galleries, and adorn¬
ed with gilded fpires and crefcents after the Turkifh
manner, as are alfo the cupolas which cover the piazza
Tind other buildings. Between the columns of both in-
clofures hang a great number of lamps, which are con-
Ilantly lighted at night. The firft foundations of this
fecond inclofure were laid by Omar the fecond khalif,
who built no more than a low wall, to prevent the court
of the caaba from being incroached upon by private
buildings ; but by the liberality of fucceeding princes,
the whole has been raifed to that ftate of magnificence
in'which it appears at prefent.
This temple enjoys the privilege of an afylum for all
forts of criminals ; but it is moll remarkable for the
pilgrimages made to it by the devout muffulmans, who
pay fo great a veneration to it, that they believe a fingle
fight of its facred walls, without any particular adl of
devotion, is as meritorious, in the fight of God, as the
moll careful difcharge of one’s duty, for the fpace of a
whole year, in any other temple.
CAAMINI, in botany, a name given by the Spa¬
niards and others to the fined fort of Paraguayan
tea. It is the leaf of a Ihrub which grows on the
mountains of Maracaya, and is ufed in Chili and Pe¬
ru as the tea is with us. The mountains where this
fhrub grows naturally are far from the inhabited parts
of Paraguay; but the people of the place know fo well
the value and ufe of it, that they conftantly furnilh
tbemfelves with great quantities of it from the fpot.
They ufed to go out on thefe expeditions many thou-
fands together ; leaving their country in the mean time
expofed to the infults of their enemies, and many of
themfelves perilhing by fatigue. To avoid thefe in¬
conveniences, they have of late planted thefe trees about
their habitations; but the leaves of thefe cultivated
ones have not the fine flavour of thofe that grow
wild. The king of Spain has permitted the Indians
of Paraguay to bring to the town of Saintfoy 12,000
arobes of the leaves of this tree every year, but they
are not able to procure fo much of the wild leaves an¬
nually : about half the quantity is the utmoft they
bring of this: the other half is made up of the leaves
of the trees in their own plantations ; and this fells at
a lower price, and is called pabos. The arobe is about
25 pound weight; the general price is four piaftres ;
and the money is always divided equally among the peo¬
ple of the colony.
CAANA, or Kaana, a town in Upper Egypt,
feated on the eaftern banks of the river Nile, from
whence they carry corn and pulfe for the fupply of
Mecca in Arabia. E. Long. 32. 23. N. Lat. 24. 30.
Here are feveral monuments of antiquity^et remaining,
adorned with hieroglyphics.
CAB, an Hebrew dry meafure, being the fixth part
of a feah or fatum, and the 18th part of an ephah. A
cab contained pints of our corn-meafure: a quarter
cab was the meafnre of dove’s dung, or more proper- Cal«
ly a fort of chick-peafe called by this name, which II
was fold at Shmaria, during the fiege of that city, for a ,a a
five Ihekels.
CABAL, an apt name currently given to the infa¬
mous minillry of Charles II. compofed of five perfons,
Clifford, Afhley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lau¬
derdale ; the firll letters of whofe names, in this or¬
der, furnifhed the appellation by which they were di-
flinguifhed.
CABALIST, in French commerce, a fa&or or per-
fon who is concerned in managing the trade of another.
CABALLARIA, in middle-age writers, lands
held by the tenure of furnifhing a horfeman, with fuit-
able equipage, in time of war, or when the lord had oc-
cafion for him.
CABALLEROS, or Cavalleros, are Spani/h
wools, of which there is a pretty confiderable trade at
Bayonne in France.
CABALLINE, denotes fomething belonging to
horfes: thus caballine aloes is fo called, from its be¬
ing chiefly ufed for purging horfes; and common brim-
ftone is called fulpbur caballinum for a like reafon.
CABALLINUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the aEdui
in Gallia Celtica ; now Challon fur Saone, which fee.
CABALLINUS, (arrc. geog.), a very clear foun¬
tain of mount Helicon in Boeotia; called Hippocrenc by
the Greeks, becaufe opened by Pegafus on linking the
rock with his hoof, and hence called Pegajtus.
CABALLIO, or Cabelmo, (anc. geog.), a town
of the Cavares in Gallia Narbonnenfis, fituated on the
Druentia. One of the Latin colonies, in the Notitias
called Civitas Cabellicorum. Now Cavaillon in Pro¬
vence. See Cavaillok.
CABBAGE, in botany. SccBrassica.—In the
Georgical eflays, we find this plant greatly recommend¬
ed as an excellent food for cattle, producing much
dung, and being an excellent fubftitute for hay. The
author prefers the Scotch kind, as being moft durable,
and preferable on all other accounts. He alfo recom¬
mends autumn-fowed plants in preference to thofe fowed
in the fpring ; the former producing a much more
weighty crop than the latter. The expence of raifing
an acre of good cabbages he values at 14/. 15 /. and its
produce at 34 /.
CABBAGE-Tree, the Englifh name of a fpecies of
Palma.
CABBALA, according to the Hebrew ftyle, has
a very diftind fignification from that wherein we un-
derftand it in our language. The Hebrew cabbala fig-
nifies tradition; and the Rabbins, who are called cabbal-
ijis, ftudy principally the combination of particular
words, letters, and numbers, and by this means pretend
to difeover what is to come, and to fee clearly into the
fenfe of many difficult paflages of feripture. There
are no fure principles of this knowledge, but it depends
upon fome particular traditions of the ancients; for
which reafon it is termed cabbala.
The cabbalifts have abundance of names which they
call facred; thefe they make ufe of in invoking of Spi¬
rits, and imagine they receive great light from them.
They tell us, that the fecrets of the cabbala were dif-
covered to Mofes on mount Sinai ; and that thefe have
been delivered to them down from father to fon, with¬
out interruption, and without any ufe of letters; for
to
CAB [ 1549 ] CAB
Cabfcalifts to write them down, is what they are by no means
il permitted to do. This is likewife termed the oral law,
Cahbezzo. {jecal,fe ;t from father to fon, in order to dif-
tinguifh it from the written laws.
There is another cabbala, called artificial, which
confifts in fearching for abftrufe and myfterious figni-
fications of a word in Scripture, from whence they bor¬
row certain explanations, by combining the letters
which compofe it: this cabbala is divided into three
kinds, the gematrie, the notaricon, and the temura or
themurah. The firft whereof confifts in taking the
letters of a Hebrew word for ciphers or arithmetical
numbers, and explaining every word by the arithmeti¬
cal value of the letters whereof it is compofed. The
fecond fort of cabbala, called notaricon, conlifts in ta¬
king every particular letter of a word for an entire
diftion ; and the third, called themurah, i. e. change,
confifts in making different tranfpofitions or changes
of letters, placing one for the other, or one before
* the other.
Among the Chriftians, likewife, a certain fort of
magic is, by miftake, called cahbala ; which conlifts
in ufing improperly certain paffages of Scripture for
magic operations, or in forming magic chara&ers or
figures with ftars and talifmans.
Some vilionaries among the Jews, believe, that
Jefus Chrift wrought his miracles by virtue of the my-
fteries of the cabbala.
CABBALISTS, the Jewilh doftors who profefs
the ftudy of the cabbala.
In the opinion of thefe men, there is not a word,
letter, or accent in the law, without fome myftery in
it. The Jews are divided into two general fedts ; the
karaites, who refufe to receive either tradition or the
talmud, or any thing but the pure text of fcripture ;
and the rabbinifts, or talmudifts, who, befides this,
receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the
talmud.
The latter are again divided into two other fedts ;
pure rabbinifts, wdio explain the fcripture, in its na¬
tural fenfe, by grammar, hiftory, and tradition; and
cabbalifts, who, to difcover hidden myftical fenfes,
which they fuppofe God to have couched therein, make
ufe of the cabbala, and the myftical methods above
mentioned.
CABECA, or Cabesse, a name given to the fineft
filks in the Eall Indies, as thofe from 15 to 20 per
cent, inferior to them are called barina. The Indian
workmen endeavour to pafs them off one with the o-
ther; for which reafon, the more experienced Euro¬
pean merchants take care to open the bales, and to
examine all the Ikains one after another. The Dutch
diftinguifti two forts of cabecas ; namely, the moor ca-
beca, and the common cabeca. The former is fold at
Amfterdam for abgut 214- fchellinghen Flemilh, and
the other for about 18J.
Cabeca de Vide, a fmall fea-port town of Alentejo
in Portugal, with good walls, and a ftrong caftle. W.
Long. 6. 43. N. Lat. 39. o.
CA BENDA, a fea-port of Congo in Africa, fi-
tuated in E. Long. 12. 2. S. Lat. 4. ;.
CABES, or Gabes, a town of Africa, in the king¬
dom of Tunis, feated on a river near the gulf of the
fame name. E. Long. to. 55. N Lat. 33. 40.
CABEZZO, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa ; having Oacco on the north, Lubolo on the Cabidos
fouth, the Coanza on the north-eaft, and the Reinba II.
on the fouth-weft. It is populous, and well ftored Cab e'
with cattle, &c. and hath a mine of iron on a moun¬
tain from thence called the iron mountain, which yields
real quantities of that metal ; and this the Portuguefe
ave taught the natives to manufafture. This pro¬
vince is watered by a river called Rio Longo, and other
fmall rivulets, lakes, &c. The trees here are vaftly
large; and they have one fort not unlike our apple-trees,
the bark of which being flaftied with a knife, yields an
odoriferous refin of the colour and confiftency of wax,
and very medicinal in its nature, only a little too hot
for Europeans, unlefs qualified by fome cooling drug.
CABIDOS, or Cavidos, a long meafure ufed at
Goa, and other places of the Eaft Indies belonging to
the Portuguefe, to meafure Huffs, linens, &c. And
equal to 4 of the Paris ell.
CABIN, a room or apartment in a fhip where any
of the officers ufually refide. There are many of thefe
in a large fhip; the principal of which is defigned for
the captain or commander. In fhips of the line this
chamber is furnifhed with an open gallery in the fhip’s
ftern, as alfo a little gallery on each quarter. The
apartments where the inferior officers or common failors
fleep and mefs are ufually called Births; which fee.
The bed-places built up for the failors at the fhip’s
fide in merchantmen are alfo called cabins.
CABINET, the moft retired place in the fined
part of a building, fet apart for writing, Undying, or
preferving any thing that is precious.
A complete apartment confifts of a hall, anti-cham¬
ber, chamber, and cabinet, with a gallery on one fide.
Hence we fay, a cabinet of paintings, curiofities, &c.
Cabinet, alfo denotes a piece of joiner’s workman-
fhip, being a kind of prefs or cheft, with feveral doors
and drawers.
There are common cabinets of oak or of chefnut,
varnifhed cabinets of China and Japan, cabinets of in¬
laid work, and fome of ebony, or the like fcarce und
precious woods.
Formerly the Dutch and German cabinets were
much efteemed in France; but are now quite out of
date, as well as the cabinets of ebony which came
from Venice.
CABIRI, a term in the theology of the ancient Pa¬
gans, fignifying great and powerful gods; being a
name given to the gods of Samothracia. They were
alfo worfhipped in other parts of Greece, as Lemnos
and Thebes, where the cabiria mere celebrated in ho¬
nour- of them ; thefe gods are faid to be, in number,
four, flz. Axieros, Axiocerfa, Axiocerfus, and Caf-
milus.
CABIRIA, feftivals in honour of the Cabiri, cele¬
brated in Thebes and Lemnos, but efpecially in Samo¬
thracia, an ifland confecrated to the Cabiri. All who
were initiated into the myfteries of thefe gods, were
thought to be fecured thereby from ftorms at fea, and
all other dangers. TheEeremony of initiation was per¬
formed by placing the candidate, crowned with olive-
branches, and girded about the loins with a purple
ribband, on a kind of throne, about which the priefts,
and perfons before initiated, danced.
CABLE, a thick, large, ftrong rope, commonly
of hemp, which ferves to keep a fhip at anchor.
There
CAB [ 155° ]
There is no merchant-Ihip, however weak, but has
' at leaf! three cables; namely, the chief cable, or
cable of the ftieet-anchor, a common cable, and a
fmaller one.
Cable is alfo faid of ropes, which ferve to raife
heavy loads, by the help of cranes, pullies, and other
engines. The name of cable is ufually given to fuch
as have, at lead, three inches in diameter; thofe that
are lefs are only called ropes, of different names accord¬
ing to their ufe.
Every cable, of whatfoever thicknefs it be, is com-
pofed of three ftrands ; every ftrand of three ropes;
and every rope of three twills: the twift is made of
more or lefs threads, according as the cable is to be
thicker or thinner.
In the manufafture of cables, after the ropes are
made, they ufe flicks, which they pafs firfl between
the ropes of which they make the ftrands, and after¬
wards between the ftrands of which they make the
cable, to the end that they may all twift the better,
and be more regularly wound together; and alfo, to
prevent them,from twining or entangling, they hang,
;it the end of each flrand and of each rope, a weight of
lead or of done.
The number of threads each cable is compofed of is
always proportioned to its length' and thicknefs ; and
it is by this number of threads that its weight and va¬
lue are afcertained: thus, a cable of three inches cir¬
cumference, or one inch diameter, ought to confid of
48 ordinary threads, and to weigh 192 pounds; and
on this foundation is Calculated the following table,
very ufefut for all people engaged in marine commerce,
who fit out merchantmen for their own account, or
freight them for the account of others.
A table of the number of threads and 'weight of cables
of different circumferences.
. Circumf. Threads,
3 inches 48
4 11
CAB
!3
*5
16
17
18
174
238
'393
4«5
598
699
821 ,
952
i°93
1244
I4°4
1574
1754
*943
Weight.
192 pounds.
308
484
696
952
1244
1572
1940
2392
2796
3284
3808,
4372
4976
5616
6,296
7016
7772
Sheet-Anchor Cable, is the greated cable belonging
to a fhip.
Stream Cable, ahawfer or rope, fomething fmaller
than the bowers, ahd ufed to moor the fhip in a river
or haven, fheltered from the wind and fea, &c.
Serve of Plate the Cable, is to bind it about with
ropes, clouts, &e. to keep it from galling inthehawfe.
To Splice a Cable, is to make two pieces fad toge¬
ther, by working the feveral threads of the rope the
one into the other.
Pay more Cable, is to let more out of the fhip. Cable
Pay cheap the Cable, is to hand it out apace. Veer more
Cable, is to let more out, &c. . V -
Cable’s Length, a meafure of 120 fathoms, or of
the ufual length of the cable.
CABLED, in heraldry, a term applied to a crofs
formed of the two ends of a fhip’s cable ; fometimes
alfo to a crofs covered over with rounds of rope ; more
properly called a crofs corded.
Cabled Flute, in architedlure, fuch flutes as are fill¬
ed up with pieces in the form of a cable.
CABO de Istria, the capital town of the province
of Idria, in the territory of Venice; and the fee of a
bifhop. It is feated on a fmall ifland in the gulf of Ve¬
nice, and is joined to the main land by draw-bridges.
E. Long. 14. 22. N. Lat. 45. 49.
CABOCHED, in heraldry, is when the heads of
beads are borne without any part of the neck, full-
faced.
CABOLETTO, in commerce, a coin of the repub¬
lic of Genoa, worth about 3 d. of our money.
-CABOT (Sebaftian), the fird difeovererof the con¬
tinent of America, was the fon of John Cabot a Ve¬
netian. He was born at Bridol in 1477 ; and was
taught by his father, arithmetic, geometry, and cofmo-
graphy. Before be was 20 years of age he made fe¬
veral voyages. The fird of any confequence feems to
have been made with his father, who had a commiflion
from Henry VII. for the difeovery of a north wed paf-
fage to India. They failed in the fpring of 1497; and
proceeding to the north-w'ed they difeovered land,
which for that reafon they called Primavifla, or New¬
foundland. Another fmaller idand they called St John,
from its being difeovered on the fead of St John Bap-
tid ; after which, they failed along the coad of Ame¬
rica as far as Cape Florida, and then returned to Eng¬
land with a good cargo, and three Indians aboard.
Stowe and Speed aferibe thefe difeoveries wholly to
Sebaftian, without mentioning his father. It is pro¬
bable that Sebaftian, after his father’s death, made fe¬
veral voyages to thefe parts, as a map of his difeove¬
ries, drawn byhimfelf, was hung up in the privy-gar¬
den at Whitehall. However, hiftory gives but little
account of his life for near 20 years; when he went to
Spain, where he was made pilot-major, and intrufted
with reviewing all projects for difeoveries, which were
then very numerous. His great capacity and approved
integrity induced many eminent merchants to treat with
him about a voyage by the new found ftraits of Ma¬
gellan to the Moluccas. He therefore failed in 1525,
firft to the Canaries ; then to the Cape Verd iflands ;
thence to St Auguftine, and the ifland of Patos; when
fome of his people beginning to be mutinous, and re-
fufing to pafs through the ftraits, he laid afide the de-
fign of failing to the Moluccas; left fome of the prin¬
cipal mutineers upon a defart ifland ; and, failing up
the rivers of Plate and Paraguay, difeovered, and built
forts in, a large trail of fine country, that produced
gold, filver, and other rich commodities. He thence dif-
patched meflengers to Spain for a fupply of provifions,
ammunition, goods for trade, and a recruit of men: but
his requeft not being teadily complied with, after flay¬
ing five years in America, he returned home; where
he met with a cold reception, the merchants being dif-
pleafed at his ndt having purfued his voyage to the
4 Moluccas,
CAB
[ 1551 ]
C A C
Cal>ra Moluccas, while his treatment of the mutineers had
CalJirtan Elvcn umbrage at court. Hence he returned to Eng-
— -J land ; and being introduced to the duke of Somerfet,
then lord proteftor, a new office was ere&ed for him :
he was made governor of the myftery and company of
the merchant-adventurers for the difcovery of regions,
dominions, iflands, and places unknown; a penfion was
granted him, by letters-patent, of 166/. 13/. ^d. per
annum; and he was confulted in all affairs relative to
trade. In 1523, by his intereft, the court fitted out
fome {hips for the difcovery of the northern parts of the
world. This produced the firft voyage the Englifh
made to Rufiia, and the beginning of that commerce
which has ever fince been carried on between the two
nations. The Rnffia company was now founded by a
charter granted by Philip and Mary; and of this com
bounded on the north by Bukharia, on the eafl: by Cafch-
mire, on the weft by Zabuliftan and Candahar, and on _
the fouth by Multan. It is 250 miles in length, 240
in breadth, and its chief town is Cabul. This country
in general is not very fruitful; but in the vales they
have good pafture-Iand. The roads are much infefted
with banditti; which obliges the natives to have guards
for the fecurity of travellers. The religion of the Ca-
buliftans is pagan; and their extraordinary time of de¬
votion is the full moon in February, and continues for
two days. At this time they are clothed in red, make
their offerings, dance to the found of the trumpet, and
make vifits to their friends in mafquerade dreffes. They
fay, their god Crufman killed a giant who was his e-
nemy, and that he appeared like a little child; in me¬
mory of which, they caufe a child to /hoot at the figure
pany Sebaftian wras appointed governor for life. He is of a giant. Thofe of the fame tribe make bonfires, and
faid to be the firft who took notice of the variation of
the needle, and who publiftied a map of the world.
The exaft time of his death is not known, but he lived
to be above 70 years of age.
CABRA, a town of the kingdom of Tombut in
Africa. It ;3 a large town, but without walls; and is
feated on the river Niger, about 12 miles from Tom¬
but. The houfes are built in the ftiape of bells; and
the walls are made with ftakes or hurdles, plaftered
feaft together in a jovial manner. The moral part of
their religion confifts in charity; for which reafon, they
dig U’ells and build houfes for the accommodation of
travellers. They have plenty of provifions, mines of iron,
myrobolans, aromatic woods, and drugs of many kinds.
They carry on a great trade with the neighbouring
countries; by which means they are very rich, and are
fupplied with plenty of all things.
CABURNS, on {hip-board, are fmall lines made of
with clay, and covered with reeds after the manner of fpun yarn, to bind cables, feize tackles, or the like,
thatch. This place is very much frequented by negroes CACALIA, foreign coltsfoot; a genus of the
who come here by water to trade. The town is very fyngenefia order, belonging to the polygamia sequalis
unhealthy, which is probably owing to its low fitua- clafs of plants.
tion. The colour of the inhabitants is black, and their Species* 1. The fuaveolens, with a herbaceous ftalk, is
religion a fort of Mahometanifm. They have plenty a native of North America. It hath a perennial creep-
of corn, cattle, milk, and butter; but fait is very fcarce. ing root which fends out many ftalks, garniftied with
The judge who decides controverfies is appointed by triangular fpear-ftiaped leaves ftiarply fawed on their
the king of Tombut. E. Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 14. edges, of a pale green on their under fide, but a deep
  /l  „ 1^~rnu„  .*r^
CABUL, or Gaboul, a city of Afia, and capital
of the province of Cabuiiftan. It lies in E. Long. 68.15.
N. Lat. 33. 30. on the frontiers of Great Bukharia,
1 the fouth fide of the mountains which divide the
fhining green above, placed alternately. The ftalks rife
to the height of feven or eight feet, and are terminated
by umbels of white flowers, which are fucceeded by ob¬
long feeds covered with down. It flowers in Auguft,
and the feeds ripen in October. The ftalks decay in
territories of the Mogul from that part of Great Tar- autumn, and new ones rife in the fpring. This plant
tary. It is one of the fineft places in that part of the
world; large, rich, and very populous. As it is confi-
dered as' the key of the Great Mogul’s dominions on
that fide, great care is taken to keep its fortifications
in repair, and a numerous garrifon is maintained for its
multiplies greatly by its fpreading roots, as alfo by the
feeds which are fpread to a great diftance by the wind,
the down which adheres to them being greatly aflifting
to their conveyance. The roots which have been cait
out of Chelfea garden, being carried by the tides to a
fecurity. It lies in the road between Samarcand and great diftance, have fixed themfelves to the banks of
Labor; and is much frequented by the Tartars, Per- the river, and increafed fo much, that in a few years
fians, and Indians. The Uibeck Tartars drive there a this fpecies may probably appear as a native of Eng-
great trade in fiaves and horfes, of which it is faid that land. 2. The ficoides is a native of the Cape of Good
no fewer than 60,000 are fold annually. The Perfians Hope. It rifes with ftrong round ftalks to the height
bring black cattle and (heep, which renders provifions of feven or eight feet, woody at bottom, but foft and
very cheap. They have alfo wine, and plenty of all fucculent upward, fending out many irregular branches,
forts of eatable?. The city (lands on a little river which garniftied more than half their length with thick, taper,
falls into the Indus, and thereby affords a ftiort and fucculent leaves, a little compreffed on two fides, end-
fpeedypaffage for all the rich commodities in thecoun- ing in points, covered with a whitifti glaucous farina,
try behind it, which, when brought to Cabul, are there which comes off when handled. Thefe, when broken,
exchanged for flaves and horfes, and then conveyed by emit a ftrong odour of turpentine, and are full of a vif-
merchants of different countries to all parts of the cous juice; at the extremity of the branches the flowers
world. The inhabitants are moll of them Indian pa- are produced in fmall umbels; they are white, tubu-
gans, though the officers of the Mogul and moft of the lous, and cut into five parts at the top. Some of the
-garrifon are Mahometans. French noblemen have the leaves of this plant pickled;
CABULISTAN, a province of Afia, formerly be- in doing of which they have a contrivance to preferve
longing to the Great Mogul; but ceded in 1739 to the white farina with which they are covered, and there-
Kouli Khan, who at that time governed Perfia. It is by render them very beautiful. 3. The kleinia, with a
compound
C A C [ <5.
Cacalia. compound fhrubby ftalk, grows naturally in the Ca-
 nary iflands, but has been long cultivated in the Englifh
gardens. It rifes with a thick flefhy item divided at
certain diftances, as it were, into fo many joints. Each
of thefe divitions fvvell much larger in the middle than
they do at each end ; and the ftalks divide into many
irregular branches of the fame form, which, toward
their extremities are garnifhed with long, narrow,
fpear-fhaped leaves of a glaucous colour. Handing all
round the (talks without order. As they All off, they
leave a fear at the place, which always remains on the
branches. The flowers are produced in large clufters
at the extremity of the branches, which are tubulous,
and of a faint carnation colour. They appear in Auguft
and September, but continue great part of October,
and are not fncceeded by feeds in this country. There
have been (tones and fofiiles dug up at a very great
depth in feme parts of England having very perfect im-
preffions of this plant upon them ; from whence Dr
Woodward has fuppofed the plants were lodged there
at the univerfal deluge; and finding the impreffions of
many Other plants and animals which are natives of
thofe iflands, he concludes that the waters flowed hi¬
ther from the fouth-weft. This plant has been called
the cabbage-tree, from the refemblance which the (talk
of it has to the cabbage: others have intitled it carna¬
tion-tree, from the (hape of the leaves and the colour
of the flowers. Befides thefe, there are feven other
fpecies, viz. the alpina, with kidney-lhaped leaves ;
the glabra, with fmooth leaves; the atriplicifolia, with
heart-ihaped finuated leaves ; the papillaris, with a
ihrubby (talk guarded on every fide with broken rough
footftalks; the ante-euphorbium, with oblong oval
leaves ; the fonchifolia, with lyre-(haped indented
leaves; and the lutea, with leaves, divided into five acute
parts.
Culture. All the three fpecies deferibed above are
very eafily propagated. The firfl: will propagate itfelf,
as already mentioned, either by roots or feeds. The fe-
cond is eafily propagated by cuttings during the fum-
mer months: thefe (hould be cut from the plants and
laid to dry a fortnight, that the wound may be healed
over before they are planted. Molt people plunge the
pots in which thefe are planted into an hot-bed, to pro¬
mote their putting out roots; but if planted in June
or July, they will root as well in the open air. Even
branches broken off by accident have frequently put
out roots when fallen on the ground, without any care.
Thefe branches may be kept fix months out of the
ground, and will take root if planted. This (hould have
a light fandy earth, and in winter be placed in an airy
glafs-cafe, where they may enjoy the fun and air in
mild weather, but mult be protected from froft. Du¬
ring the winter feafon the plants muft have but little
water; and in fummer, when they are placed in the
open air, it ftiould not be given to them too often, nor
in great quantity. The third is alfo propagated by
cuttings, and the plants require the fame culture; but
muft have a dry warm glafs-cafe in winter, and very
little water, being fubjeft to rot with wet. In fummer
they mull be placed in the open air in a warm (heltered
fituation, and in very dry weather refreftied moderately
with water. With this management the plants will
flower annually, and grow to the height of eight or ten
feet.
J2 ] C A C
CACAO, the chocolate-nut tree, is by Lin- Cacao,
nseus joined to the theobroma, a genus of the pentandria
order, belonging to the polyadelphia clafs of plants; but
of the true chocolate-nut there is only one fpecies
known, which we therefore choofe to deferibe fepa-
rately. The tree producing it is by Mr Catefby faid to
be about 8 inches in thicknefs, and 12 feet in height,
with a fmooth fhining bark. The leaves grow alter¬
nately, are broad and pointed, fet on flat pedicles near
an inch long. The flowers come forth only from the
trunk and larger branches, in clutters of about eight or
ten ; each flower confiding of five capfular leaves, and
five petals, with (lamina, and a ftylus. To one of thefe
little tufts of bloflbms ufually fucceeds a (ingle fruit
about the fize of a fwan’s egg, but longer, more taper¬
ing, and ending in a point. The fruit hangs pendant;
and, when ripe, has a (hell of a purple colour, in fub-
(lance fomewhat like that of a pomegranate, and fur¬
rowed from end to end ; containing in the middle ma¬
ny kernels of the fize of acorns, inclofed in a mucila¬
ginous fubftance, and which are known amongft us
by the name of cacao-nuts, of which Chocolate is
made. See Plate LXVI. fig. 1.: where, n° 1. (hews
the fruit hanging on the tree; and n° 2, is a tranfverfe
fedlion of the nut, (hewing the included kernels.
This tree is a native of America, and no other part
of the world. The places of its growth, according to
Mr Catefby, are the bay of Campeachy on Coda Rico
between Portabel and Nicaragua, the coall of Coraccos,
Guajaquil, and Colima. All the fugar iflands, however,
are proper for its cultivation ; and the fame author af-
fures us, that, in the year 1714, he faw the remains of
extenfive cacao-walks planted by the Spaniards while
in pofleffion of that ifland; and he complains very much
of the negle6l of its cultivation by the Britifli planters.
Mr Miller, after making complaints of the fame kind,
gives direftions, to the following purpofe, fer cultiva¬
ting the chocolate-tree.
The proper fituation for chocolate-trees is in a place
where they may be prote&ed from the winds, which
would foon deftroy them. Such places, therefore, where
torrents of water have wafhed away the earth fo as to
leave broad and deep furrows, are very proper for this
purpofe. The foil in thefe gullies (as the inhabitants
call them) is very rich and mold, which the chocolate-
trees require, and where they will thrive exceedingly:
but where there are not a diffident number of gullies,
choice (hould be made of a fituation well (heltered by
large trees; or if there are not trees already grown,
there (hould be three or four rows planted round the
fpot which is defigned for the chocolate-trees, of fuch
forts as are of the quickeft growth ; and within thefe
rows (hould be fome plantain-trees planted at proper
diftances, which, being very quick of growth, and the
leaves very large, will afford a kindly fhelter to the
young chocolate-trees planted between them. As the
chocolate-trees do not fpread their branches very wide,
it will be fufficient to place the plantain-trees 24 feet
afunder; in which cafe, there may be two rows of cho¬
colate-trees between them, placing them at ten feet
diftance from each other in the row. Before the plan¬
tation is begun, the ground (hould be well prepared by
deep, and clearing it from roots of trees
and noxious plants, which, if fuffered to remain in the
ground, will (hoot up again after the firft rain, and
greatly
C A C [ 1553 ] C A C
Cscao. greatly obftruft the growth of the cacao-plants. When
the ground is thus prepared, the rows (hould be marked
out by a line where the nuts are to be planted, fo as
that they may be placed in a quincunx order, at equal
diftance every way, or at lead that the plantain-trees
between them may form a quincunx with the two rows
of chocolate-trees which are placed between them. The
nuts fhould be planted in a rainy feafon, and in the
places where they are to remain, for they feldom bear
tranfplanting. As the fruit ripens at two different fea-
fons, viz. at Midfummer and at Chriftmas, the plantation
maybemade at any of thefetimes; but care muft be taken
to choofe fuch as are perfe£Uy ripe and found, otherwife
the whole trouble and expence will be loft. The manner
of planting is to make three holes in the ground, within
two or three inches of each other, at the place where
every tree is to ftand ; and into each of thefe holes one
nut (hould be planted about two inches deep, covering
them gently with earth. The reafon of planting three
nuts is, that they feldom all grow; or if they do, all
are not equally vigorous; fo that, when the plants
have had one year’s growth, it will be eafy to draw up
the weak unpromifing plants, and leave the moft vi¬
gorous. It is proper, however, to obferve, that the
chocolate-nuts will not retain their power of vegetation
long after they are taken from the trees: fo that there
is no poffibility of tranfporting them to any great di¬
ftance for planting; nor (hould they be kept long out
of the ground in the natural places of their growth.
When the chocolate-trees firft appear above ground,
they are very leader, and fubjedt to great injuries from
the winds, fun, or drought: for thefe reafons, befides
the (lielter of trees already mentioned, it would be pro¬
per to have the plantation near a river, and to plant a
* See Jatro- row of caffada * on each fide of the rows of chocolate-
fba. trees, which will grow about feven or eight feet high,
and fcreen the young plants from the violence of the
fun the firft feafon; after which they will be in lefs
danger therefrom ; and the following feafon, when the
cafiada is taken up for ufe, the ground (hould be worked
between the young plants, taking care not to injure
their roots by the operation. The plantain-trees fhould
be fet two or three months before the chocolate-nuts
are ripe, that they may be large enough to afford fhel-
ter to the young plants; and the caffada is always
planted a month or fix weeks before the chocolate-nuts,
for the fame reafon. Some people, inftead of caffada,
plant potatoes or cucumbers and melons between the
young chocolate-plants: but where this is done, it muft
be with great caution ; for if fuffered to approach too
near the plants, they will greatly injure, if not totally
deftroy, them. In about feven or eight days after the
chocolate-nuts are planted, the young plants will be¬
gin to appear above ground; when they fhould be
carefully looked over, to fee if any of them are attacked
by infe&s; in which cafe, thefe infe&s muft'be de-
ftroyed, or they will foon devour the plants; or if there
are any weeds produced near the plants, they fhould
be carefully cut down with a hoe. About 20 days after
the plants have appeared, they will be five or fix inches
high, and have four or fix leaves according to the
ftrength of the plants. In about a year, they will be
two feet and an half high, and have 14 or 16 leaves.
By this time the caffada, which was planted between
the rows of chocolate-plants, will have large roots fit
Vol. III.
for ufe, therefore fhould be taken up ; and the ground Cacao,
being then wrought over again will greatly encourage
the young chocolate-plants. In two years time the
young trees will have grown to the height of three feet
and an half or four feet, and many of them will begin
to flower. Thefe early bloffoms, however, fhould be
carefully taken off; for if permitted to remain and pro¬
duce fruit, they will fo much weaken the trees, that
they feldom recover their ftrength again fo as to be¬
come vigorous. In half a year after, they will produce
flowers again; and thefe alfo fhould be all pulled off;
none being left to produce fruit till the third year, and
then but a few in proportion to the ftrength of the
trees. By following this method, the trees will always
produce larger and better nourifhed fruit than thofe
which are fuffered to bear a greater quantity, and will
continue much longer in vigour. The fourth year, the
trees may be fuffered to bear a moderate crop ; but
even then it is better to pull off fome flowers from thofe
trees which are weak, that they may recover ftrength
before they are too old. From the time when the
flowers fall off to the maturity of the fruit is about four
months.
When the fruit is ripe, the planters generally
employ a negro for every row of trees, to gather it.
Being furnifhed with a bafket, he goes from tree to
tree, cutting off all the ripe fruit. When the bafket is
full, the fruit is laid on a heap at one end of the plan¬
tation ; where, after the whole is gathered, they cut
the pods lengthwife, and take out all the nuts, carefully
divefting them of the pulp adhering to them. Then
they carry them to the houfe, where they lay them in
large cades, or other veffels of wood raifed above the
ground, covering them with leaves of the Indian reed, and
mats, upon which they lay fome boards, putting (tones
thereon to keep them down clofe in order to prefs the
nuts. In thefe veffels the nuts are kept four or five days;
during which time they muft be ftirred and turned every
morning; otherwife they will be in danger of perifhing
from the great fermentation they are ufually in. With¬
out this fermentation, it is faid, the nuts will not keep,
but fprout if they are in a damp place, or (hrivel and
dry too much if they are expofed to heat. After the
nuts have been thus fermented, they (hould be taken
out of the veffels, and fpread on coarfe cloths where
they may be expofed to the fun and wind; but at
night, or in rainy weather, they muft be taken under
(helter, otherwife the damp will fpoil them. If the
weather proves fair, three days time will be long
enough to dry them, provided they are carefully turn¬
ed from time to time, that they may dry equally on
every fide. When they are perfe&ly dry, they may be
put into boxes or facks, and preferved in a dry place
until they are (hipped off or otherwife difpofed of. The
freflier thefe nuts are, the more oil is contained in
them ; fo that the older they are, the lefs they are
efteemed. The chocolate-trees, if planted on a good
foil, and properly taken care of, will continue vigorous
and fruitful 25 or 30 years. Befides all the above-
mentioned cultivation, they require their dead and de¬
cayed branches to be taken off, and likewife the fmali
ill-placed branches to be removed. This, however, muft
be done very cautioufly : no vigorous branches (hould
be (hortened, nor any large amputations made on thefe
trees; becaufe they abound with a foft, glutinous,
9 L milky
C A C [ 1554 ] C A C
irfllky juice, which will flow out for many days when¬
ever they are wounded, and this greatly weakens the
trees. Such branches, however, whofe extreme branches
are decayed, fhould be cut off, to prevent the infedlion
from proceeding further; and fucli branches as are
much decayed fhould be taken off clofe to the ftem of
the tree: but this fhould be performed in dry weather,
foon after the crop of fruit is gathered.—Notwith-
flanding all this tedious work, however, Mr Miller is
of opinion that the culture of thefe trees is the moft
profitable way in which a plantation can be laid out.
Five or fix negroes, he fays, will be able to manage a
plantation of 10,000 trees of this kind. The profit of
each tree, he thinks, may be valued at 5 s. annually;
in which cafe, fuch a plantation would be worth 2500I.
per annum.
In order to cultivate this plant in Europe by way of
curiofity, it will be neceffary to have the nuts planted
in boxes of earth (in the countries where they grow)
foon after they are ripe, becaufe they will otherwife
lofe the power of vegetation before they arrive. When
the plants begin to appear above ground, they fhould
be carefully watered in dry weather, and prote&ed
from the violent heat of the fun, which is very injurious
to thefe plants, efpecially while they are young. They
fhould alfo be very clear from weeds ; which, if fuffered
to grow in the boxes, would foon overbear and deftroy
the plants. When they are grown ttrong enough to
tranfport, they fhould be (hipped, and placed where
they may be fereened from ftrong winds, fait water,
and the violent heat of the fun. During their paffage,
they muft be frequently refrefhed with water; but it
muff not be given them in great quantities, or they will
be in danger of rotting. When they come into a cool
climate, they muff be carefully protected from the cold,
and will not require water fo frequently. When arrived
in Britain, they fhould be carefully taken out of the
boxes, and each tranfplanted into a feparate pot filled
with light rich earth, and plunged into a moderate
hot-bed of tanner’s bark, being careful to cover the
glaffes in the heat of the day to fereen them from
the fun : they muft alfo be frequently watered; but it
muft; be done with caution, not to rot their roots. In
this hot-bed the plants may remain till Michaelmas;
when they muft be removed into the bark-ftove, and
plunged into the tan in the warmeft part of the ftove.
They are too tender to live in the open air in this
country, even at the warmeft feafon of the year; and
therefore they muft be conftantly kept in the ftove,
obferving in fummer to give them plenty of frefh air,
and in winter to keep them very warm. This clofe con¬
finement in the houfe makes them fubjedf to contrad
filth ; for which reafon they muft be frequently wafh-
ed, or they would be over-run with infefts.
The Spaniards and Portuguefe were the firft Euro¬
peans whom the Americans made acquainted with ca¬
cao. They-made ufe of it many years without commu¬
nication thereof to any other nations. So little was it
known in thofe days, that the Dutch privateers, being
ignorant of the value of the prizes of cacao they took,
ufed to throw all the nuts into the fea, calling them in
derilion Jhsep’s treddles. In the year 1649, they knew
but of one cacao-tree in all the Antilles; and this was
planted out of curiofity in the garden of an Englifh-
■ map fettled in the ifland of St Croix. In 1655, the
Caribs (hewed to Monf. du Parquet feveral cacao-trees Cacao
iu the woods of the ifland of Martinico, of which he cJli3
was the owner. This difeovery gave occafion to that ac lao'
of feveral other trees of the fame kind in other woods
of that ifland; and the cacao-walks afterwards planted
there very probably owed their origin to the nuts ta¬
ken from thefe woods. One Benjamin planted there
the firft cacao-walk about the year 1660; but it was
not till 20 or 25 years after that the inhabitants of
this ifland began to apply themfelves to the cultivation
of thefe trees fo as to make walks or plantations of
them. There are fome places in America where the
cacao nuts or grains are ufed as money, but only among
the natives: they give 12 or 14 grains for a Spanilh
rial. The ufes to which cacao is put may be reduced
to three. It is made into a fweet-meat; alfo into cho¬
colate (fee Chocolate) ; and there is an oil extracted
from it to which they alfo give the name of butter.
The oil is as fweet as that of almonds, and is made
after the fame manner. Some of the Creolian ladies of
America ufe it as a cofmetic, to render the complexion
frefh, and the fkin foft and fmooth. The cacao of the
Caraccas is fold at Amfterdam for 84- (livers per pound,
more or lefs : when it is in cades, they allow fo much
for tare; but when it is in bales, the tare is according
to the weight. From ;oo to 229 pounds, the tare is
. reckoned 2 pounds; from 23010 249, 3 pounds*; from
250 to any weight above that, 4 pounds. The ferons,
to 99 pounds weight, give 8 pounds tare per feron ;
thofe of too pounds and above, 10 per cent. The ca¬
cao of Martinico is commonly in calks, which are tared
by the weight. If it is in bags, the fame tare is allowed
as for that of the Caraccas.
CACERES, a town of Spain, in the province of
Eftremadura, is feated on the river Saler, and noted
for the exceeding fine wool which the fheep bear in the
neighbourhood. Between this town and Brocos, there
is a wood, where the allies defeated the rear-guard of
the duke of Berwick, on the y111 of April, 1706. E.
Long. 6.47. N. Lat. 39. 15.
CACHALOT, in ichthyology. See Physeter,
CACHAN, or CashAn, a confiderable town of
Perfia in Irac Agemi, where they carry on an exten-
five trade in filks, filver and gold brocades, and fine
earthen ware. It is fituated. in a vaft plain, 35 miles
from Ifpahan. E. Long. 50. 2. N. Lat. 34. 10.
CACHAO, a province of the kingdom of Tonquin
in Afia, fituated in the heart of the kingdom, and fur-
rounded by the other feven. Its foil is fertile, and in
fome places mountainous, abounding with variety of
trees, and particularly that of varnifh. Moft of thefe
provinces carry on fome branch of the filk manufa&ure,
but this moft of all. It takes its name from the capi¬
tal, which is alfo the metropolis of the whole kingdom,
though in other refpedts hardly comparable to a Chi-
nefe one of the third rank.
Cachao, a city of the province of that name, in the
kingdom of Tonquin in Afia, fituated in E. Long.
105. 31. N. Lat. 22. 10. at about 80 leagues diftance
from the fea. It is prodigioufly crowded with people,
infomuch that the ftreets are hardly paffable, efpecially
on market-days. Thefe vaft crowds, however, come
moftly from the neighbouring villages ; upon which
account thefe villages have been allowed their halls in
particular parts of the city, where they bring and dif-
c A C [ 1555 J C A C
Caclwo. pofe of their wares. The town itfelf, though the me-
 tropolis of the whole Tonqtiinefe kingdom, hath nei¬
ther walls nor fortifications. The principal ftreets are
wide and airy, but the reft of them narrow and ill-
paved; and, except the palace royal and arfenal, the town
hath little elfe worth notice. The houfes are low and
mean, moftly built of wood and clay, and not above one
flory high. The magazines and warehoufes belonging to
foreigners are the only edifices built of brick ; and
which, though plain, yet, by reafon of their height
and more elegant ftrudfure, make a confiderable fliow
among thofe rows of wooden huts. From the combuf-
tibility of its edifices, this city fuffers frequent and
dreadful conflagrations. Thefe fpread with fuch fur-
prifing velocity, that fbme thoufands of houfes are of¬
ten laid in afhes before the fire can be extinguiflied.
To prevent thefe fad confequences, every houfe hath,
either in its yard, or even in its centre, fomelow build¬
ing of brick, in form of an oven, into which the inha¬
bitants on the firft alarm convey their moft valuable
goods. Befides this precaution, which every family
takes ta fecure their goods, the government obliges
them to keep a ciftern, or fome other capacious vefiel,
always full of water on the top of their houfe, to be
ready on all occafions of this nature; as likewife a long
pole and bucket, to throw water from the kennel upon
the houfes. If thefe two expedients fail of fupprefiing
the flames, they immediately cut the ftraps which faf-
ten the thatch to the walls, and let it fall in and wafte
itfelf on the ground. The king’s palace ftands in the
centre of the city ; and is furrounded witha ftout wall,
within whofe cinfture are feen a great number of apart¬
ments two ftories high, whofe fronts and portals have
fomething of the grand tafte. Thofe of the king and
his wives are embellifhed with variety of carvings and
gildings after the Indian manner, and all finely var-
nilhed. In the outer court are a vaft number of fump-
tuous {tables for the king’s horfes and elephants. The
appearance of the inner courts can only be conjectured;
for the avenues are not only {hut to all ftrangers,
but ever, to the king’s fubjeCts, except thofe of the
privy council, and the chief minifters of ftate : yet we
are told, that there are ftair-cafes by which people may
mount up to the top of the walls, which are about 18
or 20 feet high ; from whence they may have a dif-
tant view of the royal apartments, and of the fine par¬
terres and fifh-ponds that are between the cinCture and
them. The front wall hath a large gate well orna¬
mented, which is never opened but when the king goes
in and out; but at fome diftance from it on each fide
there are two pofterns, at which the courtiers and fer-
vants may go in and out. This cindlure, which is of
a vaft circumference, is faced with brick within and
without, and the whole ftrudture is terminated by wide
fpacious gardens; which, though ftored with great va¬
riety of proper ornaments, are deftitute of the gran¬
deur and elegance obferved in the palaces of European
princes. — Befides this palace, the ruins of one ftill more
magnificent are to be obferved, and are caS\z<S. Libatvia.
The circumference is faid to have been betwixt fix and
feven miles : fome arches, porticoes, and other orna¬
ments, are ftill remaining ; from which, and fome of
its courts paved with marble, it may be concluded to
have been as magnificent a ftrufture as any of the eaft-
ern parts can {hew. The arfenal is likewife a large
and noble building, well ftored with ammunition and Cachao
artillery. The Englifh faftory is fituated on the north |
fide of the city, fronting the river Song-koy. It is a 
handfome low-built houfe, with a fpacious dining¬
room in the centre ; and on each fide are the apart¬
ments of the merchants, factors, and fervants. At
each end of the building are fmaller houfes for other
ufes, as ftore-houfes, kitchen, &c. which form two
wings with the fquare in the middle, and parallel with
the river, near the bank of which ftands a long flag-
ftaflF, on which they commonly difplay the Engliih
colours on Sundays and all remarkable days. Adjoin¬
ing to it, on the fouth fide, is the Danifti factory, which
is neither fo large nor fo handfome. On the fame.tide
of the river runs a long dike, whofe timber and {tones
are fo firmly fattened together, that no part cf it can
be ttirred without moving the whole. This work was
raifed on thofe banks to prevent the river, during the
time of their vaft rains, from overflowing the city; and
it has hitherto anfwered its end ; for though the town
ftands high enough to he in no danger from land-floods,
it might yet have been otherwife frequently damaged,
if not totally laid under water, by the overflowing of
that river. Some curious obfervations have been commu¬
nicated to the royal fociety concerning differences be-
tweenthetides of thofefeas andthofeof Europe, viz. that
on the Tonquinefe coaft ebbs and flows but once in 24.
hours ; that is, that the tide is rifing during the fpace of
12 hours, and can be eafily perceived during twro of the
moon’s quarters, but can hardly be obferved during
the other two. In thefpring tides, which laft 14 days,
the waters begin to rife at the rifing of the moon ;
whereas in the low tides, which continue the fame num¬
ber of days, the tide begins not till that planet is got
below the horizon. Whilft it is palling through the
fix northern figns, the tides are obfi rved to vary greatly,
to rife fometimes very high, and fotnetimes to be very
low ; but when it is once got into the fouthern part of
the zodiac, they are then found to be more even and
regular.
CACHECTIC, fomething partaking of the nature
of, or belonging to, a cachexy.
CACHED, a town of Negroland in Africa, feated
on the river St Domingo. It is fubjeft to the Portu-
guefe, who have three forts there, and carry on a great
trade in wax and flaves. W. Long. 14. 55. N. Eat.
12. o.
CACHEXY, in medicine, a vicious ftate of the
humours and whole habit *. * See (the
CACHRYS, a genus of the pentandria order, be- Jn-<,ex I»h-
longing'to the digynia clafs of plants. There are five ^Medkirt?
fpecies, viz. the trifida, with bipinnated leaves ; the fi-
cula, with double winged leaves; the libanotis, with
fmooth furrowed feeds; the linearia, with plain chan¬
nelled fruit; and the hungarica, with a plain, funguoils,
channelled feed. All thefe are perennial plants, rifing
pretty high, and bearing large umbels of yellow flow¬
ers, and may be propagated by feeds which ought to
be fown foon after they are ripe ; for if they are kept
out of the ground till the next fpring, they often mif-
carry. They muft alfo be fown in a Ihady border
where they are to remain : for the plants, having long
tap-roots, will not bear tranfplanting fo well as many
others. The Hungarians in the neighbourhood of
Erlaw, and thofe who border on Tranfylvania, Servia,
9 L 2 &c.
C A C
Cacochylia, &c. eat the root of the fifth fpecies in a fcarcity of corn
Caftus. for want of other bread.
CACOCHYLIA, or Cacochymia, a vicious ftate
of the vital humours, efpecially of the mafs of blood ;
arifing either from a diforder of the fecretions or excre¬
tions, or from external contagion. The word is Greek,
compounded of *«*©• ill, and xyy.®- juice.
CACTUS, melon-thistle; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of plants.
To this genus Linnseus has added the cereus and o-
puntia ; but to avoid the embarraffment occafioned by
the defcription of fuch a variety of fpecies, we choofe,
with Mr Miller, to defcribe them as three diftintt ge¬
nera. See Ceres and Opuntia.
Species, The melocaftus, with 14 angles, com¬
monly called 2. The intortus, with
15 angles fpirally twifted, and ere& fpines. 3. The
recurvus, with 15 angles, having broad recurved fpines
fet very clofe. 8. The mamillaris, clofely covered
with bearded tubercles ; or fmaller American melon-
thiftle. 5. The proliferus, or fmall childing melon-
thiftle.
All the fpecies of this genus are plants of a Angular
ftru&ure, but efpecially the larger kinds of them ;
which appear like a large, flefhy, green melon, with
deep ribs, fet all over with ftrong fharp thorns ; and,
when the plants are cut through the middle, their in-
fide is a foft, pale-green, flefhy fubflance, very full of
moiflure. The fruit of all the fpecies is frequently
eaten by the inhabitants of the Weft Indies. The fruits
are about three quarters of an inch in length, of a ta¬
per form, drawing to a point at the bottom toward the
plant, but blunt at the top where the empalement of
the flower was fituated. The tafte is agreeably acid,
which in a hot country muft render the fruit more grate¬
ful.
Thefe ftrange plants commonly grow upon the fteep
fides of rocks in the warmeft parts of America, where
they feem to be thruft out 6f the apertures, having
little or no earth to fupportthem, their roots (hooting
down into the fiflures of the rock to a confiderable
depth; fo that it is difficult to get the plants up, efpe¬
cially as they are fo ftrongly armed with thorns as to
render it very dangerous to handle them. The large
kinds were fome time ago brought over to England in
much greater plenty than of late ; but many of them
were deftroyed by the unfkilfulnefs of thofe perfons who
had the care of them in the voyage: for, by giving
them water, they generally caufed them to rot before
they were taken out of the (hips ; and fome of thofe
which appeared to be found, were yet fo replete with
moifture, that they rotted foon after they were placed
in the ftoves. Whoever therefore purpofes to bring
thefe plants from abroad, fhould be very careful to take
up their roots as entire as poffible, and to plant them
in tubs filled with (tones and rubbifh, having very little
earth in it. Three or four plants alfo ought to be put
into each tub, in proportion to their fize, in order to
fave room ; for they will not increafe in bulk during
their paffage, and no room needs be allowed them for
this purpofe. There (hould be feveral pretty large
holes bored through the bottoms of thefe tubs, to let
the moifture pafs off; and if the plants are fet in the
tubs a month or more before they are put on (hipboard,
they will at that time have put forth new roots, which
CAD
will be the bed method pf making them fuceeed. All CaAas
the time they remain in their natural country they ^ | ^
(hould have very little water given them, and after they 3 ea'.
are put on board they mull have none at all. When
they are brought to Britain, the larger forts require a
very good (love to preferve them through the winter,
nor (hould they be expofed to the air in fummer ; for
although they may continue fair to outward appear¬
ance, yet when they have been for fome time expofed
abroad, they will imbibe moifture fufficient to kill them
on their readmiffion to the ftove, and this will happen
very fuddenly ; fcarce any appearance of diforder will
be obferved till the whole plant is killed, which in a
few hours time has often been the fate of the plants
when firft placed in the ftove. If thefe plants are plun¬
ged into a hot-bed of tanners bark in fummer, it will
greatly forward them in their growth : but when this
is pradlifed, there (hould be fcarce any water given to
the plants ; for the moifture which they will imbibe
from the fermentation of the tan will be fufficient, and
more would caufe them rot. The bed method to pre¬
ferve all the large kinds is, in winter to place the pots
either upon the top of the flues, or at lead very near
them, that they may have the warmeft place of the ftove,
and never to give them any water. The foil in which
they are planted muft be of a fandy nature, and if mix¬
ed with fome dry lime rubbifti will be ftill better. In
the bottom of the pots (hould be placed fome Hones, in
order to drain off any moifture that may be in the
earth ; for as thefe plants grow naturally upon the hot,
dry, burning rocks, which have no earth, and were it
not for thefe plants would be abfolutely barren, we muft
imitate their natural foil as near as poffible, making
fome allowance for the difference of climates. The
great forts may be propagated from feeds; but as the
plants which are raifed from feeds in this country will
be fome years in arriving at any confiderable fize, it wn'll
be much the bed way to procure fome plants from the
Weft Indies. The two fmall forts propagate fo fad,
the fourth by feeds, and the fifth from the young plants
thruft out from the fides of the old, that it is unnecef-
fary to fend for any of them from abroad.
CACUS, in fabulous hiftory, an Italian (hepherd
upon mount Aventine. As Hercules was driving home
the herd of king Geryon whom he had (lain, Cacus
robbed him of fome of his oxen, which he drew back¬
ward into his den left they (hould be difeovered. Her¬
cules at laft finding them out by their lowing, or the
robbery being difeovered to him, killed Cacus with his
club. He was Vulcan’s fon, of prodigious bulk, and
half man half fatyr.
CADAN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Zats,
feated on the northern bank of the river Egra, in E.
Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CADE, a cag, caflt, or barrel. A cade of her¬
rings is a veffel containing the quantity of 500 red her¬
rings, or tooofprats.
Ckm-Worm, in zoology, the maggot or w-orm of a
fly called phryganea. It is ufed as a bait in angling *. * SeePtirj-
CADEA, or The league of the house of God
is one of thofe that compofe the republic of the Griffins*
and the mod powerful and extenfive of them all. It
contains the bifliopric of Coire, the great valley of En-
gadine, and that of Bragail or Pregal. Of the 11
great, or 21 fmall communities, there are but two that
[ ]
CAD [ 1557 ] CAD
Citlenac fpeak the German language 5 that of the reft is called
li the Rhetic, and is adialett of the Italian. The Prote-
Cildi' ftant religion is moft prevalent in this league, which has
been allied to the Swifs cantons ever fmce the year
1498. Coire is the capital town.
CADENAC, a town of France in Qmfrch on the
confines of Rouergue, feated on the river Lot, in E.
Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 44. 36.
CADENCE, or Repose, in mufic, (from the La-
tin cade re to fail ,0^ defcend) ; the termination of an
*SeeMuftc, harmonical phrafe on a repofe, or on a perfedl chord *.
ar^y 7<s> Cadence, in reading, is a falling of the voice below
>37*31 the key-note at the clofe of every period. In reading,
whether profe or verfe, a certain tone is affumed which
is called the key-note; and in this tone the bulk of the
words are founded; but this note is generally lowered
towards the clofe of every fentence.
Cadence, in the menage, an equal meafure or pro¬
portion, obferved by a horfe in all his motions; fo
that his times have an equal regard to one another,
the one does not embrace or take in more ground
than the other, and the horfe obferves his ground re¬
gularly.
CADENE, one of the forts of carpets which the
Europeans import from the Levant. They are the worft
fort of all, and are fold by the piece from one to two
piaftres per carpet.
CADENET, a town of France in Provence, and
in the Viguirie of Apt. E. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat.
43. 40.
CADET, the younger fon of a family, is a term
naturalized in our language from the French. At Pa¬
ris, among the citizens, the cadets have an equal patri¬
mony with the reft. At Caux, in Normandy, thecu-
ftom, as with us, is to leave all to the eldeft, except a
fmall portion to the cadets. In Spain, it is ufual for
one of the cadets in great families to take the mother’s
name.
Cadet is alfo a military term denoting a young gen¬
tleman who chufes to carry arms in a marching re¬
giment as a private man. His views are, to acquire
fome knowledge in the art of war, and to obtain a
commiflion in the army. Cadet differs from volunteer,
as the former takes pay, whereas the latter ferves with¬
out pay.
CADI, or Cadhi, a judge of the civil affairs in the
Turkilh empire. It is generally taken for the judge of
a town ; judges of provinces being diftinguiihed by the
appellation of molla's.
We find numerous complaints of the avarice, ini¬
quity, and extortion, of the Turkifti cadis: all juftice is
here venal; the people bribe the cadis, the cadis bribe
the moulas, the moulas the cadilefchers, and the cadi-
lefchers the mufti. Each cadi has his ferjeants, who are
to fummon perfons to appear and anfwer complaints.
If the party fummoned fails to appear at the hour ap¬
pointed, fentence is paffed in favour of his adverfary.
It is ufually vain to appeal from the fentences of the
cadi, fince the affair is never heard anew, but judg¬
ment is paffed on the cafe as ftated by the cadi. But
the cadis are often calhiered and puniftied for crying in-
juftice with the baftinado and mulcts; the law, how¬
ever, does not allow them to be put to death. Con-
ftantinople has had cadis ever fmce the year 1390, when
Bajazet I. obliged John Paleologus, emperor of the
Greeks, to receive cadis into the city to judge all con- Cadikfcher
troverfies happening between the Greeks and the Turks II
fettled there. In fome countries of Africa, the cadis Cadmus*
are alfo judges of religious matters. Among the Moors,
cadis is the denomination of their higher order of
priefts or doftors, anfwering to the rabbins among the
Jews.
CADILESCHER, a capital officer ofjuftice among
the Turks, anfwering to a chief juftice among us.
It is faid, that this authority was originally confined
to the foldiery; but that, at prefent, it extends itfelf
to the determination of all kinds of law-fuits ; yet is
neverthelefs fubjeft to appeals.
There are but three cadilefchers in all the grand fig-
nior’s territories : the firft is that of Europe ; the fe-
cond, of Natolia; and the third refides at Grand Cairo.
This laft is the moft confiderable : they have their feats
in the divan next to the grand vizir.
CADILLAC, a town of France in Guienne, and
in Bazadois, near the river Garonne, with a handfome
caftle, fituated in W. Long. o. 15. N. Lat. 44. 37.
CADIZ, a city and port-town of Andalufia in Spain,
fituated on the north-weft end of the ifland of Leon,
or Lyon, oppofite to Port St Mary on the continent,
about 60 miles fouth-weft of Seville, and 40 north-weft;
of Gibraltar. W. Long. 6. 40. N. Lat. 36- 30.
The ifland it Hands on is in length abouth 18 miles :
the fouth-weft end is about nine broad ; but the other
end, where the city ftands, not above two. It has a
communication with the continent by means of a bridge;
and, with the oppofite ftiore, forms a bay of 12 miles
long and fix broad. About the middle of this bay,
there are two head-lands, or promontories, one on the
continent, and the other on the ifland, which advance
fo near together, that the forts upon them, called the
Puntal and Matagorda, command the paffage ; and
within thefe forts is the harbour, which it is impoffible
for an enemy to enter till he has firft taken the forts.
This port is the ftation of the American fleet, and is al¬
ways well furnilhed with other fiiips. There were for¬
merly two wonderful fprings at Cadiz, but they are
now loft, as well as fome Phenician antiquities, as the
temple of Hercules, and two brafen pillars, &c. There
was likewife a fmall ifland in the bay, where the inha¬
bitants had houfesof pleafure; but it is now fwallowed
up. In 1596, Cadiz was taken, pillaged, and burnt,
by the Englilh ; but in 1702 it was attempted in con-
junftion with the Dutch, without fuccefs.
CADIZADELITES, a fed! of Mahometans very
like the ancient ftoics. They ihun feafts and diverfions,
and affedt an extraordinary gravity in all their adfions ;
they are continually talking of God, and fome of them
make a jumble of Chriftianity and Mahometanifm; they
drink wine, even in the fall of the ramazan ; they love
and protedl the Chriftians; they believe that Mahomet
is the Holy Ghoft, pradlife circumcifion, andjuftify it
by the example of Jefus Chrift.
CADMIA. See Calamine.
CADMUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Thebes,
the fon of Agenor king of Phoenicia, and the brother
of Phoenix, Cilix, and Europa. He carried into Greece
the 16 Ample letters of the Greek alphabet; and there
built Thebes, in Boeotia. The poets fay, that he left
his native country in fearch of his filler Europa, whom
Jupiter had carried away in the form of a bull; and that,
inquiring
CAD [ 1558 1 CAE
Cadmus inquiring of tlie Delphic oracle for a fettlement, he
I! Was anfwered, that he {hould follow the direftion of a
Caduceus. CQW, ancj build a city where fhe lay down. Having ar¬
rived among the Phocenfes, he was met by a cow, who
conduced him through Bceotia to the place where
Thebes was afterwards built : but as he was about to
facrifice his guide to Pallas, he fent two of his compa¬
ny to the fountain Dirce for water; when they being
devoured by a ferpent or dragon, he flew the monfler,
and afterwards, by the advice of Pallas, fowed his teeth,
when there fprung up a number of armed foldiers, who
prepared to revenge the death of the ferpent; but on his
calling a ftone among thefe upftart warriors, they turned
their weapons again!! each other with fuch animoflty,
that only five furvived the combat, and thefe afilfted
Gadmus in founding his new city. Afterwards, to re-
compence his labours, the Gods gave him Harmonia,
or Hermione, the daughter of Mars and Venus; and
honoured his nuptials with prefents and peculiar marks
of favour. But at length refigning Thebes to Pen-
thgus, Cadmus and Hermione went to govern the Ec-
clellenfes: when grown old, they were transformed into
ferpents ; or, as others fay, fent to the Elylian fields,
in a chariot drawn by ferpents. See Thebes.
CADMUS of Miletum, a celebrated Greek hiflo-
rian, was, according to Pliny, the firft of the Greeks
who wrote hifiory in profe. He flourilhed about 550
before Chrift.
CADORE, or Pieve de Cadore, a town of Italy,
in the territory of Venice, and capital of a diftrift call¬
ed Cadorino ; famous for the birth of Titian the painter.
E. Long. 13. 45. N. Lat. 46. 25.
CADORINO, a province of Italy, in the territory
of Venice; bounded on the eaft by Friuli Proper, on
the fouth and weft by the Bellunefe, and by the biftiop-
ric of Brixen on the north. It is a very mountainous
country, but pretty populous. The only town is Pieve
de Cadore.
CADRITES, a fort of Mahometan friars, who
once a-week fpend a great part of the night in turning
round, holding each others hand, and repeating fncef-
fantly the word bai, which fignifies living, and is one
of the attributes of God ; during which one of them
plays on a flute. They never cut their hair, nor cover
their heads; and always go barefooted : they have li¬
berty to quit their convent when they pleafe, and to
marry.
CADSAND, an ifland on thecoaft of Dutch Flan¬
ders, fituated at the mouth of the Scheld, whereby
the Dutch command the navigation of that river.
CADUCEUS, in antiquity, Mercury’s rod or
fceptre, being a wand entwitted by two ferpents borne
by that deity as the enfign of his quality and office,
given him, according to the fable by Apollo, for his
feven-ftringed harp. Wonderful properties are afcribed
to this rod by the poets; as laying men afleep, raifing
the dead, &c.
It was alfo ufed by the ancients as a fymbol of peace
and concord : the Romans fent the Carthaginians a ja¬
velin and a caduceus, offering them their choice either
of war or peace. Among that people, thofe who de¬
nounced war were called; and thofe who went
to demand peace, caduceateret, becaufe they bore a
caduceus in their hand.
The caduccus found on medals is a common fymbol,
fignifying good conduft, peace, and profperlty. The Caduci
rod exprefl'es power, the two ferpents prudence, and
the two wings diligence.  !—
CADUCI, (from eado to fall) ; the name of a clafs
in Linnaeus’s calycina, confiding of plants whofe calix
is a fimple perianthium, fupporting a fingle flower or
fructification, and falling off either before or with the
petals. It Hands oppofed to the clajfes perjiftentes in
the fame method, and is exemplified in muftard and ra¬
nunculus.
CADURCI, Cadurcum, Cadurcus, and Cadurx,
(anc. geog.), a town of the Cadurci a people of A-
quitania; fituated between the rivers Oldus running
from the north, and the Tarnis from the fouth, and
falling into the Garumna: now Cahors, capital of the
territory of the Querci, in Guienne f. A part of the f See Ca-
Cadurci, to the fouth ijext the Tarnis, were called E- f>ors‘
leutheri.
CADUSII (anc. geog.), a people of Media Atro-
patene, fituated to the weft in the mountains, and reach¬
ing to the Cafpian fea; between whom and the Medes,
perpetual war and enmity continued down to the time
of Cyrus.
CADUS, in antiquity, a wine-veffel of a certain
capacity, containing 80 amphorae or firkins; each of
which, according to the beft accounts, held nine gal¬
lons.
CA2CILIA, in zoology, a genus of ferpents be¬
longing to the amphibia clafs. The caecilia has no
fcales; it is fmooth, and moves by means of lateral
rugae or prickles. The upper lip is prominent, and
furniftied with two tentacula. It has no tail. There
are but two fpecies of this ferpent, viz. 1. The tenta-
culata, has 135 rugae. It is about a foot long, and an
inch in circumference, preferring an uniform cylindri¬
cal ftiape from the one end to the other. The teeth are
very fmall. It has fuch a refemblance to an eel, that it
may eafily be miftaken for one; but as it has neither
fins nor gills, it cannot be claffed with the fifties. It is
a native of America, and its bite is not poifonous.
2. The glutinofa, has 340 rugae or prickles above, and
10 below, the anus. It is of a brownifti colour, with a
white line on the fide, and is a native of the Indies.
CAECUM, or Coecum, the blind gut *. * s-, ^
C^LIUS (Aurelianus), an ancient phyfician, and myt n° 344^
the only one of the fed! of the methodifts of whom we h. ’ ’
have any remains. He was of Sicca, a town of Numi-
dia ; but in what age he lived, cannot be determined:
it is probable, however, that he lived before Galen ;
fince, though he carefully mentions all the phyficians
before him, he takes no notice of Galen. He had read
over very diligently the ancient phyficians of all fedfs ;
and we are indebted to him for the knowledge of many
dogmas which are not to be found but in his books ds
celeribus et tardis pafionibus. He wrote, as he him-
felf tells .us, fcveral other works ; but they are all pe-
rifhed.
CiEMENT. See Cement.
CjEMENTATION. See Cementation.
CAEN; an handfome and confiderable town of
France, capital of lower Normandy, with a celebrated
univerfity, and an academy of literature. It contains
60 ftreets, and 12 parifltes. It has a caftle with four
towers, which were built by the Englifti. The town-
houfe is a large building with four great towers. The
CAE [ 1559 ] C ^ S
Csere royal fquare is the handfomeft in all Normandy, and
II has fine houfes on three fides of it; and in the middle
Then”" *s ftatue °f Lewis XIV. in a Roman habit, ftand-
 — ing on a marble pedeftal, and furrounded with an i-
ron balluftvade. It is feated in a pleafant country
on the river Orne, about eight miles from the fea.
William the conqueror was buried here, in the abbey
of St Stephen which he founded. W. Long. o. 27.
N. Lat. 49. 11.
CdERE, (anc. geog.), a town of Etruria, the royal
refidence of Mezentius. Its ancient name vizs Argylla.
In Strabo’s time not the lead veftige of it remained,
.except the baths called cteretatia. From this town the
Roman cenfor’s tables were called cxrites tabula. In
thefe were entered the names of fuch as for fome mif-
demeanor forfeited their right of fuffi age, or were de¬
graded from a higher to a lefs honourable tribe. For
the people of Caere hofpitably receiving thofe Romans
who,, afver the taking of Rome by the Gauls, fled with
their gods and the facred fire of Vella, were, on the
Romans recovering themfelves from this difailer, ho¬
noured with the privilege of the city, but without a
right of voting.
C FRITES tabula. See the preceding article.
CAERFILLY, a town of Glamorganfhire in
South Wales, feated between the rivers Taff and Rum-
ney, in a moorilh ground, among the hills. It is thought
the walls, now in ruins, were built by the Romans ;
there being often Roman coins dug up there. W. Long.
3. 12. N. Lat. y r. 35.
CAERLEON, a town of Monmouthfhire in Eng¬
land, and a place of great antiquity. It was a Roman
town, as is evident from the many Roman antiquities
found here. It is commodioufly fituated on the river
Ulk, over which there is a large wooden bridge. The
houfes are generally built of flone, and there are the
ruins of a caftle ftill to be feen. W. Long. 3. o. N.
CAERMARTHEN-shire, a county of Wales,
bounded on the north by Severn fea or St George's
channel, Cardiganfhire on the fouth, the fhires of
Brecknock and Glamorgan on the eaft, and Pembroke-
fhire on the weft. Its greateft length is between 30
and 40 miles, and its breadth upwards of 20. The air
is wholefome, and the foil lefs rocky and mountainous
than moft other parts of Wales, and confequently is
proportionally more fertile both in corn and pafture.
It has alfo plenty of wood, and is well fupplied with
coal and limeftone. The moft confiderable rivers are
the Towy, the Cothy, and the Tave ; of which, the firft
abounds with excellent falmon. The principal towns
are Caermarthen the capital, Kidwely, Lanimdovery,
&c. This county abounds with ancient forts, camps,
and tumuli or barrows. Near to Caermarthen, to¬
wards the eaft, may be feen the ruins of Kaftelk Kar-
rey, which was fituated on a fteep and inacceffible rock;
and alfo feveral vaft caverns, fuppofed to have been cop-
per-niines of the Romans. Near this fpot is a foun¬
tain which ebbs and flows twice in 24 hours like the
fea.
Caermarthen, a town of Wales, and capital of
the county of that name. It is fituated on the river
Fowey, over which it has a fine ttone-bridge. It is of
great antiquity, being the Maridunum of Ptolemy. It
is avpopulous, thriving, and polite place, many of the
neighbouring gentry refiding there in the winter. It Cucrnanron-
is a corporation and county of itfelf, with power to
make by-laws. Here were held the courts of chancery c*fi!pina.
and exchequer for South Wales, till the whole was uni-  ^—-
ted to England in the reign of Henry VIII. Here
was born the famous conjurer Merlin; and near the town
is a wood called Merlin’s grove, where he is faid to have
ofte-n retired for contemplation. Many of his pretend¬
ed prophecies are ttill preferved in the country. The
town gives the title of marquis to his grace the duke
of Leeds. This town fends one member to parliament,
and the county another.
CAERNARVON-shire, a county of Wales, boun¬
ded on the north and weft by the fea, on the fouth by
Merionethihire, and on the eaft is divided from Den-
bighfhire by the river Conway. It is about 40 miles
in length, and 20 in breadth ; and fends one member to
parliament for the (hire, and another for the borough
of Caernarvon. The air is very piercing; owing partly
to the fnow, that lies feven or eight months of the year
upon fome of the mountains, which are fo high that
they are called the Britijh Alps; and partly to the
great number of lakes, which are faid not to be fewer
than 50 or 60. The foil in the valleys on the fide next
Ireland is pretty fertile, efpecially in. barley; great
numbers of black cattle, fheep, and goats, are fed on the
mountains; and the fea, lakes, and rivers, abound with
variety of filh. The higheft mountains in the county
are thofe called Snowdon bills, and Pen-maen-mawr,
which laft hangs over the fea. There is a road cutout
of the rock on the fide next the fea, guarded by a wall
running along the edge of it on that fide; but the tra¬
veller is femttimes in danger of being crulhed by the
fall of pieces of the rock from the precipices above..
The river Conway, though its courfe from the lake out
of which it iflues to its mouth is only 12 miles, yet is
fo deep, in confequence of the many brooks it receives,
that it is navigable by (hips of good burden for eight
miles. Pearls are found in a large black mufcle taken
in this river. The principal towns are Bangor, Caer¬
narvon the capital, and Conway. In this county is an
ancient road faid to have been made by Helena the
mother of Conftantine the Great; and Matthew of
Weftminfter afferts, that the body of Conftantius the
father of the fame Conftantine was found at Caernar¬
von in the year 1283, and interred in the parifti-church
there by order of Edward I.
Caernarvon, a town of Wales, and capital of the
county of that name. It was built by Edward I. near
the file of the ancient Segontium. It is almoft furroun¬
ded by the fea and two rivers; gives name to the neigh¬
bouring bay ; and had anciently a caftle, built alfo by
Edward I. in which his fon Edward II. was born. It
is a fmall neat town, governed by a conftable of the
caftle who is alfo mayor, ah aldermen, two bailiffs, a
town-clerk, and other inferior officers. The market is
well fupplied with provifions, and there is a ferry from
hence to Anglefey. The town gives title of earl and
marquis to the duke of Chandos, and has a good tide-
harbour.
CAERWIS, a market-town of Flintfture in North
Wales, fituated in W. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 53. 20.
CiESALPINA, Brasiletto, or Brajtl-wood, a
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants. Of this there are two fpecies..
1, The
CMS
Csefalpins
C:efar.
Plate
LXVII.
fig-*.
C jE S [ 1560 ]
1. The brafilienfis, commonly called hrafiletto, 2. The brought him to a legal trial for ufurpation. By this
cxfalpina, with fmall oval and entire leaves.—The firft impolitic meafure they defeated their own purpofe, in-
grows naturally in the warmeft parts of America, from volving the city in confternation and terror, which pro-
whence the wood is imported for the dyers, who ufe it duced general anarchy, and paved the way to therevo-
much. The demand has been fo great, that none of lution they wanted to prevent; the monarchial govern-
the large trees are left in any of the Britilh plantations ; ment being abfolutely founded on the murder of Julius
fo that Mr Catelby owns himfelf ignorant of the di- Caefar. He fell in the 56th year of his age, 43 years
menfions to which they grow. The largeft remaining before the Chrillian tera. His commentaries contain
are not above two inches in thicknefs, and eight or a hiftory of his principal voyages, battles, and vi&o-
nine feet in height. The branches are flender and full ries. The London edition in 1712, in folio, is pre-
of fmall prickles; the leaves are pinnated; the lobes ferred.
growing oppofite to one another, broad at their ends, The detail of Casfar’s tranfa&ions (fo far as is con-
with one notch. The flowers are white, papilionace- fiftent with the limits of this work) being given under
ous, with many ftamina and yellow apices, growing in the article Rome, we fhall here only add a portrait of
a pyramidal fpike,. at the end of a long (lender ftalk: him as drawn by a philofopher *.
the pods inclofe feveral fmall round feeds. The colour “ rr-c.__ -l - 1—_r .0 —^
f , r . 1 • 1 _• : 
* See Colour-
Making,
and Dyeing.
From the
T.„ r  “ If after the lapfe of 18 centuries, the truth may pulo/b?**
produced from this wood is greatly improved by folu- be publifhed without offence, a philofopher might, in phiques of
tion of tin in aqua regia *.—The fecond fort is a na- the following terms, cenfure Csefar without calum- M- Ophel-
tive of the fame countries with the firft, but is of a niating him, and applaud him without exciting his ^ot'
larger fize. It fends out many weak irregular branches, blufties.
armed with (hort, ftrong, upright thorns. The leaves “ Caefar had one predominant paffion : it was the
branch out in the fame manner as the firft; but the love of glory ; and he palfed 40 years of his life in feek-
lobes, or fmall leaves, are oval and entire. The flowers ing opportunities to fofter and encourage it. His foul,
are produced in long fpikes like thofe of the former, entirely abforbed in ambition, did not open itfelf to
but are variegated with red. Thefe plants may be pro- other impulfes. He cultivated letters ; but he did not
pagated from feeds, which (liould be fown in fmall pots love th.em with enthufiafm, becaufe he had not leifure
filled with light rich earth early in the fpring, and to become the firft orator of Rome. He corrupted the
plunged in a bed of tanner’s bark. Being tender, they one half of the Roman ladies, but his heart had no
require to be always kept in the ftove, and to be treated concern in the fiery ardours of his fenfes. In the arms
in the fame manner as other exotics of that kind. of Cleopatra, he thought of Pompey; and this fingu-
CiESALPINUS of Arezzo, profefibr at Pifa, and lar man, who difdained to have a partner in the empire
afterwards phylician to pope Clement VIII. one of the of the world, would have blufhed to have been for one
capita] writers in botany. See Botany, p. 1284, 1286. inftant the (lave of a woman.
CiESAR (Julius), the illuftrious Roman general “ We muft not imagine, that Caefar was born a war-
and hiftorian, was of the family of the Julii, who pre- rior, as Sophocles and Milton were born poets. For,
tended they were defeended from Venus by iEneas. if nature had made him a citizen of Sybaris, he would
The defeendants of Afcanius fon of jFneas and Creufa, have been the moft voluptuous of men. If in our days
and furnamed Julius, lived at Alba till that city was he had been born in Penfylvania, he would have been
ruined by Tullus Hottilius king of Rome, who carried the moft inoffenfive of quakers, and would not have di-
them to Rome, where they flouriftied. We do not find fturbed the tranquillity of the new world,
that they produced more than two branches. The firft “ The moderation with which he condu&ed himfelf
bore the name of Tullus, the other that of Casfar. The after his vi&ories, has been highly extolled ; but in this
rnoft ancient of the Crefars were thofe who were in pu- he (hewed his penetration, not the goodnefs of his
blic employments in the nth year of the firft Punic heart. Is it not obvious, that the difplay of certain
war. After that time we find there was always fome virtues is neceflary to put in motion the political ma-
of that family who enjoyed public offices in the Com- chine ? It was requifite that he (hould have the appear-
monwealth, till the time of Cains Julius Csefar, the fub- ance of clemency, if he inclined that Rome (hould for-
je& of this article. He was born at Rome the 12th of give him his vidories. But what greatnefs of mind is
the month Qnintilis, year of the city 653, and loft his there in a generofity which follows on the ufurpation
father an. 669. By his valour and eloquence he foon of fupreme power ?
acquired the higheft reputation in the field and in the “ Nature, while it marked Cssfar with a fublime
fenate. Beloved and refpefted by his fellow-citizens, charader, gave him alfo that fpirit of perfeverance
he enjoyed fucceffively every magifterial and military which renders it ufeful. He had no fooner begun to
honour the republic could beftow confiftent with its reflea, than he admired Sylla ; hated him, and yet
own free conftitution. But at length having fubdued wiffied to imitate him. At the age of 15, he formed
Pompey the great rival of his growing power, his the projed of being diftator. It was thus, that the
boundlefs ambition effaced the glory of his former ac- prefident Montefquieu conceived, in his early youth, the
tions: for, purfuing his favourite maxim, “that he idea of the fpirit of laws.
had rather be the firft man in a village than th£ fecond “ Phyiical qualities, as well as moral caufes, contri-
in Rome,” he procured himfelf to be chofen perpetual buted to give ftrength to his character. Nature, which
di&ator; and, not content with this unconftitutional had made him for command, had given him an air of
power, his faftion had refolved to raife him to the im- dignity. He had acquired that foft and infinuating
perial dignity ; when the friends of the civil liberties eloquence, which is perfe&ly fuited to feduce vulgar
of the republic ralhly affaffinated him in the fenate- minds, and has a powerful influence on the moft culti-
houfe, where they (hould only have feized him and vated. His love of pleafure was a merit with the fair
fex;
/"FTNIA- //sm/f/istyU
v - - v - .'
/. Cacao, ^
Plate PXVU
y^7, 5 ('As' <
£ni/
CAT^ CB It
C iE S [ 1561 ] C iE S
C*far. fex; and women, who even in a republic can draw to
‘ them the fnffrages and attention of men, have the highcft
importance in degenerate times. The ladies of his age,
were charmed with the profpedt of having a didlator
whom they might fubdue by their attradlions.
“ In vain did the genius of Cato watch for fome
time to fuftain the liberty of his country. It was un¬
equal to contend with that of Ctefar. Of what avail
were the eloquence, the philofophy, and the virtue of
this republican, when oppofed by a man, who had the
addrefs to debauch the wife of every citizen whofe in-
tereil he meant to engage; who, poffefling an enthu-
fiafm for glory, wept, becaufe, at the age of 30, he
had not conquered the world like Alexander; and who,
with the haughty temper of a defpot, was more defi-
rous to be the firft man in a village, than the fecond in
Rome.
“ Caefar had the good fortune to exift in times of
trouble and civil commotions, when the minds of men
are put into a ferment; when opportunities of great
adlions are frequent; when talents are every thing, and
thofe who can only boaft of their virtues are nothing.
If he had lived an hundred years fooner, he would have
been no more than an obfcure villain, and, iuftead of
giving laws to the world, would not have been able to
produce any confufion in it.
“ I will here be bold enough to advance an idea,
which may appear paradoxical to thofe who weakly
judge of men from what they atchieve, and not from
the principle which leads them to a£f. Nature formed,
in the fame mould, Csefar, Mahomet, Cromwell, and
Kouli Khan. They all of them united to genius that
profound policy which,renders it fo powerful. They
all of them had an evident fuperiority over thofe with
whom they were furrounded ; they were confcious of
this fuperiority, and they made others confcious of it.
They were all of them born fubje&s, and became for¬
tunate ufurpers. Had Caefar been placed in Perfia, he
would have made the conqueft of India ; in Arabia, he
would have been the founder of a new religion; in Lon¬
don, he would have dabbed his fovereign, or have pro¬
cured his affaflination under the fandtion of the laws.
He reigned with glory over men whom he had reduced
to be flaves; and, under one afpedd, he is to be conlider-
ed as a hero; under another, as a monfter. But it would
be unfortunate, indeed, for fociety, if the poffeffion of
fuperior talents gave individuals a right to trouble its
vepofe. Ufurpers accordingly have flatterers, but no
friends; ftrangers refpeft them ; their fubje&s com¬
plain and fubmit; it is in their own families that huma¬
nity finds her avengers. Casfar was affaffinated by his
fon, Mahomet was poifoned by his wife, Kouli Khan
was maflacred by his nephew, and Cromwell only died
in his bed becaufe his fon Richard was a philofopher.
“ Caefar, the tyrant of his country; Caefar, who
deftroyed the agents of his crimes, if they failed in ad¬
drefs; Caefar, in fine, the hufband of every wife, and
the wife of every hufband; has Ijeen accounted a great
man by the mob of writers. But it is only the philo¬
fopher, who knows how to mark the barrier between
celebrity and greatnefs. The talents of this fingular
man, and the good fortune which conftantly attended
him till the moment of his afiaffination, have concealed
the enormity of his aflions.”
Cjesar, in R.oman antiquity, a title borne by all
Vol. III.
the emperors, from Julius Caefar, to the deftru&ion of Cxfar
the empire. It was alfo ufed as a title of dittinftion r JL
for the intended or prefumptive heir of the empire, z anani
as king of the Romans is now ufed for that of the Ger¬
man empire.
This title took its rife from the furname of the firit
emperor, C. Julius Caefar, which, by a decree of the
fenate, all the fucceeding emperors were to bear. Un¬
der his fuccefibr, the appellation of slugujlus being
appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to that
prince, the title Cafar was given to the fecond per-
fon in the empire, though ftill it continued to be gi¬
ven to the firft ; and hence the difference betwixt Cse¬
far ufed fimply, and Caefar with the addition of 1m-
perator Auguftus.
The dignity of Caefar remained the fecond of the
empire, till Alexius Comnenus having eledled Nice-
phorus Meliffenus Caffar, by contraft; and it being
neceffary to confer fome higher dignity on his own
brother Ifaacius, he created him Sebaftocrator, with
the precedency over Meliffenus ; ordering, that in all
acclammations, &c. Ifaacius Sebaffocrator fiiould be
named the fecond, and Meliffenus Caefar the third.
Caesar (Sir Julius), a learned civilian, was de-
fcended by the female line from the duke de Cefarini in
Italy ; and was born near Tottenham in Middlefex, in
the year 1557. He was educated at Oxford, and af¬
terwards ftudied in the univerfity of Paris, where, in
the year 1581, he was created do&or of the civil law,
and two years after was admitted to the fame degree
at Oxford, and alfo became do&or of the canon law.
He was advanced to many honourable employments,
and for the laft 20 years of his life was mailer of the
rolls. He was remarkable for his extenfive bounty and
charity to all perfons of worth, fo that he feemed to
be the almoner-general of the nation. He died 1639,
in the 79th year of his age. It is very remarkable that
the manuferipts of this lawyer were offered (by the ex¬
ecutors of fome of his defeendants) to a cheefemonger
for wafte-paper; jbut being timely infpe&ed by Mr
Samuel Paterfon, this gentleman difeoveredtheir worth,
and had the fatisfaclion to find his judgement confirmed
by the profeffion, to whom they were fold in lots for
upwards of 500 1. in the year 1757.
C/esar Augufia, or Cafarea Augufa, (anc. geog.),
a Roman colony fituated on the river Iberus in the hi¬
ther Spain, before called Salduba, in the territories of
the Edetani. Now commonly thought to be Saraaofa. ■
See that article.
CiESAREA, the name of feveral ancient cities,
particularly one on the coalt of Phenice. It was very
conveniently fituated for trade; but had a very dange¬
rous harbour, fo that no fhips could be fafe in it when
the wind was at fouth-weft. Herod the Great kino-
of Judea remedied this inconveniency at an immenfc
expence and labour, making it one of the moll con¬
venient havens on that coatl. He alfo beautified it
with many buildings, and bellowed 12 years in the
finilhing and adorning it.
CiESARIAN operation, in midwifery. See Mid¬
wifery, chap. vi.
CAESARIANS, Cafarienfes, in Roman antiquity,
were officers or minifters of the Roman emperors: They
kept the account of the revenues of the emperors; and
took poffeffion, in their name, of fuch things as de-
9 M volved
C A F [ 1562 ] C A G
volved or were confifcated to them.
CiESARODUNUM (anc. geog.), a town of the
Turones in Celtic Gaul; now Tours, the capital of
Touraine. See Tours.
CiESAROMAGUS (anc. geog.), a town of the
Trinobantes in Britain ; by fome fuppofed to be
Chelmsford, by others Brentford, and by others Burftet.
CiESENA (anc. geog.), a town of Gallia Cifpa-
dana, fituatedon the rivers Ifapis and Rubicon ; now
Cerfena, which fee.
CiESIA sylva (anc. geog.), a wood in Germany,
part of the great Sylva Hercynia, fituated partly in the
duchy of Cleves, and partly in Wellphalia between
Wefel and Kesiield.
CiESONES, a denomination given to thofe cut out
of their mother’s womb. Pliny ranks this as an au-
fpicious kind of birth ; the elder Scipio Africanus, and
the firft family of Csefars, were brought into the world
in this way.
CiESTUS, in antiquity, a large gantlet made of
raw hide, which the wreftlers made ufe of when they
fought at the public games.—This was a kind of lea¬
thern ftrap, ftrengthened with lead, or plates of iron,
which encompaffed the hand, the vvrift, and a part of
the arm, as well to defend thefe parts, as to enforce
their blows.
Cjestus, or Cajlum, was alfo a kind of girdle, made
of wool, which the hufband untied for his fpoufe the
firft day of marriage, before they went to bed.
This relates to Venus’s girdle, which Juno borrowed
of her. to entice Jupiter to love her. See Cestus.
CiESURA, in the ancient poetry, is when, in the
fcanning of a verfe, a word is divided fo, as one part
feems cut olf, and goes to a different foot from the
reft; as,
Menti\ri no\li, nun\quam tnen\dacia\profunt.
where the fyllables ri, li, quam, and men, are cse-
furas.
CiESURE, in the modern poetry, denotes a reft, or
paufe, towards the middle of an Alexandrian verfe, by
which the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the
Pavfc. verfe, as it were, divided into two hemiftichs f.
CiETERIS paribus, a Latin term in frequent ufe
among mathematical and phyfical writers. The words
literally fignify, the rejl (or other things) being alike or
equal. Thus we fay, the heavier the bullet, cateris
paribus, the greater the range ; i. e. by how much the
bullet is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece
and ftrength of the powder be the fame, by fo much
will the utmoft range ordiftance of a piece of ordnance
be the greater. Thus alfo, in a phyfical way, we fay,
the velocity and quantity circulating in a given time
through any fedrion of an artery, will, cxteris paribus,
be according to its diameter, and nearnefs to or dillance
from the heart.
CiETOBRIX (anc. geog.), a town of Lufitania,
near the mouth of the Tagus on the eaft fide ; now ex-
tindt. It had its name from its fiftiery ; and there are
ftill extant fifti-ponds on the ftiore, done with plafter
of Paris, which illuftrate the name of the ruined city.
CAFFA, in commerce, painted cotton-cloths ma-
nufadlured in the Eaft Indies, and fold at Bengal.
Caffa, or Kajfa, a city and port-town of Crim
Tartary, fituated on the fouth-eaft part of that penin-
fula. E. Long. 37, 0. N. Lat. 44. 55.
It is the moft confiderable town in the country, and Ca
gives name to the ftraits of Caffa, which run from the c,
Euxine or Black Sea, to the Palus Meotis, or fea of —
Azoph.
CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers,
who join together in order to go with more fecurity
through the dominions of the Grand Mogul, and
through other countries on the continent of the Eaft
Indies.
The Caffila differs from a caravan, at leaft in Per-
fia : for the caffila belongs properly to fome fovereign,
or to fome powerful company in Europe ; whereas a
caravan is a company of particular merchants, each
trading upon his own account. The Englifh and
Dutch have each of them their caffila at Gambrow.
There are alfo fuch caffilas, which crofs fome parts of
the deferts of Africa, particularly that called the fea of
fund, which lies between the kingdom of Morocco, and
thofe of Tombut and Gaigo. This is a journey of 400
leagues; and takes up two months in going, and as
many in coming back; the caffila travelling only by
night, on account of the exceffive heat of that country.
The chief merchandize they bring back conlifts in gold
dull, which they call atibar, and the Europeans tibir,
Caffila on the coaft of Guzerat or Cambaya, fig-
nifies a fmall fleet of merchant-lhips.
CAFFRARIA, the country of the Caffers, or Hot¬
tentots, in the moft foutherly part of Africa, lying in
the form of a crefcent about the inland country of Mo-
nomopata, between 350 fouth latitudeand the tropic of
Capricorn : and bounded on the eaft, fouth, and weft,
by the Indian and Atlantic oceans.
Moft of the fea-coafts of this country are fubjedb to
the Dutch, who have built a fort near the moft fouthern
promontory, called the Cape of Good-Hope *. tunlr
CAG, or Keg, a barrel or veffel, that contains from
four to five gallons.
CAGE, an inclofure made of wire, wicker, or the
like, interwoven lattice-wife, for the confinement of
birds, or wild beafts.
The cage, in the Roman amphitheatres, was a
place wherein favage animals were confined. It was
inclofed with iron rails, and open at top, fo as to be
fetn to the bottom by the fpeftators.
CAGEAN, or Cagayan, a province of the ifland
of Lutzen, or Manila, in the Eaft Indies. It is the
largeft in the ifland, being 80 leagues in length, and
40 in breadth. The principal city is called AVtu Se¬
govia, and 15 leagues eaftward from this city lies cape
Bajador. Doubling that cape, and coatting along 20
leagues from north to fouth, the province of Cagtan
ends, and that of Illocos begins. The peaceable
Cageans who pay tribute are about 9000; but there
are a great many not fubdued. The whole province
is fruitful: the men apply themfelves to agriculture,
and are of a martial difpofition ; and the women apply
to feveral works in cotton. The mountains afford food
for a vaft number of bees; in confequence of which wax
is fo plenty, that all the poor burn it inftead of oil.
They make their candles after the following manner :
they leave a fmall hole at each end of a hollow flick
for the wick to run through ; and then, flopping the
bottom, fill it with wax at the top : when cold, they
break the mould, and take ont the candle. On the.
mountains there is abundance of brafil, ebony, and o-
ther
C A I [ 1563 ] C A I
Cagli tlier valuable woods. In the woods are ftore of wild
lj beads, as boars; but not fo good as thofe of Europe.
aiet3' There are alfo abundance of deer, which they kill for
their fkins and horns to fell to the Chinefe.
CAGLI, an ancient epifcopal town of Italy, in
the duchy of Urbino, htuated at the foot of the Ap-
pennine mountains. E. Long. 14. 12. N. Lat. 43. 30.
CAGLIARI (Paul), an excellent painter, born at
Verona in the year 1532. Gabriel Cagliari his father
was a fculptor, and Antonio Eadile his uncle was his
mailer in painting. He was not only edeerned thebeit
of all the Lombard painters, but for his extendve ta¬
lents in the art was peculiarly dyled II pittor felice,
“ the happy painterand there is fcarcely a church
in Venice where fome of his performances are not to
be feen. He died of a fever at Venice in 1588, and had
a tomb and a datue of brafs eredted to his memory in
the church of St Sebadian. He left great wealth to his
two fons Gabriel and Charles, who lived happily toge¬
ther, and joined in finilhing feveral of their father’s
imperfedl pieces with good fuccefs.
Cagliari, an ancient, large, and rich town, capital
of the ifland of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It is
feated on the declivity of an hill, is an univerfity, an
archbilhopric, and the refidence of the viceroy. It has
an excellent harbour, and a good trade; but is a place
of no great drength. It was taken, with the whole
idand, by the Englifh in 1708, who transferred it to
the emperor Charles VI.; but it was retaken by the
Spaniards in 1717, and about two years afterwards
ceded to the duke of Savoy in lieu of Sicily, and
hence he has the title of king of Sardinia. E. Long.
9. 14. N. Lat. 39. 12.
CAGUI, in zoology, a fynonime of two fpecies of
monkeys, viz. the jacchus, and cedipus. See Simia.
CAHORS, a confiderable town of France, inQuerci
in Guienne, with a bilhop’s fee and an univerfity. It is
feated on a peninfula made by the river Lot, and built
partly on a craggy rock. The principal dreet is very
narrow; and terminates in the market-place, in which
is the town-houfe. The cathedral is a Gothic ftru&ure,
and has a large fquare deeple. The fortifications are
regular, and the town is furrounded with thick walls.
E. Long, t.6. N. Lat. 44. 26.
CAHYS, a dry meafure for corn, ufed in forae parts
of Spain, particularly -at Seville and at Cadiz. It is
near a bulhel of our meafure.
CAJANABURG, the capital of the province of
Cajania or Ead Bothnia in Sweden, fituated on the
north-ead part of the lake Cajania, in E. Long. 27. o.
N. Lat. 63. 50.
CAIAPHAS, high-pried of the Jews after Simon,
condemned Chrid to death ; and was put out of his
place by the emperor Vitellius, for which difgrace he
made away with himfelf.
CAJAZZO, a town of the province of Lavoro in
the kingdom of Naples, fituated in E. Long. 15. o.
N. Lat. 41. 15.
CAICOS, the name of fome American iflands 'to
the north of St Domingo, lying from W. Long. 112.
10. to 113. 16. N. Lat. 21. 40.
CAJEPUT, ai) oil brought from the Ead Indies
refembling that of cardamoms.
CAIETA, (anc.geog.),aportand town of Latium,
fo called from ./Eneas's nurfe ; now Gaeta, which fee.
CAJETAN (Cardinal), was born at Cajeta in the flajytan
kingdom of Naples in the year 1469. His proper cJj|e
name was 'Thomas de Vio; but he adopted that of Ca- .g’.,
jetan from the place of his nativity. He defended the
anthority of the Pope, which fuffered greatly at the
council of Nice, in a work entitled Of the power of the
Pope; and for this work he obtained the bilhopric of
Cajeta. He was afterwards raifed to the archiepifcopal
fee of Palermo, and in 1517 was made a cardinal by
Pope Leo X. The year after, he was fent as legate
into Germany, to quiet the commotions raifed againd
indulgences by Martin Luther \ but Luther, under pro¬
tection of Frederic elector of Saxony, fet him at de¬
fiance ; for though he obeyed the cardinal’s fummons
in repairing to Auglbnrg, yet he rendered all his pro¬
ceedings ineffectual. Cajetan was employed in feveral
other negociations and tranfactions, being as ready at
buiinefs as at letters. He died in 1534. He wrote
Commentaries upon Aridotle’s philofophy, and upon
Thomas Aquinas’s theology; and made a literal tranf-
lation of the Old and New Tedaments.
CAIFONG, a large, populous, and rich town of
Afia, in China, feated in the middle of a large and well
cultivated plain. It dands in a bottom; and when be-
fieged by the rebels in 1642, they ordered the dykes
of the river Hohangho to be cut, which drowned the
city,and dedroyed 300,000 of its inhabitants. E. Long.
113. 27. N. Lat. 35. o.
CAILLE (Nicholas Louis de la), an eminent ma¬
thematician and adronomer, was born at a fmall town
in the diocefe of Rheims in 17.13. His father had fer-
ved in the army, which he quitted, and in his retire¬
ment dudied mathematics; and amufed himfelf with
mechanic exercifes, wherein he proved the happy author
of feveral inventions of confiderable ufe to the public.
Nicholas, almod in his infancy, took a fancy to mecha¬
nics, which proved of fignal fervice to him in his ma-
turer years. He was fent young to fchool at Mantes-
fur-Seine, where he difeovered early tokens of genius.
In 1729, he went to Paris; where he dudied the daf¬
fies, philofophy, and mathematics. Afterwards he went
to dudy divinity at the college de Navarre, propofing
to embrace an ecclefiadical life. At the end of three
years he was ordained a deacon, and officiated as fuch
in the church of the college de Mazarin feveral years;
but he never entered into pried's orders, apprehending
that his adronomical dudies, to which he became molt
affiduoufly devoted, might too much interfere with his
religious duties. In 1739, he was conjoined with M. de
Thury, fon to M. Caffini, in verifying the meridian of
the royal obfervatory through the whole extent of the
kingdom of France. In the month of November the
fame year, whild he was engaged day and night in the
operations which this grand undertaking required, and
at a great didance from Paris, he was, without any feli¬
citation, eleited into the vacant mathematical chair
which the celebrated M. Varignon had fo worthily
filled. Here he began to teach about the end of 1740;
and an obfervatory was ordered to be ere&ed for his
ufe in the college, and furnifhed with a fuitablc appa¬
ratus of the bed indruments. In May 1741, M. de la
Caille was admitted into the royal academy of fciences
as an adjoint member for adronomy. Befides the many
excellent papers of his difperfed up and down in their
memoirs, he publidied Elements of geometry, mecha-
9 M 2 nics,
C A I [ 1564 1 C A I
CailUs. nics, optics, and agronomy. < Moreover, he carefully
 — computed all the eclipfes of the fun and moon that had
happened fince the Chriftian xra, which were printed
in a book publiihed by two Benedi&ines, entitled L'art
de verefier les dates, &c. Paris, 1750, in 410. Belides
thefe, he compiled a volume of aftronomical epheme-
rides for the years 1745 to 1755 ; another for the years
1755 to 1765 ; a third for the years 1765' to 1775 ;
an excellent work entitled AJlronoinide fundament a no-
viflmis foils et fellarum obfervationibus fabilita; and
the moft correft folar tables that ever appeared. Ha¬
ying gone through a feven years feries of aftronomi¬
cal obfervations in his own obfervatory, he formed a
project of going to obferve the fouthern (lars at the
Cape of Good Hope. This was highly approved by the
academy, and by the prime minifter Comte de Argen-
fon, and very readily agreed to by the ftates of Hol-
h*nd. Upon this, he drew up a plan of the method he
propofed topurfue in his fouthern obfervations; fetting
forth, that, befides fettling the places of the fixed ftars,
he propofed to determine the parallax of the moon,
Mars, and Venus. But whereas this required corre-
fpondent obfervations to be made in the northern parts
of the world, he fent to thofe of his correfpondents
who were expert in pradlical aftronomy previous no¬
tice, in print, what obfervations he defigned to make
at fuch and fuch times for the faid purpofe. At length,
on the 21st of November 1750, he failed for the Cape,
and arrived there on the 19th of April 1751. He forth¬
with got his inftruments on fhore; and, with the affift-
ance of fame Dutch artificers, fet about building an
aftronomical obfervatory, in which his apparatus of in-
ilruments was properly difpofed of as foon as it was in
a fit condition to receive them.
The Iky at the Cape is generally pure and ferene,
unlefs when a fouth-eaft wind blows. But this is often
the cafe; and when it is, it is attended with fome ftrange
and terrible effefts. The ftars look bigger, and feem to
caper; the moon has an undulating tremor; and the
planets have a fort of beard like comets. Two hundred
and twenty-eight nights did our aftronomer furvey the
face of the fouthern heavens; during which fpace, which
is almoft incredible, he obferved more than 10,000 ftars;
and whereas the ancients filled the heavens with mon-
fters and old-wives tales, the abbe de la Caille chofe
rather to adorn them with the inftruments and machines
which modern philofophy has made ufe of for the con-
* See the queft of nature *. With no lefs fuccefs did he attend
Sphere to para]lax Qf the moon, Mars, Venus, and the fun.
'auftralcftel- Having thus executed the purpofe of his voyage, and no
Jifirum. prefent opportunity offering for his return, he thought
of employing the vacant time in another arduous at¬
tempt ; no lefs than that of taking the meafure of the
earth, as he had already done that of the heavens. This
indeed had, through the munificence of the French king,
been done before by different fets of learned men both
in Europe and America ; fome determining the quan¬
tity of a degree under the equator, and others under
the arftic circle : but it had not as yet been decided
whether in the fouthern parallels of latitude the fame
dimenfions obtained as in the northern. His labours
were rewarded with the fatisfaftion he wiftied for; ha¬
ving determined a diftance of 410,814 feet from a place
called Klip-Fonteyn to the Cape, by means of a bafe of
38,802 feet, three time* actually meafured; whence he
difeovered a new fecret of nature, namely, that the Caill*,
radii of the parallels in fouth latitude are not the fame Caunacan.
as thofe of the correfponding parallels in north lati¬
tude. About the 2^ degree of fouth latitude he found
a degree on the meridian to contain 342,222 Paris feet.
He returned to Paris the 27th of September 1754; ha¬
ving in his almoft four years abfence expended no more
than yi44livres on himfelf and his companion; and
at his coming into port, he refufed a bribe of 100,000
livres, offered by one who thirfted lefs after glory than
gain, to be (barer in his immunity from cultom-houfc
fearches.
After receiving the congratulatory vifits of his more
intimate friends and the aftronomers, he firft of all
thought fit to draw up a reply to fome ftrictures which
profeffor Euler had publifhed relative to the meridian,
and then he fettled the refults of the comparifon of his
own with the obfervations of other aftronomers for the
parallaxes. That of the fun he fixed at gl"; of the
moon, at 56' 56" ; of Mars in his oppofition, 36" ; of
Venus, 38". He alfo fettled the laws whereby aftro-
nomical refradftions are varied by the different den-
fity or rarity of the air, by heat or cold, and drynefs
or moifture. And, laftly, he (hewed an eafy, and by
common navigators prafticable, method of finding the
longitude at fea by means of the moon, which he illuf-
trated by examples fele&ed from his own obfervation*.
during his voyages. His fame being now eftablifhed
upon fo firm a balls, the moft celebrated academies of
Europe claimed him as their own: and he was unani-
moufly eledted a member of the royal fociety at Lon¬
don; of the inftitute of Bologna ; of the imperial aca¬
demy at Peterfburg; and of the royal academies of
Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. In the year 1760,
Mr de la Caille was attacked with a fevere fit of the
gout; which, however, did not interrupt the courfe of
his (Indies; for he then planned out a new and immenfe
work, no lefs than a hiftory of aftronomy through all
ages, with a comparifon of the ancient and modern ob¬
fervations, and the conftrudtion and ufe of the inftru¬
ments employed in making them. In order to purfue
the talk he had impofed upon himfelf in a fuitable re¬
tirement, he obtained a grant of apartments in the
royal palace of Vincennes; and whilft his aftronomical
apparatus was ere&ing there, he began printing his
Catalogue of the fouthern ftars, and the third volume
of his Ephemerides. The (late of his health was, to¬
wards the end of the year 1763, greatly reduced. His
blood grew inflamed ; he had pains of the head, ob-
ftrudtions of the kidneys, lofs of appetite, with an op-
pletion of the whole habit. His mind remained un-
affefted, and he refolutely perfifted in his ftudies as
ufual. In the month of March, medicines were ad-
miniftered to him, which rather aggravated than al¬
leviated his fymptoms ; and he was now fenfible, that
the fame diftemper which in Africa, ten years before,
yielded to a few Ample remedies, did in his native
country bid defiance to the beft phyficians. This in¬
duced him to fettle his affairs : his manuferipts he com¬
mitted to the care and diferetion of his efteemed friend
M. Maraldi. It was at laft determined that a vein (hould
be opened ; but this brought on an obftinate lethargy,
of which he died, aged 49.
CAIMACAN, orCaimacam, in theTurkifli affairs,
a dignity in the Ottoman empire, anfwering to lieute¬
nant,,
c A I [ 1565 1 C A I
Caiman nant, or rather deputy, amongft us.
c [i There are ufually two caimacans ; one refiding at
aiFO’ Conftantinople, as governor thereof; the other attend¬
ing the grand vizir in quality of his lieutenant, fecre-
tary of Itate, and firft miniiler of his council, and gives
audience to ambaffadors. Sometimes there is a third
caimacan, who attends the fultan ; whom he acquaints
with any public dilturbances, and receives his orders
concerning them.
CAIMAN islands, certain American iflands lying
fouth of Cuba, and north-weft of Jamaica, between
810 and 86° of weft longitude, and in 2i°of north la¬
titude. They are moft remarkable on account of the
filhery of tortoife, which the people of Jamaica catch
here, and carry home alive, keeping them in pens for
food, and killing them as they want them.
CAIN,eldeft fon of Adam and Eve, killed his brother
Abel; for which he was condemned by God to banilh-
ment and a vagabond ftate of life. Cain retired to the
land of Nod, on the eaft of Eden ; and built a city, to
which he gave the name of his fon Enoch.
CAINITES, a fe& of heretics in the 2d century, fo
called on account of their great refpedl for Cain. They
pretended that the virtue which produced Abel was of
an order inferior to that which had produced Cain, and
that this was the reafon why Cain had the viftory over
Abel and killed him; for they admitted a great number
of genii, which they called virtues, of different ranks and
orders. They made profeffion of honouring thofe who
carry in Scripture the ipoft vifible marks of reproba¬
tion ; as the inhabitants of Sodom, Efau, Korah^ Da-
than, and Abiram. They had, in particular, a very
great veneration for the traitor Judas, under pretence
that the death of Jefus Chrift had faved mankind. They
had a forged gofpel of Judas, to which they paid great
refpeft.
CAIRNS, the vulgar name of thofe heaps of ftones
which are to be feen in many places of Britain, Scot¬
land efpecially: they were undoubtedly raifed in ho¬
nour of the dead, as appears from the bones and afhes
depofited in urns which have been frequently found in
them. See Arran, n° 12.; and Barrows.
CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt,
fituated in a plain at the foot of a mountain, in E.
Long. 32. o. N. Lat. 30. o. It was founded by Jaw-
har, a Magrebian general, in the year of the Hegira
358. He had laid the foundations of it under the ho-
rofcope of Mars ; and for that reafon gave his new city
the name of Al Kahirah, or the Viftorious, an epithet
applied by the Arab aftronomers to that planet. In
362, it became the refidence of the khalifs of Egypt,
and of confequence the capital of that country, and
has ever fince continued to be fo. It is divided into
the New and Old cities. Old Cairo is on the eaftern
fide of the river Nile, and is now almoft uninhabited.
The New, which is properly Cairo, is feated in a fandy
plain, about two miles and a half from the old city.
It ftands on the weftern fide of the Nile, from which
it is not three quarters of a mile dillant. It is ex¬
tended along the mountain on which the caftle is built,
for the fake of which it was removed hither, in order,
as fome pretend, to be under its prote&ion. How¬
ever, the change is much for the worfe, as well with
regard to air as water, and the pleaiantnefs of thepro-
fpect. Bulack may be called the port of Cairo 5 for it
ftands on the bank of the Nile, about a mile and a half Cairo
from it, and all the corn and other commodities are
landed there before they are brought to the city.
Some travellers have made Cairo of a moft emJrmous
magnitude, by taking in the old city Bulack, and the
new; the real circumference of it, however, is not above
ten miles, but it is extremely populous. The firft
thing that ftrikes a traveller is the narrownefs of the
ftreets, and the appearance of the houfes. Thefe are
fo daubed with mud on the outfide, that you would
think they were built with nothing elfe. Befides, as
the ftreets are unpaved, and always full of people, the
walking in them is very inconvenient, efpecially to
flrangers. To remedy this, there are a great number
of affes, which always Hand ready to be hired for a
trifle, that is, a penny a mile. The owners drive
them along, and give notice to the crowd to make way.
And here it may be obferved, that the Chriftians in
this, as well as other parts of the Turkifti dominions,
are not permitted to ride upon horfes. The number
of the inhabitants can only be gueffedat; but we may
conclude it to be very great, becaufe, in fome years,
the plague will carry off 200,000, without their being
much miffed. The houfes are from one to two or three
ftories high, and flat at the top; where they take the
air, and often fleep all night. The better fort of thefe
have a court on the infide like a college. The com¬
mon run of houfes have very little room, and even a-
mong great people it is ufual for 20 or 30 to lie in the
fame hall. Some houfes will hold 300 perfons of both
fexes, among whom are 20 or 30 flaves, and thofe of
ordinary rank have generally three or four.
There is a canal called Halts, which runs along the
city from one end to the other, with houfes on each
fide, which make a large ftraight ftreet. Befides this,
there are feveral lakes, which are called hirks in the
language of the country. The principal of thefe, which
is near the caftle, is 500 paces in diameter. The moft
elegant houfes in the city are built on its banks; but
what is extraordinary, eight months in the year it con¬
tains water, and the other four it appears with a charm¬
ing verdure. When there is water fuflicient, it is al¬
ways full of gilded boats, barges, and barks, in which
people of condition take their pleafure towards night,
at which time there are curious fire-works, and variety
of mu fie.
New Cairo is furrounded with walls built with ftone,
on which arehandfome battlements, and at the diftance
of every hundred paces there are very fine towers, which
have room for a great number of people. The walls
were never very high, and are in many places gone to
ruin. The baflia lives in the caftle, which was built
by Saladine feven hundred years ago. It ftands in the
middle of the famous mountain Moketan, which ter¬
minates in this place, after it had accompanied the
Nile from Ethiopia hither. This caftle is the only
place of defence in Egypt; and yet the Turks take
no notice of its falling, infomuch that in procefs of
Vme it will become a heap of rubbifh. The principal
part in it is a magnificent hall, environed with 12 co¬
lumns of granite, of a prodigious height and thicknefs,
which fuftain an open dome, under which Saladine dif-
tributed juftice to his fubjefts. Round this dome
there is an infeription in relievo, which determines the
date and by whom it was built. From this place the
whole
C A I [ ls66 ] C A I
whole city of Cairo may be feen, and above 30 miles grain, which is a tribute to the baflia, paid by the
along the Nile, with the fruitful plains that lie near it, owners of land. This has no other covering but the _
as well as the mofques, pyramids, villages, and gardens, heavens, and therefore the birds are always fure to
with which thefe fields are covered. Thefe granite have their flrare. There is likewife a tolerably hand-
pillars were the work of antiquity, for they were got fome church, which is made ufe of by the Copts, who
out of the ruins of Alexandria. There are likewife in are Chriftians and the original inhabitants of Egypt,
the mofques and in the principal houfes no lefs than Jofeph’s well is in the caftle, and was made by king
40,000 more, befides great magazines, where all kinds Mohammed about 700 years ago. It is called yofeph’s
are to be had at very low rates. A janifary happened ’well, becaufe they attribute every thing extraor-
to find five in his garden, as large as thofe in the caf- dinary to that remarkable perfon. It is cut in a
tie; but could not find any machine of ftrength fuffi- rock, and is 280 feet in depth. The water is drawn
cient to move them, and therefore had them fawed in up to the top by means of oxen, placed on platforms,
pieces to make mill-ftones. It is believed that there at proper diftances, which turn about the machines
have been 30 or 40,000 of thefe pillars brought from that raife it. The defeent is fo Hoping, that, though
Alexandria, where there are yet many more to be had. there are no fteps, the oxen can defeend and afeend
The gates of Cairo are three, which are very fine and with eafe.
magnificent. The river Nile, to which not only Cairo but all
There are about 300 public mofques in this city, Egypt is fo much indebted, is now known to have its
fome of which have fix minarets. The mofque of A- rife in Abyfiinia. The increafe of the Nile generally
fhar hath feveral buildings adjoining, which were once begins in May, and in June they commonly proclaim
a famous univerlity, and 14,000 fcholars and ftudents about-the city how much it is rifen. Over againft old
were maintained on the foundation ; but has now not Cairo the bafha has a houfe, wherein the water enters
above 1400, and thofe are only taught to read and to a column, which has lines at the diftance of every
write. All the mofques are built upon the fame plan, inch, and marks at every two feet as far as 30. When
and differ only in magnitude. The entrance is thro’ the water rifes to 22 feet, it is thought to be of a fuf-
the principal gate into a large fquare, open on the ficient height; when it rifes much higher, it does a
top, but well paved. Round this are covered galleries, great deal of mifehief. There is much pomp and ce-
fupported by pillars; under which they fay their pray- remony ufed in letting the water into the canal, or
ers, in the Htade. On one fide of the fquare there are hali, above-mentioned. The baHia gives the firft ftroke
particular places with bafons of water, for the conve- towards the removal of the dike or dam. When the
niency of performing the ablutions injoined by the Ko- water has filled the canal and lakes in the city, and the
ran. The moll remarkable part of the mofque, befides numerous cillerns that are in the mofques and private
the minaret, is the dome. This is often bold, well houfes, it is let into a vaft plain, to the north-eaft ;
proportioned, and of an aftonifhing magnitude. The the extent of which is 50 miles. When the country
infide flones are carved like lace, flowers, and melons, is covered with water, it is no unpleafant fight to view
They are built fo firm, and with fuch art, that they the towns appearing like little iflands, and the people
will laft 600 or 700 years. About the outward cir- paffing and repafling in boats.
cumference there are large Arabic inferiptions, in re- The inhabitants of Cairo, are a mixture of Moors,
lievo, which may be read by thofe who Hand below, Turks, Jews, Greeks, and Cophts, or Coptis. The
though they are fometimes of a wonderful height. only difference between the habit of the Moors and
The khanes or caravanferas are numerous and large, Coptis is their turbans; thofe of the Moors being white,
with a court in the middle, like their houfes. Some and of the Coptis white ftripped with blue. The com¬
are feveral ftories high, and are always full of people mon people generally wear a long black loofe frock,
and merchandife. The Nubians, the Abyfiinians, and fewed together all down before. The Jews wear a frock
other African nations, which come to Cairo, have one of the fame fafhion, made of cloth; and their caps are
to themfelves, where they always meet with lodging, like a high crowned hat, without brims, covered with
Here they are fecure from infults, and their effe&s are the fame cloth, but not fo taper. The Jewifli womens’
all fafe. Befides thefe, there is a bazar, or market, are not very unlike the mens, but more light and long,
where all forts of goods are to be fold. This is in a The Greeks are habited like the Turks, only their
long broad ftreet ; and yet the crowd is fo great, you turbans differ.
can hardly pafs along. At the end of this ftreet is Provifions of all kinds are exceeding plenty ; for 20
another fliort one, but pretty broad, with fhops full eggs may be bought for a parrah or penny, and bread
of the bed fort of goods, and precious merchandife. is fix times as cheap as with us. They have almoft all
At the end of this fliort ftreet there is a great khane, forts of flefh and fifh ; and in particular have tame
where all forts of white flaves are to be fold. Farther buffaloes, which are very ufeful. They bring goats
than this is another khane, where a great number of into the ftreets in great numbers, to fell their milk.
Hacks, of both fexes, are expofed to fale. Not far Their gardens are well flocked with fruit-trees of va-
from the beft market-place is an hofpital, and a mofque rious kinds, as well as roots, herbs, melons, and cu-
for mad people. They alfo receive and maintain ficlj cumbers. The moft common flefh meat is mutton,
people into this hofpital, but they are poorly looked The goats are very beautiful, and have ears two feet
after. in length ; but their flefh is in no great efteem.
Old Cairo has fcarce any thing remarkable but the CAIROAN, or Cairwan, a city of Africa, in the
granaries of Jofeph ; which are nothing but a high kingdom of Tunis, feated in a fandy barren foil, about
wall, lately built, which includes a fquare fpot of five miles from the gulph of Capres. It has neither
ground, where they depofit wheat, barley, and other fpring, well, nor river; for which reafon they are ob¬
liged
Cairoan.
C A I [ 1567 ] C A I
Caiilbn, liged to preferve rain-water in tanks and cifterns. It
Caithnefs> was built by the Aglabites; and is the ancient Cy-
* See Mar- rene *, but hath now loft its fplendor. There is ftill,
Ian, n° 14, however, a very fuperb mofque, and the tombs of the
etJL‘1' kings of Tunis are yet to be feen. E. Long. 9. 12.
,N. Lat. 35. 40.
CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden cheft, in¬
to which feveral bombs are put, and fometimes filled
only with gunpowder: this is buried under fome work
whereof the enemy intend to poficfs themfelves, and,
when they are matters of it, is fired, in order to blow
them up.
Caisson is alfo ufed for a wooden frame or cheft
ufed in laying the foundations of the piers of a bridge.
CAITHNESS, otherwife called the/Zwv of IVeick,
is the moft northern county of all Scotland ; bounded
on the eaft by the ocean, by Strathnaver and Suther¬
land on the fouth and fouth-weft : from thefe it is di¬
vided by the mountain Orde, and a continued ridge of
hills as far as Knockfin, then by the whole courfe of
the river Hallowdale. On the north it is walked by the
Pentland or Putland frith, which flows between this
county and the Orkneys. It extends 35 miles from
north to fouth, and about 20 from eaft to weft. The
coaft is rocky, and remarkable for a number of bays
and promontories. Of thefe, the principal are Sand-
fide-head to the weft, pointing to the opening of Pent-
land frith ; Orcas, now Hplborn-head, and Dunnot-
head, both pointing northward to the frith. Dunnot-
head is a peninfula about a mile broad, and feven in
compafs ; aflbrding feveral lakes, good pa (lure, excel¬
lent mill-Hones, and a lead-mine. Scribifterbay, on
the north-weft, is a good harbour, where fhips may
ride fecurely. Rice-bay, on the eaft fide, extends three
miles in breadth; but is of dangerous accefs, on ac¬
count of fome funk rocks at the entrance. At the bot¬
tom of this bay appear the ruins of two ftrong caftles,
the feat of the earl of Caithnefs, called Caflle Sinclair,
and Gernego, joined to each other by a draw-bridge.
Duncan’s bay, otherwife called Dunjby-head, is the north-
eaft point of Caithnefs, and the extremeft promontory
in Britain. At this place, the breadth of the frith does
not exceed 12 miles, and in the neighbourhood is the
ordinary ferry to the Orkneys. Plere is likewife Clythe-
nefs pointing eaft, and Nothead pointing north-eaft.
The fea in this place is very impetuous, being in con¬
tinual agitation from violent counter-tides, currents,
and vortices. The onlyifland belonging to this coun¬
ty is that of Stroma, in the Pentland frith, at the di-
ftance of two miles from the main land, extending a-
bout a mile in length, and producing good corn. The
navigation is here rendered very difficult by confiidfting
tides and currents, which at both ends of the ifland
producd" a great agitation in the fea. At the fouth
end, the waves dance fo impetuoufly, that the failors
term them the merry men of May, alluding to the houfe
of one Mr May, on the oppolite fhore of Caithnefs,
which ferved them as a land-mark, in the dangerous
paffage between the ifland and the continent. The pro¬
perty of this ifland was once difputed between the earls
of Orkney and Caithnefs ; but adjudged to the latter,
in confequence of an experiment, by which it appeared,
that venomous creatures will live in Stroma, whereas
they die immediately if tranfported to the Orkneys.
The county of Caithnefs, though chiefly mountainous,
flattens towards the fea-coaft, where the ground is a- Caithncfe.^
rable, and produces good harvefts of oats and barley,
fufficient for the natives, and yielding a fuperplus for
exportation ; but the foil being generally a moill clay,
and the climate cold, the harveft is late, and the corn
counted inferior in quality to that which is railed in the
neighbouring counties. Indeed, the country is better
adapted for pafture, and as fuch is turned to the beft
advantage. Caithnefs is well watered with fmall rivers,
brooks, lakes, and fountains, and affords a few woods
of birch, but is in general bare of trees; and even thofe
the inhabitants plant, are Hunted in their growth.
Lead is found at Dennet, copper at Old-Urk, and
iron ore at feveral places ; but thefe advantages are not
improved. The air of Caithnefs is temperate, tho’ in
the latitude of 58, where the longeft day in fummer is
computed at 18 hours; and when the fun fets, he makes
fo fmall an arch of a circle below the horizon, that the
people enjoy a twilight until he rifes again. The fuel
ufed by the inhabitants of Caithnefs confifts of peat and
turf, which the ground yields in great plenty. The
foreft of Moravins and Berridale afford abundance of
red deer and roe-bucks: the country is well flored
with hares, rabbits, growfe, heathcocks, plover, and
all forts of game, comprehending a bird called fnow-
fleet, about the fize of a fparrow, exceedingly fat and
delicious, that comes hither in large flights about the
middle of February, and takes its departure in April.
The hills are covered withdheep and black cattle; fo
numerous, that a fat cow has been fold at market for
4/. fterling. The rocks along the coafts are frequented
by eagles, hawks, and all manner of fea-fowl, whofe
eggs and young are taken in vaft quantities by the na¬
tives. The rivers and lakes abound with trout, fal-
mon, and eels ; and the fea affords a very advantageous
fiffiery. Divers obelilks and ancient monuments appear
in this diltrift, and ftveral Romiffi chapels are ftill
Handing. Caithnefs is well peopled with a race of
hardy inhabitants, who employ themfelves chiefly in
fifliing, and breeding flieep and black cattle : they are
even remarkably induftrious ; for between Weick and
Dumbith, one continued track of rugged rocks, ex¬
tending 12 miles, they have forced feveral little har¬
bours for their fifliing boats, and cut artificial fteps
from the beach to the top of the rocks, where they have
erefted houfes, in which they cure and dry the fiffi for
market.
According to Mr Pennant, this county is fuppofed
to fend out in fome years 2200 head of black cattle,
but in bad feafons the farmer kills and falls great num¬
bers for fale. Great numbers of twine are alfo reared
here. Thefe are fhort, high-backed, long briftled,
ftiarp, (lender, and long-nofed ; have long eredl ears,
and moft favage looks. Here are neither barns nor
granaries : the corn is threfhed out, and preferved in
the chaff in byks ; which are {lacks, in the ftiape of bee¬
hives, thatched quite round, where it will keep good
for two years. Vaft numbers of falmon are taken at
Caftle-hill, Dunet, Wick, and Thurfo. A miracu¬
lous draught at this laft place is ftill talked of, not lefs
than 2500 being taken at one tide within the memory
of man; and Mr Smollet informs us, that, in the neigh¬
bourhood, above 300 good falmon have been taken at
one draught of the net. In the month of November,
great numbers of feals are taken in. the caverns that o-
peti
Cauhnefs,
Cains.
C A I [ 1568 ] CAL
pen into the fea, and run forne hundreds of yards un- firft at Shrewibury, and afterwards at Norwich ; but
der ground, The entrance of thefe caverns is narrow, removing to London, in l^y, he was admitted fellow
' but the in fide lofty and fpacious. The feal-huntersen- of the college of phyficians, to which he was feveral
ter thefe in fmall boats with torches, which they light years prefident. In 1557, being then phyfician to*
Caius
H
Calabria.
as foon as they land, and then with loud Ihouts alarm
the animals, which they kill with clubs as they attempt
to pafs. This is a hazardous employment; for fhould
the wind blow hard from fea, thefe adventurers are in¬
evitably loft. Sometimes a large fpecies of feals, 12
feet long, have been killed on this coaft; and it is faid
the fame kind are found on the rock Hilkir, one of the
weftern illands. During the fpring, great quantities
of lump-fifti refort to this coaft, and are the prey of the
queen Mary, and in great favour, he obtained a licence
to advance Gonville-hall, where he had been educated,
into a college; which he endowed with feveral confi-
derable eftates, adding an entire new fquare at the ex¬
pence of 1834/. Of this college he accepted the ma-
fterftiip, which he kept till within a fhort time of his
death. He was phyfician to Edward VI. queen Mary,
and queen Elizabeth. Towards the latter end of his
life he retired to his own college at Cambridge; where,
feals, as appears from the number of ikins of thofe having refigned the mafterfhip to Dr Legge of Nor-
fifhes which at that feafon float afliore. At certain
times, alfo, the feals feem to be vifited by a great morta¬
lity 5 for, at thofe times, multitudes of them are feen
dead in the water. Much limeftone is found in this
country, which when burnt is made into a compoft
with turf and fea-plants. The common people are
kept in great fervitude, and moft of their time is given
to the lairds, an invincible impediment to the profpe-
wich, he fpent the remainder of his life as a fellow-
commoner. He died in July 1573, aged 63; and was
buried in the chapel of his own college. Dr Caius was
a learned, a&ive, benevolent man. In 1557, he erec¬
ted a monument in St Paul’s to the memory of the fa¬
mous Linacre. In 1563, he obtained a grant for the
college of phyficians to take the bodies of two male¬
factors annually for diffeCtion ; and he was the inven-
rity of the country. The women are alfo condemned tor of the irjignia which diftinguifli the prefident from
to a fhameful drudgery ; it not being uncommon to fee the reft of the fellows. He wrote, 1. Annals of the
them trudging in droves of 60 or 70 to the fields with
bafkets of dung on their backs, which are filled at
pleafure from the dunghills by their lords and matters
with their pitchforks.
The laft private war in Scotland was occafioned by
college from 1555 to 1572. 2. Tranflation of feveral
of Galen’s works. Printed at different times abroad.
3. Hippocrates de medicasnentis, fir ft difcovered and
publiftied by our author; alfo De ratione vifius, Lov.
1556, 8vo. 4. De medendi methodo. Bafil 1 C44, Lond
• Q- A   r - ? r .. -'TV - .
a difpute relating to this county. An earl of Breadal- 1556, 8vo, 5. Account of the fweating ficknefs iti
bane married an heirefs of Caithnefs : the inhabitants England. Lond. 1536. 1721. It is entitled De
would not admit her title, but fet up another perfon in inera Britannica. 6. Hiftory of the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge, Lond. 1568, 8vo. 1574,410. in Latin, p. De
up another perfon
oppofition. The earl, according to the cuftom of thofe
times, defigned to affert his right by force of arms : he
raifed an army of 1500 men ; but thinking the number
too great, he difmiffed firft 0116500, and then another.
With the remainder he marched to the borders of Caith¬
nefs. Here he thought proper to add ftratagem to
force. He knew that the enemy’s army waited for him
on the other fide of the promontory of Ord. He knew
alfo, that whifliy was then the ncdftar of Caithnefs; and
therefore ordered a ftiip laden with that precious liquor
to pafs round, and wilfully ftrand itfelf on the fhore.
The direftions were punctually obeyed ; and the crew
thennis Britannkis. Doubtful whether ever printed".
8. Of fome rare plants and animals. Lond. 1570'.
9. De canibus Britanmcis, 1570, 1729. 10. De'pro-
nunciatkne Gr<ccx et Latina lingua. Lond. 1574.
11. De libris propriis. Lond. 1570. Befides many
ther works which never w'ere printed.
CAKET, a town of Afia, in Perfia, in the province
of Gurgiftan near Mount Caucafus. Its trade confifts
chiefly in filks. E. Long. 46. 15. N. Lat. 4a. a2.
CALABASH, in commerce, a light kind of veffel
. . . ... r- L . formed of the (hell of a gourd, emptied and dried, fer-
in a feeming fright efcaped in the boats to the invading ving to put divers kinds of goods in, as pitch rofin
army. The Caithnefs men made a prize of the (hip ; and the like. The word is Spanirti, Calabaca ' which
but making too free with the freight, became an eafy fignifies the fame. The Indians alfo, both of the North
prey to the earl, who attacked them during their intoxi- and South Sea, put the pearls they have fifhed in ca
cation, and gained the country, which he difpofed of labaflies, and the negroes on the coaft of Africa do the
very foon after his conqueft. fame by their gold-duft. The fmaller calabaflies a™
CAIUS, Rave, or Keye, (Dr John), the founder alfo frequently ufed by thefe people as a meafure bv
of Caius college in Cambridge, was born at Norwich which they fell thefe precious commodities to theEii
i" 15 , uk T Very rU"S a/udent1in r0?.63"8* The fame ve^'3 Kkewife ferve for putting
Gonville-hall in the abovementioned univerfity; and at in liquors; and do the office of cups, as well as bottles^
the age of 21 tranflated from Greek into Latin fome for foldiers, pilgrims, &c. ’
pieces of divinity, and into Englifh Erafmus’s para- Calabash-Tree, it, botany. See Crescent’a
phrafe on Jude, &c. From thefe his juvenile labours, African Calabash-Tree. See Baobab
u feeros probable that he firft intended to p.ofecute the ■ CALABRIA, a country of Italy, in the kingdom
ftudy of divinity Be that as it may, he travelled to of Naples, divided into Calabria.Ultra" nd cKS
Italy, and at Padua ftudied phyfic under the celebrated Citra, commonly called Ulterior and Citerior or Fnr
Montanus. In that univerfity he continued fome time, ther and Hither Calabria. Calabria Citerior’is nnVTf
where we arc told he read Creek Uaure. with great the.2 provinces of the kingdom of Naoles'^and bwin-
applaufe. In 1543. he travelled through part of Italy, ded on the fouth by Calabria Ultra, on the north bv
Germany, and France; and returning to England com- Bafilicata, and on the weft and eaft bv the fea cl
menced do&or of phyfic at Cambridge. He pra&ifed fenfa is the capital. Calabria Ultra is waihed by the
Medi-
CAL [ 1569 ] CAL
Calade Mediterranean fea on the eaft, fouth, and weft, and
, U bounded by Calabria Citra on the north. Reggio is
Calamine. the capital town.
CALADE, in the menage, the defcent or Hoping
declivity of a rifing menage ground, being a fmall emi¬
nence, upon which we ride down a horfe feveral times,
putting him to a fhort gallop, with his fore-hams in
the air, to learn him to ply or bend his haunches, and
form his ftop upon the aids of the calves of the legs, the
ftay of the bridle, and the cavefon feafonably given.
CALAGORINA, or Calaguris, diftinguiftied by
the furname Najica, {anc. geog.), a city of the Vafcones
in the Hither Spain} now Calahorra. See the follow¬
ing article.
CALAHORRA, an epifcopal town of Spain, in
Old Caftile, feated in a fertile foil, on the fide of a hill
which extends to the banks of the river Ebro. W.Long.
2. 7. N. Lat. 42. 12.
CALAIS, a ftrong town of France, in Lower Pi¬
cardy, with a citadel and a fortified harbour. It is built
in the form of a triangle, one fide of which is towards
the fea. The citadel is as large as the town, and has
but one entrance. It is a trading place, with handfome
ftreets, and feveral churches and monafteries ; the num¬
ber of inhabitants is reckoned to be 4000. It was ta¬
ken by king Edward III. in 1347 ; and was loft in
queen Mary’s time, in 1557. It was bombarded by the
Englilh in 1696, without doing much damage. The
fortifications are good ; but its greateft ftrength is its
fituation among the marlhes, which may be overflowed
at the approach of an enemy. The harbour is not fo
good as formerly, nor will it admit veffels of any great
burden. In times of peace, there are packet-boats go¬
ing backward and forward twice a-week from Dover to
Calais, which is 21 miles diftant. E. Long. 2. 6.
N. Lat. 50. 58.
Calais and Zetes, in fabulous hiftory, fons of Bo¬
reas and Orithia, to whom the poets attributed wings:
they went on the voyage of Colchis with the Argo¬
nauts, delivered Phineus from the harpies, and were
flain by Hercules.
CALAMANCO, a fort of woollen fluff manufac¬
tured in England and Brabant. It has a fine glofs; and
is checkered in the warp, whence the checks appear
only on the right fide. Some calamancos are quite
plain, others have broad (tripes adorned with flowers,
fome with plain broad (tripes, fame with narrow (tripes,
and others watered.
CALAMARIiE, in botany, an order of plants in
the Fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus ; in which
he has the following genera, viz. bobartia, fcirpus,
cyperus, eriophorum, carex, fchaenus, flagellaria, jun¬
cus. See Botany, feft. vi. 3.
CALAMATA, a confiderable town of Turky in
Europe, in the Morea, and province of Belvedera. It
was taken by the Venetians in 1685 ; but the Turks
retook it afterwards with all the Morea. It (lands on
the river Spinarza, eight miles from the fea. E. Long.
22. 15. N. Lat. 37. 8.
CALAMINE, Calamy, Lapis Calaminaris, or
Cadmia Foflilis, a fort of (lone or mineral, containing
zinc, iron, and fometimes other fubftances. It is con-
fiderably heavy, and the more fo the better; mode¬
rately hard and brittle, or of a confidence betwixt (lone
and-earth: the colour is fometimes whitifh or grey;
Vol. III.
fometimes yejlowifh, or of a deep yellow; fometimes Calamine
red ; fometimes brown or blackifh. It is plentiful in Caia^us
fcveral places of Europe, as Hungary, Tranfylvania,  L
Poland, Spain, Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, Collar,
France, and England, particularly in Derby(hire,Glou-
cefterftiire, Nottinghamfhire, and Somerfetlhire, as alfo
in Wales. The calamine of England, however, is by
the bed judges allowed to be fuperior in quality to that
of moll other countries. It feldom lies very deep, being
chiefly found in clayey grounds near the furface. In
fome places it is mixed with lead-ores. It is the only
true ore of zinc, and is ufed as an ingredient in making
of brafs *.—Newman relates various experiments with • Ste Chemi-
this mineral, the only refult of which was to (how that Jtrj> n° 377.
it contained iron as well as zinc. The mod remarkable
are the following. A faturated folution of calamine in
the marine acid, concentrated by evaporating part of the
liquor, exhibits in the cold an appearance of fine cry-
(lals, which on the application of warmth diflblve and
difappear. A little of this concentrated folution tinges
a large quantity of water of a bright yellow colour;
and at the fame time depofits by degrees a fine, fpongy,
browniflr precipitate. Glue diflblved in this folution,
and afterwards infpiflated, forms an extremely (lippery
tenacious mafs, which does not become dry, and, were
it not too expenfive, might be of ufe for entangling
flies, caterpillars, &c. Sulphur boiled in the folution
feems to acquire fome degree of tranfparency.—This
mineral is an article in the materia medica ; but, before
it comes to the (hops, is ufually roafted or calcined, in
order to feparate fome arfenical or fulphureous matter
which in its crude (late it is fuppofed to contain, and
to render it more eafily reducible into a fine powder. In
this (late it is employed in collyria againft defluxions
of thin acrid humours upon the eyes, for drying up
moill running ulcers, and healing excoriations. It is
the balls of an officinal epulotic Cerate.
Though the lapis calaminaris is the only native ore
of zinc, there is another fubftance from which that
femi-metal is alfo obtained. This is called cadmia forna-
cum, or cadmia of the furnaces^ to diftinguilh it from
the other. This is a matter fublimed when ores con¬
taining zinc, like thofe of Rammelfberg, are fmelted.
This cadmia confifts of the flowers of the femi-metal
fublimed during the fufion, and adhering to the inner
furfaces of the walls of furnaces, where they fuffer a
femi-fufion, and therefore acquire fome folidity. So
great a quantity of thefe are collefted, that they form
very thick incruftations, which muft be frequently ta¬
ken off. The name of cadmia of the furnaces has alfo
been given to all the foots and metallic fublimates
formed by fmelting in the great, although there is cer¬
tainly a difference in thefe matters.
CALAMINT, in botany. See Melissa, and Men¬
tha.
CALAMUS (Lat.) fignifies a reed or cane *. *StCjAruntlo
Calamus, in the ancient poets, denotes a fimple
kind of pipe or filtula, the mufical inftrument of the
(hepherds and herdfmen ; ufually made either of an
oaten (talk or a reed.
Calamus Aromaticus, or Snveet-fccnted Flag, in the
materia medica, a fpecies of flag called acorus by Lin¬
naeus. SeeAcoRus.
Calamus Scriptorius, in antiquity, a reed or ruflr
to write with. The ancients made ufe of ftyles to write
9 N on
CAL [ 157° 3 CAL
ilamy. on tables covered with wax ; and of reed, or rufh, to
write on parchment, or Egyptian paper.
CALAMY (Edmund), an eminent prefbyterian di¬
vine, born at London in the year 1600, and educated
at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, where his attachment
to the Arminian party excluded him from a fellowfliip.
Dr Felton bilhop of Ely, however, made him his chap¬
lain ; and, in 1639, he was chofen minifter of St Mary
Aldermary, in the city of London. Upon the opening
of the long parliament, he diftinguifhed himfelf in de¬
fence of the Prefbyterian caufe ; and had a principal
hand in writing the famous Smeftynmus, which, him¬
felf fays, gave the firlt deadly blow to epifcopacy. The
authors of this traft were five, the initials of whofe
names formed the name under which it was publifhed;
viz. Stephen Marfhal, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young,
Matthew Newcomen, and William Sparftow. He was
after that an a&ive member in the affembly of divines,
was a ftrenuous oppofer of fe&aries, and ufed his ut-
moft endeavours to prevent thofe violences committed
after the king was brought from the ifle of Wight. In
Cromwell’s time he lived privately, but was aifiduous
in promoting the king’s return ; for which he was af¬
terwards offered a bifhopric, but refufed it. He was
eje&ed for nonconformity in 1662 ; and died of grief
at the fight of the great fire of London.
Calamy (Edmund), grandfon to the preceding (by
his eldft fon Mr Edmund Calamy, who was ejected out
of the living of Moxton in Effex on St Bartholomew’s
day 1662), was born in London, April 5th 1671. Af¬
ter having learned the languages, and gone through a
courfe of natural philofophy and logic at a private
academy in England, he ftudied philofophy and civil
law at the univerfity of Utrecht, and attended the lec¬
tures of the learned Graevius. Whilft he refided here,
an offer of aprofelfor’s chair in the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh was made him by MrCarftairs, principal of that
univerfity, fent over on purpofe to find a perfon pro¬
perly qualified tor fuch an office. This he declined ;
and returned to England in 1691, bringing with him
letters from Graevius to Dr Pocock canon of Chrilt-
church and regius profeffor of Hebrew, and to Dr Ber¬
nard Savilian profeffor of aftronomy, who obtained
leave for him to profecnte his ftudies in the Bodleian
library. Having refolved to make divinity his principal
ftudy, he entered into an examination of the contro-
verfy between the conformifts and nbnconformifts;
which determined him to join the latter: and coming
to London in 1692, he was unanimoufly chofen affift-
ant to Mr Matthew Sylvefter at Blackfriars; and in
1694, he was ordained at Mr Annefley’s meeting-
houfe in Little St-Helena, and foon after was invited
to become affiftant to Mr Daniel Williams in Hand-
Alley. In 1702, he was chofen to be one of the lec¬
turers in Salter’s-hall; and, in 1703, fucceeded Mr
Vincent Alfop as paftor of a great congregation in
Weftminfter. He drew up the table of contents to Mr
Baxter’s hiftory of his life and times, which was fent
to the prefs in 1696; made fome remarks on the work
itfelf, and added to it an index; and, refle&ing on the
ufefulnefs of the book, he faw the expediency of con¬
tinuing it, for Mr Baxter’s hiftory came no lower than
the year 1684. Accordingly he compofed an abridge¬
ment of it, with an account of many other minifters
who were eje&ed after the reftoration of Charles II. 5
their apology, containing the grounds of their non- Calamy
conformity and pra&ice as to dated and occafional q}\zs
communion with the church of England; and a con-  1_
tinuation of their hiftory till the year 1691. This work
was publiftied in 1702. He afterwards publiflied a mode¬
rate defence of nonconformity, in three trafis, in anfwer
to fome tra&s of Dr Hoadley. In 1709, Mr Calamy
made a tour to Scotland ; and had the degree of doclor
of divinity conferred on him by the univerfities of Edin¬
burgh, Aberdeen, and Glafgow. In 1713, he publifned
a fecond edition of his Abridgement of Mr Baxter’s hi¬
ftory of his life and times ; in which, among, other ad¬
ditions, there is a continuation of the hittory through
king William’s reign, and queen Anne’s, down to the
palling of the occafional bill; and in the clofe is fub-
joined the reformed liturgy, which was drawn up and
prefented to the bilhops in 1661, “ that the world may
judge (he fays in the preface) how fairly the ejedled
minifters have been often reprefented as irre'concileable
enemies to all liturgies.” In 1718, he wrote a vindica¬
tion of his grandfather, and feveral other perfons,
againft certain refledfions call upon them by Mr Arch¬
deacon Echard in his Hiftory of England; and in
1728 appeared his Continuation of the account of the
minifters, ledfurers, matters, and fellows of colleges, and
fchoolmafters, who were ejedted, after the reftoration in
1660, by or before the adt of uniformity. He died
June 3d 1732, greatly regretted not only by the dif-
fenters, but alfo by the moderate members of the etta-
blilhed church, both clergy and laity, with many of
whom he lived in great intimacy. Befides the pieces
already mentioned, he publifhed a great many fermons
on feveral fubjedts and occafions. He was twice mar¬
ried, and had 13 children.
CALANDRE, a name given by the French wri¬
ters to an infedt that does vaft mifchief in granaries.
It is properly of the fcarab or beetle clafs; it has two
antennae or horns formed of a great number of round
joints, and covered with a foft and Ihort down; from
the anterior part of the head there isthruft out a trunk,
which is fo formed at the end, that the creature eafily
makes way with it through the coat or Ikin that covers
the grain, and gets at the meal or farina on which it
feeds; the infide of the grains is alfo the place where
the female depofits her eggs, that the young progeny
may be born with provifion about them. When the
female has pierced a grain of corn for this purpofe,
ffie depofits in it one egg, or at the utmoft two, but
ffie moft frequently lays them Angle : thefe eggs hatch
into fmall worms, which are ufually found with their
bodies rolled up in a fpiral form, and after eating till
they arrive at their full growth, they are changed into
chryfales, and from thefe in about a fortnight come*
out the perfedt calandre. The female lays a confider-
able number of eggs; and the increafe of thefe creatures
would be very great: but nature has fo ordered it, that
while in the egg ftate, and even while in that of the
worm, they are fubjedt to be eaten by mites; thefe
little vermin are always very plentiful in granaries, and
they deftroy the far greater number "of thefe larger a-
nimals.
CAL AS (John), the name of a moft unfortunate
Proteftant merchant at Touloufe, inhumanly butchered
under forms of law cruelly proftituted to ffielter the
fanguinary di&ates of ignorant Popiffi zeal. He had
lived
Calas
Califio.
•SeeMeeha-
rics, ii°
CAL [ 1571 ] CAL
lived 40 years at Touloufe. His wife was an Englifti
woman of French extraAion: and they had five fons; one
of whom, Lewis, had turned Catholic through the per-
fuafions of a Catholic maid who had lived 30 years in the
family. In Odtober 1761, the family confifted of Calas,
his wife, Mark Anthony their fon, Peter their fecond fon,
and this maid. Anthony was educated forthe bar; but
being of a melancholy turn of mind, was continually
dwelling on pafiages from authors on the fubjedt of fili¬
cide, and one night in'that month hanged himfelf on a bar
laid acrofs two folding doors in their (hop. The crowd
colledfed by the confufion of the family on fo ihocking
a difcovery, took it into their heads that he had been
ftrangled by the family to prevent his changing his re¬
ligion, and that this was a common pradtice among
Proteftants. The officers of juftice adopted the po¬
pular tale, and were fupplied by the mob with what
they accepted as evidences of the fadt. The fraternity
of white penitents got the body, buried it with great
ceremony, and performed a folemn fervice for him as
a martyr; the Francifcans did the fame: and after thefe
formalities n<? one doubted the guilt of the devoted he¬
retical family. They were all condemned to the tor¬
ture, to bring them to confeffion : they appealed to the
parliament; who, as weak and as wicked as thefubor-
dinate magifirates, fentenced the father to the torture
ordinary and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon
the wheel, and then to be burned to afhes. A diabo¬
lical decree! which to the fhame of humanity was ac¬
tually carried into execution. Peter Calas, the other
fon, was banifhed for life ; and the reft were acquitted.
The diftradled widow found fome friends, and among
the reft M. Voltaire, who laid her cafe before the coun¬
cil of ftate at Verfailles, and the parliament of Tou¬
loufe were ordered to tranfmit the proceedings ; which
argued fomething like a difpofition toward examining
into the treatment of this injured family ; but France
being a Popilh government, the voice of juftice was
ftifled.
CALASH, or Calesh, a fmall light kind of cha¬
riot or chair, with very low wheels, ufed chiefly for
taking the air in parks and gardens. The calalh is
for the moft part richly decorated, and open on all
fides for the conveniency of the air and profpedl, or
at moft inclofed with light mantlets of wax-cloth to be
opened and (hut at pleafure. In the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions we have a defcription of a new fort of ca¬
lalh going on two wheels, not hung on traces, yet
eafier than the common coaches, over which it has this
further advantage, that whereas a common coach will
overturn if one wheel go on a furface a foot and an
half higher than the other, this will admit of a differ¬
ence of 34- feet without danger of overturning. Add,
that it would turn over and over; that is, after the
fpokes being fo turned as that they are parallel to
the horizon, and one wheel flat over the head of
him that rides in it, and the other flat under him, it
will turn once more, by which the wheels are placed
■ in ftatu quo, without any diforder to the horfe or rider*.
CALASIO (Marius), a Francifcan, and profeffor
of the Hebrew language at Rome, of whom there is
very little to be faid, but that he publilhed there, in
the year 1621, a Concordance of the Bible, which
confifted of four great volumes in folio. This work
has been highly approved and commended both by
Proteftants and Papifts, and is indeed a moft admi- Caltfiris
rable work. For befides the Hebrew words in the U
Bible, which are in the body of the book, with the Calcad*‘
Latin verfion over againft them ; there are, in the mar¬
gin, the differences between the feptuagint verfion and
the vulgate; fo that at one view may be feen wherein
the three Bibles agree, and wherein they differ. More¬
over, at the beginning of every article there is a kind of
dictionary, which gives thefignification of each Hebrew
word ; affords an opportunity of comparing it with o-
ther oriental languages, viz. with the Syriac, Arabic,
and Chaldee ; and is extremely ufeful for determining
more exaftly the true meaning of the Hebrew words.
CALASIRIS, in antiquity, a linen tunic fringed
at the bottom, and worn by the Egyptians under a
white woollen garment; but this laftthey were obliged
to pull off when they entered the temples, being only
allowed to appear there in linen garments.
CALATAJUD, a large and handfome town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon ; fituated at the
confluence of the rivers Xalon and Xiloca, at the end
of a very fertile valley, with a good caftle on a rock.
W. Long. 2. 9. N. Lat. 41. 22.
CALATHUS, in antiquity, a kind of hand-baf-
ket made of light wood or rulhes; ufed by the women
fometimes to gather flowers, but chiefly, after the ex¬
ample of Minerva, to put their work in. The figure
of the calathus, as reprefented on ancient monuments,
is narrow at the bottom, and widening upwards like
that of a top. Pliny compares it to that of a lily.
The calathus or work-balket of Minerva is no lefs ce¬
lebrated among the poets than her diftaff.
Calathus was alfo the name of a cup for wine,
ufed in facrifices.
CALATRAVA, a city of new Caftile, in Spain,
fituated on the river Guadiana, 45 miles fouth of To¬
ledo. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 39. o.
Knights of Calatrava, a military order in Spain,
inftituted under Sancho III. king of Caftile, upon the
following occafion. When that prince took the ftrong
fort of Calatrava from the moors of Andalufia, he gave
it to the templars, who, wanting courage to defend it,
returned it him again. Then Don Reymond, of the
order of the Ciftercians, accompanied with feveral
perfons of quality made an offer to defend the place,
which the king thereupon delivered up to them, and
inftituted that order. It increafed fo much under the
reign of Alphonfus, that the knights defired they might
have a grand mafter, which was granted. Ferdinand
and Ifabella afterwards, with the confent of pope In¬
nocent VIII. reunited the grand-mafterlhip of Cala-
latrava to the Spanilh crown; fo that the kings of Spain
are now become perpetual adminiftrators thereof.
The knights of Calatrava bear a crofs gules, flower-
dclifed with green, &c. Their rule and habit was ori¬
ginally that of the Ciftercians.
CALAURIA, (anc. geog.), an iffand of Greece
in the Saronic bay, overagainft the port of Troezen,
at the diftance of 40 ftadia. It was 30 ftadia in com-
pafs, and had a temple of Neptune held in great vene¬
ration. It was alfo an afylum, and the place of the
convention or affembly of the feven cities of the Amphic-
tyons. To this place Demofthenes went twice into
banilhment.
CALCADA, or St Domingo Qalcmva, a town of
9 N 2 Spain,
CAL [ 1572 ] CAL
Calcar Spain, fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 36. Calculation is more particularly ufed to fignify Calculation
*1 CALCAR, a very ftrong town of Germany, in the the computations in aftronomy and geometry, for ma- Jl
Calculation. Weftp^a];aj anc] duchy of Cleves. It belongs king tables of logarithms, ephemerides, finding the time _a_c.—!l.
to the king of Prufiia, and is feated near the Rhine, in of eclipfes, &c *. _ _ * Sse AJtro-
E. Long. 5. 41. N. Lat. 51. 45. CALCULUS, primarily denotes a little ftone or mmyy Geo-
Calcar, in glafs-making, the name of a fmall oven, pebble, anciently ufed in making computations, taking
or reverberatory furnace, in which the firft calcination of fuffrages, playing at tables, and the like. In after- ^an mu
of fand and fait of potafhes is made for the turning times, pieces of ivory, and counters itruck of lilver,
them into what is called frit. This furnace is made in gold, and other matters, were ufed in lieu thereof, but
the fafhion of an oven, ten feet long, feven broad in flill retaining the ancient names. Computifts were by
the wideft part, and two feet deep. On one fide of it the lawyers called calculones, when they were either
is a trench fix inches fquare, the upper part of which {laves or newly freed men v thofe of a better condition
is level with the calcar, and feparated only from it at were named calculatores ox numerarii: ordinarily there
the mouth bv bricks nine inches wide. Into this trench was one of thefe in each family of diltin&ion. The Ro.
they put fea-coal, the flame of which is carried into
every part of the furnace, and is reverberated from the
roof upon the frit, over the furface of which the fmoke
flies very black, and goes out at the mouth of the cal¬
car ; the coals burn on iron grates, and the afhes fall
through.
Calcar (John de), a celebrated painter, was the
difciple of Titian, and perfe&ed himfelf by ftudying
Raphael. Among other pieces he drew a nativity, re-
prefenting the angels around the infant Chrill; and fb
ordered the difpoiition of his picture, that the light all
proceeds from the child. He died at Naples, in 1546,
in the flower of his age. It was he who defigned the
anatomical figures of Vefal, and the portraits of the
painters of Vefari.
CALCAREOUS earths. See Earth.
CALCEARIUM, in antiquity, a donative or lar-
gefs beftowed on Roman foldiers for buying fhoes. In
monafteries, calcearium denoted the daily fervice of
cleaning the fhoes of the religious.
CALCHAS, in fabulous hiftory, a famous diviner,
followed the Greek army to Troy. He foretold that
the fiege would laft ten years; and that the fleet,
which was detained in the port of Aulis by contrary
winds, would not fail till Agamemnon’s daughter had
been facrificed to Diana. After the taking of Troy, he
retired to Colophon ; where, it is faid, he died of grief,
becaufe he could not divine what another of his pro-
feffion, called Mopfus, had difcovered.
CALCINATION, in chemiftry, the reducing of
* SeeChcmi- fubftances to a calx by fire *.
/'7,n°4J, CALCINATO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
i7> 4’ Mantua, remarkable for a vidlory gained over the Im-
perialifts by the French in 1706. E. Long. 9. 55.
N. Lat. 45. 25.
CALCULARY of a Pear, a congeries of little
ftrong knots difperfed through the whole parenchyma
of the fruit. The calculary is moft obferved in rough-
tafted or choak-pears. The knots lie more continu¬
ous and compatt together towards the pear where they
furround the acetary. About the ftalk they ftand
more diftant; but towards the cork, or ftool of the
flower, they ftill grow clofer, and there at laft gather
into the firmnefs of a plumb-ftone. The calculary is no
vital or efiential part of the fruit; the feveral knots
whereof it confifts being only fo many concretions or
precipitations out of the fap, as we fee in urines, wines,
and other liquors.
CALCULATION, the aft of computing feveral
fums, by adding, fubtrafting, multiplying, or divi¬
ding. See Arithmetic.
man judges anciently gave their opinions by calculi,
which were white for abfolution, and black for con¬
demnation. Hence calculus albus, in ancient writers,
denotes a favourable vote, either in a perfon to be ab-
folved and acquitted of a charge, or elefted to fame
dignity or poit; as cvsr/<;«/«.r did the contrary. This
ufage is faid to have been borrowed from the Thraci¬
ans, who marked their happy or profperous days by
’white, and their unhappy by black, pebbles, put each
night into an urn.
Befides the diverfity of colour, there were fome cal¬
culi alfo which had figures or charafters engraven on
them, as thofe which were in ufe in taking the fuf-
frages both in the fenate and at affemblies of the peo¬
ple. Thefe calculi were made of thin wood, polilhed,
and covered over with wax. Their form is ftill feen in
fome medals of the Caffian family: and the manner of
cafting them into the urns, in the medals of the Lici-
nian family. The letters marked upon thefe calculi
were U. R. for uti rogas, and A for antique; the firft
of which expreffed an approbation of the law, the lat¬
ter a rejeftion of it. Afterwards the judges who fat in
capital caufes ufed calculi marked with the letter A for
abfolvo; C iox condemm ; and N. L. for non liquet, fig-
nifying that a more full information was required.
Calculus Humanus, the ftone in the bladder or
kidneys. Thefe are commonly formed of different ftrata
or incruftations; fometimes fmooth and heavy like mi¬
neral ftones ; but oftener rough, fpongy, light, and full
of inequalities or protuberances: chemically analyfed,
or diftilled in an open fire, they nearly yield the fame
principles as urine itfelf, or at leaft an empyreumatic
volatile urinous matter, together with a great deal of
air*. They never have, nor can have, naturally, any * See Air,
foreign matter for a bafis: but they may by accident; n°
an inllance of which is related by Dr Percival f. At Efays,
bougie had unfortunately flipped into the bladder, and Vo1- Ilr'
upon it a ftone of a confidcrable fize was formed in lefs p' t6s’
than a year. This ftone had fo much the appearance
of chalk, that the Doftor was induced to try whether
it could be converted into quicklime. His experiment
fucceeded, both with that and fome other calculi; from
which he conjeftures, that hard waters which contain
calcareous earth may contribute towards the formation
of thefe calculi. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medi¬
cine.
Calculus Specialis, or Liter alts, is the fame with
Algebra.
CALCUTTA, an Engliih fettlement in Afia, on
one of the branches of the river Ganges in the kingdom
of Bengal. The air here is unhealthy, the water brack-
ifh>
CAL [ 1573 ] CAL
Caldarium ifh, the anchorage not very fafe, and the neighbouring
!l country affords but few manufactures. Notwithftand-
Calderwood jng inconveniences, great numbers of rich Arme¬
nian, Moorifh, and Indian merchants, invited by the pro-
fpeft of liberty and fecurity, have fixed their refidence
here. The people have multiplied in proportion thro’
the territory, which is three or four leagues in circum¬
ference, and of which the Eaft India company are the
only fovereigns. The fortrefs called William’s Fart,
has this advantage, that the veffels bound to tfae Euro-
* See Wil- pean fettlements are obliged to pafs under its cannon*.
fitim rFort, town 0f Calcutta is remarkable for the fate of
thofe unhappy gentlemen who in 1757 were fuffocated
* See Ben- jn tjie dungeon called the Black hole *.
gal, i>° 10. CALDARIUM, in the ancient baths, a certain
vault or room made fo as to colled! the vapours,, and
produce fweating; whence it fignilies a hot-houfe, bag¬
nio, Jlove, or fvoeating-rdom.
CALDER1NUS (Domitius), a learned critic, born
at Calderia near Verona. He read ledlures upon polite
literature at Rome with great reputation ; and was the
firfl who ventured to write upon the moft difficult of
the ancient poets. He died very young in 1477.
CALDERON, De la Barca, (Dom. Pedro), a
Spanifh officer, who after having fignalized himfelf in
the military profeffion, quitted it for the ecclefiaftical,
and then commenced dramatic writer. His dramatic
works make 9 vols in 4to, and fome Spanifh author*
have compared him to Shakefpeare. He flourifhed a-
bout the year 1640.
CALDERWOOD (David), a famous divine of
the church of Scotland, and a diftinguilhed writer in
behalf of the Prefbyterians, was defcended of a good
family in that kingdom ; and being early defigned for
the miniftry, he applied with great diligence to the
ftudy of the Scriptures in their original tongues, the
works of the fathers, the councils, and the beft wri¬
ters on church-hiftory. He was fettled about the year
1604 at Crelling near Jedburgh. King James I. of
Great Britain, being defirous of bringing the church
of Scotland nearer to a conformity with that of Eng¬
land, laboured earneftly to reftore the epifcopal autho¬
rity, and enlarge the powers of the bifhops who were
then in Scotland. This defign was very warmly oppo-
fed by many of the minifters, and particularly by Mr
David Calderwood ; who, when Mr James Law, bi-
fhop of Orkney, came to vifit the prefbyteries of Merfe
and Teviotdale, declined his jurifdidion by a paper
under his hand dated May 5'" 1608. But the king ha¬
ving its fuccefs much at heart, fent the earl of Dunbar,
then high-treafurer of Scotland, with Dr Abbot after¬
wards archbifhop of Canterbury, and two other divines,
into that kingdom, with inflruftiona to employ every
method to perfuade both the clergy and laity of his
majefiy’s fincere defire to promote the good of the
church, and of bis zeal for the Proteftant religion.
Mr Calderwood did not affift at the general affembly
held at Glafgow June 8th 1610, in which lord Dun¬
bar prefided as commiffioner ; and it appears from his
writings, that he looked upon every thing tranfa&ed
in it as null and void. In May following, king James
went to Scotland; and on the i7thof June, held a par¬
liament at Edinburgh : at that time the clergy met in
one of the churches, to hear and advife with the bi-
Ihops ; which kind of affembly, it feems, was contri¬
ved in order to refemble the Englilh convocation. Mr Calderwood
Calderwood was prefent at it, but declared publicly
that he did not take any fuch meetings to refemble a
convocation ; and being oppofed by Dr Whitford, and
Dr Hamilton, who were friends to the bilhops, he took
his leave of them in thefe words : “ It is abfurdtofee
men fitting in filks and fattins, and to cry poverty in
the kirk, when purity is departing.” The parliament
proceeded in the mean while in the difpatch of bufinefs ;
and Mr Calderwood, with feveral other minifters, be¬
ing informed that a bill was depending to empower the
king, with the advice of the archbiftiops, bifhops, and
fuch a number of the miniftry as his majefty fhould
think proper, to confider and conclude as to matters
decent for the external policy of the church, not re¬
pugnant to the word of God ; and that fuch conclu-
fions fhould have the ftrength and power of ecclefiafti¬
cal laws : againft this they protefted, for four reafons.
1. Becaufe their church was fo perfed!, that, inftead
of needing reformation, it might be a pattern to others.
2. General aftemblies, as now eftablifhed by law, and
which ought always to continue, might by this means
be overthrown. 3. Becaufe it might be a means of
creating fchifm, and difturb the tranquillity of the
church. 4. Becaufe they had received affurances, that
no attempts fhould be made to bring them to a confor¬
mity with the church of England. They defired there¬
fore, that, for thefe and other reafons, all thoughts of
paffing fuch a law might be laid alide: but in cafe this
be not done, they proteft for themfelves and their bre¬
thren who (hall adhere to them, that they can yield no
obedience to this law when it fhall be enacted, becaufe
it is deftrudHve of the liberty of the church ; and there¬
fore fhall fubmit to fuch penalties, and think themfelves
obliged to undergo fuch punifhments, as may be inflic¬
ted on them for difobeying that law. This proteft
Was figned by Mr Archibald Simfon on behalf of the
members, who fubfcribed another feparate roll, which
he kept, for his juftification. This jiroteft was prefent-
ed to the clerk regifter, who refufed to read it before
the ftates in parliament. However, though not read,
it had its effedl ; for although the bill had the confent
of parliament, yet the king thought fit to caufe it to be
laid aiide, and not long after called a general affembly
at St Andrews. Soon after the parliament was dif-
folved, and Mr Calderwood was fummoned to appear
before the high-commiffion court at St Andrews, on
the 8th of July following, to anfwer for his muti¬
nous and feditious behaviour. July 10th, the king
came to that city in perfon ; when Mr Calderwood, be¬
ing called upon, and refufing to comply with what the
king in perfon required of him, was committeel to prifon.
Afterwards the privy council, according to the power
exercifed by them at that time, directed him to ba-
nifh himfelf out of the king’s dominions before Michael¬
mas next and not to return without licence. Having
applied to the king for a prorogation of his fentence
without fuccefs, becaufe he would neither acknowledge
his offence, nor promife conformity for the future, he
retired to Holland, where, in 1623, he publiftied his
celebrated piece entitled Altare Damafcenum. Mr Cal¬
derwood having in the year 1624 been afflidted with
a long fit of ficknefs, and nothing having been heard
of him^for fome time, one Mr Patrick Scot, as Cal¬
derwood himfelf informs us, took it for granted that
CAL [ 1574 1 CAL
Caldron he was dead ; and thereupon wrote a recantation in his E. Long. Its length from north-weft to fouth-eafl; is Caledonia
II name, as if, before his deceafe, he had changed his about 80 leagues; but its greateft breadth does not ex-  
Caledonia. pentjments> This impofture being dete&ed, Scot went ceed ten leagues. This ifland is diverfified by hills and
over to Holland, and ftaid three weeks at Amfterdam, valleys of various fize and extent. From the hills iffue
where he made a diligent fearch for the author of Al- abundance of rivulets, which contribute to fertilize the
tare Damafcenum, with a defign to have difpatched plains. Along its north-eaft Ihore the land is flat; and
him. But Calderwood had privately retired into his being well watered, and cultivated by the inhabitants
own country, where he lived feveral years. Scot gave after their manner, appeared to great advantage to cap-
out that the king had furnilhed him with the matter tain Cook’s people. Was it not, indeed, for thofe
for the pretended recantation, and that he only put it fertile fpots on the plains, the whole country might be
in order. During his retirement, Mr Calderwood col- called a dreary nxiafte : the mountains and higher parts
lefted all the memorials relating to the ecclefiaftical af- of the land are in general incapable of cultivation,
fairs of Scotland, from the beginning of the reforma- They confift chiefly of rocks, many of which are full of
tion there down to the death of king James; which mundic ; the little foil that is upon them is fcorched
colleition is ftill preferved in the univerfity library of and burnt up by the fun ; it is, however, covered with
Glafgow; that which was publiflied under the title of coarfe grafs and other plants, and here and there co-
“ The true hiftory of Scotland,” is only an extra& vered with trees and fhrubs. The country in general
from it. In the advertifement prefixed to the laft edi- bears a great refemblance to thofe parts of New South
tion of his Altare Damafcenum mention is made of his Wales which lie under the fame parallel of latitude. Se-
being minifter of Pencaitland near Edinburgh in 1638;
but we find nothing faid there, or any where elfe, of his
death.
CALDRON, a large kitchen utenfil, commonly
made of copper; having a moveable iron handle, where¬
by to hang it on a chimney-hook.
Boiling in Caldrons, is a capital punifliment fpo-
ken of in middle-age writers, decreed to divers forts
of criminals, but chiefly to debafers of the coin.
CALDWALL (Richard), a learned Englifh phy-
fician, born in Staffordftiire about the year 1513. He
ftudied phyfic in Brazen-Nofe college, Oxford; and
was examined, admitted unto, and made cenfor of, the
college of phyficians at London, all in one day. Six
weeks after he was chofen one of the clefts; and in the
year 1570, was made prefident of that college. Mr
Wood tells us, that he wrote feveral pieces in his pro-
fefiion ; but he does not tell us what they were, only
that he tranflated a book on the art of forgery, written
by one Horatio More, a Florentine phyfician. We
learn from Camden, that Caldwall founded achirurgi-
cal lefture in the college of phyficians, and endowed it
with a handfome falary. He died in 1585.
CALEB, one of the deputies fent by the Ifraelites
to take a view of the land of Canaan. He made a
good report of the country, and by this means revived
the fpirits of the dejefted people; on which account,
be and Jolhua were the only perfons who, after their
leaving Egypt, fettled in the land of Canaan. Caleb
had, for his {hare, the mountains and the city of He¬
bron, frOm which he drove three kings. Othoniel his
nephew having taken the city of Debir, Caleb gave
him his daughter Achfah in marriage; and died, aged
114.
• See Scot- CALEDONIA, the ancient name of Scotland *.
Caledonia, the name of a fettlement made by the
Scots, on the weft fide of the gulph of Darien, in 1698;
out of which they were ftarved at the requeft of the
Eaft-India company : for the Englilh government pro¬
hibited the other colonies fending them any provifions ;
fo they were obliged to leave it in 1700.
New Caledonia, an ifland in the fouth-fea, lately
difcovered by captain Cook, and, next to New Hol¬
land and New Zealand, is the largeft ifland that hath
yet been difcovered in that fea. It extends from 19.
37. to 22. 30. S. Lat. and from 163. 37. to 167.14.
veral of its natural produftions are the fame, and the
woods are without underwood as well as in that coun¬
try. The whole coaft feems to be furrounded by
reefs and ftioals, which render all accefs to it extreme¬
ly dangerous ; but at the fame time guard the coafts
againft the attacks of the wind and fea ; rendering it
eafily navigable along the coaft by canoes, and caufing
it abound with fifh. Every part of the coaft feems to
be inhabited ; the plantations in the plains are laid out
with great judgment, and cultivated with much labour.
They begin their cultivation by fetting fire to the grafs.
See. with which the ground is covered, but have no no¬
tion of preferving its vigour by manure ; they, how¬
ever, recruit it by letting it lie for fome years untouched.
On the beach was found a large irregular mafs of rock,
not lefs than a cube of ten feet, confifting of a clofe-
grained Hone fpeckled full of granates fomewhat bigger
than pins heads, from whence it feems probable that
fome valuable minerals may be found on this ifland. It
differs from all the other iflands yet difcovered in the
South Sea, by being entirely deftitute of volcanic pro¬
duftions. Several plants of a new fpecies were found
here; and a few young breadfruit trees, not then fuf-
ficiently grown to bear fruit, feemed to have come up
without culture : plantains and fugar-canes are here
in fmall quantity, and the cocoa-nut trees are fmall
and thinly planted. A new fpecies of pafiion-flower
was likewife met with, which was never known to grow
wild any where but in America. Several Caputi (Me¬
laleuca) trees were alfo found in flower. Mufqueto*
here are very numerou's. A great variety of birds were
feen of different claffes, which were for the moft part
entirely new; particularly a beautiful fpecies of par¬
rot before unknown to zoologifts. A new fpecies of
fifti, of the genus called by Lmnseus tetraodorit was
caught here ; and its liver, which was very large, pre-
fented at fupper. Several fpecies of this genus being
reckoned poifonous, and the prefent fpecies being re¬
markably ugly, Meff. Forfters hinted their fufpicions
of its quality ; but the temptation of a frefli meal, and
the affurances of captain Cook that he had formerly
eaten this identical fort of fifti without harm, got the
better of their.fcruples, and they eat of it. Its oili-
nefs, however, though it had no other bad tafte than
what proceeded from this, prevented them from taking
more than a morfel or two. In a few hours after they
had
CAL [ 1575 ] CAL
Caledonia, had retired to reft, they were awakened by very alarm-
______ fymptoms, being all feized with an extreme giddi-
nefs; their hands and feet were numbed, fo that they
were fcarcely able to crawl; and a violent languor and
oppreffion feized them. Emetics were adminiftered
with fame fuccefs, but fudorifics gave the greateft re¬
lief. Some dogs who had eaten the remainder of the
liver were likevvife taken ill; and a pig which had eaten
the entrails died foon after, having fwelled to an unufual
fize. The effedts of this poifon on the gentlemen did
not go entirely off in lefs than fix weeks.—Abundance
of turtle was feen here. The natives had not the leaft
notion of goats, hogs, dogs, or cats, and had not
even a name for any of them.
The inhabitants are very ftout, tall, and in general
well proportioned; their features mild ; their beards
and hair black, and ftrongly frizzled, fo as to be
fomewhat woolly in fome individuals : their colour is
fwarthy, or a dark chefnut brown. A few were feen
who meafured fix feet four inches. They are remark¬
ably courteous, not at all addidted to pilfering and
ftealing ; in which charadter of honefty they are An¬
gular, all the other nations in the South Sea being re¬
markably thievifh. Some wear their hair long, and tie
it up to the crown of their heads ; others fuffer only a
large lock to grow on each fide, which they tie up in
clubs ; many others, as well as all the women, wear it
cropt ihort. They make ufe of a kind of comb made
of (licks of hard wood from feven to nine or ten inches
long, and about the thicknefs of knitting needles; a
number of thefe, feldom exceeding 20, but generally
fewer, are faftened together at one end, parallel to and
near one tenth of an inch from each other ; the ends,
which are a little pointed, will fpread out or open like
the flicks of a fan. Thefe combs they always wear in
their hair on one fide of their head. Some had a kind
of concave cylindrical ftiff black cap, which appeared
to be a great ornament among them, and was fuppofed
to be worn only by the chiefs and warriors. A large
flieet of ftrong paper, whenever they got one in ex¬
change, was commonly applied to this purpofe. The
men go naked; only tying a firing round their middle,
and another round their neck. A little piece of a
brown cloth made of the bark of a fig-tree, fometimes
tucked up to the belt, and fometimes pendulous,
fcarcely deferves the name of a covering; nor indeed
does it feem at all intended for that purpofe. This
piece of cloth is fometimes of fuch a length, that the
extremity is faftened to the fixing round the neck ; to
this firing they likewife hang final! round beads of
a pale green nephritic flone. Coarfe garments were
feen among them made of a fort of matting; but they
feemed never to wear them, except when in their ca¬
noes and unemployed. The women feemed to be in a
fervile flate: they were the only perfons of the family
who had any employment, and feveral of them brought
bundles of flicks and fuel on their backs : thofe who
had children carried them on their backs in a kind of
fatchel. The women alfo were feen to dig up the earth
in order to plant it. They are in general of a dark
chefnut, and fometimes mahogany brown ; their fta-
ture middle-fized, fome being rather tall, and their
whole form rather ftout, and fomewhat clumfy. Their
drefs is the moft disfiguring that caff be imagined, and
gives them a thick fquat fhape ; it is a fhort petticoat
or fringe, confiding of filaments or little cords, about Caledonia.-
eight inches long, which are faftened to a very long
firing, which they have tied feveral times round their
waift. The filaments, or little ropes, therefore, lie a-
bove each other in feveral layers, forming a kind of
thick thatch all round the body, but which does not
near cover the thigh : thefe filaments were fometimes
dyed black ; but frequently!*!hofe on the outfide only
were of that colour, the reft being of a dirty grey.
There was not a fingle inflance, during the fhip’s flay
in this ifland, of the women permitting any indecent
familiarity with an European : they took pleafure in
pra&ifing the arts of a jilting coquette, but never be¬
came ablolute wantons. The general ornaments of both
fexes are ear-rings of tortoife (hells; necklaces, or amu¬
lets, made both of (hells and (tones; and bracelets made
of large (hells, which they wear above the elbows.
The houfes, or huts, in New Caledonia, are circu¬
lar, fomething like a bee-hive, and full as clofe and
warm ; the entrance is by a finall door, or long fquare
hole, juft big enough to admit a man bent double:
the fide walls are about four feet and a half high ; but
the roof is lofty, and peaked to a point at the top, a-
bove which is a poll or flick of wood, which is gene-
nerally ornamented either with carving or (hells, or
both. The framing is of fmall fpars, reeds, &c. and
both fides and roof are thick, and clofe covered with
thatch made of coarfe long grafs. In the infide of the
houfe are fet up pods, to which crofs fpars are faften¬
ed, and platforms made, for the conveniency of layinp-
any thing on. Some houfes have two floors, one above
another ; the floor is laid with dried grafs, and here
and there mats are fpread for the principal people to fit
or deep on. In thefe houfes there was no paffage for
the fmoke but through the door ; they were intolerably
finoky, and fo hot as to be infupportable to thofe
unaccullomed to them : probably the fmoke is intend¬
ed to drive out the mufquetos which fwarm here. They
commonly ere£t two or three of thefe huts near each
other under a clufter of lofty fig-trees, whofe leaves arc
impervious to the rays of the fun.
The canoes ufed here are very heavy clumfy veffels ;
they are made of two trees hollowed out, having a
raifed gunnel about two inches high, and clofed at each
end with a bulk head of the fame height; fo that the
whole is like a long fquare trough about three feet
(horter than the body of the canoe. Two canoes thus
fitted are faftened to each other about three feet afun-
der, by means of crofs fpars, which projeil about a
foot ovCr each fide. Over thefe is laid a deck or heavy
platform made of plank and fmall round fpars, on which
they have a fire-hearth, and generally a fire burning ;
they are navigated by one or two latteen fails, extended
to a fmall latteen yard, the end of which is fixed in a
notch or hole in the deck.
Notwithftanding the inoffenfive difpofition of the in¬
habitants of New Caledonia, they are well provided
with offenfive weapons ; as clubs, fpears, darts, and
flings for throwing ftones. Their clubs are about two
feet and an half long, and varioufly formed ; fome like
a fey the, others like a pick-ax ; fome have a head like
a hawk, and others have round heads, but all are
neatly made ; many of their darts and fpears are no lefs
neat, and ornamented with carvings. The flings are
as Ample as poffible; but they take fome pains to form
Cale3onia the ftones that they ufe into a proper fhape, which is
II fomething like an egg, fuppofing both ends to be
Calendar, tjje fmall onei They drive the dart by the af-
fiftance of fhort cords knobbed at one end and looped
at the other, called by the feamen beckets. Thefe
contained a quantity of red wool taken from the vam-
pyre, or great Indian bat. Bows and arrows are wholly
unknown among them. %
Their language bears no affinity to that fpoken in
the other South-fea iflands, the word arrekee and
one or two more excepted. This is the more extra¬
ordinary, as different diale&s of one language were
fpoken not only in the eafterly iflands, but at New
Zealand.
A mufical inftrument, a kind of whiflle, was procu¬
red here. It was a little polifhed piece of brown wood
about two inches long, fhaped like a kind of bell, tho’
apparently folid, with a rope fixed at the fmall end ;
two holes were made in it near the bafe, and another
near the infertion of the rope, all which communicated
with each other; and by blowing in the uppermoft, a
fhrill found like whlilling was produced : no other in¬
ftrument was feen among them that had the leaft rela¬
tion to mufic.
Many of the New-Caledonians were feen with pro-
digioufly thick legs and arms, which feemed to be af¬
fected with a kind of leprofy ; the fwelling was found
to be extremely hard, but the fkin was not alike harfh
and fcaly in all thofe who were afllifted with the difor-
der. The preternatural expanfion of the arm or leg
did not appear to be a great inconvenience to thofe
who fuffered it; and they feemed to intimate that they
very rarely felt any pain in it; but in fome the diforder
began to form blotches, which are marks of a great de¬
gree of virulence.
Here they bury their dead in the ground. The
grave of a chief who had been flain in battle here re-
fembled a large mole-hill, and was decorated with
fpears, darts, paddles, &c. all Ruck upright in the
ground round about it. Lieutenant Pickerfgill was
{hewed a chief whom they named Tea-booma, and ftyl-
ed their arrekee or king ; but nothing further is known
of their government, and nothing at all of their re¬
ligion.
CALEFACTION, the produdlion of heat in a
body from the aftion of fire, or that impulfe impref-
fed by a hot body on others around it. This word is
ufed in pharmacy, by way of diftin&ion from coftion,
which implies boiling; whereas calefaftion is only heat¬
ing a thing.
CALENBERG, a caftle of Germany, in the duchy
of Brunfwic and principality of Calenberg. It is feated
on the river Leine, and is 15 miles fouth of Hanover.
It is fubjeft to the duke of Brunfwic Lunenburg, elec¬
tor of Hanover, and king of Great Britain. E. Long.
9. 43. N. Lat. 52. 20.
Calenberg, a principality of Lower Saxony, and
one of the three parts of the duchy of Brunfwic, is
bounded on the north by the duchy of Verden, on the
eaft by the principality of Zell, on the fouth by the
principalities of Grubenhagen and Wolfenbuttle, and
on the weft by Weftphalia. It belongs to the ekaor
of Hanover.
CALENDAR, in aftronomy and chronology. See
Kalendar.
Calendar of prifoners, in law, a lift of all the pi- Calendar
foners names in the cuftody of each refpeftive fheriff *. Caletfdllll
CALENDARIUM flora;, in botany, a calendar   
containing an exaft regifter of the refpeftive times in ’'Seethear-
which the plants of any given province or climate ger- l^ExecH'
minate, expand, and ffied their leaves and flowers, or
ripen and difperfe their feeds. For particulars on this
curious fubjetft, fee the articles Defoliatio, Efflo-
rescentia, Frondescentia, Fructescentia, and
GeRMiNATIO.
CALENDER, a machine ufed in manufa&ories to
prefs certain woollen and filken fluffs and linens, to
make them fmooth, even, and gloffy, or to give them
waves, or water them, as may be feen in mohairs and
tabbies. This inftrument is compofed of two thick
cylinders or rollers, of very hard and well polifhed
wood, round which the fluffs to be calendered are
wound: thefe rollers are placed crofs-wife between two
very thick boards, the lower ferving as a fixed bafe, and
the upper moveable by means of a thick fcrew with a
rope faftened to a fpindle which makes its axis: the
uppermoft board is loaded with large ftones weighing
20,000 ft> or more. At Paris they have an extraordi¬
nary machine of this kind, called the royal calender,
made by order of M. Colbert. The lower table or plank
is made of a block of fmooth marble, and the upper
is lined with a plate of polifhed copper.—The alternate
motion of the upper board fometimes one way and
fometimes another, together with the prodigious weight
laid upon it, gives the fluffs their glofs and fmoothnefs ;
or gives them the waves, by making the cylinders on
which they are put roll with great force over the un-
dermoft board. When they would put a roller from
under the calender, they only incline the undermofl
board of the machine. The dreffing alone, with the
many turns they make the fluffs and linens undergo
in the calender, gives the waves, or waters them, as
the workmen call it. It is a miftake to think, as fome
have afferted, and Mr Chambers among others, that
they ufe rollers with a (hallow indenture or engraving
cut into them.
CALENDERS, a fort of Mahometan friars, fo call¬
ed from Santon Calender! their founder. This.Santon
went bareheaded, without a fliirt, and with the fkin of
a wild beaft thrown over his fhoulders. He wore a
kind of apron before, the firings of which were adorn¬
ed with counterfeit precious ftones. His difciples are
rather a fe£l of Epicureans, than a fociety of religious.
They honour a tavern as much as they do a mofque;
and think they pay as acceptable worfhip to God by
the free ufe of his creatures, as others do by the greateft
aufterities and ads of devotion. They are called, in
Perfia and Arabia, Abdals, or Abdallat, i. e. perfons
confecrated to the honour and fervice of God. Their
garment is a Angle coat, made up of a variety of pie¬
ces, and quilted like a rug. They preach in the mar¬
ket-places, and live upon what their auditors beftowon
them. They are generally very vicious perfons ; for
which reafon they are not admitted into any houfes.
CALENDS, in Roman antiquity. See Kalends.
CALENDULA, the marygold; a genus of the
polygamia neceffaria order, belonging to the fyngene-
fia clafs of plants. Of this there are eight fpecies, none
of them natives of Europe. The common kind is fo
well known as to need no definition; and none of the
others
CAL [ i,
Cilenduk others merit any, except the frnticofa, which hath lately
CalJmre ^een ’ntro<^uced fr°m the Cape of Good Hope. It
  L_ hath a (lender, (hrubby, perennial ftalk, which rifes to
the height of feven or eight feet, but requires fupport:
this fends out a great number of weak branches from
the bottom to the top, which hang downward unlefs
they are fupported: they are garniflied with oval leaves,
having fhort flat footftalks ; thefe are of a fhining green
colour on their upper fide, but paler underneath : the
flowers come out at the end of the branches, on (hort
naked footftalks. This is eafily propagated by cut¬
tings, which may be planted at any time in fummer in
a (hady border, or otherwife fhaded with mats in the
heat of the day : in five or fix weeks thefe will have ta¬
ken root, when they ftiould be feparately taken up,
each put in a feparate pot, and placed in the (hade till
they have taken frelh root ; then they may be placed,
with other hardy exotic plants, in a ftieltered fituation,
where they may remain till the froft begins, when they
muft be removed into the green-houfe, placing them
near the windows that they may enjoy the free air;
for this plant only requires proteftion from froft. The
feeds of the common fort may be fown in March or A-
pril, where the plants are to remain; and will require
no other culture but to keep them clear of weeds, and
to thin the plants where they are too thick. The
flowers of the common marigold are fuppofed to be a-
perient and attenuating, as alfo cardiac, alexipharmac,
and fudorific ; they are principally celebrated in uterine
obftru&ions, the jaundice, and for throwing out the
fmall-pox. Their fenfible qualities, however, give
little foundation for thefe virtues: they have fcarce any
tafte, and have no confiderable fmell. The leaves of
the plant difcover a vifcid fweetiftinefs, accompanied
with a more durable faponaceous pungency and warmth :
thefe feem capable of anfwering fome ufeful purpofes
as a ftimulating, aperient, and antifcorbutic medicine.
CALENTIUS (Elifius), a Neapolitan poet and
profe author. He was ‘preceptor to Frederic the fon
of Ferdinand king of Naples, and the earlieft writer on
the illegality of putting criminals to death except for
murder. Died in 1503.
CALENTURE, a feverifh diforder incident to
failors in hot countries; the principal fymptom of
which is their imagining the fea to be green fields:
hence, attempting to walk abroad in thefe imaginary
places of delight, they are frequently loft. Vomiting,
bleeding, a fpare diet, and the neutral falls, are re¬
commended in this difoider; a fingle vomit commonly
" removing the delirium, and the cooling medicines com¬
pleting the cure.
CALEPIN (Ambrofius), an Auguftin monk ofCa-
lepio, whence he took his. name, in the 16th century.
He is author of a di&ionary of eight languages, fince
augmented by Pafferat and others.
CALES (anc. geog.), a municipal city of fome
note in Campania, at no great diftance from Cafili-
num. The epithet Calenus is by Horace and Juvenal
applied to, a generous wine which the territory pro¬
duced.
CALETES, (anc. geog.), a people of Gallia Celti-
ca, on the confines of Belgica, fituated between the fea
and the Sequana. Now called le Pais de Caux, in
Normandy.
CALETURE, a fort on the ifland of Ceylon, at
Vol. III.
>77 1 . CAL
the mouth of a river of the fame name. The Dutch Call~-
became mafters of it in 1655 > but were afterwards ob¬
liged to leave it. E. Long. 80. 51. N. Lat. 6. 38.
. CALF, in zoology, the young of the ox kind.
There are two ways of breeding calves that are in¬
tended to be reared. The one is to let the calf run a-
bout with its dam all the year round; which is the
method in the cheap breeding countries, and is gene¬
rally allowed to make the bell cattle. The other is to
take them from the dam after they have fucked about
a fortnight-; they are then to be taught to drink flat
milk, which is to be made but juft warm for them, it
being very dangerous to give it them too hot. The
bell time of weaning calves is from January to May :
they fhould have milk for 12 weeks after; and a fort¬
night before that is left off, water fhould be mixed with
the milk in larger and larger quantities. When the
calf has been fed on milk for about a month, little
whifps of hay fhould be placed all about him in cleft
flicks to induce him to eat. In the beginning of A-
pril they fhould be turned out to grafs ; only for a few
days they fhould be taken in for the night, and have
milk and water given them : the fame may alfo be gi¬
ven them in a pall fometimes in the field, till they are
fo able to feed themfelves that they do not regard it.
The grafs they are turned into muft not be too rank,
but fhort and fweet, that they may like it, and yet get
it with fome labour. Calves fhould always be weaned
at grafs; for if it be done with hay and water, they of¬
ten grow big-belly’d on it, and are apt to rot. When
thofe among the males are feletled which are to be kept
as bulls, the reft fhould be gelt for oxen : the fooner
the better. Between 10 and 20 days is a proper age.
About London almoft all the calves are fatted for the
butcher. The reafon of this is, that there is a good mar¬
ket for them ; and the lands there are not fo profitable
to breed upon as in cheaper countries. The way to
make calves fat and fine is, the keeping them very
clean; giving them frefh litter every day ; and the
hanging a large chalk-flone in fome corner where they
can eamy get at it to lick it, but where it is out of the
way of being fouled by their dung and urine. The
coops are to be placed fo as not to have too much fun
upon them, and fo high above the ground that the u-
rine may run off. They alfo bleed them once when
they are a month old, and a fecond time before they
kill them ; which is a great addition to the beauty and
whitenefs of their flefh : the bleeding is by fome re¬
peated much oftener, but this is fufficient. Calves are
very apt to be loofe in their bowels ; which waftes and
very much injures them. The remedy is to give them
chalk fcraped among milk, pouring it down with a
horn. If this does not fucceed, they give them bole
armenic in large dofes, and life the cold bath every
morning. If a cow will not let a ftrange calf fuck her,
the common method is to rub both her nofe and the
calf’s with a little brandy; this generally reconciles
them after a few fmellings.
Golden Calf, an idol fet up and worfhipped by the
Ifraelites at the foot of Mount Sinai in their paffage
through the wildernefs to the land of Canaan. Our
verfion makes Aaron fafhion this calf with a graving
tool after he had call it in a mould: the Geneva tranf-
lation makes him engrave it firft, and caft it afterwards.
Others, with more probability, render the whole verfe
9 O thus:
CAL [ 1578 ] CAL
Culf thus: “ And Aaron received them, (the golden ear-
. II rings), and tied them up in a bag, and got them caft
C'.i'iconlan. jnto a lrlc)]ten calf;” which verfion is authorifed by the
different fenfes of the word tzur, which fignifks to tie
up or bind, as well as to ihape or form; and of the
word cherret, which is ufed both for a graving tool
and a bag. Some of the ancient fathers have been of
opinion that this idol had only the face of a calf, and
the Ihape of a man from the neck downwards, in imi¬
tation of the Egyptian Ifis. Others have thought it
was only the head of an ox without a body. But the
moft general opinion is, that it was an entire calf in
imitation of the Apis worfhipped by the Egyptians;
among whom, no doubt, the Ifraelites had acquired
their propenfity to idolatry. This calf Mofes is faid to
have burnt ivith fire, reduced to powder, and ftrewed
upon the water which the people were to drink. How
this could be accompliihed hath been a queftion. Moft
people have thought, that as gold is indeftrutlible, it
could only be burnt by the miraculous power of God;
but M. Stahl conje&ures that Mofes diffolved it by
f See Chcmi- means of liver of fulphur f. The Rabbins tell us that
Jiry, n° 3x1 the people were made to drink of this water in order to
32S‘ diftinguilh the idolaters from the reft; for that as foon
as they had drunk of it, the beards of the former turn¬
ed red. The cabbalifts add, that the calf weighed
125 quintals; which they gather from the Hebrew'
word majfekah, whofe numerical letters make 125.
Sea-CAi.v. See Phoca.
CALI, a town of Popayan in South America, feat-
ed in a valley of the fame name on the river Cauca.
The governor of the province ufually refides there. W.
Long. 78. 5. N. Lat. 3. 15.
CALIBER, or Caliper, properly denotes the dia¬
meter of any body; thus we fay, two columns of the
fame caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the cali¬
ber of a bullet, &c.
Calibek.-CompaJ/es, a fort of compaffes made with
arched legs to take the diameter of round or fwelling
bodies. See Compasses.
Caliber-compaffes, are chiefly ufed by gunners, for
taking the diameters of the feveral parts of a piece of
ordnance, or of bombs, bullets, &c. Their legs are
therefore circular; and move on an arch of brafs, where¬
on is marked the inches and half inches, to fliow how
far the points of the compaffes are opened afunder. .
Some are alfo made for taking the diameter of the
bore of a gun or mortar.
The gaugers alfo fometimes ufe calipers, to embrace
the two heads of any calk, in order to find its length.
The calipers ufed by carpenters and joiners, is apiece
of board notched triangular-w'ife in the middle for the
taking of meafure.
CALiBER-Ru/e, is an inftrument, wherein a right
line is fo divided, as that the firft part being equal to
the diameter of an iron or leaden ball of one pound
weight, the other parts are to the firft, as the diameters
of balls of two, three, four, <&c. pounds, are to the
diameter of a ball of one pound. The caliper is ufed
by engineers, from the weight of the ball given, to de¬
termine its diameter or caliper, or vice verfa.
CALICOULAN, orQuiLLON, a town of Afia, in
the Eaft Indies, on the coaft of Malabar,_and in the pen-
infula on this fide the Ganges, where the Dutch have a
faftory. E. Long. 75. 21. N. Lat. 9. 5.
CALICUT, a kingdom of India, on this fide the Calicut
Ganges, upon the coaft of Malabar. It is about 63 'I .
miles long, and as much broad. It has many woods, a 1 ornl3
rivers, and marfhes, and is very populous; but does
not produce much corn, abundance of rice being im¬
ported from Canara. The land along the fea-coaft is
low and fandy, and produces a number of cocoa-trees.
The higher grounds produce pepper and cardamoms
of a very good quality. They have likewife timber for
building, white and yellow fanders, caffia lignea, caf-
fia fiftula, nux vomica, and cocculus indicus. The
woods abound with parrots and monkeys, as well as
different kinds of game. They have alfo plenty of
fifli, feveral forts of medicinal drugs, and their moun¬
tains produce iron. The famorin, or king, of Calicut,
was onceTnafter of all the coaft of Malabar; but at
his death he left it by will among four of his nephews.
He who governs Calicut has a palace of ftone, and
there is fome appearance of grandeur about his court.
He carries on a confiderable trade, which makes the
people of Calicut richer than their neighbours. In for¬
mer times they had feveral ftrange cuftoms, fome of
which are dill kept up; particularly the famorin’s wife
mull: be firft enjoyed by the high prieft, who may have
her three nights if he pleafes. The nobles permit the
other priefts to take the fame liberty, but the lower
people cannot have that honour. A woman rrtay marry
a number of hulhands; each of whom has her ten days
or more by turns, as they agree among themfelves;
and provides her all things neceffary during that time.
When Ihe proves with child, Ihe names the father;
who, after the child is weaned, takes care of its educa¬
tion. Thefe people have no pens, ink, or paper; but
write with a bodkin on flags that grow by the fidesof
the rivers. 'By this means the letters arc in fome fenfe
engraved ; and fo tough are the flags, that they will laft
for a great number of years. This was the firft land
difeovered by the Portuguefe in 14981
Calicut, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of that
name on the coaft of Malabar. It contains a great
number of mean low houfes, each of which has a gar¬
den. The Englilh had a factory here, but it is remo¬
ved to Tilicherry. E. Long. 76. 4. N. Lat. 1 r. 21.
CALIDiE p l ant At, (from calor heat); plants that
are natives of warm climates. Such are thofe of the
Eaft Indies, South America, Egypt, and the Canary
Iflands. Thefe plants, fays Linnaeus, will bear a de¬
gree of heat which is as 40 on a fcale in which the
freezing point is o, and too the heat of boiling water.
In the 10th degree of cold they ceafe to grow, lofe
their leaves, become barren, are fuffocated, and perilh.
CALIDUCT, in antiquity, a kind of pipes or ca¬
nal difpofed along the walls of houfes or apartments,
ufed by the ancients for conveying heat to feveral re¬
mote parts of the houfe from one common furnace.
CALIFORNIA, the moft northerly of all the Spa-
niffi dominions on the continent of America, is fome¬
times diftinguifhed by the names of Ne<w Albion, and
the IJlas Carabiras: but the moft ancient appellation is
California; a word probably owing to fome accident,
or to fome words fpoken by the Indians and mifunder-
ftood by the Spaniards. For a long time California
was thought to be an ifland; but Father Caino, a Ger¬
man Jefuit, difeovered it to be a peninfula joining to the
coaft of New Mexico and the fouthern parts of Ame-
rica».
c A L [ 1579 ] CAL
California, rica. This peninfula extends from Cape St Sebaftian, neral. Father Venegas tells us that the coafl Is plen- Cali
' lying In north latitude 43. 30. to Cape St Lucar which tifully ftored with peacocks, bultards, geefe, cranes, —
lies in north latitude 22. 32. It is divided from New and moll of the birds common in other parts of the
Mexico by the gulpb, or as fome call it the lake, of world. The quantity of filh which refort to. thefe
California, or Vcrmilfon Sea, on the call; on the north, coafts are incredible. Salmon, turbot, barbel, fkate,
by that part of the continent of North America which mackerel, &c. are caught here with very little trou-
is lead known; and on the well and fouth, by the ble; together with pearl oyfters, common oyfters,
Pacific Ocean of great South Sea. The coafts, efpe- lobfters, and a variety of exquifite ftiell-filh. Plen-
cially towards the Vermilion Sea, are covered with in- ty of turtle are alfo caught on the coafts. On the
habited iflands, on fome of which the Jefuits have South Sea coafts are fome fhell-filh peculiar to it, and
ellabliihed fettlements, fuch as St Clement, Paxaros, perhaps the moft beautiful in the world; their luftre
St Anne, Cedars (fo called from the great number of furpaffing that of the fineft pearl, and darting their
thefe trees it produces), St Jofeph, and a multitude of rays through a tranfparent varnifh of an elegant vivid
others. But the ifiands bell known are three lying off blue, like the lapis lazuli. The fame of California
Cape St Lucar, towards the Mexican coaft. Thefe are for pearls foon drew forth great numbers of adventu-
called Les Tres Marias, “ the three Maries.,, They rers, who fearched every part of the gulph, and are ftill
are but fmall, have good wood and water, fait pits, employed in that work, notwithftanding fa/hion has
and abundance of game; therefore the Englilh and greatly diminilhed the value of this elegant natural pro-
French pirates have fometimes wintered there, when dudtion. Father Torquimado obferves that the fea of
bound on cruizes in the South Seas. California affords very rich pearl filheries; and that the
As California lies altogether within the temperate hojlias, or beds of oyfters, may be feen in three or four
zone, the natives are neither chilled with cold, nor fathom water, almoft as plain as if they were on the
fcorched with heat; and indeed the improvements in furface. 1
agriculture made by the Jefuits afford ftrong proofs of The extremity of the peninfula towards Cape St Lu-
the excellency of the climate. In fome places the air car is more level, temperate, and fertile, than the other
is extremely hot and dry ; and the earth wild, rugged, parts, and confequently more woody. In the more di-
and barren. In a country ftretching about 800 miles in ftant parts, even to the fartheft miffions on the call
length, there mud be confiderable variations of foil and coaft, no large timber hath yet been difcovered. A
climate; and indeed we find, from good authority, that fpecies of manna is found in this country, which, ac-
California produces fome of the moft beautiful lawns, cording to the accounts of the Jefuits, has all the fweet-
as well as many of the moft inhofpitable defarts, in the nefs of refined fugar without its whitenefs. The natives
univerfe. Upon the whole, although California is ra- firmly believe that this juice drops from heaven,
ther rough and craggy, vve are affured by the Jefuit The Californians are well made, and very ftrong.
Vinegas, and other good writers, that with due culture They are extremely pufilanimous, inconftant, ftupid,
it furnifhes every neceffary and conveniency of life; and even infallible, and feem extremely deferving of
and that, even where the atmofphere is hotteft, vapours the charadler given to the Indians in general, under
rifing from the fea, and difperfed by pleafant breezes, the article America. Before the Europeans penetra-
render it of a moderate temperature. ted into California, the natives had no form of reli-
The peninfula of California is now flocked with all gion. The miffionaries indeed tell us many tales con-
forts of domeftic animals known in Spain and Mexico, cerning them, but they fo evidently bear the marks of
Horfes, mules, afles, oxen, ftieep, hogs, goats, and all forgery as not to be worth repeating. Each nation was
other quadrupeds imported, thrive and increafe in this then an affemblage of feveral cottages more or lefs nu-
country. Among the native animals is a fpecies of deer merous, that w^ere all mutually confederated by alli-
of the fize of a young heifer, and greatly refembling it ances, but without any chief. They were ftrangers
in ftiape; the head is like that of a deer, and the horns even to filial obedience. No kind of drefs was ufed by
thick and crooked like thofeof a ram. The hoof of the the men ; but the w'omen made ufe of fome coverings,
animal is large, round, and cloven, the fldn fpotted, but and were even fond of ornamenting themfelves wuth
the hair thinner and the tail ftiarper than thofe of a pearls and fuch other trinkets as the country afforded,
deer. Its flefh is greatly efteemed. There is another What moftly difplayed their ingenuity was the con-
animal peculiar to this country, larger and more bulky ftrudlion of their fifhing nets, which are faid by the Je-
than a fheep, but greatly refembling it in figure, and, fuits to have even exceeded in goodnefs thofe made
like it, covered with a fine black or white wool. The in Europe. They were made by the women, of a
flefh of this animal is nourifhing and delicious; and, coarfe kind of flax procured from fome plants which
happily for the natives, it is fo abundant, that nothing grow there. Their houfes were built of branches and
more is required than the trouble of hunting, as thcfe leaves of trees: nay, many of them were only inclofures
animals wander about in droves in the forefts and on of earth and ftone,* raifed half a yard high, without any
the mountains. Father Torquemado defcribes a crea- covering; and even thefe were fo fmall, that they could
tore which he calls a fpecies of large bear, fomething not flretch themfelves at length in them. In winter,
like a buffalo, of the fize of a fleer, and nearly of the they dwelt under ground in caves either natural or ar-
figure of a flag. Its hair is a quarter of a yard in tificial.
length, its neck long and aukward, and on its forehead In 1526, Ferdinand Cortez, having reduced and
are horns branched like thofe of a flag. The tail is a fettled Mexico, attempted the conquefl of California;
yard in length and half a yard in breadth; and the but was obliged to return, without even taking a fur-
hoofs cloven like thofe of an ox. With regard to vey of the country, a report of his death having difpo-
birds, we have but an imperfaa account; only, in ge- fed the Mexicans to a general infurreftion. Some other
9 O 2 attempts
CAL [ 1580 ] CAL
fornia. attempts were made by the officers of Cortez, but thefe
were alfo unfuccefsful; and this valuable coaft was long
neglefted by the Spaniards, who, to this day, have but
one fettlement upon it. In 1595, a galleon was fent to
make difcoveries on the Californian ihore; but the vef-
fel was unfortunately loll. Seven years after, the count
de Monteroy, then viceroy of New Spain, fent Seba-
ftian Bifcayno on the fame defign with two fhips and
a tender; but he made no difcovery of importance. In
1684, the marquis de Laguna, alfo viceroy of New
Spain, difpatched two fhips with a tender to make dif¬
coveries on the lake of California. He returned with
an indifferent account, but was among the firll that
afferted that California was not an ifland; which was
afterwards confirmed by Father Caino, as already re¬
lated. In rfipy, the Spaniards being difcouraged by
their Ioffes and difappointments, the Jefuits folicited
and obtained permiffion to undertake the conqueft of
California. They arrived among the favages with cu-
riofities that might amufe them, corn for their food, and
clothes for which they could not but perceive the ne-
ceffity. The hatred thefe people bore the Spaniih name
could not fupport itfelf again It thefe demonftrations of
benevolence. They teftified their acknowledgments as
much as their want of fenfibility and their inconflancy
would permit them. Thefe faults were partly overcome
by the religious inftitutors, who purfued their project
with a degree of warmth and refolution peculiar to the
fociety. They made themfelves carpenters, mafons,
weavers, and hufbandmen ; and by thefe means fuc-
ceeded in imparting knowledge, and in fome meafure
a tafte for the ufeful arts, to this favage people, who
have been all fucceffively formed into one body. In
1745, they compofed 43 villages, feparated from each
other by the barrennefs of the foil and the want of wa¬
ter. The inhabitants of thefe fmall villages fubfift prin¬
cipally on corn and pulfe, which they cultivate ; and on
the fruits and domeftic animals of Europe, the breed¬
ing of which la ft is an obje& of continual attention.
The Indians have each their field, and the property of
what they reap; but fuch is their want of forefight,
that they would fquander in a day what they had ga¬
thered, if the miffionary did not take upon himfelf to
diftribute it to them as they ftand in need of it. They
manufacture fome coarfe fluffs; and the neceffaries they
are in want of are purchafed with pearls, and wuth wine
nearly refembling that of Madeira, which they fell to
the Mexicans and to the galleons, and which experi¬
ence hath (hewn the neceffity of prohibiting in Cali¬
fornia. A few laws, which are very Ample, are fuffi-
cient to regulate this rifing ftate. In order to enforce
them, the miffionary choofes the moft intelligent per-
fon of the village; who is empowered to whip and im-
prifon, the only punilhments of which they have any
knowledge. In all California there are only two gar-
rifons, each confiding of 30 men, and a foldier with e-
very miffionary. Thefe troops were chofen by the le-
giflators, though they are paid by the government.
Were the court of Madrid to pufh their intereft with
half the zeal of the Jefuits, California might become
one of the moft valuable of their acqufitions, on ac¬
count of the pearls and other valuable articles of com¬
merce which the country contains. At prefent the little
Spanifti town near Cape St Lucar is made ufe of for no
other purpofe than as a place of refreihment for the
Manila fhip, and the head refidence of the miffionaries, Caligula
CALIGULA, the Roman emperor and tyrant, c„iA
A. D. 37, began his reign with every promifing ap- — —i-
pearance of becoming the real father of his people ;
but at the end of eight months he was feized with a fe¬
ver, which, it is thought, left a frenzy on his mind: for
his difpofition totally changed, and he committed the
moft atrocious a&s of impiety, cruelty, and folly; fuch
as proclaiming his horfe couful, feeding it at his table, '
introducing it to the temple in the veftments of the
priefts of Jupiter, &c. and caufing facrifices to be of¬
fered to himfelf, his wife, and the horfe. After ha¬
ving murdered many of his fubje&s with his own hand,
and caufed others to be put to death without any juft
caufe, he was affaffinated by a tribune of the people as
he came out of the amphitheatre, A. D. 41, in the 29th
year of his age, and 4th of his reign.
CALIN, a compound metal, whereof the Chinefe
make tea-canifters, and the like. The ingredients feem
to be lead and tin.
CALIPH, or Khalif, the fupreme ecclefiaftical
dignity among the Saracens; or, as it is otherwife de¬
fined, a fovereign dignity among the Mahometans, veil¬
ed with abfolute authority in all matters relating both
to religion and policy. In the Arabic it fignifies fuc-
ceffor or vicar; the caliphs bearing the fame relation to
Mahomet that the popes pretend they do to Jefus Chrift
or St Peter. It is at this day one of the Grand Sig-
nior’s titles, as fucceffor of Mahomet; and of the So-
phi of Perfia, as fucceffor of Ali. One of the chief func¬
tions of the caliph, in quality of imam or chief prieft
of Muffulmanifm, was to begin the public prayers every
Friday in the chief mofque, and to deliver the khoth-
bak or fermon. In after-times, they had affiftants for
this latter office ; but the former the caliphs always per¬
formed in perfon. The caliph was alfo obliged to lead
the pilgrims to Mecca in perfon, and to march at the
head of the armies of his empire. He granted invefti-
tures to princes ; and fent fwords, ftandards, gowns,_
and the like, as prefents to princes of the Mahome¬
tan religion ; who, though they had thrown off the
yoke of the caliphate, netherthelefs held of it as vaf-
fals. The caliphs ufually went to the mofque mounted
on mules; and the fultans felgiucides, though mailers
of Bagdad, held their ftirrups, and led their mule by
the bridle fome diftance on footr till fuch time as the
caliphs gave them the fign to mount on horfeback.
At one of the windows of the caliph’s palace, there al¬
ways hung a piece of black velvet 20 cubits long,
which reached to the ground, and was called the caliph's
Jleeve ; which the grandees of his court never failed to
kifs, every day, with great refpedt. After the de-
ftrudtion of the caliphate by Hulaku *, the Mahome- • See B
tan princes appointed a particular officer, in their re- dad, n° f j.
fpedtive dominions, who fuftains the facred authority
of caliph. In Turky, he goes under the denomination
of mufti, and in Perfia under that of fadne.
CALIPHATE, the office or dignity of caliph :
See the preceding article. The fucceffion of caliphs
continued from the death of Mahomet till the 655th
year of the Hegira, when the city of Bagdad was ta¬
ken by the Tartars. After this, however, there were
perlpns who claimed the caliphate, as pretending to be
of the family of the Abaffides, and to whom the ful¬
tans of Egypt rendered great honours at Cairo, as the
true
CAL [ 158! ] C A L .
Califla true fucceflbrs of Mahomet: but this honour was moft of them compofed of a pipe or reed, with a little -
j merely titular, and the rights allowed them only in leathern bag or purfe, fomewhat in form of a bellows;
a * matters relating to religion ; and though they bore the which, by the motion given thereto, yields'a noife like -
fovereign title of caliphs, they were neverthelefs fub- that of the fpecies of bird to be taken. The call for
je£ts and dependents of the fultans. - In the year of the partridges is formed like a boat bored through, and fit-
Hegira 361, a kind of caliphate was ere&ed by the ted with a pipe or fvvan’s quill, &c. to be blown with
Fatemites in Africa, and lafted till it was fupprefled by the mouth, to make the noife of the cock partridge,
* See Bar- Saladdin *.— Hiftorians alfo fpeak of a third caliphate which is very different from the call of the hen. Calls
wi&Turl* in Gemen or Arabia Felix, ere&ed by fome princes of for quails, &c. are made of a leathern purfe in fhape
the family of the Jobites. The emperors of Morocco like a pear, fluffed with horfe-hair, and fitted at the
affume the title of ; and pretend to be the end with the bone of a cat’s, hare’s, or coney’s leg,
true caliphs, or fucceffors of Mahomet, though under formed like a flageolet. They are play’d, by fqueez-
another name. ing the purfe in the palm of the hand, at the fame time
CALISTA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter of linking on the flageolet part.with the thumb, to coun-
Lycaon king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs of terfeit the call of the hen-quail.
Diana; who being beloved by Jupiter, that god affu- CALLA, Wake-robin, or fs/As/y’/zw a ge-
med the form of the goddefs of chaflity, by which means nus of the polyandria order, belonging to the gynan-
he debauched her: but her difgrace being revealed, as dria clafs of plants. Of this there is but one fpecies.
fhe was bathing with her patronefs, the incenfed deity It hath thick, flefhy, tuberous roots, which are co¬
turned her and the fon, with which Ihe was pregnant, vered with a thin brown fkin, and ftrike down many
into bears ; when Jupiter, in compafiion to her fuffer- ftrong flelhy fibres into the ground. The leaves have
ings, took them up into the heavens, and made them footftalks more than a foot long, which are green and
•the conftellations Urfa Major and Urfa Minor. fucculent. The leaves are lhaped like the point of an
CALIX. See Calyx. arrow; they are eight or nine inches in length, end-
CALIXTINS, inchurch-hiftory, afe&of Chriftians ing in a fliarp point, which turns backward ; between
in Bohemia and Moravia: the principal point in which the leaves arife the footftalk of the flower, which is
they differed from the church, was the ufe of the cha- thick, fmooth, of the fame colour as the leaves, rifes
lice, or communicating in both kinds. above them, and is terminated by a Angle flower, ihaped
Calixtins, is alfo a name given to thofe, among like thofe of the arum, the hood orfpatha being twift-
the Lutherans, who follow the fent.iments of George ed at bottom, but fpreads open at the top, and is of
Calixtus, a celebrated divine, who oppofed the opinion a pure white colour. When the flowers fade, they are
of St Auguftine on predeftination, grace, and free-will, fucceeded by roundilh flefhy berries, comprefled on two
CALKA, a kingdom of Tartary, in Afia, to the eaft fides, each containing two or three feeds. This plant
of Siberia. grows naturally at the Cape of Good Hope. It propa-
CALKING. See Caulking. gates very faft by offsets, which fhould be taken off in
CALKINS, the prominent parts at the extremities the latter end of Auguft, at which time the old leaves
of a horfe-fhoe, bent downwards, and forged to a fort decay; for at this time the roots are in their moft inac-
of point. tive ftate. They are fo hardy as to live without any
Calkins are apt to make horfes trip ; they alfo occa- cover in mild winters, if planted in a warm border and
fion bleymes, and ruin the back finews. If fafhioned dry foil; but, with a little fhelter in hard frott, they
in form of a hare’s ear, and the horn of a horfe’s heel may be preferved in full growth very well,
be pared a little low, they do little damage ; whereas CKhtA-Srifung, ^ town of Afia, in the ifland of Bou-
the great fquare calkins quite fpoil the foot. ton in the Eaft Indies. It is feated about a mile from
Calkins are either Angle or double, that is, at one the fea, on the top of a fmall hill furrounded with cocoa-
end of the fhoe, or at both : thefe laft are deemed lefs nut-trees. See Bouton.
hurtful, as the horfes can tread more even. CALLAO, a ftrong town of South America, in
CALL, among hunters, a leffon blown upon the Peru. It is the port of Lima, from which it is diftant
horn, to comfort the hounds. about five miles. The town is built on a low flat point
Call, among failors, a fort of whiftle or pipe, of of land on the fea-fhore. It is fortified ; but the forti-
filver br brafs, ufed by the boatfwain and his mates to fications were much damaged by the laft great earth-
fummon the failors to their duty, and diredl them in quake, and have not fince been repaired. The town is
the different employments of the (hip. As the call can not above nine or ten feet above the level of high-water
be founded to various ftrains, each of them is appro- mark; but the tide does not commonly rife or fall
priated to fome particular exercife ; fuch as hoifting, above five feet. The ftreets are drawn in a line; but
heaving, lowering, veering away, belaying, letting go are full of dull, which is very troublefome. In a fquare
a tackle,, &c. The aft of winding this inftrument is near the fea-fide are the governor’s houfe, the viceroy’s
called piping, which is as attentively obferved by failors palace, the parifh-church, and a battery of three pieces
as the beat of the drum to march, retreat, rally, charge, of cannon. On the north fide are the warehoufes for
&c. is obeyed by foldiers. the merchandife brought from Chili, Mexico, and other
Call, among fowlers, the noife or cry of a bird, parts of Peru. The other churches are built with reeds,
efpecially to its young, or to its mate in coupling-time, and covered with timber or clay, but they look tole •
One method of catching partridges is by the natural rably neat. There are five monafteries and an hofpital,
call of a hen trained for the purpofe, which drawing though the number of families does not exceed 400.
the cocks tcrher, they are entangled in a net. Diffe- The trade of Callao is confiderable. From Chili they
rent birds require different forts of calls; but they are bring cordage, leather, tallow, dried fifti, and corn ;
■ ' from
Calls
Callao.
CAL [ 15?
Call3 f,om Chlloe, cedar-planks, woollen manufactures, and
!l carpets; from Peru, fugars, wines, brandy, marts, cord-
Cal.imaches timher for rtiipping, cacao, tobacco, and molafles;
from Mexico, pitch, tar, woods for dyeing, fulphur,
balfam of Peru both white and brown, as well as com¬
modities from China. At the port of Callao the water¬
ing is eafy, but the wood is a mile or two diftant.
Earthquakes are very frequent in thefe parts, which
have done vaft mifchief to Lima and Callao. W.Long.
76. 15. S. Lat. 12. 29.
CALLE, (anc. geog.), a town of Hither Spain, fi-
tuated on an eminence which hangs over the river Du¬
nns ; whofe port was at the mouth of the river. Now
Porto, Oporto, or Port a Port. See Oporto. -
CALLEN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Kilkenny and province of Leinfter, about ten miles
fouth-wert of Kilkenny. W. Long. 7. 22. N. Lat.
52. 2j.
CALLICARPA. See Johnsonia.
CALLICO, in commerce; a kind of cloth made of
cotton, chiefly in the Eart Indies. Some of them are;
painted with various flowers of difl’erent colours: others
are not ftained, but have a ftripe of gold and filver quite
through the piece, and at each end is fixed a tiffue of
gold, filver, and filk, intermixed with flowers. This
manufafture is brought hither by the Eaft-India com¬
pany, and is re-exported by merchants to other parts
of Europe, The general wear of ftained or printed In¬
dia callicoes in this nation having become a general
grievance, and occafioning unfpeakable diftrefs upon
our own manufa&ures, they were prohibited by flat.
7 Geo. I. cap. vii.
CALLICRATES, an ancient feulptor, who en¬
graved fome of Homer’s verfes on a grain of millet,
made an ivory chariot that might be concealed under
the wing of a fly, and an ant of ivory in which all the
members were diltindt: but iElian juftly blames him
for exerting his genius and talents in things fo ufelefs,
and at the fame time fo difficult. He flouriftied about
the year 472 before Chrift.
CALLIGRAPHUS, in antiquity, a copift or fcri-
vcnev, who tranfcribed in a fair hand what the notaries
had taken down in notes or minutes, being generally
in a kind of cipher or ffiort-hand, which, as they were
in that hand, being underftood by few, were copied
over fair, and at length, by perfohs who had a good
hand, for fale, &c.
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated architeft, painter,
and fculptor, born at Corinth, having feen by accident
a veffel about which the plant called acanthus bad
railed its leaves, conceived the idea of forming the
Corinthian capital. (See Acanthus, and Plate XXV.
(b). fig. 4.) The ancients allure us, that he worked
in marble with wonderful delicacy. He flourilhed a-
bout 540 B. C.
Callimachus, a celebrated Greek poet, native of
Cyrene in Libya, flourilhed under Ptolemy Philadel-
phus and Ptolemy Evergetes kings of Egypt, about
280 years before Chrirt. He pafied, according to Quin¬
tilian, for the prince of the Greek elegiac poets. Ilis
ftyle is elegant, delicate, and nervous. He wrote a
great number of fmall poems, of which we have only
fome hymns and epigrams remaining. Catullus has
clofely imitated him, and tranllated into Latin verfe
Lis fmall poem on the locks of Berenice. Callimachus
)2 ] CAL
was alfo a good grammarian and a learned critic. There Calling
is an edition of his remains, by Melf. le Fevre, quarto; Callipxdia
and another in two volumes oftavo, with notes by   1
Spanheim, Grsevius, Bentley, &c.
CALLING the House, in the Britilh parliament,
is the calling over the members name's, every one an-
fwering to his own, and going out of the houfe, in
.the order in v/hich he is called: this they do in order
to difcover whether there be any perfons there not re¬
turned by the clerk of the crown, or if any member
be abfent without leave of the houfe.
CALLINIOUS of Heliopolis, inventor of a com-
pofition to burn in the water, called the Greek, and
fince Wild, Fire. See Grecian Fire.
CALLINGS of Ephefus, a very ancient Greek
poet, inventor of elegiac verfe ; fome fpecimens of
which are to be found in the colle&ion of Stobeus.
He flourilhed about 776 years before Chrift.
CALLIONYMUS, the dragon et, in ichthyo¬
logy, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of ju-
gulares. The upper lip is doubled up ; the eyes are
very near each other ; the membrane of the gills has
fix radii; the operculum is ftiut; the body is naked
and the belly-fins are at a great diftance from each o-
ther. There are three fpecies ofcallionymus, viz. 1. The
lyra, with the firft bone of the back-fin as long as the
body of the animal, and a cirrhus at the anus. It is
found as far north as Norway and Spitzbergen, and as
far fouth as the Mediterranean fea, and is not unfrequent
on the Scarborough coafts, where it is taken by the
hook in 30 or 40 fathoms water. It is often found in
the ftomach of the cod-fifh. 2. The dracunculus, with
the firft bone of the back-fin fhorter than its body,
which is of a fpotted yellow colour. It frequents the
ftiores of Genoa and Rome. 3. The indicus has a
fmooth head, with longitudinal wrinkles; the lower
jaw is a little longer than the upper one ; tire tongue
is obtufe and emarginated ; the apertures of the gills are
large: it is of a livid colour, and the anus is in the
middle of the body. It is a native of Afia.
CALLIOPE, in the Pagan mythology, the mufc
who prefides over eloquence and heroic poetry. She
was thus called from the fweetnefs of her voice, and
was reckoned the firft of the nine filters.
CALLIPiEDIA, the art of getting or breeding
fine and beautiful children. We find divers rules and
practices relating to this art, in ancient and modern
writers. Among the magi, a fort of medicine called
ermejia was adminiftered to pregnant women, as a means
of producing a beautiful iflue. Of this kind were the
kernels of pine-nuts ground with honey, myrrh, faf-
fron, palm-wine and milk. The Jews are faid to have
been fo felicitous about the beauty of their children,
that care was taken to have fome very beautiful child
placed at the door of the public baths, that the women
at going out being ftruck with his appearance, and
retaining the idea, might all have children as fine as
he. The Chinefe take ftill greater care of their breed¬
ing women, to prevent uncouth objefts of any kind
from ftriking their imagination. Muficians are em¬
ployed at night to entertain them with agreeable fongs
and odes, in which are fet forth all the duties and com¬
forts of a conjugal and domeftic life ; that the infant
may receive good impreffions even before it is bom,
and not only come forth agreeably formed in body,
but
Cailipolis
CaLt.
CAL [ 1583 ] CAL
but well difpofed in mind. Calhpaedia, neverthelefs,
feems to have been firft erefted into a juft art by Claude
Quillet de Chinon, a French abbot, who, under the fic¬
titious name of Calvidus Latus, has publifhed a fine
I.atin poem in four books, under the title of Callipx-
dia, feu de pule hr a prolis habendte rations wherein
are contained all the precepts of that new art. There
is a tranflation of it into Englifh verfe, by Mr Rowe.
CALLIPOLIS, (anc. geog.), the name of feveral
cities of antiquity, particularly one upon the Hellef-
pont, next the Propontis, and oppofite to Lampfacus
in Afia. Now Gallipoj.i.
CALLIPPIC period, an improvement of the cycle
of Melon, of 19 years, which Callippus the Grecian
aftronomer, finding in reality to contain 19 of Nabo-
naffar’s years, four days, and he, to avoid frac¬
tions, quadrupled the golden number, and by that
means made a new cycle of 76 years ; which time be¬
ing expired, he fuppofed the lunation, or changes of
the moon, would happen on the fame day of the month
and hour of the day that they were on 76 years before.
CALLIPPUS, a celebrated Athenian aftronomer,
anti the firft obferver of the revolutions of eclipfes,
flourifhed 336 years before Chrift.
CALLIRRHOE, (anc. geog), furnamed Ennea-
crunos, from its nine fprings or channels ; a fountain
not far from Athens, greatly adorned by Pififtratus,
where there were feveral wells, but this only the run¬
ning fpring. Callirrhoe was alfo the name of a very
fine fpring of hot water beyond Jordan near the Dead
Sea, into which it empties itfelf.
CALLISTEA, in Grecian antiquity, a Lefbian
feftival, wherein the women prefented themfelves in Ju¬
no’s temple, and the prize was afiigned to the faireft.
There wras another of thefe contentions at the feftival
of Ceres Eleufinia among the Parrhafians, and another
among the Eleans, where the moft beautiful man was
prefented with a complete fuit of armour, which he
confecrated to Minerva, to whofe temple he walked in
proeeffion, being accompanied by his friends, who ad¬
orned him' w-ith ribbons, and crowned him with a gar¬
land of myrtle.
CALLISTHENES the philofopher, difciple and
relation of Ariftotle, by whofe defire he accompanied
Alexander the Great in his expeditions; but proving
too fevere a cenfurer of that hero’s comduft, he w^as put
by him to the torture (on fufpicion of a treafonable con-
fpiracy), and died under it, 328 years before Chrift.
CALLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator,
was banifhed for having obtained too great an authority
in the government. Demofthenes was fo (truck with
the force of his eloquence, and the glory it procured
him, tbathe abandoned Plato, and refolved from thence¬
forward to apply himfelf to oratory.
CALLOO, a fortrefs in the Netherlands, in the ter¬
ritory of Waes, oh the river Schdd, fubjedt to the
houfe of Auftria. The Dutch were defeated here by
the Spainardsim638. E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 51. 15.
CALLOSUM CORPUS, in anatomy, a whiti/h hard
fubftance, joining the two hemifpheres of the brain,
and appearing in view when the two hemifpheres are
drawn back. See Anatomy, n° 397-
CALLOT (James), a celebrated engraver born at
Nancy in 1593. In his youth he travelled to Rome to
learn defigning and engraving ; and from thence went
to Florence, where the grand duke took him into his Cailot
fervice. After the death of that prince, Callot returned Call|[ef
to his native country; when he was very favourably—a...me—
received by Henry duke of Lorrain, who fettled a con-
fiderable penfion upon him. His reputation being foon
after fpread all over Europe, the infanta of the Nether¬
lands drew him to Bruflels, wdiere heengraved the fiegeof
Breda. Lewds XIII. made him defign the fiege of Ro¬
chelle, and that of the ifle of Rhe. The French king, ha¬
ving taken Nancy in 1631, made Callot the propofal of
reprefentmg that new conqueft, as he had already done
the taking of Rochelle; but Callot begged to be ex-
cufed; and, fome courtiers refolving to oblige him to
do it, he anfwered, that he would fooner cut off his
thumb than do any thing againft the honour of his
prince and country. This excufe the king accepted^
and faid, that the duke of Lorrain W’as happy in ha¬
ving fuch faithful and affeffionate fubje&s. Callot
followed his bufinefs fo clofely, that, though he died
at 43 years of age, he is faid to have left 1380 pieces
of his own execution. Mr Evelyn, in his Sculptura,.
gives him a very exalted chara&er in his art.
CALLUS, or Callosity, in a general fenfe, any
cutaneous, corneous, or offeous hardnefs, whether na¬
tural or preternatural; but moft frequently it means
the callus generated about the edges of a fra&ure, pro¬
vided by nature to preferve the fraflured bones, or di¬
vided parts, in the fituation in which they are replaced
by the furgeon. A callus, in this laft. fenfe, is a fort
of jelly, or liquid vifeous matter, that fweats out from
the fmall arteries and bony fibres of the divided parts,
and fills up the chinks or cavities between them. It
firft appears of a cartilaginous fubftance ; but at length
becomes quite bony, and joins the fraftured part fo
firmly together, that the limb will often make greater
refiftance to any external violence wdth this part, than
with thofe which were never broken.
Callus is alio a hard, denfe, infenfible knob, rifing
on the hands, feet, &c. by much friflion and preffure
againft hard bodies.
CALM, the (late of reft which appears in the air
and fea when there is no wind ftirring. That trafl of
the Atlantic ocean fituated between the tropic of Can¬
cer and the latitude of 290 north, or the fpace that
lies between the trade and the vaiiable winds, is fre¬
quently fubjedt to calms of very long duration ; and
hence it has acquired amongft feamen the name of the
calm latitudes.
CALMAR, a ftrong fea-port of Sweden, in the pro¬
vince of Smaland-, divided into two towns, the old and
•the new; but of the former there remains only the
church and a few houfes. The new town is built a
little wray from the other, and has large handfome
houfes. E. Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 56. 48.
CALMET (Auguftine), one of the moft learned
and laborious writers of the 18th century, was born at
Mefnil le Horgne, a village in the diocefe of Toul in
France, in the year 1672, and took the habit of the
Benediftines in 1688. Among the many works he
publifhed, are, 1. A literal expofition, in French, of all
the books in the Old Teftament, in nine volumes folio.
2. An hiftorical, critical, chronological, geographical,
and literal, didtionaryof the Bible, in four vols folio, en¬
riched with a great number of figuresofjewifii antiquities.
3. A civil and ecclefiaftical hiftory of Lorrain, three vols.
folio..
Cal mucks
I!
Caltha.
CAL [ ijS
folio. 4. A hiftory of the Old and New Teftament,
and of the Jews, in two volumes folio, and feven vols
duodecimo. 5. An univerfal facred and profane hif¬
tory, in feveral volumes quarto. He died in 1757*
CALMUCKS. See Kalmucks.
CALNE, a town of Wiltfhire in England, feated
on a river of the fame name. It has a handfome church,
and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. 1.
59. N. Lat. 5f. 30.
CALOGERI, in church-hiftory, monks of the
Greek church, divided into three degrees : the novices,
called archart; the ordinary profeffed, called michroche-
nn ; and the more perfect, called msgalochemi: they are
likewife divided into casnobites, anchorets, and reclufes.
The csenobites are employed in reciting their offices
from midnight to fun-fet; they are obliged to make
three genuflexions at the door of the choir, and, return¬
ing, to bow to the right and to the left, to their bre¬
thren. The anchorets retire from the converfation of the
world, and live in hermitages in the neighbourhood of
the monafteries; they cultivate a little fpot of ground,
and never go out but on Sundays and holidays to per¬
form their devotions at the next monaftery. As for
the reclufes, they (hut themfelves up in grottos and ca¬
verns on the tops of mountains, which they never go
out of, abandoning themfelves entirely to Providence:
they live on the alms fent them by the neighbouring
monafteries.
CALOMEL, or dulcified fublimate of mercury.
See Pharmacy, n° 760 763.
CALOTTE, a cap or coif of hair, fattin, or other
(luff; an ecclefiaftical ornament in mod Popifh coun¬
tries. See Cap.
Calotte, in archite&ure, a round cavity or de-
preffure, in form of a cap or cup, lathed and plaftered,
ufed to diminish the rife or elevation of a moderate cha¬
pel, cabinet, alcove, &c. which, without fuch an ex¬
pedient, would be too high for other pieces of the a-
partment.
CALPE, a mountain of Andalufia in Spain; at the
foot of which, towards the fea, (lands the town of
Gibraltar. It is half a league in height towards the
land, and fo deep that there is no approaching it on
that fide.
CALPURNIUS (Titus), a Latin Sicilian poet,
lived under the emperor Carus and his fon. We have
feven of his eclogues remaining.
CALQUING, or Calking, a term ufed in paint¬
ing, &c. where the back-fide of any thing is covered
over with a black or red colour, and the drokes or
lines traced through, on a waxed plate, wall, or other
matter, by paffing lightly over each droke of the de*
fign with a point, which leaves an impreflion of the
colour on the plate or wall.
CALTHA, marsh-marigold; a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants.
There is only one fpecies known, which grows natu¬
rally in moid boggy lands in many parts of England
and Scotland. There is a variety, with very double
flowers, which for its beauty is preferved in gardens.
It is propagated by parting the roots in autumn. It
fhould be planted in a moid foil and fhady fituation ;
and as there are often fuch places in gardens where
few other plants will thrive, fo thefe may be allowed
room, and during their feafon of flowering will afford
4 ] CAL
an agreeable variety. The flowers gathered before they Caltrop
expand, and preferved in falted vinegar, are a good fub- Caj|ert
dilute for capers. The juice of the petals, boiled with a a ver ‘
little alum, (tains paper yellow. The remarkable yellow-
nefs of the butter in fpring isfuppofed to be caufed by
this plant: but cows will not eat it, unlefs compelled
by extreme hunger; and then, Boerhaave fays, it occa-
fions fuch an inflammation, that they generally die.
Upon May-day, the country people drew the flowers
upon the pavement before their doors. Goats and (heep
eat this plant; horfes, cows, and fwine, refufe it.
CALTROP, in botany. SeeTRiBULUs.
Caltrop, in military affairs, an indrument with
four iron points, difpofed in a triangular form, fo that
three of them are always on the ground, and the fourth
in the air. They are fcattered over the ground where
the enemy’s cavalry is to pafs, in order to embarrafs
them.
CALVARIA, in anatomy, the hairy fcalp or upper
part of the head, which, either by difeafe or old age,
grows bald fird.
CALVART (Denis), a celebrated painter,was bom
at Antwerp in 1552 ; and had for his maders Profpero
Fontana and Lorenzo Sabbatini. He opened a fehool
at Bologna, which became celebrated; and from which
proceeded Guido, Albani, and other great maders.
Calvart was well (killed in architedture, pefpedlive,
and anatomy, which he confidered as neceffary to a
painter, and taught them to his pupils. His principal
works are at Bologna, Rome, and Reggio. He died
at Bologna in 1619.
CALVARY, a term ufed in Catholic countries for
a kind of chapel of devotion raifed on a hillock near a
city, in memory of the place where Jefus Chrid was
crucified near the city of Jerufalem. The word comes
from the Latin calvarium; and that from calvut, bald;
in regard the top of that hillock was bare and deditute
of verdure: which is alfo fignified by the Hebrew word
golgotha. Such is the Calvary of St Valerian near Paris;
which is accompanied with feveral little chapels, in each
of which is reprefented in fculpture one of the myderies
of the paffion.
Calvary, in heraldry, a crofs fo called, becaufe it
refembles the crofs on which our Saviour fuffered. It is
always fet upon deps.
CALVERT (George), afterwards lord Baltimore,
was born at Kipling in Yorkftiire about the year 1582,
and educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of
bachelor of arts, and afterwards travelled. At his re¬
turn, he was made fecretary to Sir Robert Cecil: he
was afterwards knighted, and in 1618 appointed one
of the principal fecretaries of date. But after he had
enjoyed that pod about five years, he willingly refigned
it; freely owning to his majedy that he was become a
Roman-catholic, fo that he mud either be wanting to
his trud, or violate his confcience in difcharging his
office. This ingenuous confeffion fo affeded king James,
that he continued him privy-counfellor all his reign,
and the fame year created him baron of Baltimore in the
kingdom of Ireland. He had before obtained a patent
for him and his heirs, for the province of Avelon in New-
foundland: hut that being expofed to the infults of the
French, he abandoned it, and afterwards obtained the
grant of a country on the north part of Virginia from
Charles I. who called it Maryland, in honour of his
queen :
CAL [ 1585 1 CAL
Calvi, queen : but he died in April 1632 (aged 50), before the
Calvin- patent was made out. It was, however, filled up to his
fon Cecil Calvert lord Baltimore; and bears date June
20th 1632. It is held from the crown as part of the ma¬
nor of Windfor, on one very Angular condition, viz. to
prefent two Indian arrows yearly, on EafterTuefday, at
the caftle, where they are kept and fhewn tovifitors.—
His lordfhip wrote, 1. A Latin poem on the death of
Sir Henry Upton. 2. Speeches in parliament. 3. Va¬
rious letters of ftate. 4. The anfwer of Tom Tell-truth.
5. The practice of princes. And, 6. The lamentation
of the kirk.
CALVI, a town of the province of Lavoro, in the
kingdom of Naples, fituated near the fea, about fifteen
miles north of the city of Naples. E. Long. 14. 45.
N. Lat. 41. 15.
Calvi Is alio the name of a fea-port in the ifiand of
Corfica, fituated on a bay, on the weft fide of the ifiand,
about 40 miles fouth-weft of Baftia. E. Long. 9. 5.
N. Lat. 42. 16.
CALVIN (John), the celebrated reformer of the
Chriftian church from Romifh fuperftitions and dodtri-
nal erfors, and founder of the fed! fince called Calvinijis,
was born in 1509. He was the fon of a cooper of
Noyon in Picardy ; and his real name was Chauvin,
which he chofe to latinize into Calvinus, ftyling him-
felf in the title-page to his firft work, (a Commentary
on Senecade dementia), “ Lucius Calvinus,Civis Roma-
nusan early proof of his pride, at about 24 years
of age. In 1529, he was redlor of Pont PEveqne; and
in 1534 he threw up this benefice, feparating himfelf
entirely from the Romifti church. The perfecution
againft the Proteftants in France (with whom he was
now aflbeiated) obliged him to retire to Bafle in Swit¬
zerland : here he publilhed his fartious Inftitutes of the
Chriftian religion in 1535. The following year, he was
chofen profeflbr of divinity, and one of the minifters of
the church, at Geneva. The next year, viz. 1537J he
made all the people folemnly fwear to a body of doc¬
trines ; but finding that religion had not yet had any
reat influence on the morals of the people, he, afiifted
y other minifters, declared, that fince all their admo¬
nitions and warnings had proved unfuccefsful, they
could not celebrate the holy facrament as long as thefe
diforders reigned ; he alfo declared, that he could not
fubmit to fome regulations made by the fynod of
Berne. Upon which the Syndics having fummonedthe
people, it was ordered that Calvin and two other mini¬
fters ftiould leave the city within two days. Upon this,
Calvin retired to Strafburg, where he eftablifhed a
French church, of which he was the firft minifter, and
was alfo chofen profeflbr of divinity there. Two years
after, he was chofen to aflift at the diet appointed by
the emperor to meet at Worms and at Ratifbon in or¬
der to appeafe the troubles occafioned by the difference
of religion. He went with Bucer, and entered into a
conference with Melanfthon. The people of Geneva
now intreated him to return ; to which he confented,
and arrived at Geneva, Septr i3'h 1541. He began
with eftabliftiing a form of ecclefiaftical difeipline, and
a confiftorial jurifdi&ion, with the power of infli&ing
all kinds of canonical puniftiments. This was greatly
difliked by many perfons, who imagined that the papal
tyranny would foon be revived. Calvin, however, af-
ferted on all occafions the rights of his confiftory with
Vol. III.
inflexible ftri&nefs; and he caufed Michael Servetus to Calvinifts
be burnt at the ftake for writing againft the do&rine Cajt|mct
of the Trinity. But though the rigour of his proceed-  1
ings fometimes occafioned great tumults in the city, yet
nothing could fhake his fteadinefs and inflexibility. A-
mongft all the difturbances of the commonwealth, he
took care of the foreign churches in England, France,
Germany, and in Poland; and did more by his pen
than his prefence, fending his advice and inftruftions
by letter, and writing a great number of books. This
great reformer died on the 27th of May 1564, aged 55.
His works were printed together at Amfterdam in
1671, in nine volumes folio: the principal of which
are his Inftitutions, in Latin, the beft edition of which
is that of Robert Stephens in 1553, in folio ; and his
Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures.—Calvin is uni-
verfally allowed to have had great talents, an excellent
genius, and profound learning. His ftyle is grave and
polite. Independent of his fpiritual pride, his morals
were exemplary; for he was pious, fober, chafte, labo¬
rious, and difinterefted. But his memory can never be
purified from the ftain of burning Servetus: it ill be¬
came a reformer to adopt the moft odious practice of
the corrupt church of Rome.
CALVINISTS, in church-hiftory, thofe who fol¬
low the opinions of Calvin ; whofe doftrine ftill fub-
fifts in its greateft purity at Geneva, where it was firft
broached, and from whence it was propagated. This
is the prevailing religion of the United Provinces. In
England, it is confined among the diffenters ; and in
Scotland it is the only orthodox faith.
The Calvinifts are great advocates for the abfolute-
nefs of God’s decrees ; and hold, that ele&ion and re¬
probation depend on the mere will of God, without
any regard to the merit or demerit of mankind; that
he affords to the eleft an irrefiftible grace, a faith that
they cannot lofe, which takes away the freedom of will,
and neceffitates all their aftions to virtue.
The Calvinifts believe that God foreknew a determi¬
nate number, whom he pitched upon to be perfons in
whom he would manifeft his glory; and that, having
thus foreknown them, he predeftinated them to be holy,
in order to which he gives them an irrefiftible grace,
which makes it impoflible for them to be otherwife.
CALVISIUS (Seth), a celebrated German chro-
nologer in the beginning of the 17th century. He
wrote Elenchus calendarii Gregorian/, et duplex talen-
darii melioris forma, and other learned works, together
with fome excellent treatifes on mufic.
CALVITIES, or Calvitium, in medicine, bald-
nefs, or a want of hair, particularly on the finciput, oc¬
cafioned by the moifture of the head, which fhould feed
it, being dried up, by fome difeafe, old age, or the im¬
moderate ufe of powder, &c. See Alopecia.
CALUMET, a fymbol of peace among the Indians,
in the north of America. It is made of a red ftone, like
our marble: the head refembles our tobacco-pipes, but
larger; and is fixed on a hollow reed, to hold it for
fmoking : they adorn it with fine wings of feveral co¬
lours, and is the calumet of the fun, to whom they pre¬
fent it, efpecially if they want fair weather, or rain.
This pipe is a pafs and fafe condufi amongft all the
allies of the nation who has given it; in all embaflies
the ambaffador carries it as an emblem of peace, and it
always meets with a profound regard ; for the favages
9 P are
Calumny
II
Calydon.
* See alfo
Part nr.
ii° clxxxiv
CAL [ 1586 ] CAM
are generally perfuaded, that a great misfortune would by the river Evenus: the country was anciently called Calypto
befal them, if they violated the public faith of the ca- Molts, from the iEolians its inhabitants. This country U
lumet. was famous for the ftory of Meleager and the Calydo- 3marana^
CALUMNY, the crime of accufing another falfely, nian boar,
and knowingly fo, of fotne heinous offence. CALYPSO, in fabulous biftory, a goddefs, who
Oath of Calumny, Juramentum (or rather Jusju- was the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or, as others
randum) Calumni a, among civilians and carionilts, was fay, of Atlas. She was queen of the ifland of Ogygia,
an oath which both parties in a caufe were obliged to which from her was called the ifland of Calypfo. Ac-
take; the plaintiff that he did not bring his charge, cording to Homer, Ulyffes fuffered (hipwreck on her
and the defendant that he did not deny it, with a defign coaft, and ftaid with her feveral years,
to abufe each other, but becaufe they believed their CALYPTRA, among botanifts, a thin membrana-
caufe was juft and good; that they would not deny ceous involucrum, ufually of a conic figure, which co-
the truth, nor create unneceffary delays, nor offer the vers the parts of fru&ification. The capfules of moft of
judge or evidence any gifts or bribes. If the plaintiff the moffes have calyptrae.
refufed this oath, the complaint or libel was difmiffed; CALYX, among botanifts, a general term expref-
if the defendant, it was taken pro confeffo. This cuftom fing the cup of a flowerj or that part of a plant which
was taken from the ancient athletas; who, before they furrounds and fupports the other parts of the flower,
engaged, were to fwear that they had no malice, nor The cups of flowers are very various in their ftruc-
would ufe any unfair means for overcoming each other, ture, and on that account diftinguifhed by feveral
The juramentum calumni# is much difufed, as a great names, as periantbium, involucrum,Jpatha,gluma, foe*. * SceBotary^
occafion of perjury. Anciently the advocates and proc- CALZADA, a town of Old Caftile in Spain, feated jj*'
tors alfo took this oath; but of late it is difpenfed on the river Leglera. W. Long. 2. 47. N. Lat^qa.ia.
with, and thought fufficient that they take it once for CAMiEA, in natural hiftory, a genus of the femi-
all at their firft admiffion to pra&ice *. pellucid gems, approaching to the onyx ftfu&ure, be-
CALVUS (Cornelius Licinius), a celebrated Ro- ing compofed of zones, and formed on a cryftalline
man orator, was the friend of Catullus; and flourifhed bafts ; but having their zones very broad and thick,
64 B. C. Catullus, Ovid, and Horace, fpeak of him. and laid alternately one on another, with no common
CALX properly fignifies lime, but is alfo ufed by matter between ; ufually lefs tranfparent, and more de-
chemifts and phyficians for a fine powder remaining bafed with earth, than the onyxes,
after the calcination or corrofion of metals and other j. One fpecies of the camaea is the dull-looking
mineral fubftances. All metallic calces, at leaft all thofe onyx, with broad black and white zones; and is the
made by fire, are found to weigh more than the metal camsea of the moderns, and the Arabian onyx. This
from which they were originally produced: for a full fpecies is found in Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, and the Eaft
explication of this phenomenon, fee the article Fire. Indies. 2. Another fpecies of the camaea is the dull.
Calx Antimonii. See Pharmacy, n° 773. broad-zoned, green and white camsea, or the jafpi-
Calx Nativa, in natural hiftory, a kind of marly cameo of the Italians : it is found in the Eaft Indies,
earth, of a dead whitiih colour, which, if thrown into and in fome parts of America. 3. The third is the hard
water, makes a confiderable bubbling and hifiing noife, camaea, with broad white and chefnut-coloured veins,
and has, without previous burning, the quality of ma- 4. The hard camtea, with bluifti, white, and flefti-
king a cement like lime or plafter of Paris. coloured broad veins, being the fardonyx of Pliny’s
Calx Viva, or ^uick-lime, that whereon no water time, only brought from the Eaft Indies,
has been caft, in contradiftinftion to lime which has been CAMAIEU, or Camayeu, a ftone whereon are
•ilakedTy pouring water on it. See Chemistry, n° 34. found various figures and reprefentations of landfcapes,
CALYCANTHEMJE, in botany, an order of formed by a kind of lufus naturae, fo as to exhibit pie¬
plants in the Fragmenta methodi naturalis of Lin- tures without painting. The word comes from cainehuia,
nteus, in which are the following genera, viz. epilo- a name the orientals give to the onyx, when they find,
bium, cenothera, jufliaea, ludivigia, oldenlandia, ifnar- in preparing it, another colour; as who ihould fay, a
da, &c. See Botany, fea. vi. 17. . fecondftone. The Latins call it camaus; the Italians, ca-
CALYCIFLORiE, in botany, the 16th order in m#o. It is of thefe camaieux that Pliny is to be under-
Linnaeus’s Fragwe/zta methodi naturalis, confiding of flood, when he fpeaks of the manifold pi&ure of gems,
plants which, as the title imports, have the ftamina and the party-coloured fpets of precious ftones *. *Se«t!iear-»
(the flower) inferted into the calyx. This order con- CAMALDULIAN3, a religious order founded by ticIc A*aU"
tains the following genera, viz. eleagnus, hippophae, St Romauld, in a little plain on the mount Apenr.ine,
ofyris, and trophis. See Botany, fed. vi. 16. called Camaldalia, fituated in the ftate of Florence.
C-ALYCISTiE, (from calyx the flower-cup), fyfte- The manner of life firft enjoined this order was, that
matic botanifts, fo termed by Linnaeus, who have ar- they dwelt in feparate cells, and met together only at
ranged all vegetables from the different fpecies, ftruc- the time of prayer : fome of them, during the two lents
ture, and other circumftances, of the calyx or flower- of the year, obferved an inviolable filence; and others,
cup. The only fyftems of this kind are the Charader for the fpace of an hundred days. On Sundays and
plantarum novus, a pofthumous work of Magnolius, Thurfdays they fed on herbs, and the reft of the week
profeffor of botany at Montpelier, publifhed in 1720; only on bread and water. Thefe conftitutions were,
and Linnaeus’sMethodus calycina, publiftied in his Clajfes however, a little moderated fome time afterwards. This
plantarum, at Leyden, in 1738. See Botany, p. 1290. hermitage is now accounted very rich.
CALYDON, (anc. geog.), a town of iEtolia, fitu- CAMARANA, an ifland of Arabia, in the Red
ated feven miles and a half from the fea, and divided Sea, whofe inhabitants are little and black. It is the
bell
C A M
Camayeu belt of all tlie iflands in this fea, and here they fiih for
_ K coral and pearls. N. Lat. 15. o.
Cairibodia- CAMAYEU. See Camaieu.
CAMBAIA, or Campay, a town of Afia, in India,
and in tire peninfula on this fide the Ganges; capital
of a province of the fame name; but more commonly
called Guzarat. It is feated at the bottom of a gulph
of the fame name, on a fmall river; is a large place
with high walls, and has a pretty good trade. The pro-
dudl and manufaftures are inferior to few towns in In¬
dia : for it abounds in corn, cattle, and filk ; and cor¬
nelian and agate flones are found in its rivers. The
[ 1587 1
C A M
of the faid river, about 150 miles north of its mouth. Cambray
This country is annually overflowed in the«rainy feafon, I!.
between June and Odtober; and its produdtions and ^arntirl ^c'
fruits are much the fame with thofe ufually found be¬
tween the tropics. E. Long. 104. 15. N. Lat. 12. 40.
CAMERAY, an archiepifcopal city, the capital of
the Cambrefis, in the Low Countries, feated on the
Scheld. It is defended by good fortifications, and
has a fort on the fide of the river; and as the land is
low on that fide, they can lay the adjacent parts under
water, by means of fluices. Its ditches are large and
deep, and thofe of the citadel are cut into a rock. Go-
inhabitants are noted for embroidery; and fome of dion became mailer of Cambray in 445. The Danes
their quilts have been valued at 401. It is fubjedl to
the Great Mogul. E. Long. 72. 15. N. Lat. 22. 30.
CAMBER, according to our monkiih hiftorians,
one of the three fons of Brute, who, upon his father’s
death, had that part of Britain affigned him for his
{hare, called from him Cambria, now Wales.
CAMBER.-2?e«w, among builders, a piece of timber
in an edifice cut archwife, or with an obtufe angle in
the middle, commonly ufed in platforms, as church-
leads, and on other occafions where long and llrong
beams are required.
CAMBERED-decks, among {hip-builders. The
deck or flooring of a ihip is faid to be cambered, or to
lie cambering, when it is higher in the middle of the
{hip’s length, and droops toward the.ilem and ftern,
or the two ends. Alfo when it lies irregular; a cir-
cumftance which renders the {hip very unfit for war.
CAMBERT, a French mufician in the 17th cen¬
tury, was at firft admired for the manner in which he
touched the organ, and became fuperintendant of the
mufic to Anne of Auftria the queen-mother. The
- abbe Perrin afibciated him in the privilege he obtained
of his majefty, of fetting up an opera in 1669. Cam-
bert fet to mufic two paftorals, one entitled Pomona,
the other Ariadne, which were the fir ft operas given in
burnt it afterwards; fince which time it became a free
imperial city. It has been the fubjecl of conteft be¬
tween the emperors, the kings of France, and the earls
of Flanders. Francis I. let it remain neutral during
the war with Charles V. but this laft took pofleffion of
it in 1543. After this it was given to John of Mont-
luc by Henry III. of France, whom he created prince
of Cambray : but the Spainards took it from Montluc
in 1593, which broke his heart. It continued under
the dominion of the Houfe of Auftria till 1677, when
the king of France became mafter of it, in whofe hands
it has continued ever fince.
The buildings of Cambray are tolerably handfome,
and the ftreets fine and fpacious. The place or fquare
for arms is of an extraordinary largenefs, and capable
of receiving the whole garrifon in order of battle. The
cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary is one of the
fineft in Europe. The body of the church is very large,
and there are rich chapels, the pillars of which are ad¬
orned with marble tombs, that are of exquifite work-
manfhip, and add greatly to the beauty of the place.
There are two galleries, one of which is of copper,
finely wrought. The door of the choir is of the fame
metal, and well carved. The fteeple of this church is
very high, and built in the form of a pyramid; and
France. He alfo wrote a piece entitled T'he pains and from its top you have a view of the city, which is
pleafures of love. Thefe pieces pleafed the public; yet,
in 1672, Lully obtaining the privilege of the opera,
Cambert was obliged to come to England, where he
became fuperintendant of the' mufic to king Charles II.
and died there in 1677.
CAMBLET, or Camlet, a plain fluff compofed
of a warp and a woof, which is manufactured on a
loom with two treddles, as linens and flannels are.
There are camblets of feveral forts : fome of goat’s
hair, both in the warp and woof; others in which the
warp is of hair, and the woof half hair and half filk;
others again in which both the warp and the woof are of
one of the fineft and moft agreeable in the Low Coun¬
tries. There are nine pariflies, four abbeys, and fe¬
veral convents for both fexes. The citadel is very ad-
vantageoufly fituated on high ground, and commands
the whole city. Cambray is one of the moft-: opu¬
lent and commercial cities in the Low Countries; and
makes every year a great number of pieces of cambric,
with which the inhabtiants drive a great trade. E.
Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 50. 11.
Cambray (M. de Fenelon, archbifliop of). See
Fenelon.
CAMBRESIS, a province 6f France, in the Nether-
wool; and, laftly, fome in which the warp is ofwool, and lands, about 25 miles in length. It is bounded on t,he
the woof of thread. Some are dyed in thread, others in
the piece, others are marked and mixed ; fome are ftrip-
ped, fome waved or watered, and fome figured.
Camblets are proper for feveral ufes, according to
their different kinds or qualities: fome ferve to make
garments both for men and women ; fome for bed-cur-
tains ; others for houfehold furniture, &c.
CAMBODIA, a kingdom of Afia, in the Eaft In¬
dies, bounded on the north by the kingdom of Laos,
on the eaft by Cochin-China and Chiapa, and on the
fouth and weft by the gulph and kingdom of Siam;
divided by a large river called Mecon. The capital
north and eaft by Hainhalt, on the fouth by Picardy,
and on the weft by Artois. It is a very fertile and
populous country ; and the inhabitants are induftrious,
a&ive, and ingenious. The trade confifts principally
in corn, fheep, very fine wool, and fine linen cloth.
Cambray is the capital town.
CAMBRIA, a name for the principality of Wales f. f See Cam-
CAMBRICKS, a fpecies of very fine white linen ^r> and
made at Cambray. Wales'
CAMBRIDGE, a town of England,, and capital
of the county of that name. It takes the name of
Cambridge from the bridge over the Cam, which di¬
town is of the fame name, feated on the weftern Ihore vides the town into two parts. Either it or a place
9 P 2
CAM [15!
Cambridge.!in the'.neighbourhood was ftyled Camhritum, in the
 time of the Romans. It fuffered much during the wars
with the Danes. Here was a cattle built by William
the conqueror, of which the gatehoufe yet remains,
and is now the county goal. By Doomfday-book it
appears, that it then had ten wards, containing 387
houfes. In William Rufus’s reign it was quite de-
ftroyed by Roger de Montgomery ; but Henry I. be¬
llowed many privileges upon it, particularly an exemp¬
tion from the power of the ftieriff, on condition of its
paying yearly into the exchequer 100 merks (equiva¬
lent to 1000 pounds now), and from tolls, laftage, pon¬
tage, paflage, and ftallage, in all fairs of his dominions.
There is a ditch Hill called the king’s ditch, made by
Henry III. during the barons wars, to fecure it againft
the rebels in the ifle of Ely. In the rebellion of Wat
Tyler and Jack Straw, in the reign of Richard II. the
univerfity records were burnt. The place now called
the Jewry was formerly inhabited by Jews. The glory
of Cambridge is its univerfity ; but when it had its be¬
ginning, is uncertain. At firft there was no public pro-
vifion for the accommodation or maintenance of the
fcholars; but afterwards inns began to be erefted by
pious perfons for their reception, and in the time of
Edward I. colleges began to be built and endowed.
The univerfity enjoys great privileges; and is go¬
verned by the chancellor, who is always fome noble¬
man, and may be changed every three years, and has
a commiflary under him ; the high fteward, chofen by
the fenate ; the vice-chancellor, chofen by the whole
body of the univerfity, out of two named by the heads
of the colleges ; two pro&ors chofen every year ; two
taxers, who, with the proftors, regulate the weights
and meafures. The other officers are, a regifter, or
keeper of the archives, three efquire-beadles, one yeo¬
man-beadle, and a library-keeper. Each college has
its fchools and library, as at Oxford, of which thofe
of Trinity and St John are the moft confiderable.
King George I. purchafed for 1000 1. the library of
Dr Moor bilhop of Ely, confifting of 30,000 volumes,
and made a prefent of it to the univerfity, which, out
of gratitude, eretted, in 1739, a fine marble ftatue of
that prince in the fenate-hall of king’s-college. A
profeffor of modern languages and hiftory was alfo efta-
bliffied here and at Oxford, with a falary of 4001. for
himfelf and two to teach under him, by king George I.
in 1724. In 1728, a profefibrffiip for natural phi-
lofophy was eredted by Dr Woodward, a profeffor at
Grdham college London, with a falary of 150I. a-
year. The fame gentleman left them alfo his collec¬
tion of foffils, and a part of his library. The matter
and fellows of Catherine-hall are truftees of an hofpital
for the cure of poor difeafed people gratis; for the
building and furnifhipgof which, Dr Addenbroke left
40001. Each college has its chapel for worffiip ; but
public fermons are preached at St Mary’s church. The
following are the moft remarkable ftru&ures: 1. The
chapel of kings-college, which for its contrivance and
extent, fine carved work in wood and ftone, and painted
windows, is hardly to be equalled in the world. It is
yntirely of free ftone, roof and all, without one pillar
to fupport it. 2. Trinity-college and library, won¬
derful both for the defign and execution. We mutt
not omit to obferve, that a fellowffiip was founded at
Magdalen-college, called the travelling Norfolk fellow-
SS ] CAM
Jbip, becaufe it is appropriated to gentlemen of that Cambridge-
country. Any perfon that is qualified, may borrow
whatever book he has occafion for from the libraries Camden.
at Cambridge ; and any one that is qualified may ftudy  —
in thofe of Oxford. The privilege of fending mem¬
bers to parliament was firft granted to the univerfity
by James I. The town is governed by a mayor, high-
fteward, recorder, 13 aldermen, of whom the mayor
is one, 24 common council men, a town clerk, and o-
ther inferior officers. The mayor, when he enters on
his office, takes an oath to maintain the privileges of
the univerfity. The town has 14 pariffi-churches, and
is pretty large ; but the fituation is low and dirty. E.
Long. o. 7. N. Lat. 52. 15.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE, a county of England,
bounded on the eaft by Norfolk, on the fouth by Ef-
fex and Hertfordfhire, on the weft by Bedfordffiire and
Huntingdonfhire, and on the north by Lincolnfhire.
It is about 40 miles long, 25 broad, and 130 in cir¬
cumference. It lies in the diocefe of Ely ; and fends
fix members to parliament, two for the county, two
for the univerfity, and two for the town of Cambridge.
The air is very different in different parts of the county.
In the fens it is moift and foggy, and therefore not fo
wholefome; but in the fouth and eaft parts it is very
good, thefe being much drier than the other : but both,
by late improvements, have been rendered very fruit¬
ful, the former by draining, and the latter by cinque¬
foil ; fo that it produces plenty of corn, efpecially bar¬
ley, faffron, and hemp, and affords the richeft paftures.
The rivers abound with fiffi, and the fens with wild
fowl. The principal manufaftures of the county are
malt, paper, and balkets. The chief rivers are the
Oufe, which divides the county into two parts, and is
navigable from Cambridge to Lynn in Norfolk ; the
Cam, which in the Britifh fignifies crooked, to denote
its winding ; the Welland, the Glene, the Witham,
and that called Peterborough river, which is navigable
to that city from Wifbech. The fens called Bedford
level confift of about 300,000 acres of marffiy ground,
lying in Cambridgeffiire, Norfolk, Suffolk, Hunting-
donfhire, Northamptonffiire, and Lincolnffiire, and fur-
rounded on all hands, except towards the fea, with
high lands. As it appears to have been dry land for¬
merly, the great change it has undergone mull have
been owing either to a violent breach and inundation
of the fea, or to earthquakes. As the towns in and
about the fens were great fufferers by the ftagnation of
the waters in fummer, and want of provifions in win¬
ter, many attempts were made to drain them, but with¬
out fuccefs, until the time of Charles I. in which, and
that of his fon, the work was happily completed, and
an aft of parliament palled, by which a corporation
was eftablilhed for its prefervation and government.
By the fame aft, 83,000 acres were veiled in the cor¬
poration, and xo,ooo in the king. In thefe fens are
a great many decoys, in which incredible numbers of
ducks, and other wild fowl, are caught during the
feafon.
New Cambridge, a town of New England about
three miles from Bofton, remarkable for an univerfity con¬
fifting of three colleges. W. Long. 70. 4. N. Lat.42. o.
CAMBYSES. See {Hiftory of) Persia.
CAMCHATKA. See Kamtchatka.
CAMDEN (William), the great antiquarian, was
bom
CAM [ 1589 ] CAM
Camden, born in London in the year His father was a
- native of Litchfield in Staffordlhire, who fettling in
London, became a member of the company of painter-
ftainers, and lived in the Old Bailey. His mother was
of the ancient family of Curwen, of Wirkington in
Cumberland. He was educated firft at Chrift's hofpi-
tal, and afterwards at St Paul’s fchool : from thence
he was fent, in 1566, to Oxford, and entered fervitor
of Magdalen college; but being difappointed of a de¬
my’s place, he removed to Broad-gate hall, and fome-
what more than two years after, to Chrift-church,
where he was fupported by his kind friend and patron
Dr Thornton. About this time he was a candidate for
a fellowlhip of All-Souls college, but loft it by the in¬
trigues of the Popifh party. In 1570, he fupplicated
the regents of the univerfity to be admitted bachelor of
arts ; but in this alfo he mifcarried. The following
year Mr Camden came to London, where he profecu-
ted his favourite ftudy of antiquity, under the patro¬
nage of Dr Goodman, dean of Weftminfter, by whofe
intereft he was made fecond mafter of Wettminfter
fchool in 1575. From the time of his leaving the uni¬
verfity to this period, he took feveral journeys to diffe¬
rent parts of England, with a view to make obferva-
tions and colleft materials for his Britannia^ in which
he was now deeply engaged. In 1581 he became inti¬
mately acquainted with the learned prefident Brifibn,
who was then in England; and, in 1586, he publifhed
the firft edition of his Britannia. In 1593, he fucceed-
ed to the head mafterfhip of Weftminfter fchool on the
refignation of Dr Grant. In 1597 he publifhed his
Greek grammar, and the fame year was made Claren-
ceux king at arms. In the year 1600 Mr Camden
made a tour to the north, as far as Carlifle, accompa¬
nied by his friend Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Cotton.
In 1606 began his correfpondence with the celebrated
prefident de Thou, which continued to the death of that
faithful hiftorian. In the following year he publifhed
his laft edition of the Britannia, which is that from
which the feveral Englifh tranflations have been made ;
and in 1608, he began to digeft his materials for a hi-
ftory of the reign of queen Elizabeth. In 1609, after
recovering from a dangerous illnefs, he retired to
Chiflehurft in Kent, where he continued to fpend the
fummer-months during the remainder of his life. The
firft part of his annals of the queen did not appear till
the year 1615, and he determined that the fecond vo¬
lume fhould not appear till after his death (a). The work
was entirely finifhed in 1617; and from that time he was
principally employed in colle&ing more materials for the
further improvement of his Britannia. In 1622, be¬
ing now upwards of 70, and finding his health decline
apace, he determined to lofe no time in executing his
defign of founding an hiftory-lefture in the univerfity
of Oxford. His deed of gift was accordingly tranf-
mitted by his friend Mr Heather, to Mr Gregory
Wheare, who was, by himfelf, appointed his firft pro-
fefibr. He died at Chiflehurft, in 1623, in the 73d
year of his age ; and was buried with great folemnity
in Weftminfter-abbey in the fouth aifle, where a mo- Carnet
nument of white marble was ere&ed to his memory. .11.
Camden was a man of lingular modefty and integrity; ame llS*.
profoundly learned in the hiftory and antiquities of this
kingdom, and a judicious and confcientious hiftorian.
He was reverenced and efteemed by the literati of all
nations, and will be ever remembered as an honour to
the age and country wherein he lived. Befides the
works already mentioned, he was author of an excel¬
lent Greek grammar, and of feveral trafts in Hearne’s
colle&ion.
CAMEL, in zoology. See Camelus.
CAMELFORD, a borough town of Cornwall in
England, confifting of about 100 houfes badly built;
but the ftreets are broad and well paved. W. Long.
5. 4. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to par¬
liament.
CAMELOPARDALIS, in zoology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of Cervus.
CAMELUS, or Camel, in zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The
charafters of the camel are thefe. It has no horns; it
has fix fore-teeth in the under jaw; the laniarii are
wide fet, three in the upper, and two in the lower jaw;
and there is a fiflure in the upper lip, refembling a cleft
in the lip of a hare. The fpecies are,
I. The Dromedarius, or African camel, with one Pl.LXVIIC.
bunch or protuberance on the back. It has four callous *•
protuberances on the fore-legs, and two on the hind ones.
The hoof, or rather callous (kin, of their feet, which is
fofter than the hoofs of other animals, enables the camel
to walk along the fandy paths of warm climates with
greater cafe ; as, by yielding to the preffure, it is not fo
fubjeft to be injured by friction. The ftrufture and
conftitution of thefe creatures is admirably adapted to
the climate which produces them. In Africa and A-
rabia, where this animal is moft frequent, and is em¬
ployed in carrying all kinds of burdens, there is great
fcarcity of water. The camel has often been obferved
to travel longer than any other creature without drink.
This it is enabled to do from a Angular eonftrudlion in
its ftomach. It is one of the ruminating animals, and
has four ftomaehs. At the top of the fecond ftomach
there are feveral fquare holes, which are the orifices of
about 20 cavities or facks placed between the two mem¬
branes which compofe the fubftance of this ftomach.
Thefe facks are fo many refervoirs which they fill over
and above what fatisfies their prefent third, and ferve for
fupplying them with water in long journeys thro’ the
dry and fandy defarts, where wells and rivers are feldom
to be met with. Travellers, when much oppreffed with,
drought, are fometimes obliged to kill their camels, in
order to have a fupply of drink from thefe refervoirs.
By the above means camels are envied to pafs over un¬
watered trafts for feven or eight days, without requiring
the lead liquid; Leo Africanus fays for 15. They can
difcover water by their fcent at half a league’s diftance;
and after a long abftinence will haften towards it, long
before their drivers perceive where it lies. Their pa¬
tience:
(a) The reign of queen Elizabeth was fo recent when the firft volume of the annals was publiftied, that many of
the perfons concerned, or their dependents, were ftill living. It was no wonder, therefore, that the honeft hiftorian
Ihould offend thofe whofe adlions would not bear inquiry. Some of his enemies were clamorous and troublefome ;
which determined him not to publifh the fecond volume during his life : but that pofterity might be in no danger of
difappointment, he depofited one copy in the Cotton library, and tranfmitted another to his friend Dupuy at Paris.,
It was firft printed at Leyden in 1625.
CAM [ 1590 ] CAM
Camcliii, tience under hunger Is fuch, that they will travel many
    days, fed only with a few dates, or fome fmall balls of
bean or barley-meal, or on the miferable thorny plants
they find in the defart. The camel carries very heavy
burdens; and travels long, but with a flow pace. The
largeft kind will carry a load of 1000 or 1200 ft>
weight. They kneel down to be loaded, but rife the
moment they find the burden equal to their ftrength :
they will not permit an ounce more to be put on. They
are moft mild and gentle at all times but when they are
in heat: during that period they are feized with a fort
of madnefs, fo that it is unfafe to approach them. They
are not prevailed on to quicken their pace by blows ;
but go freely if gently treated, and feem enlivened by
the pipe or any mufic. When fatigued, they lie on
their breaft.
Pl.LXVIII. pi. The Bactrianus, or Ba&rian camel, has two
3‘ bunches on the back, the hindmoft of which is by
much the larged. It is a native of Africa, and is
more rarely to be met with than the dromedary. It
is alfo much fwifter in its motions. Camels have
been the riches of Arabia from the time of Job to the
prefent; the patriarch reckoned 6000 camels among
his padoral treafures, and the modern inhabitants of
thefe countries edimate their wealth by the number of
camels they pofiefs: without them great part of Afia
and Africa would be wretched ; by them the foie com¬
merce is carried on through arid and burning trade,
impaffable but by beads which Providence formed ex-
prefsly for the burning defarts. They do not differ in
their nature or manners from the other kind. In win¬
ter they are covered with very long hair, which falls
off in the fpring, and is carefully gathered, being wove
into duff’s^ and alfo cloths to cover tents. In fummer
their hair is fliort. Before the great heats, the owners
fraear their bodies to keep off the flies. The Arabs are
very fond of the flefh of young camels, The milk of
thefe animals is their principal fubfidence; and the dung
of camels is the fuel ufed by the caravans'in the travels
over the defarts. Camels have been introduced into
Barbadoes and Jamaica; but for want of knowledge of
their diet and treatment, have in general been of very
little fervice.
There are varieties among the camels. The Turk¬
man is the larged and dronged. The Arabian is
hardy. What is called the dromedary, maihary, and
ragnahl, is very fwift. The common fort travel about
30 miles a-day. The lad, which has a lefs bunch,
and more delicate fhape, and is alfo much inferior in
fize, never carries burdens, but is ufed to ride on. In
Arabia they are trained for running matches; and in
many places for carrying couriers, who can go above
, too miles a day on them, and that for nine days toge¬
ther, over burning (kfarts'uninhabitable by any living
creature. The Chinefe call thefe fwift camels expref-
fively fong kyo to, or camels with feet of the ’wind.
The African camels are the mod hardy, having more
didant and more dreadful defarts to pafs over than any
of the others, from Numidia to the kingdom of Ethio¬
pia.
III. The Glama, Llama, or South-American ca-
mel-iheep, has an almod even back, fmall head, fine
black eyes, and very long neck, bending much, and
very protuberant near the junaion with the body:
in a tame date, with fmooth fhort hair; in a wild
date, with long coarfe hair, white, grey, and ruflet, Ctmelus.
difpofed in fpots; with a black line from the head a-
long the top of the back to the tail, and belly white.
The fpotted may poflibly be the tame, the lad the
wild, llamas. The tail is ihort; the height from four
to four feet and a half; the length from the neck to
the tail, fix feet. The carcafe diveded of fkin and of¬
fals, according to the editor of Mr Byron’s voyage,
weighed 200 lb. In general, the fliape exa&ly refero-
bles a camel, only it wants the dorfal bunch. It is the
camel of Pern and Chili; and, before the arrival of the
Spaniards, was the only bead of burden known to the
Indians. It is very mild, gentle, and tra&able. We
find, that, before the introduftion of-mules, they were
ufed by the Indians to plough the land: that at prefent
they ferve to carry burdens of about 100 tb.: that they
go with great gravity ; and, like their Spanifh maders,
nothing can prevail upon them to change their pace.
They lie down to the burden ; and when wearied, no
blows can provoke them to go on. Teuillee fays, they
are fo capricious, that if druck, they indantly fquat
down, and nothing but careffes can make them arife.
When angry, they have no other method of revenging
their injuries than by fpitting ; and they can ejaculate
their faliva to the didance of ten paces : if it falls on
the fkin, it raifes an itching and a reddidt fpot. Their
flelh is eaten, and is faid to be as good as mutton. The
wool has a drong difagreeable fcent. They are very
fure footed ; therefore ufed to carry the Peruvian ores
over the ruggeded hills and narrowed paths of the An¬
des. They inhabit that vad chain of mountains their
whole length to the draits of Magellan ; but except
where thefe hills approach the fea, as in Patagonia,
never appear on the coads. Like the camel, they have
powers of abdaining long from drink, fometimes for
four or five days: like that animal, their food is coarfe
and trifling. - As every domedic animal has, or had its
dock or origin in a wild date, we believe the llama and
guanaco to be the fame. The llama is defcribed as the
larged of the two domedic animals the Peruvians have;
for, except that, they know no other than the conge¬
nerous pacos. We find two animals fimilar to thefe,
wild ; the larger, or guanico, may be fuppofed to be a
favage llama ; the leffer, or vecunna, to be the pacos,
in a date of nature: the brief defcriptions we have
left us of each, give us little room to doubt but that
the difference of colour and hair arifes only from cul¬
ture. In a wild date, they keep in great herds in the
highed and deeped parts of the hills ; and while they
are feeding, one keeps centry on the pinnacle of fome
rock: if it perceives the approach of any one, it neighs;
the herd takes the alarm, and goes off with incredible
fpeed. They outrun all dogs, fo there is no other way
of killing them but with the gun. They are killed for
the fake of their flefii and hair; for the Indians weave
the lad into cloth. From the form of the parts of ge¬
neration in both fexes, no animal copulates with fuch
difficulty. It is often the labour of a day, antequam
alium ipfu7n venereum incipiant, et abfolvant.
IV. The Pacos, or iheepof Chili, has no bunch on the
back. It is covered with a fine valuable wool, which is
of a rofe red colour on the back of the animal, and white
on the belly. They are of the fame nature with the pre¬
ceding ; inhabit the fame places, but are more capable
of fupporting the rigour of frod and fnow: they live in
vaft
riafe XXNTH-
rj .
Baa’ttman ( ’aace n
YLkc tki^vn r;
Dhom^diiricxjs
v Afkioak C’amej.
BbADTPIM «•• .^LOTU ,
CAM [ i<
Camera vail herds; are very timid, and exceffively fwift. Theln-
Canferet ^ians ta^e t^ie Pacos 'n a ftrange manner: they tie cords
; with bits of cloth or wool hanging to them, above three
or four feet from the ground, crofs the narrovv pafles of
the mountains, then drive thole animals towards them,
which are fo terrified by the flutter of the rags, as not
to dare to pafs, but, huddling together, give the hun¬
ters an opportunity to kill with their flings as many as
they pleafe. The tame ones will carry from 50 to 75 lb;
but are kept principally for the fake of the wool and
the flelh which is exceedingly well tailed.
CAMERA obscura, a darkened room, or place
into which a beam of light may be admitted through
a fmall aperture; and wherein, by means of a proper
apparatus, the images of external objedls are exhibited
diltin&ly in their natural colours; as is explained under
the article Dioptrics.
CAMERARIA, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Of this there are two fpecies; the latifolia, and the
anguftifolia. The firft is a native of the ifland of
Cuba, and rifes with a flirubby ftalk to the height of
10 or 12 feet, dividing into feveral branches, garnilhed
with roundilh pointed leaves placed oppofite. The
flowers are produced at the end of the branches in loofe
elufters, which have long tubes enlarging gradually up¬
ward, and at the top are cut into five fegments broad
at their bafe, but ending in lharp points; the flower
is of a yellowilh white colour. The fecond fort has an
irregular fhrubby llalk, which rifes about eight feet
high, fending out many branches which are garniflied
with very narrow thin leaves placed oppofite at each
joint. The flowers are produced fcatteringly at the end
of the branches, which are (haped like thofe of the for¬
mer fort, but fmaller. It is a native of Jamaica. Both
thefe plants abound with an acrid milky juice like the
fpurge. They are propagated by feeds, which mull be
procured from the places of their growth. They may
alfo be propagated by cuttings planted in a hot-bed
during the fummer-months : they mud have a bark-
ftove, for they are very tender plants; but in warm wea¬
ther they mull have plenty of air.
CAMERARIUS (Joachim), one of the mod learn¬
ed writers of his time, was born in J500, at Bamberg,
a city of Franconia ; and obtained great reputation by
his writings. He tranflated into Latin Herodotus, De-
modhenes, Xenophon, Euclid, Homer, Theocritus,
Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoret, Nicephorus, &c. He
publilhed a catalogue of the bilhops of the principal
fees ; Greek epidles; Accounts of his journeys, in La¬
tin verfe; a Commentary on Plautus ; the Lives of He-
lius Eobanus Heflus, and Philip Melandlhon, &c. He
died in 1574.
Camerarius (Joachim), fan of the former, and a
learned phyfician, was born at Nuremberg in 1534.
After having finiflied his dudies in Germany, he went
into Italy, where he obtained the edeem of the learned.
. At his return he was courted by feveral princes to live
with them; but he was too much devoted to books,
and the dudyof chemidry and botany, to comply. He
wrote an hortus medicus, and feveral other works. He
died in 1598.
CAMERATED, among builders, the fame with
vaulted or arched.
CAMERET-bay, in the province of Brittany in
;9i ] CAM
France, forms the harbour of Bred. See Brest. Camerino
CAMERINO, a town of the ecclefiadical date in „ N
Italy, fitmted in E. Long. 13. 7. N. Lat. 45. 5. niansl1'
CAMERLINGO, according to Ducange, fignified 
formerly the pope’s or emperor’s treafurer : at prefent,
camerlingo is no where ufed but at Rome, where it de¬
notes the cardinal who governs the ecclefiadical date
and adminiders juflice. It is the mod eminent office
at the court of Rome, becaufe he is at the head of the
treafury. During a vacation of the papal chair, the
cardinal camerlingo publilhes edidls, coins money, and
exerts every other prerogative of a fovereign prince; he
has under him atreafurer-general, auditor-general, and
12 prelates called clerks of the chamber.
CAMERON (John), one of the mod famous di¬
vines among the Protedants of France in the 17th cen¬
tury, was born at Glafgow in Scotland, where he
taught' the Greek tongue ; and having read lectures
upon that language for about a year, travelled, and be¬
came profeflbr at feveral univerfities, and minider at
Bourdeaux. He publifhed, 1. Theological leisures;
2. Icon yohannis Cameronis; and fome mifcellaneous
pieces. He died in 1625, aged 60.
CAMERONIANS, a party of Prelbyterians, wdiich
fprung up in Scotland in the reign of king Charles II.
They affirmed that the king had forfeited his right to
the crown, by breaking the folemn league and cove¬
nant, which were the terms on which he received it.
They pretended both to dethrone and excommunicate
him; and broke out into an open rebellion. Upon the
revolution, they were reconciled to the kirk; and their
preachers fubmitted to the general afltitibly of the
church of Scotland, in 1690. That fedt is now greatly
declined. They are few in number, and fplitinto many
parties.
Cameronians, or Camercnites, is alfo the denomi¬
nation of a party of Calvinids in France, who aflerted
that the will of man is only determined by the practi¬
cal judgment of the mind ; that the caufe of mens doing
good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God
infufes into them ; and that God does not move the
will phyfically, but only ihorally, in virtue of its de¬
pendence on the judgment of the mind. They had this
name from John Cameron, a famous profeflbr, firft at
Glafgow, where he was born, in 1580, and afterwards
at Bourdeaux, Sedan, and Saumur ; at which laft place
he broached his new doftrine of grace and free-will,
which was formed by Amyraut, Cappel, Bochart,
Daille, and others of the more learned among the re¬
formed minifters, who judged Calvin’s do&rines on
thefe points too harfti. The Cameronians are a fort of
mitigated Calvinifts, and approach to the opinion of
the Arminians. They are alfo called Univerfalijls, as
holding the univerfality of Chriil’s death ; and fome-
times Arnyraldifts. The rigid adherents to the fynod
of Dort accufed them of Pelagianifm, and even of Ma-
nicheifm. The controverfy between the parties was
carried on with a zeal and fubtilty fcarce conceivable ;
yet all the queftion between them was only, Whether
the will of man is determined by the immediate action
of God upon it, or by the intervention of a knowledge
which God imprefles into the mind ? The fynod of
Dort had defined that God not only illuminates the
underftanding, but gives motion to the will by making
an internal change therein. Cameron only admitted
CAM [ 1592 ] CAM
CamiHus the illumination; whereby the mind is morally moved, CAMOENS (Louis de), a famous Portuguefe poet, Cajnoens.
II . and explained the fentiment of the fynod of Dort fo as
Cammin’ to make the two opinions confident.
CAMILLUS (Marcus Furius), was the firft who
rendered the family of Furius illuftrious. He triumphed
four times, was five times di&ator, and was honoured
with the title of the fecond founder of Rome. In a word,
he acquired all the glory a man can gain in his own
country. Lucius Apuleius, one of the tribunes, profe-
cuted him to make him give an account of the fpoils
taken at Veii. Camillus anticipated judgment, and ba-
nifhed himfelf voluntarily. During his banifiiment, in-
ftead of rejoicing at the devaftation of Rome by the
Gauls, he exerted all his wifdom and bravery to drive
away the enemy; and yet kept with the utmofi ftridt-
nefs the facred law of Rome, in refuting to accept the
command which feveral private perfons offered him.
The Romans, who were befieged in the capitol, crea¬
ted him didtator in the year 363; in which office he
adted with fo much bravery and condudt, that he en¬
tirely drove the army of the Gauls out of the territories
of the commonwealth. He died in the 8i3t year of his
age, 365 years before the Chriftian sera.
CAMlLLI, and Camillas, in Roman antiquity, a
certain number of boys and girls, who affifted in the
Cacrifices to the gods, but more efpecially attended the
flamen dialis.
CAMINHA, a maritime town of Portugal, in the
province of Entre-Duero-e-Minho, with the title of a
duchy. It is fituated at the mouth of the river Minho,
in W. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 41. 44.
CAMIS, or Kamis, in the Japonefe affairs, denote
the deified fouls of illuftrious perfonages, believed to in-
tereft themfelves in the welfare of their countrymen:
in which fenfe they anfwer to the deified heroes of an¬
tiquity. See Hero.
CAMISADE, in the art of war, an attack by fur-
prife in the night, or at the break of day, when the
enemy is fuppofed to be a-bed. The word is faid to
have taken its rife from an attack of this kind; where¬
in, as a badge or fignal to know one another by, they
bore a fhift, in French called chemife, or camife, over
their arms.
CAMISARDS, a name given by the French to the
Calvinifts of the Cevennes, who formed a league, and
took up arms in their own defence, in 1688.
CAMLETINE, a flight fluff, made of hair and
coarfe filk, in the manner of camblet. It is now out of
fafhion.
CAMMA, and Gobbi, two provinces of the king¬
dom of Loango in Africa. The inhabitants are conti¬
nually at war with each other. The weapons they for¬
merly ufed in their wars were the fhort pike, bows and
arrows, fword and dagger; but fince the Europeans
have become acquainted with that coaft, they have fup-
plied them with fire-arms. The chief town of Gobbi
lies about a day’s journey from the fea. Their rivers
abound with a variety of fifli; but are infefted with fea-
horfes, which do great mifchief both by land and wa¬
ter. The principal commerce with the natives is in
logwood, elephants teeth, and tails, the hair of which
is highly valued, and ufed for feveral curious purpofes.
CAMMIN, a maritime town of Germany, in Bran¬
denburg Pomerania, fituated in E. Long. 150. N. Lat.
the honour of whofe birth is claimed by difkrent cities.
But according to N. Antonio, and Manuel Correa his
intimate friend, this event happened atLifbon in 1517.
His family was of confiderable note, and originally
Spanifti. In 1370, Vafco Perez de Caamans, difgufted
at the court of Caftile, fled to that of Lifbon, where
king Ferdinand immediately admitted him into his
council, and gave him the lordfhips of Sardoal, Pun-
nete, Marano, Amendo, and other confiderable lands;
a certain proof of the eminence of his rank and abili¬
ties. In the war for the fucceifion, which broke out
on the death of Ferdinand, Camoens fided with the
king of Caftile, and was killed in the battle of Alja-
barota. But though John I. the vidtor, feized a great
part of his eftate, his widow, the daughter of Gonfalo
Tereyro, grand mafter of the order of Chrift, and ge¬
neral of the Portuguefe army, was not reduced beneath
her rank. She had three fons who took the name of
Camoens. The family of the eldeft intermarried with
the firft nobility of Portugal; and even, according to
Caftera, with the blood royal. But the family of the
fecond brother, whofe fortune was flender, had the fu-
perior honour to produce the author of the Lufiad.
Early in his life the misfortunes of the poet began.
In his infancy, Simon Vaz de Camoens, his father,
commander of a vefiel, was fliipwrecked at Goa, where,
with his life, the greateft part of his fortune was loft.
His mother, however, Anne de Macedo of Santarene,
provided for the education of her fon Louis at the uni-
verfity of Coimbra. What he acquired there, his works
difcover; an intimacy with the claflics, equal to that
of a Scaliger, but dire&ed by the-tafte of a, Milton or
a Pope.
When he left the univerfity, he appeared at court.
He was handfome; had fpeaking eyes, it is faid; and
the fineft complexion. Certain it is, however, he was
a poliftied fcholar, which, added to the natural ardour
and gay vivacity of his difpofition, rendered him an ac-
compliftied gentleman. Courts are the fcenes of in¬
trigue; and intrigue was fafhionable at Lifbon. But
the particulars of the amours of Camoens reft unknown.
This only appears: he had afpired above his rank, for
he was banifhed from the court; and in feveral of his
fonnets he afcribes this misfortune to love.
He now retired to his mother’s friends at Santarene.
Here he renewed his ftudies, and began his poem on
the difcovery of India. John III. at this time prepared
an armament againft Africa. Camoens, tired of his in-
a&ive obfcure life, went to Ceuta in this expedition,
and greatly diftinguifhed his valour in feveral rencoun¬
ters. In a naval engagement with the Moors in the
ftraits of Gibraltar, in the conflidt of boarding, he was
among the foremoft, and loft his right eye. Yet nei¬
ther hurry of adtual fervice nor the diffipation of the
camp could ftifle his genius. He continued his Lufi-
adas, and feveral of his moft beautiful fonnets were writ¬
ten in Africa, while, as he exprefled it, -
One hand the pen, and one the fword, employ’d.
The fame of his valour had now reached the court,
and he obtained permilfion to return to Lifbon. But,
while he folicited an eftablifhment which he had merit¬
ed in the ranks of battle, the malignity of evil tongues,
as he calls it in one of his letters, was injurioufly pour¬
ed upon him. Though the bloom of his early youth
was
Camoens,
CAM [ 1593 ] CAM
vtas effaced byfeveral years refidence under tKe fcorch-
~ ing heavens of Africa, and though altered by the lofs
of an eye, his prefence gave uneafinefs to the gentle¬
men of fome families of the f.rft rank where he had
formerly vilited. Jealoufy is the chara&eriftic of the
Spanifh and Portuguefe ; its refentment knows no
bounds, and Camoens now found it prudent to banifh
himfelf from his native country. Accordingly, in 1553,
he failed for India, with a refolution never to return.
As the fhip left the Tagus, he exclaimed, in the words
of the fepulchral monument of Scipio Africanus, In¬
grata patria, mnpoflidebis offa meal “ Ungrateful coun¬
try, thou lhalt not pofiefs my bones l’’ But he knew
not what evils in the Eaft would awake the remembrance
of his native fields.
When Camoens arrived in India, an expedition was
ready to fail to revenge the king of Cochin on the king
of Pimenta. Without any reit on fhore after his long
voyage, he joined this armament, and in the conqueft
of the Alagada iflands difplayed his ufual bravery.
In the year following, he attended Manuel de Vaf-
concello in an expedition to the Red fea. Here, fays
Faria, as Camoens had no ufe for his fword, he em¬
ployed his pen. Nor was his aftivity confined in the
fleet or camp. He vifited Mount Felix and the adja¬
cent inhofpitable regions of Afrie^, which he fo ftrongly
pictures in the Lufiad, and in one of his little pieces
where he laments the abfence of his miftrefs.
When he returned to Goa, he enjoyed a tranquillity
which enabled him to beftow his attention on his Epic
Poem. But this ferenity was interrupted, perhaps by
his own imprudence. He wrote fome fatires which gave
offence; and, by order of the viceroy Francifco Barreto,
he was banilhed to China.
The accomplifhments and manners of Camoens foon
found him friends, though under the difgrace of banifh-
ment. He was appointed commiffary of the defunft in
the ifland of Macao, a Portuguefe fettlement in the bay
of Canton. Here he continued his Lufiad; and here
alfo, after five years refidence, he acquired a fortune,
though fmall, yet equal to his wilhes. Don Conftantine
de Braganza was now viceroy of India; and Camoens,
defirous to return to Goa, refigned his charge. In a
fhip, freighted by himfelf, he fet fail; but was fhip-
wrecked in the gulph near the mouth of the river Me-
hon on the coaft of China. All he had acquired was
loft in the waves: his poems, which he held in one
hand, while he fwimmed with the other, were all he
found himfelf poffefied of when he flood friendlefs on
the unknown fhore. But the natives gave him a moft
humane reception: this he has immortalifed in the pro¬
phetic fong in the tenth Lufiad; and in thefeventh, he
tells us, that here he loft the wealth which fatisfied his
wifhes.
Agora da efpcranqa ja adquirida, ire.
Now bleft with all the wealth fond hope could crave,
Soon 1 beheld that wealth beneath the wave
For ever loft ; 
My life, like Judah’s heaven-doom’d king of yore,
Hy miracle prolong’d 
On the banks of the Mehon, he wrote his beautiful
paraphrafe of the pfalm, where the Jews, in the fineft
ftrain of poetry, are reprefented as hanging their harps
on the willows by the rivers of Babylon, and weeping
their exile from their native country. Here Camoens
continued fome time, till an opportunity offered to carry
Vol. III.
him to Goa. When he arrived at that city, Don Con¬
ftantine de Braganza, the viceroy, whofe chara&eriftic
was politenefs, admitted him into intimate friendfhip,
and Camoens was happy till count Redondo affumed
the government. Thofe who had formerly procured
the banifhment of the fatyrift, were filent while Con¬
ftantine was in power. But now they exerted all their
arts againft him. Redondo, when he entered on office,
pretended to be the friend of Camoens; yet, with all
that unfeeling indifference with which he made his moft
horrible witticifm on the Zamorim, he fuffered the in¬
nocent man to be thrown into the common prifon.
After all the delay of bringing witneffes, Camoens, in
a public trial, fully refuted every accufation of his con¬
duct while commiffary at Macao, and his enemies were
loaded with ignominy and reproach. But Camoens had
fome creditors; and thefe detained him in prifon a con-
fiderable time, till the gentlemen of Goa began to be
afhamed that a man of his fingular merit fliould expe¬
rience fuch treatment among them. He was fet at li¬
berty; and again he affumed the profeffion of arms,
and received the allowance of a gentleman volunteer, a
chara&er at this time common in Portuguefe India.
Soon after, Pedro Barreto, appointed governor of the
fort at Sofala, by high promifes, allured the poet to
attend him thither. The governor of a diftant fort, in
a barbarous country, fhares in fome meafure the fate of
an exile. Yet, though the only motive of Barreto was,
in this unpleafant fituation, to retain the converfation
of Camoens at his table, it was his leaft care to render
the life of his gueft agreeable. Chagrined with his
treatment, and a confiderable time having elapfed in
vain dependence upon Barreto, Camoens refolved to re¬
turn to his native country. A fhip, on the homeward
voyage, at this time touched at Sofala, and feveral gen¬
tlemen who were on board were defirous that Camoens
fhould accompany them. But this the governor unge-
neroufly endeavoured to prevent, and charged him with
a debt for board. Anthony de Cabral, however, and
Heftor de Sylveyra, paid the demand ; and Camoens,
fays Faria, and the honour of Barreto, were fold toge¬
ther.
After an abfence of 16 years, Camoens, in 1569, re¬
turned to Lifbon, unhappy even in his arrival, for the
peftilence then raged in that city, and prevented his
publication for three years. Atlaft, in 1572, he printed
his Lufiad, which, in the opening of the firft book, in
a moft elegant turn of compliment, he addreffed to his
prince, king Sebaftian, then in his 18th year. The
king, fays the French tranflator, was fo pleafed with
his merit, that he gave the author a penfion of 4000
reals, on condition that he fhould refide at court. But
this falary, fays the fame writer, was withdrawn by car¬
dinal Henry, who fucceeded to the crown of Portugal,
loft by Sebaftian at the battle of Alcazar.
Though the great patron of one fpecies of literature,
a fpecies the reverfe of that of Camoens, certain it is,
that the author of the Lufiad was utterly negle&ed by
Henry, under whofe inglorious reign he died in all the
mifery of poverty. By fome, it is faid, he died in an
alms-houfe. It appears, however, that he had not even
the certainty of fubfiftence which thefe houfes provide.
He had a black fervant, who had grown old with him,
and who had long experienced his mailer’s humanity.
This grateful Indian, a native of Java, who, according
9 to
c
CAM [ 1594 ] CAM
Camomile, to fome writers, faved his mailer's life in the unhappy
CamP- flripwreck where he loft his effefts, begged in the ftreets
of Liibon for the only man in Portugal on whom God
had beilowed thofe talents which have a tendency to
ere£k the fpirit of a downward age. To the eye of a
careful obferver, the fate of Camoens throws great light
on that of his country, and will appear ftridlly connec¬
ted with it. The fame ignorance, the fame degenerated
fpirit, which fuffered Camoens to depend on his lhare
of the alms begged in the ftreets by his old hoary fer-
vant, the fame fpirit which cailfed this, funk the king¬
dom of Portugal into the moft abjeft vaflalage ever ex¬
perienced by a conquered nation. While the grandees
of Portugal were blind to the ruin which impended o-
ver them, Camoens beheld it with a pungency of grief
which haftened his exit. In one of his letters he has
thefe remarkable words: Em fim accaberey a vida, e
vsrram todos que fuy efeicoada a minho patria, iyc. “ I
am ending the courfe of my life, the world will witnefs
how I have loved my country. I have returned, not
only to die in her bofom, but to die with her.”
In this unhappy fituation, in 1579, in his 62J year,
the year after the fatal defeat of Don Sebaftian, died
Louis de Camoens, the greateft literary genius ever
produced by Portugal; in martial courage and fpirit of
honour, nothing inferior to her greateft heroes. And
in a manner fuitable to the poverty in which he died,
was he buried.
CAMOMILE, in botany. See Anthemis.
CAMP, the ground on which an army pitch their
tents. It is marked out by the quarter-mafter general,
who appoints every regiment their ground.
The chief advantages to be minded in chufing a camp
for an army, are, to have it near the water, in a coun¬
try of forage, where the foldiers may find wood for
dreffing their victuals ; that it have a free communica¬
tion with garrifons, and with a country from whence
it may be fupplied with provifions; and, if poffible,
that it be fituated on a rifing ground, in a dry gravelly
foil. Befides, the advantages of the ground ought to
be confidered, as marfhes, woods, rivers, and inclofures;
and if the camp be near the enemy, with no river or
marfli to cover it, the army ought to be intrenched.
An army always encamps fronting the enemy; and ge¬
nerally in two lines, running parallel about 500 yards
diftance; the horfe and dragoons, on the wings, and
the foot, in thecentre: fometimes a body of two,three,
or four brigades is encamped behind the two lines, and
is called the body of referve. The artillery and bread-
waggons are generally encamped in the rear of the two
lines. A battalion of foot is allowed 80 or 100 paces
for its camp; and 30 or 40 for an interval betwixt one
battalion and another. A fquadron of horfe is allowed
30 for its camp, and 30 for an interval, and more if
the ground will allow it.
Where the grounds are equally dry, thofe camps are
always the moft healthful that are pitched on the banks
of large rivers; becaufe, in the hot feafon, fituations
of this kind have a ftream of frefh air from the water,
ferving to carry off the moift and putrid exhalations.
On the other hand, next to marlhes, the worft encamp¬
ments are on low grounds clofe befet with trees ; for
then the air is not only moift and hurtful in itfelf, but
by ftagnating becomes more fufceptible of corruption.
However, let the fituation of camps be ever fo good,
they are frequently rendered infeflious by the putrid ef- Camp,
fluvia of rotten ftraw, and the privies of the army; more
efpecially if the bloody flux prevails, in which cafe the
bell method of preventing a genera! infection, is to leave
the ground with the privies, foul ftraw, and other filth
of the camp, behind. This muft be frequently done, if
confident with the military operations : but when thefe
render it improper to change the ground often, the pri¬
vies (hould be made deeper than ufual, and once a-day
a thick layer of earth thrown into them till the pits are
near full; and then they are to be well covered, and
fupplied by others. It may alfo be a proper caution
to order the pits to be made either in the front or the
rear, as the then ftationary winds may belt carry off
their effluvia from the camp. Moreover, it will be ne-
ceffary to change the ftraw frequently, as being not
only apt to rot, but to retain the inftdlious fleams of
the fick. But if freftr ftraw cannot be procured, more
care muft be taken in airing the tents, as well as the
old ftraw.
The difpofition of the Hebrew encampment was at
firft laid out by God himfelf. Their camp was of a
quadrangular form, furrounded with an inclofure of the
height of ia hands-breadth. It made a fquare of 12
miles in compafs about the tabernacle ; and within this
was another, called the Levites camp.
The Greeks had alfo their camps, fortified with gates
and ditches. The Lacedasmonians made their camp of
a round’figure, looking upon that as the moft perfedt
and defenfible of any form : we are not, however, to
imagine, that they thought this form fo effential to a
camp, as never to be difpenfed with when the circum-
ftance of the place required it. Of the reft of the Gre¬
cian camps, it niay be obferved, that the moft valiant
of the foldiers were placed at the extremities, the reft in
the middle. Thus we learn from Homer, that Achilles
and Ajax were ported at the ends of the camp before
Troy, as bulwarks on each fide of the reft of the princes.
The figure of the Roman camp was a fquare divided
into two principal parts : in the upper part were the
general’s pavilion, or praetorium, and the tents of the
chief officers ; in the lower, thofe of inferior degree
were placed. On one fide of the prastorium flood the
queftorium, or apartment of the treafurer of the army ;
and near this the forum, both for a market-place, 1
and the aflembling of councils. On the other fide of
the prastorium were lodged the legati; and below it
the tribunes had their quarters, oppofite to their re-
fpeftive legions. Afide of the tribunes were the pre-
fefti of the foreign troops, over againft their refpedive
wings; and behind thefe were the lodgments of the
evocati, then thofe of the extraordinarii and able&i
equites, which concluded the higher part of the camp.
Between the two partitions was a fpot of ground called
principia, for the altars and images of the gods, and
probably alfo for the chief enfigns. The middle of the
lower partition was afligned to the Roman horfe; next
to them were quartered the triarii; then the principes,
and clofe by them the haftati; afterwards the foreign
horfe, and laftly the foreign foot. They fortified
their camp with a ditch and parapet, which they, term-
ed fojfa and vallum; in the latter fome diftinguifti two j
parts, viz. the agger or earth, and the fades or wooden
flakes driven in to fecure it. The camps were fome¬
times furrounded by walls made of hewn (tone; and
the.
GAM [ ijgs ] CAM
Camp the tents themfelves formed of the fame matter.
11 In the front of the Turkifh camp are quartered the
Campaign. jan;zar;es an(] 0ther foot, whofe tents encompafs their
aga: in the rear are the quarters of the fpahis and o-
ther horfemen. The body of the camp is poflefled by
the (lately tents or pavilions of the vizier or general,
rais effendi or chancellor, kahija or fteward, the tefter-
dar bafhaw or lord treafurer, and' kapiflar kahiafee or
mailer of the ceremonies. In the middle of thefe tents
is a fpacious field, wherein are eredled a building for
the divan, and a hafna or treafury. . When the ground
is marked out for a camp, all wait for the pitching of
the tent /ai/ac, the place where the courts of jultice
are held; it being the difpofition of this that is to re¬
gulate all the re(t.
The Arabs dill live in camps, as the ancient Scenites
did. The camp of the Affyne Emir, or king of the
country about Tadmor, is defcribed by a traveller who
viewed it, as fpread over a very large plain, and pof-
feffing fo vad a fpace, that though he had the advan¬
tage of a rifing ground, he could not fee the utmod
extent of it. His own tent was near the middle; fcarce
didinguifhable from the red, except that it was bigger,
being made, like the others, of a fort of hair-cloth.
Camp, is alfo ufed by the Siamefe, and fome other
nations in the Ead Indies, as the name of the quarters
which they affign to foreigners who come to trade with
them. In thefe camps, every nation forms, as it were,
a particular town, where they carry on all their trade,
not only keeping all their warehoufes and (hops there,
but alio live in thefe camps with their whole families.
The Europeans, however, are fo far indulged, that at
Siam, and almod every where elfe, they may live either
in the cities or fuburbs, as they (hall judge mod con¬
venient.
CAMPAGNA. See Campania.
CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, denotes the fpace
of time that an army keeps the field, or is encamped.—
The beginning of every campaign is confiderably more
unhealthy than if the men were to remain in quarters.
After the fird fortnight or three weeks encampment,
the ficknefs decreafes daily ; the mod infirm being by
that time in the hofpitals, and the weather daily grow¬
ing warmer. This healthy date continues throughout
the fummer, unlefs the men get wet clothes or wet
beds; in which cafe, a greater or lefs degree of the dy-
fentery will appear in proportion to the preceding
heats. But the mod fickly part of the campaign begins
about the middle or end of Augud, whiid the days are
dill hot, but the nights cool and damp, with fogs and
dews : then, and not fooner, the dyfentery prevails ;
and though its violence is over by the beginning of
O£lober, yet the remitting fever gaining ground, con¬
tinues throughout the red of the campaign, and never
entirely ceafes, even in winter-quarters, till the frods
begin. At the beginning of a campaigh the ficknefs is
fo uniform, that the number may be nearly predicted;
but, for the red of the feafon, as the difeafes are then
of a contagious nature, and depend fo.much upon the
heats of fummer, it is impoffible to forefee how many
may faH fick from the beginning to the end of autumn.
It is alfo obferved, that the lad fortnight of a cam¬
paign, if protra&ed till the beginning of a campaign,
is attended with more ficknefs than the fird two months
encampment: fo that it is better to take the .field a
fortnight fooner, in order to return into winter-quarters Campa-
fo much the earlier. As to winter expeditions, though l,*cea!
fevere in appearance, they are attended with little fick- Campania.
nefs, if the men have drong (hoes, quarters, fuel, and 
provifions. Long marches in fummer are not without
danger, unlefs made in the night, or fo early in the
morning as to be over before the heat of the day.
CAMPANACE./E, in botany, an order of plants
in the Fragmenta methodi naturatis of Linnasus, in
which are the following genera, viz. convolvulus, ipo- t
maea, polemonium, campanula, roella, viola, &c*. c anh
CAMPANELLA (Thomas), a famous Italian P
philofopher, born at Stilo in Calabria, in 1568.
He didinguifhed himfelf by his early proficiency in
learning; for at the age of 13 he was a perfedl mader
'of the ancient orators and poets. His peculiar inclina-,
tion was to philofophy, to which he at lad confined
his whole time and dudy. In order to arrive at truth,
he (hook off the yoke of authority : by which means
the novelty of fome of his opinions expofed him to
many inconveniences; for at Naples he was thrown
into prifon, in which he remained 27 years, and du¬
ring this confinement wrote his famous work entitled
Atheifmus triumphatus. Being at length fet at liberty,
he went to Paris, where he was gracioufiy received by
Lewis XIII. and cardinal Richelieu ; the latter pro¬
cured him apenfion of 2000 livres, and often confulted
him on the affairs of Italy. Campanella paffed the re¬
mainder of his days in a monadery of Dominicans at
Paris, and died in 1639.
CAMPANI (Matthew) of Spoletto, curate at
Rome, wrote a curious treatife on the art of cutting
glaffes for fpe&acles, and made feveral improvements
in optics, affided. by his brother and pupil Jofeph.
He died after 1678.
CAMPANIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the farther principato, with a bidiop’s
fee. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat. 40. 40.
Campania, or Campagna, di Roma, anciently La-
tium, a province of Italy, bounded on the wed by the
Tiber and the fea, on the fouth-wed by the fea, on the
fouth by Terra di Lavorro, on the ead by Abruzzo,
and on the north by Sabina. Though the foil is good,
it produces little or nothing, on account of, the heavy
duties on corn; and though the waters are good, the
air is unwholefome. It is fubjeft to the Pope, and is
about 60 miles in length on the Mediterranean fea.
It hath been generally thought that the air of this
country hath fomething in it peculiarly noxious du¬
ring the fummer-time; but Mr Condamine is of opinion
that it is not more unhealthy than any other mardiy
country. His account follows. “ It was after the in-
vafion of the Goths in th» fifth and fixth centuries that
this corruption of the air began to manifed itfelf. The
bed of the Tiber being covered by the accumulated
ruins of the edifices of ancient Rome, could not but
raife itfelf confiderably. But what permits us not to
doubt of this fadt is, that the ancient and well-preferved
pavement of the Pantheon and its portico is overflowed
every winter; that the water even rifes there fometimes
to the height of eight or ten feet; and that it is not
pofiible to fuppofe that the ancient Romans (hould
have built a temple in a place fo low as to be covered
with the waters of the Tiber on the lead inundation.
It is evident, then, that the level of the bed of this river
9 is
CAM [ 1596 ] CAM
Campania, is raifed feveral feet; which could not have happened
* ~ without forming there a kind of dikes or bars. The
choaking up of its canal neceflarily occafioned the over¬
flow and reflux of its waters in fuch places as till then
had not been fubjedt to inundations: to thefe over¬
flowings of the Tiber were added all the waters that
efcaped out of the ancient aquedu&s, the ruins of which
are ftill to be feen, and which were entirely broken and
deflroyed by Totila. What need, therefore, of any
thing more to infedf the air, in a hot climate, than the
exhalations of fuch a mafs of ftagnating waters, depri¬
ved of any difcharge, and become the receptacle of a
thoufand impurities, as well as the grave of feveral mil¬
lions both of men and animals? The evil could not but
increafe from the fame caufes while Rome was expofed
to the incurfions and devaflations of the Lombards, the
Normans, and the Saracens, which laftcd for feveral
centuries. The air was become fo infe&ious there at
the beginning of the 13th century, that Pope Inno¬
cent III. wrote, that few people at Rome arrived to
the age of forty years, and that nothing was more
uncommon there than to fee a perfon of lixty. A very
fhort time after, the popes transferred the feat of their
refidence to Avignon : during the feventy-two years
they remained there, Rome became a defert ; the mo-
r.afteries in it were converted into ftables; and Gre¬
gory XL on his return to Rome, in 1376, hardly
counted there 30,000 inhabitants. At his death began
the troubles of the great fchifm in the weft, which con¬
tinued for upwards of 50 years. Martin V. in whom
this fchifm ended in the year 1429, and his firftfucceffors,
were able to make but feeble efforts againft fo invete¬
rate an evil. It was not till the beginning of the 16th
century that Leo X. under whom Rome began to re¬
fume her wonted fplendor, gave himfelf fome trouble
about re-eftabliftting the falubrity of the air: but the
city, being ftiortly after befieged twice fucccflively by
the emperor Charles V. faw itfelf plunged again into
all its old calamities; and from 85,000 inhabitants,
which it contained under Leo X. it was reduced under
Clement VIII. to 32,000. In ftiort, it is only fince the
time of Pius V. and Sextus V. at the end of the 16th
centui*y, that the popes have conftantly employed the
neceffary methods for purifying the air of Rome and
its environs, by procuring proper difcharges for the
waters, drying up the humid and marihy grounds, and
covering the banks of the Tiber and other places repu¬
ted uninhabitable with fuperb edifices. Since that time
a perfon may dwell at Rome, and go in or out of it at
all feafons of the year. At the beginning, however, of
the prefent century, they were ftill afraid to lie out of
the city in fummer, when they had refided there; as
they were alfo to return to it, when once they had
quitted it. They never ventured to fleep at Rome, even
in broad day, in any other houfe than their own.
They are greatly relaxed at prefent from thefe ancient
fcruples: I have feen cardinals, in the months of July
and Auguft, go from Rome to lie at Frafcati, Tivoli,
Albano, &c. and return the next or the following days
to the city, without any detriment to their health : I
have myfelf tried all thefe experiments, without fuffer-
iag the leaft inconvenience from them: we have even
feen, in the Jaft war in Italy, two armies encamped
under the walls of Rome at the time when the heats
were moft violent. Yet, notwithftanding all this, the
greater part of the country people dare not ftill venture Campanl-
to lie during that feafon of the year, nor even as much i<’rm
as fleep in a carriage, in any part of the territory com- Campanula,
prehended under the name of the Campagna of Rome.”  
CAMPANIFORM, or Campanulated, an appel¬
lation given to flowers refembling a bell.
CAMPANINI, a name given to an Italian marble
dug out of the mountains of Carrara, becaufe, when it
is worked, it founds like a bell.
CAMPANULA,, or bell-flower ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants.
Species. Of this genus there are no fewer than 41
fpecies enumerated by botanical writers; but the fol¬
lowing are the moft worthy of attention. i.Thepyra-
midalis hath thick tuberous roots filled with a milky
juice; it fends out Itrong, fmooth, upright ftalks,
which rife to the height of four feet, garni (bed with
fmooth oblong leaves a little indented at the edges.
The flowers arc produced from the fide of the ftalks,
and are regularly fet on for more than half their length,
forming a fort of pyramid; thefe are large, open, and
fliaped like a bell. The moft common colour of the
flowers is blue, though fome are white, but the-former
are moft efteemed. 2. The decurrens, or peach-leaved
bell-flower, is a native of the northern parts of Europe: '
of this there are fome with white, and fome with blue
flowers, and fome with double flowers of both colours-
Thefe laft have of late been propagated in fuch abun¬
dance as to have almoft banifhed from the gardens
thofe with Angle flowers. 3. The medium, commonly
called Canterbury bell-flotwer, is a biennial plant, which
perifhes foon after it has ripened its feeds. It grows
naturally in the woods of Italy and Auftria ; but is
cultivated in the Britifh gardens for the beauty of its
flowers, which are blue, purple, white, and ftriped, with
double flowers of all the colours. This fpecies hath ob¬
long, rough, hairy leaves, ferrated on their edges: from
the centre of thefe rifes a ftiff, hairy, furrowed ftalk,
about two feet high, fending out feveral lateral branches,
garnifhed with long, narrow, hairy leaves fawed on their
edges. From the fetting on ofthefeleaves proceed the foot-
ftalks of the flower; thofe which are on the lower part
of the ftalk and branches diminiihing gradually in their
length upward, and thereby forming a fort of pyramid.
The flowers of this kind are very large, fo make a fine
appearance. The feeds ripen in September, and the
plants decay foon after. 4. The trachelium, with nettle
leaves, hath a perennial root, which fends up feveral
ftiff hairy (talks having two ribs or angles. Thefe put
out a few fhort fide-branches, garnifhed with oblong
hairy leaves deeply fawed on their edges. Toward the
upper part of the ftalks, the flowers come out alter¬
nately upon fhort trifid foot-ftalks having hairy em-
palements. The colours of the flowers are a deep and
a pale blue and white, with double flowers of the fame;
the double-flowered kind only merit a place in gardens.
5. The latifolia, or greateft bell-flower, hath a peren¬
nial root, compofed of many flefhy fibres that abound
with a milky juice. From thefe arife feveral ftrong,
round, Angle ftalks, which never put out branches, but
are garnifhed with oval fpear-fhaped leaves (lightly in¬
dented on their edges. Towards the upper part of the
ftalk the flowers come out fingly upon fhort foot-
ftalks; their colours are blue, purple, and white. 6. The
rapun-
CAM [ i<
Campanula, rapunculus, or rampion, hatli roundifli ilefliy roots,
' ’ which are eatable, and much cultivated in France for
fallads; fome years paft it was cultivated in the Eng-
lilh gardens for the famepurpofe, but is now generally
neglected. It is a native of Britain ; but the roots of
the wild fort never grow to half the fize of thofe which
are cultivated. 7. The fpeculum, with yellow eye-
bright leaves, is an annual plant with {lender ftalks
rifing a foot high, branching out on every fide, and
garnirtted with oblong leaves a little curled on their
edges; from the wings of the leaves come out the
flowers fitting clofe to the {talks, which are of a beau¬
tiful purple inclining to a violet colour. In the even¬
ing, they contraft and fold into a pentagonal figure;
from whence it is by fome called viola pentagonia, or
fve-cornered violet. 8. The hybrids, or common Venus
looking-glafs. This feldom rifes more than fix inches
high, with a {talk branching from the bottom upward,
and garnifhed with oval leaves fitting clofe to the
{talks, from the bafe of which the branches are produ¬
ced, which are terminated by flowers very like the for¬
mer fort. This was formerly cultivated in the gardens:
but finee the former kind hath been introduced, it hath
almoft fupplanted this; for the other is a much taller
plant, and the flowers larger, though of a lefs beautiful
colour. 9. The canarienlis, with an orach leaf and tu¬
berous root, is a native of the Canary iflands. It hath
a thick flefhy root of an irregular form; fometimes
running downward like a parfnep, at other times divi¬
ding into feveral knobs near the top ; and when any
part of the root is broken, there iffues out a milky juice
at the wound. From the head or crown of the root
arife one, two, three, or more ftalks, in proportion to
the fize of the root ; but that in the centre is generally
larger, and rifes higher, than the others. Tliefe ftalks
are very tender, round, and of a pale green ; their
joints are far diftant from each other; and when the
roots are ftrong, the ftalks will rife to ten feet high,
fending out feveral lateral branches. At each joint they
are garnifhed with two, three, or four fpear-ftiaped
leaves, with a {harp pointed beard on each fide. They
are of a fea-green; and, when they firft come out, are
covered {lightly with an afti-coloured pounce. From the
joints of the ftalk the flowers are produced, which are
of the perfeft bell-fliape, and hang downward ; they are
of a flame-eolour, marked with ftripes of a brownifli red:
the flower is divided into five parts; at the bottom of each
is feated a nedlariuwi, covered with a white tranfparent
{kin, much refembling thofe of the crown imperial, but
fmaller. The flowers begin to open in the beginning
of O&ober, and there is often a fucceffion of them till
March. The ftalks decay to the root in June, and new
ones fpring up in Auguft.
Culture, &c. The firft fort is cultivated to adorn
halls, and to place before chimnies in the fummer when
it is in flower, for which purpofe there is no plant more
proper ; for when the roots are ftrong, they will fend
out four or five ftalks which will rife as many feet
high, and are adorned with flowers a great part of their
length. When the flowers begin to open, the pots are
removed into the rooms, where, being {haded from the
fun and rain, the flowers will continue long in beauty;
and if the pots are every night removed into a more
airy fituation, but not expofed to heavy rains, the
flowers will be fairer, and continue much longer in
97 ] CAM
beauty. Thofe plants which are thus treated, are fel- Campanula,
dom fit for the purpofe the following feafon ; therefore “
a fupply of young ones muft be annually raifed. The
plant may be propagated cither by dividing the roots
or by feeds, but the latter produce the moft vigorous
and beft flowering plants. The feeds muft be fown in
autumn in boxes or pots filled with light undunged
earth, and placed in the open air till the froft or hard
rains come on : then they muft be placed under a hot¬
bed frame, where they may be {heltered from both;
but in mild weather,, the glafles ftiould be drawn off
every day, that they may enjoy the free air: with this
management the plants will come up early in the fpring,
and then they muft be removed out of the frame, pla¬
cing them firft in a warm fituation ; but, when the
feafon becomes warm, they ftiould be fo placed as to
have the morning fun only. In September the leaves
of the plants will begin to decay, at which time they
fliould be tranfplanted; therefore there muft be one or
two beds prepared, in proportion to the number of
plants. Thefe beds muft be in a warm fituation, and
the earth light, fandy, and without any mixture of
dung. The plants muft then be taken out of the
pots or cafes very carefully, fo as not to bnjife their
roots; for they are very tender, and on being broken
the milky juice will flow out plentifully, which will
greatly weaken them. Thefe (hould be planted at a-
bout fix inches diftance each way, with, the head or
crown of the root half an inch below the furface. If
the feafon proves dry, they muft be gently watered
three or four days after they are planted ; the beds
(hould alfo be covered with mats in the day time, but
which {hould be taken off at night to let the dew fall
on the plants. Towards the end of November the beds
{hould be covered over with fome old tanners bark to
keep out the froft ; and where there is not conveniency
for covering them with frames, they {hould be arched
over with hoops, that in fevere weather they may be
covered with mats. In the fpring the mats muft be re¬
moved, and, the following furqmer, the plants kept
free from weeds. In autumn the earth {hould be ftirred
between them, fome trefli earth fpread over the beds,
and the plants covered in winter as before. In thefe
beds the plants may remain two years, during which
time they are to be treated in the manner before direc¬
ted. The roots will now be ftrong enough to flower;
ib, in September they {hould be carefully taken up, and
fome of the moft promifing carefully planted in pots;
the others may be planted in warm borders, or in a frefti
bed, at a greater diftance than before, to allow them
room to grow. Thofe plants which are potted {hould
be fheltered in winter from great rains and hard frofts,
otberwife they will be in danger of rotting, or at lealfc
will be fo weakened as not to flower with any ftreogth.
the following fummer ; and thofe which are planted in
the full ground, {hould have fome old tanners bark laid
round them to prevent the froft from getting at the
roots. The fecond, third, fourth, and fifth forts are
fo eafily propagated by parting the roots, or by feeds,
that no particular dire&ions for their culture need be
given. The fixth fort, which is cultivated for its efeu-
lent roots, may be propagated by feeds, which are to
be fown in a ftiady border; and when the plants area-
bout an inch high, the ground fhould be hoed as is
pra&ifed for onions, to cut up the weeds, and thin the
plants.
CAM [ 1598 ] CAM
Campanula, plants, to the diftance of three or four inches ; and
Campbell when the weeds come up again theymuft be hoed over
to deftroy them : this, if well performed in dry wea¬
ther, will make the ground clean for a long time ; fo
that, being three times repeated, it will keep the plants
clean till winter, which is the feafon for eating the
roots, when they may be taken up for ufe as wanted.
They will continue good till April, at which time
they fend out their ftalks, when the roots become hard
and unfit for ufe.—The feventh and eighth forts are
eafily propagated by feeds, which they produce in plen¬
ty. If thefe, and the Venus navelwort, dwarf lych¬
nis, candy-tuft, and other low annual flowers, are pro¬
perly mixed in the border of the flower-garden, and
fown at two or three different feafons, fo as to have a
fucceffion of them in flower, they will make an agree¬
able variety. If thefe feeds are fown in autumn, the
plants will flower early in the fpring ; but if fown in the
fpring, they will not flower till the middle of June ;
and if a third flowing is performed about the middle of
May, the plants will flower in Augult; but from thefe,
good feeds muft not be expeded.—The ninth fort is
propagated by parting the roots, which mull be done
with caution : for if they are broken or wounded, the
milky juice will flow out plentifully: and if planted be¬
fore the wounds art fkinned over, it occafions their
rotting : therefore when any of them are broken, they
fhould be laid in the green-houfe a few days to heal.
Thefe roots mull not be too often parted, if they are
expeded to flower well ; for by this means they are
weakened. The befl time for tranfplanting and part¬
ing their roots is in July, foon after the ilalks are de¬
cayed. They mufl not be planted in rich earth, other-
wife they will be very luxuriant in branches, and h^ve
but few flowers. They fucceed bell in a light fandy
loam, mixed with a fourth part of fcreened lime-rub-
bifh: when the roots are firft planted the pots Ihould
be placed in the (hade, and unlefs the feafon is very dry
they fhould not be watered ; for during the time they
are inadive, wet is very injurious to them. About
the middle of Auguft, the roots will begin to put out
fibres; at which time, if the pots are placed under a
hot-bed frame, and, as the nights grow cool, covered
with the glafies, but opened every day to enjoy the free
air, it will greatly forward them for flowering, and in-
creafe their ftrength : when the flalks appear, they
mult be now and then refrefhed with water; but it
mull not be given too often, nor in top great quantity.
The plants thus managed, by the middle of Septem¬
ber will have grown fo tall as not to be kept any
longer under the glafs frame; they mull, therefore, be
removed into a dry airy glafs-cafe, where they may en¬
joy the free air in mild weather, but fcreened from the
cold. During the winter feafon they mull be fre¬
quently refreshed with water, and guarded from froft ;
and, in the fpring, when the Ilalks begin to decay,
the pots Ihould be fet abroad in the (hade, and not wa¬
tered.
CAMPBELL (Archibald), earl and marquis of
Argyle, was the fon of Archibald earl of Argyle, by
the lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William earl of
Morton. He was born in the year 1598 ; and edu¬
cated in the profeflion of the Proteftant religion, ac¬
cording to the ftrhStell rules of the church of Scotland,
as it was eftablilhed immediately after the reformation.
During the commonwealth he was induced to fubmit to Campbell.
its authority. Upon the reiteration, he was tried for-
his compliance ; a crime common to him with the whole
nation, and fuch a one as the mod loyal and affec¬
tionate fubjed might frequently by violence be induced
to commit. To make this compliance appear the
more voluntary and hearty, there were produced in
court, letters which he had wrote to Albemarle, while
that general governed Scotland, and which contained
expreffions of the moll cordial attachment to the ella-
blilhed government. But, befides the general indig¬
nation excited by Albemarle’s difeovery of this private
correfpondence ; men thought, that even the higheft
demondrations of affedion might, during jealous times,
be exaded as a neeelfary mark of compliance from a
perfon of fuch didindion as Argyle ; and could not, by
any equitable condrudion, imply the crime of trea-
fon. The parliament, however, fcrupled not to pafs
fentence upon him, and he fuffered with great conltan-
cy and courage.
Campbell (Archibald), earl of Argyle, fon to the
former, had from his youth didjnguilhed himfelf by his
loyalty, and his attachment to the royal family. Tho’
his father was head of the covenanters, he himfelf re-
fufled to concur in any of their meafures ; and when a
commiflion of colonel was given him by the convention
of dates, he forbore to ad upon it till it fhould be ra¬
tified by the king. By his refpedful behaviour, as well
as by his fervices, he made himfelf acceptable to Charles
when that prince was in Scotland; and even after the
battle of Worceder, all the misfortunes which attended
the royal caufe could not engage him to defert it. Un¬
der Middleton he obftinately perfevered to harafs and
infed the vidorious Englilh ; and it was not till he re¬
ceived orders from that general, that he would fubmit
to accept of a capitulation. Such jealoufy of his loyal
attachments was entertained by the commonwealth and
protedor, that a pretence was foon after fallen upon to
commit him to prifon ; and his confinement was rigo-
roufly continued till the redoration. The king, fen-
fibleofhis fervices, had remitted to him his father’s
forfeiture, and created him earl of Argyle ; and when
a mod unjud fentencef was paffed upon him by the Scots
parliament, Charles had anew remitted it. In the fub-
fequent part of this reign Argyle behaved himfelf du¬
tifully ; and though he feemed not difpofed to go all
lengths with the court, he always appeared, even in his'
oppofition, a man of mild difpofitions and peaceable de¬
portment.
A parliament was fummoned at Edinburgh in fum-
mer 1681, and the duke was appointed commiffioner.
Befides granting money to the king, and voting the
indefeafible right of fucceflion, this parliament enabled
a ted, which all perfons poffelTed of offices, civil, mili¬
tary, or ecclefiadical, were bound to take. In this ted
the king’s fupremacy was afferted, the covenant renoun¬
ced, paffive obedience aflented to, and all obligations
difclaimed of endeavouring any alteration in civil or ec¬
clefiadical edablilhments. This was the date of the
ted as propofed by the courtiers ; but the country par¬
ty propofed alfo a claufe of adherence to the Proteflant
religion, which could not with decency be rejeded.
The whole was of an enormous length, confidered as
an oath ; and, what was worfe, a confeffion of faith
was there ratified which had been impofed a little after
the '
CAM [ 1599 ] CAM
Campbell, the reformation, and which contained many articles al- felf in order to recover the conftitution by force of arms,
" together forged by the parliament and nation. Among he concerted meafures with the duke of Monmouth
others, the do&rine of refiftance was inculcated; fo and went into Scotland, to alfemble his friends : but
that the left being voted in a hurry, was found on ex- not meeting with the fuccefs he expeded, he was taken
amination to be a medley of abfurdity and contradic- prifoner; and being carried to Edinburgh, was be-
tion. Though the courtiers could not rejed the claufe headed upon his former unjuft fentence, June 30, 1685
of adhering to the Proteftant religion, they propofed, He Jhewed great conftancy and courage under his raif-
as a requifite mark of refped, that all princes of the fortunes: on the day of his death he ate his dinner very
blood fhould be exempted from taking that oath. This cheerfully ; and, according to his cuftom, flept after it
exception was zealoufty oppofed by Argyle ; who ob- a quarter of an hour or more, very foundly. At the
ferved that the foie danger to be dreaded for the Pro- place of execution he made a ftiort, grave, and religious
teftant religion mull proceed from the perverfion of the fpeech ; and, after folemnly declaring that he for-
royal family. By infilling on fuch topics, he drew on gave all his enemies, fubmitted to death with great
himfelf the fecret indignation of the duke of York, of firmnefs.
which he foon felt the'fatal confequences. Campbell (John), duke of Argyle and Green-
When Argyle took the tell as a privy counfellor, he wich, grandfon of the former, was born on the 10th of
fubjoined, in the duke’s prefence, an explanation which Odober, 1680; and, on the very day when hisgrand-
he had beforehand communicated to that prince, and father fuffered at Edinburgh, fell out of a window three
which he believed to have been approved by him. It pair of flairs high, without receiving any hurt. At
was in thefe words. “ I have confidered the tell, and the age of 15, he had made a confiderable progrefs in
am very defirous of giving obedience as far as I can. I claffical learning. His father then perceived and en-
am confident that the parliament never intended to im- couraged his military difpofition, and introduced him
pofe contradiiilory oaths: therefore I think no man can to king William, who in the year 1694 gave him the
explain it but for himfelf. Accordingly I take it as far command of a regiment. In this fituation he remained
as it is confiftent with itfelf and the Proteftant reli- till the death of his father, in 1703 ; when becoming
gion. And Ido declare that I mean not to bind my- duke of Argyle, he was foon after fworn of queen
felf, in my ftation, and in a lawful way, from wifixing Anne’s privy-council, made captain of the Scotch horfe-
and endeavouring any alteration, which I think to the guards, and appointed one of the extraordinary lords
advantage of church or Hate, and not repugnant to the of fefiion. In 1704, her majefty reviving the Scottilh
Proteftant religion and my loyalty : and this I under- order of the thillle, his grace was inftalled one of the
Hand as a part of my oath.” The duke, as was natural, knights of that order, and was foon after appointed
heard it with great tranquillity : no one took the lead high-commiffioner to the Scotch parliament; where,
offence : Argyle was admitted to fit that day in coun- being of great fervice in promoting the intended union,
cil : and it was impoffible to imagine that a capital of- he wa^on bis return created a peer of England, by the
fence had been committed where occafion feemed not titles of baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich, ami
to have been given fo much as for a frown or repri- in 1710 was made knight of the garter.. His grace
mand. firft diftinguifhed himfelf in his military capacity at the
Argyle was much furprifed a few days after, to find battle of Oudenard ; where he commanded as brigadier-
that a warrant was iffued for committing him to pri- general, with all the bravery of youth, and the con-
fon ; that he was indicted for high treafon, leafing- du£l of a veteran officer. He was prefent under the
making, and perjury ; and that from the innocent w'ords duke of Marlborough at the fiege of Ghent, and took
abovementioned an accufation was extracted, by which poffeffion of the town. He had alfo a confiderable {hare
he was to forfeit life, honours, and fortune. It is need- in the victory obtained over the French at the battle of
lefs to enter into particulars, where the iniquity of the Malplaquet, by diflodging them from the wood of Sart,
whole is fo evidently apparent. Though the fword of and gaining a poll of great confequence. In this ftiarp
juftice was difplayed, even her femblance was not pur engagement, feveral mulket-ball,s pafted through the
on ; and the forms of law were preferved to fanftify, duke’s cloaths, hat, and peruke. Soon after this hot
or rather aggravate, the oppreffion. Of five judges, aftion, he was fent to take the command in Spaiq ;
three did not fcruple to find the guilt of treafon and and after the redudion of Port Mahon, he returned to
leafing-making to be incurred by the prifoner : a jury England. His grace having now a feat in the houfe
of 15 noblemen gave verdiCl againft him ; and the king of lords, he cenfured the meafures of the minillry with
being confulted, ordered the fentence to be pronounced, fuch freedom, that all his places were difpofed of to
but the execution of it to be fufpended till further other noblemen : but at the acceffion of George I. he
orders. Argyle, however, faw no reafon to trull to recovered his influence. At the breaking out of the
the juftice or mercy of fuch enemies: He made his ef- rebellion in 1715, he was made commander in chief of
cape from prifon, and till he could find a fhip for Hoi- his majefty’s forces in North Britain ; and was the
land he concealed himfelf during fome time in London, principal means and caufe of the total extinClion, at
The king heard of his lurking place, but would not that time, of the rebellion in Scotland, without much
fuffer him to be arrelled. All the parts, however, of bloodlhed. In direft oppolition to him, or that part of
his fentence, fo far as the government in Scotland had the army he commanded, at the head of al) his Camp-
power, were rigoroufly executed ; his ellate confifcated, bells was placed Campbell earl of Braidalbin, of the
Ins arms reverfed and torn. Having got over to Hoi- fame family and kindred, by fome fatal error that
land, he remained there during the remaining part of ever mifguided and milled that unhappy family of the
the reign of Charles II. But thinking himfelf at li- Stewarts and all its adherents. The confequence
berty, before the coronation of James II. to exert him- was, that both fets of Campbells, from family affec¬
tion*
Campbell.
CAM [ 1600 ] GAM
Campbet'. lion, refufed to ftrike a ftroke, and retired out of
  the battle. He arrived at London March 6th 1716,
and was in high favour: but, to the furprife of peo¬
ple of all ranks, he was in a few months divefted of
all his employments ; and from this period, to the year
1718, he fignalized himfelf in a civil capacity, by his
uncorrupted patriotifm and manly eloquence. In the
beginning of the year 1719, he was again admitted
into favour, appointed lord-fteward of the houlhold,
and in April following was created duke of Green¬
wich. He continued in the admifiiftration during all
the remaining part of that reign ; and, after his late
.majeily’s acceffion, till April 1740 ; when he delivered
a ipeech with fuch warmth, that, the miniftry being
highly offended, he was again difmiffed from his em¬
ployments. To thefe, however, on the change of the
miniftry, he was foon reftored ; but not approving of
the meafures of the new miniftry more than thofe of
the old, he gave up all his ports for the laft time, and
never after engaged in affairs of ftate. He now en¬
joyed privacy and retirement; and died of a paralytic
diforder, on the 4th of Oftober 1743. To the me¬
mory of his grace a very noble monument was erefted
in Weftminfter-abbey, executed by the ingenious Rou-
billiac.
The duke of Argyle, though never firft minifter,
was a very able ftatefman and politician, moft fteadily
fixed in thofe principles he believed to be right, and
not to be fhaken or changed. His delicacy and ho¬
nour were fo great, that it hurt him to be even fuf-
pefted ; witnefs that application faid to be made to
him by one of the adherents of the Stewart family be¬
fore the laft rebellion in order to gain his intereft,
which was confiderable both in Scotland and England.
He immediately fent the letter to the fecretary of ftate ;
and it vexed him much even to have an application
made him, left any perfon fhould think him capable of
afting a double part. When he thought meafures
wrong or corrupt, he cared not who was the author,
however great or powerful he might be ; witnefs his
boldly attacking the great duke of Marlborough in
the houfe of lords, about his forage and army con-
trafts in Flanders, in the very zenith of his power and
popularity, though in all other refpecls he was the
moft able general of his time. The duke of Argyle,
on all occafions, fpoke well, with a firm, manly, and
noble eloquence ; and feems to deferve the chara&er
given of him by Pope :
Argyle the (fate’s whole thunder born to wield.
And (hake alike the fenate and the field.
Campbell (Dr John), a late writer, who diftin-
guiftied himfelf by manyefteemed literary produdlions;
particularly as the author of a c.onfiderable part of The
ancient and modern univerfal hifiory, and of the Bio-
graphia Britannica. He wrote alfo The prefent Jlate of
Europe; The lives of the Englijb admirals; and an in¬
genious whimfical traft on the means of attaining ex¬
traordinary longevity, tnth\edHermippusredevivus. The
public are likewife indebted to him for a much improved
edition of Harris's collettion of voyages. But his prin¬
cipal and favourite work was, A politicalfurvey of Great
Britain, 2 vols 4to, publiftied a ftiort time before his
death ; in which the extent of his knowledge, and his
patriotic fpirit, are equally confpicuous. He was, du¬
ring the latter part of his life, agent for the province
of Georgia in North America ; and died at the clofe Campbell- i
of the year 1775, in the 67th year of his age. t0,jvri i
CAMPBELLTOWN, aparliamenttoWn of Argyle- Campi.
{hire in Scotland, feated on the lough of Kilkerran, on     \
the eaftern ftiore of Kintyre, of which it'is the capital.
It hath a good harbour; and is now a very confiderable
place, having rifen from a petty fifliing town to its
prefent flouriftiing fituation in lefs than 30 years. About
the year 1744, it had only two or three fmall vefiels
belonging to the port; but in 1772, there were 78
fail from 20 to 80 tons burthen, all built for, and em¬
ployed in, the herring-fiftiery ; and about 800 failors
were employed to man them. The inhabitants are
reckoned to be upwards of 7000 in number. W. Long.
5. 10. N. Lat. 54.
CAMPDEN, a poor town of Gloucefterftiire in
England, containing about 200 houfes. It gives title i
to a vifcount, and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 1. 50. N. Lat. 52.
CAMPEACHY, a town of Mexico in South A-
merica, feated on the eaft coaft of a bay of the fame
name, on the weft of the province of Yucataro. It is
defended by a good wall and ftrong forts; but is nei¬
ther fo rich, nor carries on fuch a trade, as formerly ;
it having been the port for the fale of logwood, the
place where it is cut being about 30 miles diftant. It
was taken by the Englifh in 1596 ; by the bucaneers
in 1678; and by the Flibufters of St Domingo in
1685, who fet it on fire, and blew up the citadel. W.
Long. 93. 7. N. Lat. 19. 20.
CAMPEACHY-/fW/, in botany. See Hjematoxy-
lum.
CAMPEN, a ftrong town of Overyfiel in the Uni¬
ted Provinces. It hath a citadel and a harbour; but
the latter is almoft choked up with fand. It was ta¬
ken by the Dutch in 1578, and by the French in 1672 ;
but they abandoned it the following year. It is feated
near the mouth of the river Yffel and Zuider See. E.
Long. 5. 35. N. Lat. 52. 38.
CAMPHORA, or Camphire, a folid concrete #
juice extra&ed from the wood of the laurus camphora *. * Sce
Pure camphire is very white, pellucid, fomewhat
un&uous to the touch; of a bitterifh aromatic tafte, and Mate-’
yet accompanied with a fenfe of coolnefs; of a very ria Mcdha,
fragrant frnell, fomewhat like that of rofemary, butll0,s8,
much ftronger. It has been very long efteemed one of
the moft efficacious diaphoretics; and has been cele¬
brated in fevers, malignant and epidemical diftempers.
In deliria, alfo, where opiates could not procure deep,
but rather aggravated the fymptoms, this medicine
has often been obferved to procure it. All thefe
effe&s, however, Dr Cullen attributes to its fedative
property, and denies that camphire has any other me¬
dicinal virtues than thofe of an antifpafmodic and feda¬
tive. He allows it to be very powerful, and capable of
doing much good or much harm. From experiments
made on different brute creatures, camphire appears to
be poifonous to every one of them. In fome it pro¬
duced deep followed by death, without any other fymp-
tom. In others, before death, they were awakened
into convulfions and rage. It feems, too, to ad chiefly
on the ftomach ; for an entire piece fwallowed, pro¬
duced the abovementioned effefts with very little dimi¬
nution of weight.
CAMPI (Bernardine) of Cremona, an Italian paint¬
er,
Campian.
CAM r 1601 1 CAM
er, author of an admired treatife on the art, flouriihed
in the 12th century.
CAMPIAN (Edmund), an EngHfli Jefuit, was born
at London, of indigent parents, in the year 1540; and
educated at Chrift’s hofpital, where he had the honour
to fpeak an oration before queen Mary on her acceflion
to the throne. He was admitted a fcholar of St John’s
college in Oxford at its foundation, and took the de-
ree of mailer of arts in 1564. About the fame time
e was ordained by a bifhop of the church of England,
and became an eloquent Proteftant preacher. In 1566,
when queen’Elizabeth was entertained by the univerfity
of Oxford, he fpoke an elegant oration before her ma-
jefty, and was alfo refpondent in the philofophy aft in
St Mary’s church. In 1568, he was junior proftor of
the univerfity. In the following year, he went over to
Ireland, where he wrote a hiftory of that kingdom, and
turned papiil.; but being found rather too alfiduous in
perfuading others to follow his example, he was com¬
mitted to prifon. He foon, however, found means to
make his efcape. He landed in England in 1571; and
thence proceeded to Doway in Flanders, where he
publicly recanted his former herefy, and was created
bachelor of divinity. He went foon after to Rome,
where, in 1573, he was admitted of the fociety of Je-
fus, and was fent by the general of that order to Vien¬
na, where he wrote his tragedy called Neftar et am¬
ir ofia, which was afted before the emperor with great
applaufe.
From Vienna he went to Prague in Bohemia, where
he refided in the Jefuits college about fix years, and
then returned to Rome. From thence, in 1580, he was
fent by Pope Gregory XIII. with the celebrated Father
Parfons, to convert the people of England. From Pitts
we learn, that, fiome time before, feveral Englifh priefts,
infpired by the Holy Ghoft, had undertaken to convert
their countrymen ; that 80 of thefe foreign feminaries,
befides feveral others who by God’s grace had been
converted in England, were aftually engaged in the
pious work with great fuccefs; that feme of them had
fuffered imprifonment, chains, tortures, and ignomini¬
ous death, with becoming conftancy and refolution :
but feeing at laft that the labour was abundant, and
the labourers few, they folicited the afiiftance of the
Jefuits; requefting, that, though not early in the morn¬
ing, they would at lead in the third, fixth, or ninth
hour, fend labourers into the Lord’s vineyard. In con-
fequence of this folicitation, the above two were fent
to England. They arrived, in an evil hour for Campian,
at Dover; and were next day joyfully received by their
friends at London. He had not been long in England,
before Walfingham the fecretary of ftate, being in¬
formed of his uncommon affiduity in the caufe of the
church of Rome, ufed every means in his power to have
him apprehended, but for a long time without fuccefs.
However, he was at laft taken by one Elliot, a noted
prieji-taker, who found him in the houfe of Edward
Yates, Efq; at Lyford in Berkfhire, and condufted him
in triumph to London, with a paper on his hat, on
which was written Campian the Jefuit. He was im-
prifoned in the Tower; where, Wood fays* “ he did
undergo many examinations, abufes, wrackings, tor¬
tures ;” exquijitiflimis cruciatibus tortus, fays Pitts. It
is hoped, for the credit of our reformers, this torturing
part of the ftory is not true. The poor wretch, how-
Vol. III.
ever, was condemned, on the ftatute 25 Ed. III. for
high treafon; and butchered at Tyburn, with two or
three of his fraternity. Howfoever criminal in the eye
of the law, or of the Englifii gofpel, might be the zeal
of this Jefuit for the falvation of the poor heretics of
this kingdom, biographers of each perfuafion unite in
giving him a great and amiable charafter. “ All wri¬
ters (fays the Oxford antiquary), whether Proteftant or
Popilh, fay, that he was a man of moft admirable parts;
an elegant orator, a fubtile philofopher and difputant,
and an exaft preacher whether in Englifh or the Latin
tongue, of a fweet difpofition, and a well-polifhed
man.” Fuller, in his church-hiftory, fays, “ he was of
a fweet nature, conftantly carrying about him the
charms of a plaufible behaviour,, of a fluent tongue,
and good parts.’’ His Hiftory of Ireland, in two
books, was written in 1570; and publiihed, by Sir
James Ware, from a manufeript in the Cotton library,
Dublin, 1633, folio. He wrote alfo Chronologia uni-
verfalis, a very learned work; and various other trafts.
CAMPION, in botany, the Englifh name of the
Lychnis.
Campion, a town of the kingdom of Tanguth in
Tartary. It was formerly remarkable for being a place
through which the caravans paffed in the road from
Bukharia to China. E. Long. 104.53. N. Lat. 40. 25.
CAMPISTRON, a celebrated French dramatic au¬
thor, was born in 1656. Racine direfted his poetical
talents to the theatre, and affifted him in his firft pieces.
He died in 1723.
CAMPLI, or Campoli, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the farther Abruzzo, fitu*
ated in E. Long. 13. 55.- N. Lat. 42. 38.
CAMPO major, a town of the province of Alen-
tejo in Portugal. W. Long. 7. 24. N. Lat. 38. 50.
CAMPREDON, a town of Catalonia in Spain,
feated at the foot of the Pyrenean fnountaius. The
fortifications were demolifhed by the French in 1691.
W. Long. 1. 56. N. Lat. 42. 20.
CAMPS (Francis de), abbot of Notre Dame at
Sigi, was born at Amiens in 1643 > an4 diftinguifhed
himfelf by his knowledge of medals, by writing an hi¬
ftory of France, and feveral other works. He died at
Paris in 1723.
CAMPUS,, in antiquity, a field or vacant plaimin a
city, not built upon, left vacant on account Ihews,
combats, exercifes, or other ufes of the citizens.
Campus Maii, in ancient cuftoms, an anniverfary
aflembly of our anceftors held on May-day, when they
confederated together for defence of the kingdom
againft all its enemies.
Campus Martins, a large plain in the fuburbs of
ancient Rome, lying between the Quirinal and Ca-
pitoline mounts and the Tiber, thus called becaufe
confecrated to the god Mars, and fet apart for military
fports and exercifes to which the Roman youth were
trained, as the ufe and handling of arms, and all man¬
ner of feats of aftivity. Here were the races run, ei¬
ther with chariots or fingle horfes 5 here alfo flood the
villa publica, or palace for the reception of ambafla-
dors, who were not permitted to enter the city. Many
of the public comitia were held in the fame field, part
of which was for that purpofe cantoned out. The place
was alfo nobly decorated with flatues, arches, columns,
porticoes, and the like ftruftures.
Campion
0 II
Campus.
Campus
CAN [ 1602 ] CAN
Campus Campus Sceleratus, a place without the walls of an- numbers of beech-trees and white wood; white and Canada- 
I! cient Rome, where the Veftals who had violated their red elms, and poplars. The Indians hollow the red
Canada- vows 0f virginity were buried alive. elms into canoes, fome of which made out of one piece
CAMUL, a town of Afia, on the eaftern extremity will contain 20 perfons; others are made of the bark;
of the kingdom of Cialus, on the frontiers of Tangut. the different pieces of which they few together with the
E. Long. 98. 5. N. Lat. 37. 15. inner rind, and daub over the feams with pitch, or ra-
CAMUS, a perfon with a low flat nofe, hollowed in ther a bituminous matter refembling pitch, to prevent
the middle. their leaking ; the ribs of thefe canoes are made of
The Tartars are great admirers of camus beauties, boughs of trees. In the hollow elms, the bears and
Rubruquis obferves, that the wife of the great Jenghiz wild cats take up their lodging from November to
Khan, a celebrated beauty, had only two holes for April. The country produces alfo a vaft variety of
a nofe. other vegetables, particularly tobacco, which thrives
Camus (John Peter), a French prelate born in 1582. well. Near Quebec is a fine lead mine, and many ex-
He was author of a number of pious romances (the cellent ones of iron have been difcovered. It hath al-
tafie of his time), and other theological works, to the v fo been reported that filver is found in fome of the
amount of 200 vols. His definition of politics is re- mountains. The rivers are extremely numerous, and f
markable: sirs non tam regetidi, quamfallendi, hominesj many of them very large and deep. The principal are,
“ the art not fo much of governing, as of deceiving, the Ouattauais, St John’s, Seguinay, Defpaires, and
mankind.” He died in 1652. Trois Rivieres; but all thefe are fwallowed up by the
CAN, in the fea-language, as can-pump, a veffel great river St Lawrence. This river iffues from the
wherewith feamen pour water into the pump to make lake Ontario; and, taking its courfenorth-eaft, wafhes
it go. Montreal, where it receives the Ouattauais, and forms
Chn-Buoy. See Buoy. many fertile iflands. It continues the fame courfe, and
Ckx-Hook, an inftrument ufed to fling a cafk by the meets the tide upwards of 400 miles from the fea, where
ends of the ftaves : it is formed by fixing a broad and it is navigable for large veflels ; and below Quebec,
flat hook at each end of a fhort rope; and the tackle 320 miles from the fea, it becomes fo broad and fo
by which the caflc fo flung may be hoifted or lowered, deep, that fliips of the line contributed in the laft war
is hooked to the middle of the rope. to reduce that city. After receiving in itsprogrefs in-
CANADA, or the province of Quebec, an exten- numerable ftreams, it at laft falls into the ocean at cape
five country of North America, bounded on the north- Rofiers, where it is 90 miles broad, and where the cold
eaft by the gulph of St Lawrence, and St John’s ri- is intenfe and the fea boifterous. This river is the only
ver ; on the fouth-weft, by lands inhabited by the fa- one upon which any fettlements of note are as yet
vage Indians, which are frequently included in this formed; but it is very probable, that, in time to come,
province ; on the fouth, by the provinces of Nova Sco- Canada, andthofe vaft regions to the weft, may be en-
tia, New England, and New York; and on the north- abled of themfelves to carry on a confiderable trade-
weft, by other Indian nations. Under the name of Ca- upon the great lakes of frefh water which thefe coun-
nada, the French comprehended a very large territory; tries environ. Here are five lakes, the leaft of which
taking” into their claim part of New Scotland, New is of greater extent than the frefh-water lakes to be
England, and New York on the eaft ; and extending found in any other part of the world : thefe are the
it on the weft as far as the Pacific Ocean. That part, lake Ontario, which is not kfs than 200 leagues in
however, which was reduced by the Britiih arms in the circumference ; Erie, or Ofwego, longer but not fo
laft war, lies between 61 and 81 degrees of weft Ion- broad, is about the fame extent. That of the Huron,
gitude, and between 45 and 52 of north latitude. The fpreads greatly in width, and is about 300 leagues in
climateis notverydifferent from that ofithe northern Bri- circuit ; as alfo is that of Machigan, though like lake
tifh colonies ; but as it is much further from the fea, and Erie it is rather long, and comparatively narrow. But
more to the northward, than moft of thofe provinces, the lake Superior is larger than any of thefe, being not
it has a much feverer winter, though the air is gene- • lefs than 500 leagues in circumference. All thefe are
rally clear ; and, like moft of thofe American tradts navigable by any veflels, and they all communicate
that do not lie too far to the northward, the fummers with each other ; but the pafiage between Erie and
are very hot, and exceeding pleafant. The foil in ge- Ontario is interrupted by a moft ftupenduous fall or ^
neral is very good, and in many parts extremely fer- cataraft, called the falls of Niagara*. The river St * See ^
tile ; producing many different forts of grains, fruits, Lawrence, as already obferved, is the outlet of thefe-^™* <
and vegetables. 'Ihe meadow grounds, which are well lakes, by which they difcharge themfdves into the o-
watered, yield excellent grafs, and breed vaft numbers cean. The French built forts at the feveral ftraits by
of great and fmall cattle. The uncultivated parts are which the lakes communicate with one another, and on ;
a continued wood, compofed of prodigioufly large and that where the laft of them communicates with the river,
lofty trees, of which there is fuch a variety of fpecies, By thefe, while the country was in their poffeflion, they
that even of thofe who have taken moft pains to know efft&ually fecured to themfelves the trade of the lakes,
them, there is not perhaps one that can tell half the and preferred an influence over all the Indian nations
number. Canada produces, among others, two forts that lie near them.
of pines, the white and the red ; four forts of firs ; two The moft curious and interefting part of the natural
forts of cedar and oak, the white and the red ; the hiftory of Canada is the animals there produced. Thefe
male and female maple; three forts of afh-trees, the are ftags, elks, deer, bears, foxes, martins, wild cats,
free, the mungrel, and the baftard ; three forts of wal- ferrets, weafels, large fquirrels of a greyilh hue, hares
nut-trees, the hard, the foft, and the fmooth ; vaft and rabbits. The fouthern parts, in particular, breed
great
CAN [ 1603 j CAN
Canada, great numbers of wild bulls, divers forts of roebucks,
  goats, wolves, &c. The marfhes, lakes, and pools, with
which this country abounds, fwarm with otters and
beavers, of which the white are highly valued, as well
as the right black kind. A vaft variety of birds are
alfo to be found in the woods; and the river St Law¬
rence abounds with fuch quantities of filh, that it is af¬
firmed by fome writers, this would be a more profitable
article than even the fur-trade.—There are in Canada
a multitude of different Indian tribes : but thefe are
obferved to decreafe in number where the Europeans
are molt numerous ; owing chiefly to the immoderate
ufe of fpirituous liquors, of which they are exceffively
fond. Their manners and way of living we have al-
t Se« dmc- ready particularly defcribed f. The principal towns
run, n° 19 are Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal. The cfim-
"_41' modities required by the Canadians from Europe are,
Wine, or rather rum; cloths, chiefly coarfe; linen; and
wrought iron. The Indian trade requires rum, to¬
bacco, a fort of duffil blankets, gums, powder, balls,
and flints, kettles, hatchets, toys, and trinkets of all
kinds. While the country was in pofTeffion of the
French, the Indians fupplied them with poultry ; and
the French had traders, who, like the original inha¬
bitants, traverfed the vaft lakes and rivers in canoes,
with incredible induftry and patience, carrying their
goods into the remoteft parts of America, and among
nations entirely unknown to us. Thefe again brought
the furs, &c. home to them, as the Indians were thereby
habituated to trade with them. For this purpofe, peo¬
ple from'all parts, even from the diftanceof 1000 miles,
came to the French fair at Montreal, which began in
June, and fometimes lafted three months. On this oc--
cafion many folemnities were obferved, guards were pla¬
ced, and the governor alfifted to preferve order in fo
great and various a concourfe of favage nations. But
fometimes great diforders and tumults happened ; and
the Indians frequently gave for a dram all that they were
poffefled of. It is remarkable, that many of thefe na¬
tions actually paffed by the Englifh fettlement of Al¬
bany in New York, and travelled 200 miles further to
Montreal, though they could have purchafed the goods
they wanted cheaper at the former.
Since Britain became poflefled of Canada, our trade
with that country has generally employed 34 fliips and
400 feamen ; their exports, at an average of three
years, in fkins, furs, ginfeng, fnake-root, capillaire,
and wheat, amount to 150,000/. Their imports from
Great Britain are computed at nearly the fame fum. It
will, however, be always impoffibie to overcome cer¬
tain inconveniencies arifing from the violence of the
winter. This is fo exceffive from December to April,
that the broadeft rivers are frozen over, and the fnow
lies commonly from four to fix feet deep on the ground,
even in thofe parts of the country which lie three Nde-
grees fouth of London, and in the temperate latitude of
Pane. Another inconvenience arifes from the falls in the
river St Lawrence below Montreal, which prevent fliips
from penetrating to that emporium of inland commerce.
Our communication therefore with Canada, and the
immenfe regions beyond it, will always be interrupted
during the winter-feafon, until roads are formed that
can be travelled without danger from the Indians. For
theft favage people often,commit hoftilities againft us,
without any previous notice ; and frequently, without
any provocation, they commit the moft horrid ravages Canada,
for a long time with impunity.
Canada was undoubtedly difeovered by Sebaftian
Cabot, the famous Italian adventurer, who failed un¬
der a commiffion from Henry VII. But though the
Englifli monarch did not think proper to make any ufe
of this difeovery, the French quickly attempted it; we
have an account of their fifliing for cod on the banks of
Newfoundland, and along the fea-eoaft of Canada, in
the beginning of the 16th century. About the year
1506, one Denys, a Frenchman, drew a map of the
ulph of St Lawrence ; and two years after, one Au-
ort, a fhip-mafter of Dieppe, carried over to France
fome of the natives of Canada. As the new country,
however, did not promife the fame amazing quantities
of gold and filver produced by Mexico and Peru, the
French, for fome years, negledted the difeovery. At
laft, in the year 1523, Francis I. a fenfible and en-
terprifing prince, fent four fliips, under the command
of Verazani, a Florentine, to profecute difeoveries in
that country. The particulars of this man’s firft ex¬
pedition are not known. All we can learn is, that
he returned to France, and next year he undertook a
fecond. As he approached the coaft, he met with a vio¬
lent ftorm ; however, he came fo near as to perceive the
natives on the fliore, making friendly figns to him to
land. This being found impracticable by reafon of the
furf upon the coaft, one of the failors threw himfelf in¬
to the fea; but, endeavouring to fwim back to the ftiip,
a furge threw him on fliore without figns of life. He
was, however, treated by the natives with fuch care
and humanity, that he recovered his ftrength, and was
allowed to fwim back to the ftiip, which immediately
returned to France. This is all we know of Vera-
zani’s fecond expedition. He undertook a third, but
was no more heard of, and it is thought that he and all
his company periflied before he could form any colony.
In 1534, one Jaques Cartier of St Maloes fet fail under
a commiflion from the French king, and on the 10th
of May arrived at Cape Bonavifta in Newfoundland.
Pie had with him two fmall fliips befides the one in
which he failed. He cruifed along the coafts of that
ifland, on which he difeovered inhabitants, probably
the Elkimaux. He landed in feverai places along the
coaft of the Gulf, and took poffeffion of the country in
the king’s name. On his return, he was again fent
out with a commiffion, and a pretty large force: he re¬
turned in 1535, and paffed the winter at St Croix; but
the feafon proved fo fevere, that he and his companions
muft have died of the feurvy, had they not, by the ad¬
vice of the natives, made ufe of the decodtion of the-
tops and bark of the white pines. As Cartier, how¬
ever, could produce neither gold nor filver, all that he
could fay about the utility of the fettlement was difre-
garded ; and in 1540, he was obliged to become pilot
to one M. Roberval, who was by the French king ap¬
pointed viceroy of Canada, and who failed from France
with five veffels. Arriving at thegulph of St Lawrence,
they built a fort; and Cartier was left to command the
garrifon in it, while Roberval returned to France for
additional recruits to his new fettlement. At laft, ha¬
ving embarked in 1549, with a great number of adven¬
turers, neither he nor any of his followers were heard
of more.
This fatal accident fo greatly difeouraged the court
9 R 2 of
CAN [ 1604 ] CAN
Canada, of France, that, for 50 years, no meafures were taken
Canal. for (applying with necefiaries the fettlers that were left.
At laft, Henry IV. appointed the Marquis de la Roche
lieutenant-general of Canada and the neighbouring
countries. In lyt}# he landed on the ifle of Sable,
which he abfurdly thought to be a proper place for a
fettlement, though it was without any port, and with¬
out produft except briars. Here he left about 40 ma¬
lefactors, the refufe of the French jails. After cruizing
for fome time on the coaftof Nova Scotia, without be¬
ing able to relieve thefe poor wretches, he returned to
France, where he died of a broken heart. His colony
muft have periflied, had not a French (hip been wreck¬
ed on the ifland, and a few (beep driven upon it at the
fame time. With the boards of the (hip they erefted
huts; and while the (heep laded they lived on them,
feeding afterwards on firti. Their clothes wearing out,
' they made coats of feal-(kins; and in this miferable con¬
dition they fpent feven years, when Henry ordered them
to be brought to France. The king had the curiofity
to fee them in their feal-flein dreffes, and was fo moved
with their appearance, that he forgave them all their
offences, and gave each of them 50 crowns to begin the
world anew.
In 1600, one Chauvin, a commander in the French
navy, attended by a merchant of St Malo, called Pont-
grave, made a voyage to Canada, from whence he •re¬
turned with a very profitable quantity of furs. Next
year he repeated the voyage with the fame good for¬
tune, but died while he was preparing for a third. The
many fpecimens of profit to be made by the Canadian
trade, at laft induced the-public to think favourably of
it. An armament was equipped, and the command of
it given to Pontgrave, with powers to extend his difco-
veries up the river St Lawrence. He failed in 1603, ha¬
ving in his company Samuel Champlain, who had been
a captain in the navy, and was a man of parts and fpi-
rit. It was not, however, till the year 1608, that the
colony was fully eftabliftied. This was accompliftied
by founding the city of Quebec, which from that time
•ommenced the capital of all the fettlements in Canada.
The colony, however, for many years continued in a
low way, and was often in danger of being totally ex¬
terminated by the Indians. As the particulars of thefe
wars, however, could neither be entertaining, nor in¬
deed intelligible, to many of our readers, we choofe to
omit them, and in general obferve, that the trench not
only concluded a permanent peace with the Indians,
but fo much ingratiated themfelves with them, that they
could with the greateft eafe prevail upon them at any
time to murder and fcalp the Englifti in their fettle¬
ments. Thefe praftices had a confiderable (hare in
bringing about the laft war with France, when the
whole country was conquered by the Britifii in^iyhi.
The mod remarkable tranfa&ion in this conqueft was
the fiege of Quebec ; for a particular account of which,
fee that article.
CANAL c/-Communication, an artificial cut in
the ground, fupplied with water from rivers, fprings,
&c. in order to make a navigable communication be¬
twixt one place and another.
The particular operations neceflary for making arti¬
ficial navigations depend upon a number of circumftan-
ces. The fituation of the ground ; the vicinity or con-
ne&ion with rivers; the eafe or difficulty with which a
proper quantity of water can be obtained ; thefe and Canal,
many other eircuraftances neceflarily produce great va-
riety in the ftru&ure of artificial navigations, and aug¬
ment or diminiffi the labour and expence of executing
them. When the ground is naturally level, and uncon-
ne6Ied with rivers, the execution is eafy, and the navi¬
gation is not liable to be difturbed by floods: but, when
the ground rifes and falls, and cannot be reduced to a
level, artificial methods of railing and lowering veffels
muft be employed ; which likewife vary according to
circumftances.
A kind of temporary (luices are fometimes employed
for railing boats over falls or (hoals in rivers by a very
fimple operation. Two pofts or pillars oFmafon-work,
with grooves, are fixed, one on each bank of the river,
at fome diftance below the (hoal. The boat having puf¬
fed thefe pofts, planks are let down acrofs the river by
pullies into the grooves, by which the water is dammed
up to a proper height for allowing the boat to pafs up
the river over the (hoal.
The Dutch and Fleemings at this day, fometimes
when obftrufted by cafcades, form an inclined plane or
rolling-bridge upon dry land, along!! which their vef¬
fels are drawn from the river below the cafcade into the
river above it. This, it is faid, was the only method
employed by the ancients, and is ftill ufed by the Chi-
nefe, who are faid to be entirely ignorant of the nature
and utility of locks. Thefe rolling-bridges cqnfift of
a number of cylindrical rollers which turn eafily on pi¬
vots, and a mill is commonly built near by, fo that the
fame machinery may ferve the double purpofe of work¬
ing the mill and drawing up veffels.
A Lock is a bafon placed lengthwife in a river or ca¬
nal, lined with walls of mafonry on each fide, and ter¬
minated by two gates, placed where there is a cafcade
or natural fall of the country ; and fo conftru&ed, that
the bafon being filled with water by an upper (luice to
the level of the waters above, a veffel may afeend thro*
the upper gate ; or the water in the lock being reduced
to the level of the water at the bottom of the cafcade,
the veffel may defeend through the lower gate ; for
when the waters are brought to a level on either fide,
the gate on that fide may be eafily opened. But as the
lower gate is drained in proportion to the depth of wa¬
ter it fuppoits, when the perpendicular height of the
water exceeds 12 or 13 feet, more locks than one be¬
come neceffary. Thus, if the fall be 17 feet, two
locks are required, each having 84- feet fall; and if
the •fall be 26 feet, three locks are neceffary, each
having 8 feet 8 inches fall. The fide-walls of a lock
ought to be very ftrong. Where the natural foun¬
dation is bad, they (hould be founded on piles and
platforms of wood : they (hould likewife dope out¬
wards, in order to refill the preffure of the earth from
behind.
Plate LXIX. fig. 1. A perfpeftive view of part of
a canal: the veffel L, within the lock A C.—Fig. 2.
Seftion of an open lock: the veffel L about to enter. 
Fig. 3. Se&ion of a lock full of water; the veffel L
raifed to a level with the water in the fuperior canal. 
Fig. 4. Ground feeftion of a lock. L, a veffel in the
inferior canal. C, the under gate. A, the upper
gate. G H, a fubterraneous paffage for letting water
from the fuperior canal run into the lock. K F, a fub¬
terraneous paffage for water from the lock, to the infe¬
rior
Tmw <*’///?* SorA/
.^•4 I
/ecfissii o^asij ooc
. CtJec&ori
d /(///o^Mat
CAN
[ 1605 ] CAN
rior canal. cation by water, either betwixt different nations, or dl-
X and Y (fig. 1.) are the two flood-gates, each of
which confifts of two leaves, refting upon one another,
fo as to form an obtufe angle, in order the better to re-
fift the preflure of the water. The firlt (X) prevents
the water of the fuperior canal from falling into the
lock } and the fecond (Y) dams up and fuftains the
water in the lock. Thefe flood-gates ought to be very
ftrong, and to turn freely upon their hinges. In order
to make them open and fhut with eafe, each leaf is fur-
nifhed with a long lever Ab, A £ ; C. b, Cb. They
fhould be made very tight and clofe, that as little wa¬
ter as poffible may be loft.
By the fubterraneous paflage G H (fig. 2, 3, & 4)
which defcends obliquely, by opening the flnice G, the
water is let down from the fuperior canal D, into the
lock, where it is ftopt and retained by the gate C
when fhut, till the water in the lock comes to be on a
level with the water in the fuperior canal D; as re-
prefented, fig. 3. When, on the other hand, the wa¬
ter contained by the lock is to be let out, the paflage
G H muft be flint by letting down the fluice G, the
gate A muft be alfo ftmt, and the paflage K F opened
by raifing the fluice K : a free paffage being thus gi¬
ven to the water, it defcends through K F, into the
inferior canal, until the water in the lock is on a le¬
vel with the water in the inferior canal B ; as repre-
fented, fig. 2.
Now, let it be required to raife the veflel L (fig. 2)
from the inferior canal B, to the fuperior one D ; if
the lock happens to be full of water, the fluice G muft
be fhut, and alfo the gate A, and the fluice K opened,
fo that the water in the lock may run out till it is on a
level with the water in the inferior canal B. When the
water in the lock comes to be on a level with the water
at B, the leaves of the gate C are opened by the levers
C b, which is eafily performed, the water on each fide
of the gate being in equilibrio; the vefiel then fails in¬
to the lock. After this the gate C and the fluice
K are fhut, and the fluice G opened, in order to fill
the lock, till the water in the lock, and confequently
the veflel, be upon a level with the water in the fu-
perior canal D ; as is reprefented in fig. 3. The gate
A is then opened, and the veflel paffes into the ca¬
nal D.
Again, let it be required to make a veflel defcend
from the canal D, into the inferior canal B. If the lock
is empty, as in fig. 2. T;he gate C and fluice K muft be
fhut, and the upper fluice G opened, fo that the water
in the lock may rife to a level with the water in the up¬
per canal D. Then open the gate A, and let the veflel
pafs thro’ into the lock. Shut the gate A and the fluice
G; then open the fluice K, till the water in the lock
be on a level with the water in the inferior canal; then
the gate C is opened, and the veflel pafles along into
the canal B, as was required.
It is almoft needlefs to fpend time in^numerating the
many advantages which necefiarily refultfrom artificial
navigations. Their utility is now fo apparent, that
moft nations in Europe give the higheft encouragement
to undertakings of this kind wherever they are practi¬
cable. The advantages of navigable canals did not
efcape the obfervation of the ancients. From the moft
early accounts of fociety we read of attempts to cut
through large ifthmufes, in order to make a communi-
ftant parts of the fame nation, where land-carriage
was long and expenfive. Herodotus relates, that the
Cnidians, a people of Caria in Alia Minor, defigned
to cut the ifthmus which joins that peninfula to the
continent; but were fuperftitious enough to give up
the undertaking, becaufe they were interdicted by an
oracle. Several kings of Egypt attempted to join the
Red-Sea to the Mediterranean. Cleopatra was ex¬
ceedingly fond of this projeCt. Soliman II. emperor
of the Turks, employed 50,000 men in this great work.
This canal was completed under the caliphate of O-
mar, but was afterwards allowed to fall into difrepair ;
fo that it is now difficult to difcover any traces of it.
Both the Greeks and Romans intended to make a ca¬
nal acrofs the Ifthmus of Corinth, which joins the Mo-
rea and Achaia, in order to make a navigable pafiage
by the Ionian fea into the Archipelago. Demetrius,
Julius Ctefar, Caligula, and Nero, made feveral unfuc-
cefsful efforts to open this paflage. But, as the an¬
cients were entirely ignorant of the ufe of water-locks,
their whole attention was employed in makinglevel cuts,
which is probably the principal reafon why they fo of¬
ten failed in their attempts. Charlemagne formed a
defign of joining the Rhine and the Danube, in order
to make a communication between the ocean and the
Black Sea, by a canal from the river Almutz which
difcharges itfelfinto the Danube, to the Reditz, which
falls into the Maine, and this laft falls into the Rhine
near Mayence: for this purpofe he employed a prodi¬
gious number of workmen ; but he met with fo many
obftacles from different quarters, that he was obliged to
give up the attempt.
The French at prefent have many fine canals: that
of Briare was begun under Henry IV. and finiftied un¬
der the diredtion of cardinal Richelieu in the reign of
Lewis XIII. This canal makes a communication be¬
twixt the Loire and the Seine by-the river Loing. It
extends 11 French great leagues from Briare to Mon-
targis. It enters the Loire a little above Briare, and
terminates in the Loing at Cepoi. There are 42 locks
on this canal.
The canal of Orleans, for making another commu¬
nication between the Seine and the Loire, was begun
in 1675, ancl finiftied by Philip of Orleans, regent of
France, during the minority of Lewis XV. and is fur-
niftied with 20 locks. It goes by the name of the
nal of Orleans ; but it begins at the village of Com-
bleux, which is a Ihort French league from the town
of Orleans,
But the greateft and moft ufeful work of this kind is
the jundftion of the ocean with the Mediterranean by
the canal of Languedoc. It was propofed in the reigns
of Francis I. and Henry IV. and was undertaken and
finiftied under Lewis XIV. It begins with a large re-
fervoir4O0O paces in circumference, and 24 feet deep,
which receives many fprings from the mountain Noire.
This canal is about 64 leagues in length, is fupplied by
a number of rivulets, and is furniftied with 104 locks,
of about eight feet rife each. In fome places it paffes
over bridges of vaft height; and in others it cuts thro’
folid rocks for 1000 paces. At one end it joins the ri¬
ver Garonne near Tholoufe, and terminates at the other
in the lake Tau, which extends to the port of Cette. It
was planned by Francis Riquet in the 1666, and finifti-
cd
CAN [ 16
Canal. ed before his death, which happened in the 1680.
  In the Dutch, Auftrian, and French Netherlands,
there is a very great number of canals; that from Bru¬
ges to Oftend carries vefiels of 200 tons.
The Chinefe have alfo a great number of canals; that
which runs from Canton to Pekin, extends about 825
miles in length, and was executed about 800 years ago.
It would be an endlefs talk to defcribe the number-
lefs canals in Holland, Ruflia, Germany, &c. \Ve'{hall
therefore confine ourfelves to thofe that are either al¬
ready finifhed, or at prefent executing, in our own
country.
As the promoting of commerce is the principal in¬
tention of making canals, it is natural to expecl that
their frequency in any nation (hould bear fome propor¬
tion to the trade carried on in it, providing the fitua-
tion of the country will admit of them. The prefent
Rate of England and Scotland confirms this obferva-
lion. Though the Romans made a canal between the
Nyne, a little below Peterborough, and the Witham,
three miles below Lincoln, which is now almoft entire¬
ly filled up, yet it is not long fince canals were revived
in England. They are now however become very nu¬
merous, particularly in the counties of York, Lincoln,
and Chefhire. Moft of the counties betwixt the mouth
of the Thames and the Briftol channel are conne&ed
together either by natural or artificial navigations;
thofe upon the Thames and Ifis reaching within a-
bout 20 miles of thofe upon the Severn. The duke of
Bridgewater’s canal in Chefhire runs 27 miles on a
perfect level; but at Barton it is carried by a very
high aqueduft bridge over the Irwell, a navigable ri-
wer; fo that it is common for veffels to be pafling at
the fame time both under and above the bridge. It is
likewife cut fome miles into the hills, where the Duke’s
coal-mines are wrought.
A communication betwixt the Forth and Clyde in
Scotland, by a navigable canal, was projected as far
back as the year 1722; and on^ furvey was reported
to be pra&icable. No further notice, however, was ta¬
ken of this projedt till the 3d of December 1761, when
the right honourable Francis lord Napier, at his own
expence, employed Mr Mackell to make a furvey, plan,
and eftimate thereof, on a very fmall fcale; only ca¬
pable of carrying lighters or barges, of about 10 or j 2
tons burden.
In 1764, the tmflees for fifheries, &c. in Scotland,
employed Mr John Smeaton to make a furvey, plan,
and eftimate of a canal of five feet depth of water.
The expence of this canal was eftimated 3178,970/.
In j 766, Mr Mackell was employed to make another
furvey, plan, and eftimate, of the abovementioned fmall
canal. A number of the moft refpeftable merchants in
Glafgow joined in the fubfcription for it, which was
foon filled up: an application was made to parliament;
and after the bill was nearly obtained, an oppofition
was made by the eaft of Scotland, on account of the
fmallnefs of the fcale ; being only 24 feet medium
breadth, by 4 feet depth of water. Upon this, the
bill was given up ; and a new fubfcription was fet on
foot for a canal of 7 feet deep, eftimated at 147,337/.
Mr Smeaton being appointed principal engineer, and
Mr Mackell refident engineer, the work was begun in
June 1768^ but with fome deviation from the original
plan, as to its origin and courfe. It begins at Grange-
d6 ] CAN
burn foot, near the mouth of Carron, where they have Cana!,
a very good harbour called Green Brae> for large *“
fhips; there being 18 feet of water at the fea-lock, and
at very high ftream-tides 21 feet. It then proceeds
weftward three miles, till it comes abreaft with the
town of Falkirk, the ground rifing fo little that there
are only fix locks in that fpace; though in the fourth
mile, which coft about 18,000/. there are no lefs than
ten locks, and a very fine aqueduft bridge; under
which the great road leading from Edinburgh, by
Falkirk, to Glafgow and Stirling, pafies: from the
fourth mile, or 16th lock, to the eaft end of Dolla-
tor-bog, is fix miles; and in that fpace there are only
four locks and feven aquediuft bridges, two of which are
confiderable, befides fmall tunnels: at the eaft end of
Dollator-bog, or tenth mile ftone, is the 20th lock pla¬
ced, which begins the canal of partition on the fummit
betwixt the eatt and weft fea; and which canal of par¬
tition continues no lefs than 18 miles on a level, paffing
by the fouth fide of Kirkintulloch, and terminates at
Hamilton-hill, about a meafured mile from Glafgow.
The carrying the canal through the Kerfe below Fal¬
kirk was attended with little trouble in the digging,
though the foundations of the fix locks in that track
were very troublefome j being in a quick foft mud:
the carrying it through Dollator-bog, a foft mofs of
two miles in length, was attended with more difficulty,
and was two years in executing, tho’ drained as much
as poffible a year before the work began ; and not-
witbHanding all this, a part had to be dragged to the
depth, after the water was let in to hold down the bot¬
tom and prevent it from rifihg: however, that fpace is
now one of the belt parts of the whole canal. Round
the point of the Stronhill, oppofite to Kilfyth, the ca¬
nal is banked on the north fide for a-confiderable fpace
above the furface of the ground about 20 feet high, and
the water in that place is about 16 feet deep.
There were feveral places from that to Kirkintulloch
to cut through free-ftone rock a confiderable depth;
and at Kirkintulloch the canal is carried over the wa¬
ter of Logie on an aqueduft bridge, whofe arch is 90
feet broad ; which arch was thrown over in three
different ftretches, of 30 feet each, having only 30 feet
of a centre, which was fhiftcd on fmall rollers from one
ftretch to another. Though this was a thing new,
and never attempted before with an arch of this fize,
yet the joinings are as fairly equal as any other part of
the arch.* This bridge is thought to be a very fine piece
of mafonry of its kind : on each fide there is a very
confiderable banking over the valley in which the wa¬
ter runs, and which is made up with the foil taken out
of a deep cut immediately adjoining thereto on the weft
fide; which cut is not lefs than 250 yards long, and 42
feet deep.
About two miles weft of this the canal goes for near
half a mile thro’ an open gravel, where it was thought
impra&icable to make it hold water, as the ground de¬
clines fuddenly to the north at that place, facing the
water of Kelvin ; but from the precautions taken to fe-
cure that part after the canal was cut through, it proves
remarkably tight.
About three miles weft from that, the canal goes
through the eaft verge of Poftle Loch ; and to the weft-
ward is cut for a confiderable length through a free-
ftone rock, gray ribs, blaes, and foil on the top, about
20
CAN [ 1607 ] CAN
Canal. 20 feet deep. About a mile and a half weft of that, at
a place called Stockingfield, the canal turns right to the
fouth; and terminates at Hamilton-hill, within about
a mile of Glafgow, where there is a commodious bafoiv
or harbour fit to hold 20 floops at a time. The natural
fituation of this bafon or harbour, in point of conve-
niency for building warehoufes, loading and unloading
goods, is acknowledged by every perfon who has feen
it to be exceedingly commodious.
To fupply this canal with water, is itfelf a very great
work. The firft fupply is from a large refervoir formed a
mile eaft of Kilfyth, and fupplied with water from three
of the feeders of the river Kelvin; which refervoir contains
about yoacres, and is upwards of 24 feet deep. TheKil-
fyth-burn is carried into this refervoir by an expenfive
aqueduft of about a mile in length, and the water from
the refervoir is alfo conduced into the canal by an aque-
duft cut for that purpofe. The next fupply is brought
by a cut made from the water of Logie, about five
miles above Kirkintulloch, to carry off the fpare water
therefrom, and which falls into the Shirva-burn, and is
carried off from that by an aquedud of about ■!: of a
mile in length. The third fupply is from the lakes that
difcharge themfelves by the Muthland-burn ; the water
of all which is carried off by an aquedudl of about two
miles in length, cut through a hill on the fouth-weft
fide of Kirkintulloch, and carried into the canal at that
place. The fourth fupply is from Auchinloch and Loch
Grog, carried into the canal by an aqueduift of about
two miles in length, cut from near the mouth of the
mine which drains Auchinloch, and falls into the canal
at Park-burn, weft of Kirkintulloch about a mile. There
are feveral other fupplies of lefs confequence; and were
more thought neceffary, or fhould become fo when the
canal is lock’d down to Clyde, a thing much wifhed for,
there can be very great additional fupplies got at a mo¬
derate expence.
In order to repay the river Kelvin for the feeders
which are taken from it into the canal, a large refer¬
voir is formed in Kilmanan muir, about feven miles
north of Glafgow; confiding of 70 acres and ^banked
up at the fluice 22 feet deep. This is thought to be
the fined artificial refervoir in Britain; and amply re¬
pays the Kelvin for any feeders that can be taken from
it. The water of this refervoir is conveyed down the
traft of the water of Allinder, which joins the river Kel¬
vin above the uppermod mills built thereon, and fup¬
plies the whole in time of drought.
The furface of the water in the canal of partition on
the fummit betwixt the two feas, is 155 feet above the
medium full-fea mark. There are 20 locks on the eaft
fide, 20 feet wide by 75 feet long, about 8 feet of rife of
the fummit; but 19 locks are fufficient on the weft fide,
as the tide does not ebb fo low in Clyde as in the Forth
by about 9 feet: which make in all39 locks. There are
no lefs than 18 draw-bridges and 15 aquedudf-bridges
of note; befides fmall ones and tunnels.
It is fuppofed there is now 150,000/. laid out upon
this wmrk. If the canal is continued from Stocking-
field (where it now turns fouth to Glafgow), over the
river Kelvin, where a great aqueduft bridge is required,
and down to Clyde at or near Dalmuir-burn-foot, it is
fuppofed the expence will be above 40,000/.
The trade has increafed greatly fince the canal was
«pened to Glafgow, and veffels from 30 to 60 tons bur¬
den have found their way up it from all ports of the Cananor
coafts of England and Scotland, in fo much that it is CaI||ria
thought that the revenues already * amount to about   
6000/. and that they will ftill increafe greatly. * Firttyear,
Canal, in anatomy, a du& or paffage through which-
any of the juices flow.
CANANOR, a large maritime town of Afia, on the
coaft of Malabar, in a kingdom of the fame name, with
a very large and fafe harbour. It formerly belonged
to the Portuguefe, and had a ftrong fort to guard it;
but in 1683, the Dutch, together with the natives,
drove them away ; and after they became mafters of the
town, enlarged the fortifications. They have but a
very fmall trade ; but there is a town at the bottom of
thq bay independent of the Dutch, whofe prince can
bring 20,000 men into the field. The Dutch fort is
large, and the governor’s lodgings are at a good di-
ftance from the gate ; fo that when there was a Ikirmifli
between the faftory and the natives, he knew nothing
of it till it was over. E. Long. 78. 10. N. Lat. 12. o.
Cananor, a fmall kingdom of Afia, on the coaft of
Malabar, whofe king can raife a confiderable army.
The natives are generally Mahometans; and the coun¬
try produces pepper, cardamons, ginger, mirobolans,
and tamarinds, in which they drive a confiderable trade.
CANARA, a kingdom of Afia, on the coaft of
Malabar. The inhabitants are Gentoos, or Pagans;
and there is a paged, or temple, called Ramtrut, which
is vifited every year by a great number of pilgrjms-
Here the cuftom of burning the wives with their huf-
bands had its beginning, and is pra&ifed to this day.
The country is generally governed by a woman who
keeps her court at a town called Baydor, two days jour-
'ney from the fea. She may marry whom fhe pleafes;
and is not obliged to burn with her huiband, like her fe¬
male fubjedls. They are fo good obfervers of their laws,
that a robbery or murder is fcarce ever heard of among
them. The Canarans have forts built of earth along the
coaft, which are garrifoned with 200 or 300 foldiers, to
guard againft the robberies of their neighbours. The
lower grounds yield every year two crops of corn or
rice; and the higher produce pepper, betel nuts, fanders
wood, iron, and iteel. The Portuguefe clergy here live
very loofely, and make no fcruple of procuring women
for ftrangers.
CANARIA (anc. geog.), one of the Fortunate
Iflands, a proof that thefe were what are now called the
Canaries. Canaria had its name from its abounding
with dogs of an enormous fize, two of which were
brought to Juba king of Mauritania. See the following
article.
Canaria, or the Grand Canary, an ifland in
the Atlantic Ocean, about 180 miles from the coaft
of Africa. It is about 100 miles in circumference, and
33 in diameter. It is a fruitful ifland, and famous for '
the wine that bears its name. It alfo abounds with
apples, melons, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, figs,
olives, peaches, and plantains. The fir and palm
trees are the moft common. The towns are, Canary the
capital, Gualdera, and Geria.
CANARY”, or Cividad de Palmas, is the capital
of the ifland of Canaria, with an indifferent caftle, and
a biftiop’s fee. It has alfo a court of inquifition, and
the fupreme council of the reft of the Canary-iflands;
as alfo four convents, two for men, and two for wo¬
men,.
CAN [ 160S ] CAN
men. The town is about three miles in compafs, and
contains 12,000 inhabitants. The houfcs are only one
ftory high, and flat at the top ; but they are well
built. The cathedral is a handfome ftnifture. W.Long.
15. 20. N. Lat. 28. 4.
CkKA.K'i-IJlands, are fituated in the Atlantic ocean,
over againil the empire of Morocco in Africa. They
were formerly called the Fortunate IJlands, on ac¬
count of the temperate healthy air, and excellent
fruits. The land is very fruitful, for both wheat and
barley produce 130 for one. The cattle thrive well,
and the woods are full of all forts of game. The Ca¬
nary finging birds are well known all over Europe.
There are here fugar-canes in great abundance ; but
the Spaniards firft planted vines here, from whence we
have the wine called Canary or Sack.
Thefe iflands were not entirely unknown to the an¬
cients; but they were a long while forgot, till John de
Eetencourt difcovered them in 1402. It is faid they
were firft inhabited by the Phoenicians, or CarthagiT
nians, but on no certain foundation; nor could the in¬
habitants themfelves "tell from whence they were deri¬
ved ; on the contrary, they did not know there was
any other country in the world. Their language,
manners, and cuftoms, had no refemblance to thofe of
their neighbours. However, they were like the people
on the coaft of Barbary in complexion. They had no
iron. Affer the difcovery, the Spaniards foon got pof-
feffion of them all, under whofe dominions they are to
this day, except Madeira, which belongs to the Portu-
guefe. The inhabitants are chiefly Spaniards; though
there are fome of the firft people remaining, whom
they call Guanckes, who are fomewhat civilized by their
intercourfe with the Spaniards. They are a hardy, ac¬
tive, bold people, and live'on the mountains. Their
chief food is goat’s milk. Their complexion is tawny,
and their nofes flat. The Spanifli vefiels, when they fail
for the Weft Indies, always rendezvous at thefe iflands,
going and coming. Their number is 12. x. Ale-
granza; 2. Canaria; 3. Ferro; 4. Fuerteventura ;
5. Gomera; 6. Gratiofa; 7. Lancerotta; 8. Madera;
9. Palma; 10. Rocca; 11. Salvages; 12. Teneriff.
Weft longitude from 12. to 21. north latitude from
27. 30. to 29. 30.
Canarv-jfi/n/. See Fringilla. Thefe birds are
much admired for their finging, and take their name
from the place from whence they originally came, viz.
the Canary-iflands; but of late years there is a fort of
birds brought from Germany, and efpecially from Tirol,
and therefore called German birds, which are much
better than the others; though both are fuppofed to
have originally come from the fame place. The cocks
never grow fat, and by fome country people cannot be
diftinguifhed from common green-birds; though the
Canary-birds are much luftier, have a longer tail, and
differ much in the heaving of the paffages of the throat
when they fing. Thefe birds being fo much efteemed
for their fong, are fometimes fold at a high price, ac-
cording to the goodnefs and excellency of their notes;
fo that it will be always advifeable to hear one fing be¬
fore he is bought. In order to know whether he is in
good health, take him out of the ftore-cage, and put
him in a clean cage by himfelf: if he ftand up boldly,
without crouching or fhrinking in his feathers, look
with a bnfli eye, and is not fubjeft to clap his head
under his wing, it is a fign that he is in good health;
but the greateft matter is to obferve his dunging : if he
bolts his tail like a nightingale after he has dunged, it
is a fign he is not in good health, or at leaft that he
will foon be fick; but if his dung be very thin like wa¬
ter, or of a flimy white without any blacknefs in it, it
is a fign of approaching death. When in perfect health,
his dung lies round and hard, with a fine white on the
outfide, dark within, and dries quickly; though a feed-
bird feldom dungs fo hard, unlefs he is very young.
Canary-birds are fubjeft to many difeafes, particu¬
larly impofthumes, which affeft the head, caufe them to
fall fuddenly from the perch, and die in a fliort time, if
not fpeedily cured. The moft approved medicine is an
ointment made of frelh butter and capon’s greafe melt¬
ed together. With this the top of the bird’s head is to
be anointed for two or three days, and it will diffolve
the impofthume: but if the medicine has been too long
delayed, then, after three or four times anointing, fee
whether the place of his head be foft; and if fo, open
it gently, and let out the matter, which will be like the
yolk of an egg; when this is done, anoint the place,
and the bird will be cured. At tfie fame time he muft
have figs with his other food, and in his water a flice
or two of liquorice, with white fugar-candy.
Some are fo curious as to breed thefe birds in Bri¬
tain ; and thefe have excelled all others. Such of the
Canary-birds as are above three years old are called
runts ; thofe above two, are called erijfes; thofe of the
firft year that the old ones bring up, are called branch-
ers; thofe that are new-flown and cannot feed them-
felves, are called pujhers; and thofe that are bred up by
hand, ncJWngs.
CANCALLE, a town of France, in Upper Brit¬
tany, by the fea-fide, where there is a road. Here the
Canary,
„ 8
Cancer.
Sp»rtfman't\
Diftiontry. !
Britifti landed in 1778, in their way to St MaloA,
where they burnt a great number of ftiips in the har¬
bour, and then retired without lofs. This town was in
their power; but they afted like generous enemies, and
did no hurt to this nor any other on the coaft. W.
Long. o. 13. N. Lat. 48. 41.
CANCELIER, in falconry, is when a light brown
hawk, in her ftqoping, turns two or three times upon
the wing, to recover herfelf before flie feizes.
CANCELLI, a term ufed to denote lattice windows,
or thofe made of crofs-bars. difpofed latticewife; it is
alfo ufed for rails or ballufters inclofing the communion¬
table, a court of juftice, or the like, and for the network
in the infide of hollow bones.
CANCELLING, in the civil law, an aft whereby
a perfon confents that fome former deed be rendered
null and void. This is otherwife called refeijion. The
word comes from the Latin cancellare to encompafs or
pale a thing round. In the proper fenfe of the word,
to cancel, is to deface an obligation, by pafiing the pen
from top to bottom, or acrofs it; which makes a kind
of chequer lattice, which the Latins call cancelli.
CANCER, in zoology, a genus of infefts belong¬
ing to the order of infefta aptera. The generic cha-
rafters are thefe: they have eight legs, (feldom ten or
fix), befides the two large claws which anfwer the pur-
pofe of hands. They have two eyes at a confiderable
diftance from each other, and for the moft part fup-
ported by a kind of pedunculi or footftalks; the eyes
are likewife elongated and moveable; they have two
clawed
GAN [ j
Cancer, or clawed palpi, and the tail is jointed. This genus in-
Crab, &c. c]ujes the lobfter, Ihrinsp, &g. There are no lefs than
87 fpecies of cancer, diftingtiilhed principally by the
length of their tails and the margins of their breads.
The following are the mod remarkable.
>mmQn i. The gammarus, or common lobder, with a fmooth
bder. thorax, ihort ferrated fnout; very long antennas; and
between them two diorter ones, bifid; claws and fangs
large, the greater tuberculated, the leder ferrated on
the inner edge; four pair of legs; fix joints in the tail;
tail-fins rounded, it inhabits all the rocky thores of
our ifland, but chiefly where there is a depth of wa¬
ter. In Llyn in Caernarvondiire, a certain fmall lob¬
der, nothing different except in lize, burrows in the
fand. They are brought in vad quantities from the
Orkney ifles, and many parts of the eaden: coad of
Scotland, to the London markets. Sixty or feventy
thoufand are annually brought from the neighbourhood
of Montrofe alone.—The lobder was well known to the
ancients, and is well deferibed by Aridotle under the
name of It is found as far as the Hellefpont;
and is called at Condantinople liezuda and liepuda.
Lobders fear thunder, and are apt to cad their claws
on a great clap: it is faid that they will do the fame
on the firing of a great gun ; and that, when men of
war meet a lobder boat, a jocular threat is ufed, that,
if the mader does not fell them good lobders, they will
falute him.
The habitation of this fpecies is in the cleared wa¬
ter, at the foot of rocks that impend over the fea. This
has given opportunity of examining more clofely into
the natural hidory of the animal, than of many others
who live in an element that prohibits mod of the hu¬
man refearches, and limits the inquiries of the mod in-
quifitive. Some lobders are taken by hand; but the
greater quantity in pots, a fort of trap formed of twigs,
and baited with garbage ; they are formed like a wire
moufe-trap, fo that when the lobder gets in, there is no
return. Thefe are fadened to a cordiifunk in the fea,
and theirplace marked byabuoy.—They begin to breed
in the fpring, and continue breeding mod part of the
fummer. They propagate more humano, and are ex¬
tremely prolific. Dr Bader fays he counted 12,444
eggs under the tail, befides thofe that remained in the
body uoprotruded. They depofit thofe eggs in the
fand, where they are foon hatched.
Lobders change their crud annually. Previous to
their putting off their old one, they appear lick, lan¬
guid, and refllefs. They totally acquire a new coat in
a few days ; but during the time that they remain de-
fencelefs, they feek fome very lonely place, for fear of
being devoured by fuch of their brethren affare not in
the fame fituation. It is alfo remarkable, that lobders
and crabs will renew their claws, if by accident they
are torn off; and it is certain they will grow again in a
few weeks, though they never attain to the fize of the
fird. They are very voracious animals, and feed on
fea-weeds, garbage, and all forts of dead bodies. The
pincers of one of the lobders large claws are furnilhed
•with knobs, and thofe of the other are always ferrated.
With the former its keeps firm hold of the fialks of
fubmarine plants, and with the latter it cuts and minces
its food very dextroufiy. The knobbed or numb claw,
as the fifhermen call it, is fometimes on the right and
fometimes 0n the left fide indifferently. It is more
Vot. III.
fop ] CAN
dangerous to be feized by them with the cutting claw
than the other; but, in either cafe, the quicked way
to get difengaged from the creature is to pull off its
claw. The female or hen lobder does not cad her fiiell
the fame year that die depofits her ova, or, in the
common phrafe, is in berry. When the ova fird appear
under her tail, they are fmall, and extremely black ;
but they become in fucceflion aimed as large as ripe
elder-berries before they are depofited, and turn of a
dark brown colour, efpecially towards the end of the
time of her depofiting them. They continue full, and
depofiting the ova iVconflant fuccefiion, as long as
any of that black fubdance can be found in their body,
which, when boiled, turns of a beautiful red colour,
and is called their coral. Hen-lobflers are found in
berry at all times of the year, but chiefly in winter. It
is a common miitake, that a berried hen is always in
perfection for the table. When her berries appear large
and brownilh, die will always be found exhauded, wa¬
tery, and poor. Though the ova be cad at all times of
the year, they feem only to come to life during the
warm fummer-months of July and Augud. Great num¬
bers of them may then be found, under the appearance
of tadpoles, fwimming about the little pools left by
the tides among the rocks, and many alfo under their
proper form from half an inch to four inches in length.
In cading their diells, it is hard to conceive how the
lobder is able to draw thefidi of their large claws out,
leaving the fliells entire and attached to the diell of
their body, in which date they are condantly found.
The fidiermen fay, the lobder pines before cading, till
the fifli of its large claw is no thicker than the quill of
a goofe, which enables it to draw its parts through
the joints and narrow paffage near the trunk. The new
fhell is quite membranaceous at fird, but hardens by
degrees. Lobders only grow in fize while their fliells
are in their foft date. They are chofeo for the table,
by their being heavy in proportion to their fize ; and
by the hardnefs of their fiiejls on their fides, which,
when in perfection, will not yield to moderate preffure.
Barnacles and other fmall fifli adhering to them are
reckoned certain figns of fuperior goodnefs. Cock-
lobders are in general better than the hens in winter;
they are didinguiflied by the narrownefs of their tails,
and by their having a flrong fpine upon the centre of
each of (he tranfverfe procefles beneath the tail, which
fupport the four middle plates of their tails. The fifli
of a lobfier’s claw is more tender, delicate, and eafy of
digedion, than that of the tail. In fummer, the Job¬
bers are found near the fliore, and thence to about fix
fathoms water; in winter, they are feldom taken in
lefs than 12 or 15 fathoms. Like other infe&s, they
are much more a&ive and alert in warm weather than
in cold. In the water, they can run nimbly upon their
legs or fmall claws; and, if alarmed, can fpring, tail
forempfl, to a furprifing didance, as fwift as a bird can
fly. The fifliermen can fee them pafs about 30 feet;
and, by the fwiftnefs of .their motion, fuppofe they may
go much further. Athenasus remarks this circumdance,
and fays, that “ the incurvated lobders will fpring with
the activity of dolphins.” Their eyes are raifed upon
moveable bales, which enables them to fee readily every
way. When frightened, they will fpring from a confi-
derable didance to their hold in the rock, and, what is
ppt lefs furprifing than true, will throw themfflves into
9 S their
Cancer, or
Crab, &c.
Cancer, or
Crab, See.
Plate
LXVII.
fig 4-
Craw-fifh,
prawn,
fhrimp, &c.
CAN [ 1610 ] CAN
their hold in that manner through an entrance barely the legs are Tubulated, and ferrated alon^ the upper Cancer, or
fufficient for their bodies to pafs. ridge ; the tail naked and tender, and furnifhed with a Crat>,
2. The ftrigofus, or plated lobfter, with a pyramidal hook by which it fecures itfelf in its lodging. Thjs Hermit-
fpiny fnout; thorax elegantly plated, each plate marked fpecies is paralitic ; and inhabits the empty cavities of crab,
near its jun&ion with (hort ftriae ; claws much longer turbinated (hells, changing its habitation according to
than the body, thick, echinated, and tuberculated; the its increafe of growth from the fmall nerite to the large x,noi,i
upper fang trifid; only three legs fpiny on their fides; whelk. Nature denies it the ftrong covering behind, ’
tail broad.—Thelargeftof this fpecies is about fix inches which it has given to others of this clafs; and therefore
long. It inhabits the coafts of Anglefea, under ftones direfts it to take refuge in the deferted cafes of other
and fuci. It is very a&ive; and, if taken, flaps its tail animals. They crawl very fall with the (hell on their
againft the body with much violence and noife. back; and at the approach of danger draw themfelves
3. The aftacus, or craw-filh, with a projefting fnout within the (hell, and, thrufting out the larger claw,
flightly ferrated on the fides; a fmooth thorax ; back will pinch very hard whatever molefts them. Ariftotle
fmooth, with two fmall fpines on each fide; claws deferibes it very exa&ly under the name of Kafunov.
large, befet with fmall tubercles ; two firft pair of legs By the moderns it is called the fuldier, from the idea
clawed, the two next fubulated ; tail confifting of five of its dwelling in a tent; or the hermit, from retiring
joints ; the caudal fins rounded.— It inhabits many of into a cell.
the rivers in England, lodged in holes which they form It is very diverting to obferve this animal when
in the clayey banks. Cardan fays, that this fpecies in- wanting to change its (hell. The little foldier is feen
dicates the goodnefs of water; for in the beft water bufily parading the Ihore along that line of pebbles
they are boiled into the reddeft colour. and (hells which is formed by the extremeft wave; {fill,
4. The ferratus, or prawn, with a long ferrated fnout however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at
bending upwards ; three pair of very long filiform its tail, unwilling to part with one (hell, even though
feelers; claws fmall, furnifhed with two fangs; fmooth a troublefome appendage, till it can find another more
thorax; five joints to the tail; middle caudal fin fu- convenient. It is feen (lopping at one (hell, turning it,
bulated, two outmoft flat and rounded.—It is frequent and pafiing it by; going on to another, contemplating
in feveral (hores among loofe Hones; fometimes found that for a while, and then (lipping its tail from its old
at fea, and taken on the furface over 30 fathoms depth habitation to try on the new : this alfo is found to be
of water; cinereous when frefli, of a fine red when inconvenient, and it quickly returns to its old (helf
. boiled. again. In this manner it frequently changes, till at lad
5. The crangon, or (hrimp, with long (lender feelers, it finds one light, roomy, and commodious ; to this it
and between them two proje£ling laminae; claws with adheres, though the (hell be fometimes fo large as to
a Angle, hooked, moveable fang; three pair of legs ; hide the body of the animal, claws find all. Yet it is
feven joints in the tail; the middle caudal fin fubu- not till after many trials, and many combats alfo, that
lated, the four others rounded and fringed, a fpine the foldier is thus completely equipped ; for there i»
on the exterior fide of each of the outmoft.—It inhabits often a conteft between two of them for fome well-
the (hores of Britain in vaft quantities, and is the mod looking favourite (hell for which they are rivals. They
delicious of the genus. both endeavour to take pofleflion ; they drike with
6. The fquilla, with a fnout like a prawn, but deeper their claws, they bite each other, till the weaked is ob-
and thinner; the feelers longer in proportion to the liged to yield by giving up the objedl of difpute. It is
bulk; the fub-caudal fins rather larger ; is, at full then that the vi&or immediately takes pofleffion, and
growth, not above half the bulk of the former.—It in- parades it in his new conqued three or four times back
habits the coads of Kent; and is fold in London un- and forward upon the ilrand before his envious anta-
der the name of the white Jhrimp, as it aflumes that gonilt.—When this animal is taken, it fends forth a
colour when boiled. feeble cry, endeavouring to feize the enemy with its
7. The atomos, or atom-lobder, with a (lender body; nippers; which if it fadens upon, it will fooner die
filiform antennae; three pair of legs near the head ; than quit the grafp.
behind which are two pair of oval veficulae ; beyond The hermit-crabs frequent m'odly thofe parts of the
are three pair of legs, and a flender tail between the fea-(hores which are covered with (hrubs and trees,
lad pair.— It is very minute, and the help of the mi- producing various wild fruits on which they fubfid ^
crofcope is often neceffary for its infpeftion. though they will alfo feed on the fragments of fi(h and
8. The pulex, or flea-lobder, with five pair of legs, other animal fubftances cad on'fhore. When roaded in
and two claws, imperfect; with 12 joints of the body, the (hell, they are edeemed delicate. The hermit-crab.
It is very common in fountains and rivulets ; fwims hung in the air, diflblves into a kind of oil, which
very fwiftly in an incurvated podure on its back ; em- fpeedily cures the rheumatifm if rubbed upon the part,
braces and protefts its young between the legs; does 11. The vocans, or fand-crab, is but of a fmall fize;
not leap. its colour light brown, or dufky white. It has eight
9. The locuda, or locud-lobder, with four antennas; legs, and two claws, one of which is double the fize
two pair of imperfe£t claws; the fird joint ovated; of the other: thefe claws ferve both to defend and
body confids of 14 joints, in which it differs from the to feed themfelves with. The head has two fquare
former.—It abounds, in fummer, on the (hores, beneath holes, which are receptacles for its eyes ; out of which
dones and algas ; leaps about with vad agility. it thrufts them, and draws them in again at pleafure.
10. The diogenes, foldier-crab, or hermit-crab, with Their abode is only on the fandy (hores of Ilathera,
rough claws; the left claw is the longed (this being and many others of the Bahama iflands. They rup
the only difference between the diogenes and bernardm) j very fad, and retreat from danger into little holes they
make
Cancer, c
Crab.
The pea-
crab, &c.
CAN [ i
' make in the fand.
12. The grapfus, or red mottled crab, hath a round
body, the legs longer and larger than in other kinds ;
the claws red; except which, the whole is mottled in
a beautiful manner with red and white. Thefe crabs
inhabit the rocks hanging over the fea; they are the
nimbleft of all others, and run with furprifing agility
along the upright fide of a rock, and even under the
rocks that hang horizontally below the water. This
they are often neceflitated to do for efcaping the affaults
af rapacious birds that purfue them. Thefe crabs
never go to land; but frequent moftly thofe parts of
the promontories and ifiands of rocks in and near the
fea, where, by the continual and violent agitation of
the waves againft the rocks, they are always wet, con¬
tinually receiving the fpray of the fea, which often
wafhes them into it ; but they inftantly return to the
rock again, not being able to live under water, and
yet requiring more of that element than any of the
cruftaceous kinds that are not filh.
13. The granulatus, or rough-lhelled crab: thefe
crabs are pretty large, and are commonly taken from
the bottom of the fea in (hallow water; the legs are
fmall in proportion to the body ; the two claws are
remarkably large and flat. The whole (hell is covered
over with innumerable little tubercles like (hagreen :
the colour is brown, varioufly ftained with purple.
14. The cancer erythropus, or red-claw crab, is of
a frnall fize, and brown colour; it hath two claws of
unequal bignefs, red at the ends; and eight legs, which
feem of lefs ufe to them than in other crabs ; for when
on the ground, they crawl with (low pace, dragging
their bodies along ; but they are moftly feen grafping
with their claws, and hanging to fome fea-plant, or
other marine fubftance.
15. The pifum, or pea-crab, with rounded and
fmooth thorax, entire and blunt; with a tail of the fize
of the body, which commonly is the bulk of a pea.
It inhabits the mufcle, and has unjuftly acquired the
repute of being poifonous. The fwelling after eating
of mufcles is wholly conftitutional; for one that is af¬
fected by it, hundreds remain uninjured. Crabs either
of this kind, or allied to them, the ancients believed
to have been the confentaneous inmates of the Pinna:,
and other bivalves ; which, being too ftupid to per¬
ceive the approach of their prey, were warned of it by
their vigilant friend. Oppian tells the fable prettily.
In clouded deeps below, the pinna hides,
And through the Clem paths obfcurely glides ;
A flupid wretch, and void of thoughtful care.
He forms no bait, nor lays the tempting fnare;
But the dull fluggard boafts crab his friend,
Whofe bufy eyes the coming prey attend.
One room contains them, and the partners dwell
Beneath the convex of one (loping (hell;
Deep in the watry vaft the comrades rove.
And mutual imereft binds their conTlant love ;
That wifer friend the lucky juncture tells,
When in the circuit of his gaping (hells
Filh wand’ring enter; then the bearded guide
Warns the dull mate, and pricks his tender fide ;
He knows the hint, nor at the treatment grieves,
But hugs th’ advantage, and the pain forgives;
His clofing (hells the pinna fudden joins,
And ’twixt the prefling fides his prey confines :
Thus fed by mutual aid, the friendly pair
Divide their gains, and all the plunder (hare.
16. The mxnas, or common crab, with three not*
611 ] CAN
ches on the front; five ferrated teeth on each fide ; Cancer, or
claws ovated; next joint toothed ; hind feet Tubulated; Crab-
dirty green colour; red when boiled. It inhabits all
our (bores ; and lurks under the algae, or burrows un¬
der the fand. Is fold, and eaten by the poor of our
capitals.
17. The pagurus, or black-clawed crab, with a cre-
nated thorax ; fmooth body; quinquedentated front;
fmooth claws and black tips ; hind-feet Tubulated.— It
inhabits the rocky coafls; is the mod delicious meat
of any ; cads its (hell between Chridmas and Eader.
The tips of the claws of this fpecies are ufed in medi¬
cine ; intended to abforb acidities in the domach and
bowels.
18. The velutinus, or velvet crab, with the thorax
quinquedentated; body covered with (hort, brown,
velvet-like pile ; claws covered with minute tubercles ;
fmall fpines round the top of the fecond joint ; hind
legs broadly ovated.—This is among the fpecies taken
notice of by Aridotle on account of the broad feet,
which, he fays, aflid them in fwimming ; as web-feet
do the water-fowl. It inhabits the wedern coad of
Anglefey.
19. The horridus, or horrid-crab, with a projecting Plate
bifurcated fnout, the end diverging; body heart- LXVII.
(haped ; with the claws and legs covered with long and 3*
very (harp fpines.—It is a large fpecies, and inhabits
the rocks on the eadern coads of Scotland. It is com¬
mon to Norway and Scotland, as many of the marine
animals and birds are.
20. The ruricola, land-crab, or violet-crab, with Violet-crab,
a fmooth entire thorax, and the two lad joints of the p£te
feet armed with fpines. It inhabits the Bahama iflands, LXXV.
as well as mod lands between the tropics ; and feeds fig. 1. n°3,
upon^vegetables.
Thefe animals live not only in a kind of orderly fo-
ciety in their retreats in the mountains, but regularly
once a-year march down to the fea-fide in a body of
fome millions at a time. As they multiply in great
numbers, they choofe the month of April or May to
begin their expedition; and then Tally out by thou-
fands from the dumps of hollow trees, from the clefts
of rocks, and from the holes which they dig for them-
felves under the furface of the. earth. At that time
the whole ground is covered with this band of adventu¬
rers; there is no fettingdown one’s foot without treading
upon them. The fea is their place of dedination, and
to that they direft their march with right-lined pre-
cifion. No geometrician could fend them to their def-
tined dation by a (horter courfe ; they neither turn to
the right nor left, whatever obdacles intervene ; and
even if they meet with a houfe, they will attempt to
fcale the walls to keep the unbroken tenor of their way.
But though this be the general order of their route,
they, upon other occafions, are obliged to conform to
the face of the country ; and if it is interfered with,
rivers, they are then feen to wind along the courfe of
the dream. The proceffion fets forward from the
mountains with the regularity of an army under the
guidance of an experienced commander. They are
commonly divided into three battalions ; of which the
fird confids of the dronged and bolded males, that,
like pioneers, march forward to clear the route and
face the greated dangers. Thefe are often obliged to
halt for want of rain, and to go into the mod conve-
9 S 2 nient
Cancer, or
Crab.
Violet-crab.
CAN [ 1612 ] CAN
nient encampment till the weather changes. The main
body of the army is compofed of females, which never
leave the mountains till the rain is fet in for fome time,
and then defcetid in regular battalia, being formed into
columns of 50 paces broad, and three miles deep, and
fo clofe that they almoft cover the ground. Three
or four days after this, the rear-guard follows, a drag¬
gling undifciplined tribe, confiding of males and fe¬
males, but neither fo robud nor fo vigorous as the
former. The night is their chief time of proceeding 5
but if it rains by day, they do not fail to profit by the
occafion ; and they continue to move forward in their
flow uniform manner. When the fun fhines and is hot
upon the furface of the ground, they then make an u-
niverfal halt, and wait till the cool of the evening.
When they are terrified, they march back in a con-
fufed diforderly manner, holding up their nippers, with
which they fometimes tear off a piece of the ikin, and
then leave the weapon where they infli&ed the wound.
They even try to intimidate their enemies 5 for they
often clatter their nippers together, as if it were to
threaten thofe that come to didurb them. But tho’
they thus drive to be formidable to man, they are much
more fo to each other; for, they are poffeffed of one
mod unfocial property, which is, that if any of them
by accident is maimed in fuch a manner as to be inca¬
pable of proceeding, the red fall upon and devour it
On the fpot, and then purfue their journey.
When, aftet a fatiguing march, and efcaping a thou-
fand dangers, (for they are fometimes three months in
getting to the fhore), they have arrived at their def-
tined port, they prepare to caft their fpawn. The
peas are as yet within their bodies, and not excluded,
as is ufual in animals of this kind, under the tail ; for
the creature waits for the benefit of fea-water to help
the delivery. For this purpofe the crab has no fooner
reached the {bore, than it eagerly goes to the edge of
the water, and lets the waves wadi over its body two
or three times. This feems only a preparation for
bringing theit fpawn to maturity ; for, without far¬
ther delay, they withdraw to feek a lodging upon land:
in the mean time the fpawn grows larger, is excluded
out of the body, and dicks to the barbs under the flap,
or more properly the tail. This bunch is feen as big
as an hen’s egg, and exaftly refembling the roes of
herrings. In this date of pregnancy they once more
feek the (hore for the lad time ; and fhaking off their
fpawn into the water, leave accident to bring it to ma¬
turity. At this time whole (hoals of hungry filh are
at the fliore in expe&ation of this annual fupply ; the
fea to a great diftance feems black with them ; and
about two thirds of the crabs eggs are immediately
devoured by thefe rapacious invaders. The eggs that
efcape are hatched under the fand ; and, foon after,
millions at a time of thefe little crabs are feen quit¬
ting the diore, and flowly travelling up to the moun¬
tains. The old ones, however, are not fo aftive to
return ; they have become fo feeble and lean, that they
can hardly creep along, and the flefh at that time
changes its colour. The mod of them, therefore, are
obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till
they recover, making holes in the earth, which they
cover at the mouth with leaves and dirt, fo that no air
may enter. There they throw off their old (hells,
which they leave, as it were, quite whole j the place
where they opened on the belly being unfeen. At Cancer, qr
that time they are quite naked, and almod without Crat>-
motion for fix days together, when they become fo violet-crab,
fat as to be delicious food. They have then under
their flomachs four large white dones, which gradually
decreafe in proportion as the (hell hardens, and, when
they come to perfedtion, are not to be found. It is
at that time that the animal is feen (lowly making its
way back ; and all this is mod commonly performed
in the fpace of fix weeks.
This animal, when pofiefled of its retreats in the
mountains, is impregnable: for, only fubfiding upon
vegetables, it feldom ventures out; and its habitation
being in the mod inacCeflible places, it remains for a
great part of the feafon in perfedl fecurity. It is only
when impelled by the defire of bringing forth its
young, and when compelled to defcend into the flat
country, that it is taken. At that time the natives
wait for its defcent in eager expe&ation, and deflroy
thoufands ; but, difregarding the bodies, they only
feek for that fmall fpawn which lies on each fide of the
domach within the (hell, of about the thicknefs of a
man’s thumb. They are much more valuable upon
their return after they have cad their (hell; for, being
covered with a (kin refembling foft parchment, almolt
every part except the domach may be eaten. They
are taken in the holes by feeling for them with an in-
drume-nt; they are fought after by night, when on
their journey, by flambeaux. The indant the animal
perceives itfelf attacked, it throws itfelf on its back,
and with its claws pinches mod terribly whatever it
happens to faden on. But the dexterous crab-catcher
takes them by the hinder legs in fuch a manner that
the nippers cannot touch him, and thus he throws them
into his bag. Sometimes alfo they are caught when
they take refuge in the bottoms of holes in rocks by
the fea-fide, by clapping a dick at the mouth of the
hole, which prevents their getting out; and then foon
after, the tide coming, enters the hole, and the ani¬
mal is found, upon its retiring, drowned in its retreat.
Thefe crabs are of various fizes, the larged about
fix inches wide ; they walk fideways like the fea-crah,
and are (haped like them: fome are black, fome yel¬
low, fome red, and others variegated with red, white,
and yellow mixed. Some of thefe are poifonous ;
and feveral people have died of eating of the crabs, par¬
ticularly of the black kind. The light-coloured are
reckoned bed ; and when full in fleih, are very well
taded. In fome of the fugar iflands they are eat with¬
out danger ; and are no fmall help to the negro (laves,
who, on many of thefe iflands, would fare very hard
without them.
Cancer, in medicine, a roundifh, unequal, hard,
and livid tumour, generally fea ted in the glandulous
parts of the body, fuppofed to be fo called, becaufe
it appears at length with turgid veins (hooting out
from it, fo as to refemble, as it is thought, the fio-ure
of a crab-fiflr; or, as others fay, becaufe, like ^hat
fi(h, where it has once got, it is fcarce poflible to drive
it away. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
Cancer, in adronomy, one of the twelve flgns, re-
prefented on the globe in the form of a crab, and thus
marked (05) in books. It is the fourth condellation
in the darry zodiac, and that from which one quadrant
of the ecliptic takes its denomination. The reafon ge¬
nerally
CAN [ 1613 ] CAN
Cancer nerally afilgned for its name as well as figure, is a fup- CANDIDATE, a perfon who afpircs to fome pub*
II pofed refemblance which the fun’s motion in this fign lie office.
an lac‘ bears to the crab-fifh. As the latter walks backwards, In the Roman commonwealth, they were obliged to
fo the former, in this part of his courfe, begins to go wear a white gown during the two years of their foli-
backwards, or recede from us; though the difpofition citing a place. This garment, according to Plutarch,
of liars in this fign is by others fuppofed to have given they wore without any other clothes, that the people
the firft hint to the reprefentation of a crab. might not fufpeft they concealed money for purchafing
Tropic of Cancer, in allronomy, a lelfer circle of votes, and alfo that they might more eafily Ihow to the
the fphere parallel to the equator, and paffing through people the fears of thofe wounds they had received in
the beginning of the fign Cancer. fighting for the defence of the commonwealth. The
CANCHERIZANTE, or Cancherizato, in the candidates ufually declared their pretenfions a year be-
Italian mufic, a term fignifying a piece of mufic that fore the time of eledlion, which was fpent in making
begins at the end, being the retrograde motion from intereft and gaining friends. Various arts of popularity
the end of a fong, &c. to the beginning. were pra£lifed for this purpofe, and frequent circuits
CANDAHAR, a province of Perfia, bounded on made round the city, and vifits and compliments to all
the north by the province of Balk ; on the eaft, by forts of perfons, the procefs of which was called am~
thatofCabul; on the fouth, by Buchor and Sableftan; bitus. See Ambitus.
and on the weft, by Sigeftan. There have been bloody CANDIDATI milites, an order of foldiers, a-
vvars between the Indians and Perfians on account of mong the Romans, who ferved as the emperor’s body-
this province ; but in 1650 it fell to the Perfians. The guards to defend him in battle. They were the talleft
inhabitants are known by the name of Aghuans, or and ftrongeft of the whole troops, and moft proper to
Afghans, who have often endeavoured to throw off the infpire terror. They were called candidati, becaufe
yoke. But, in 1737, they were feverely punilhed for clothed in white, either that they might be more con-
fuch an attempt. See Persia. fpicuous, or becaufe they were confidered in the way
Candahar, the capital of the above province, is of preferment,
feated on a mountain; and being a place of great trade, CANDISH, a confiderable province of Afia, in the
has a confiderable fortrefs. The caravans that travel dominions of the Great Mogul, bounded by Chytor
from Perfia and the parts about the Cafpian fea to and Malva on the north, Orixa on the eaft, Decan on
the Eaft Indies, choofe to pafs through Candahar, be- the fouth, and Guzarat on the weft. It is populous
caufe there is no danger of being robbed on this road, and rich; and abounds in cotton, rice, and indigo,
and provifions are very reafonable. The religion is Brampore is the capital town.
Mabometanifm, but there are many Banians and Gue- CANDLE, a fmall taper of tallow, wax, or fper-
bres. E. Long. 67. 5. N. Lat. 33. o. maceti; the wick of which is commonly of feveral
CANDAULES, the laft king of Lydia, of the fa- threads of cotton, fpun and twilled together,
mily of the Heraclides, was fo proud of the beauty of his A tallow-candle, to be good, mutt behalf Iheep’s
wife, that he had the folly to let Giges, his favourite, and half bullock’s tallow ; for hog’s tallow makes the
fee her naked, while fhe was bathing. The queen, candle gutter, and always gives an offenfive fmell, with
enraged at this aftion, which, according to the opi- a thick black fmoke. The wick ought to be pure, fuf-
nion of the Lydians, rendered her infamous, perfuaded ficiently dry, and properly twilled; otherwife the candle
Giges to murder Candaules; after which Ihe married will emit an unconftant vibratory flame, which is both
him, about 716 years before the birth of Chrift. In prejudicial to the eyes, and ini'ufficient for the dillindl
him began the race of the Mermnades, which lafted illumination of objedls.
till the defeat of Crcefus. There are two forts of tallow-candles; the one dip-
CANDELARES (from ciSTk/e/tf a candle), the name ped, the other moulded: the former are the common
of an order in the former editions of Linnaeus’s Frag- candles ; the others are the invention of the fieur le
ments of a natural method, confining of thefe three Brege at Paris.
genera, rhizophora, nyfa, and mimujops. They are re- As to the method of making candles, in general;
moved, in the latter editions, into the order Holora- After, the tallow has been weighed, and mixed in the
ce.e ; which fee. due proportions, it is cut into very fmall pieces, that
CANDIA, the modern name of the ifland of it may melt the fooner; for the tallow in lumps, as it
Crete. See Crete. comes from the butchers, would be in danger of burn-
Candia, or Mntium, is the capital of the above ing or turning black, if it were left too long over the
ifland, fituated on its northern coaft, in E. Long. 25.0. fire. Being perfedlly melted and fleimraed, they pour
N. Lat. 35. 30. a certain quantity of water into it, proportionable to
CANDIAC (John Lewis), a premature genius, the quantity of tallow. This ferves to precipitate, to
born at Candiac in the diocefe of Nifmes in France, in the bottom of the veffel, the impurities of the tallow,
1719. In the cradle he diftinguifhed his letters: at 13 which may haveefcaped the fleimmer. No water, how-
months, he knew them perfe&ly: at three years of ever, muft be thrown into the tallow defigned for the
age, he read Latin, either printed or in manufeript: at three firft dips; becaufe the wick, being ftill quite dry,
four, he tranflated from that tongue: at fix, he read would imbibe the water, which makes the candles
Greek and Hebrew; was mafter of the principles of crackle in burning, and renders them of bad ufe. The
arithmetic, hiftory, geography, heraldry, and the fei- tallow, thus melted, is poured into a tub, through a
ence of medals; and had read the beft authors on al- coarfe fieve of horfe-hair, to purify it ftill more, and
moft every branch of literature. He died of a compli- may be ufed after having flood three hours. It will
cation of diforders, at Paris, in 1726. continue fit for ufe 24 hours in fummer, and 15 in
Candidate
Caudle.
CAN
[ 1614 ]
CAN
winter. The wicks are made of fpun cotton, which the
~ tallow-chandlers buy in fkains, and which they wind up
into bottoms or clues. Whence they are cut out, with
an inftrument contrived on purpofe, into pieces of the
length of the candle required ; then put on the flicks or
broaches, or elfe placed in the moulds, as the candles
are intended to be either dipped or moulded.
Wax-candles are made of a cotton or flaxen wick,
flightly twifted, and covered with white or yellow
wax. Of thefe, there are feveral kinds: fome of a
conical figure, ufed to illuminate churches, and in
proceffions, funeral ceremonies, &c. (fee Taper);
others of a cylindrical form, ufed on ordinary occa-
fions. The firft are either made with a ladle or the
hand. 1. To make wax-candles with the ladle. The
wicks being prepared, a dozen of them are tied by
the neck, at equal diftances, round an iron circle, fuf-
pended over a large bafon of copper tinned, and full
of melted wax : a large ladle full of this wax is poured
gently on the tops of the wicks one after another,
and this operation continued till the candle arrive at
its deftined bignefs; with this precaution, that the
three firft ladles be poured on at the top of the wick,
the fourth at the height of the fifth at and the
fixth at in order to give the candle its pyramidal
form. Then the candles are taken down, kept warm,
and rolled and fmoothed upon a walnut-tree table, with
a long fquare inftrument of box, fmooth at the bottom.
2. As to the manner of making wax-candles by the
hand, they begin to foften the wax, by working it fe-
Experiments to determine the real and comparative value
of burning Candles of different forts andfizes.
ThetimeThetime Theexpence in ■
that one 13 hours when
in one candle, die lafted pound candles are at
pound. will laft. 6 d. per dozen,
which alfofhcws
the proportion
of the expence
Small wick.
Large wick.
Candle
II
Candlemas.
‘81
»9
164-
12
l\
8
5i
Mould-
caudles.
Si
4
Oz.Dr
4
° 13^
o 154
Si
Hr. Min
3 15
2 40
2 40
3 27
3 36
4 9
4 15
5 l9
7 20
9 3
Hr. Min.
59 26
5° 34
44 2
41 24
38 24
32 12
34 °
3°
42 39
36 20
Farthings and
100th parts.
4.85
5.70
6.54
6.96
7.50
8.94
8.47
9-53
Mould-candles
at 7 s. per doz.
7.87
9.28
N. ]?■ The time that one candle lafted was taken
from an .average of feveral trials in each fize.
Candle is alfo a term in medicine, and is reckoned
. . „ . „ among the inftruments of furgery. Thus the candela
veral times in hot water, contained in a narrow but fumalis, or the candela pro fuffitu odor at a, is a mafs of
deep caldron. A piece of the wax is then taken out, an oblong form, confiding of odoriferous powders,
and difpofed by little and little, around the wick, mixed up with a third or more of the charcoal of wil-
which is hung on a hook in the wall, by the extre- low or lime tree, and reduced to a proper confidence
mity oppofite to the neck ; fo that they begin with with a mucilage of gum tragacanth, labdanum, or tur-
the big end, diminifhing ftill as they defcend towards pentine. It is intended to excite a grateful fmell with-
the neck. In other refpefts the method is nearly the out any flame, to corred the air, to fortify the brain
fame as in the former cafe. However, it muft be ob- and to excite the fpirits.
ferved, that, in the former cafe, water is always ufed to Medicated Candle, the fame with Bougie.
moiften the feveral inftruments, to prevent the wax from Candle. Sale or audion by inch of candle is when
flicking ; and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard, for a fmall piece of candle being lighted, the byftanders
the hands, &c. The cylindrical wax-candles are either are allowed to bid for the merchandize that is felling *
made, as the former, with a ladle, or drawn. Wax- but the moment the candle is out, the commodity is
candles drawn, are fo called, becaufe adually drawn adjudged to the laft bidder. ^
in the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers There is alfo an excommunication by inch of candle •
of wood, turned by a handle, which, turning back- when, the finner is allowed to come to repentance while
wards and forwards feveral times, pafs the wick a candle continues burning; but after ft is confumed
through melted wax contained in a brafs bafon, and at he remains excommunicated to all intents and purpofes*
the fame time through the holes of an inftrument like /?«/&-Candles, ufed in different parts of England*
that ufed for drawing wire fattened at one fide of the are made of the pith of a fort of ruffes, peeled or ftrip!
baf°\ f ,, r . . Pcd of the fldn, except on one fide, and dipped in melt-
Makers ot candles are not to ufe melting-houfes, ed greafe.
without due entry thereof at the excife-office, on pain Candle-#W, flips of pine about the thicknefs of a
of too/, and to give notice of making candles to the finger, ufed in New England and other colonies to
excife-officer for tha duties, and of the number, &c. or burn inftead of candles, giving a very good light. The
ffall forfeit 50/. Removing the candles before weighed French inhabitants of Tortuga ufe flips of yellow
by the officer, or mixing them with others, is likewife fantal-wood for the fame purpofe and under the fame
liable to penalties. denomination, which yields a clear flame, though of a
green colour. 6
GANDEEBERRT tree, in botany, the Engliff
name of the Myrica. °
CANDLEMAS, a feaft of the church held on the
fecond day of February, in honour of the purification
of the Virgin Mary. It is borrowed from the praftice
of the ancient Chnftians, who on that day ufed abun¬
dance
Spermaceti Candles. See Spermaceti.
CAN
CAN [ 1615 ]
CandlefHck, dance of lights both in their churches and proceffions, red from the mufcavado. Candying
in memory, as is fuppofed, of our Saviour’s being on
~ that day declared by Simon “ to be a light to lighten
the Gentiles.” In imitation of this cuftom, the Roman-
catholics on this day confecrate all the tapers and
candles which they ufe in their churches during the
the whole year. At Rome, the Pope performs that ce¬
remony himfelf; and diftributes wax-candles to the car¬
dinals and others, who carry them in proceffion through
the great hall of the Pope’s palace. This ceremony was
prohibited in England by an order of council in 1548.
CANDLESTICK, an inftrument to hold a candle,
made in different forms, and of all forts of matter.
The golden candleftick was one of the facred uten-
fils made by Mofes to be placed in the Jewifh taber¬
nacle. It was made of hammered gold, a talent in
weight. It.confuted of feven branches fupported by a
bafe or foot. Thefe branches were adorned at equal
diftances with fix flowers like lilies, and with as many
bowls and knobs placed alternately. Upon the flock
and fix branches of the candleftick were the golden
lamps, which were immoveable, wherein were put oil
and cotton.
Thefe feven lamps were lighted every evening, and
extinguifhed every morning. The lamps had their tongs
or fnuffers to draw the cotton in or out, and dirties
underneath them to receive the fparks or droppings of
the oil. This candleftick was placed in the antichamber
of the fanctuary on the fouth fide, and ferved to illu¬
minate the altar of perfume and the tabernacle of the
fhew-bread. When Solomon had built the temple of
the Lord, he placed in it ten golden candlefticks of the
fame form as that defcribed by Mofes, five on the
north and five on the fouth fide of the holy. But,
after the Babylonifh captivity, the golden candleftick
was again placed in the temple, as it had been before
in the tabernacle by Mofes. This facred utenfil, upon
the deftru&ion of the temple by the Romans, was
lodged in the temple of peace built by Vefpafian; and
the reprefentation of it is ftill to be feen on the tri-
unaphal arch at the foot of mount Palatine, on which
Vefpafian’s triumph is delineated.
CANDY, a large kingdom of Afia, in the irtand of
Ceylon. It contains about a quarter of the ifland; and
as it is encompafled with high mountains, and covered
with thick forefts, through which the roads and paths
are narrow and difficult, the king has them guarded,
to prevent his fubjedts from going into other countries.
It is full of hills, from whence rivulets proceed which
are full of fifti; but as they run among the rocks, they
are not fit for boats however, the inhabitants are very
dextrous in turning them to water their land, which is
fruitful in rice, pulfe, and hemp. The king is abfolute,
and his fubjedts are idolaters. The capital town is of
the fame name.
Candy, a town of Afia, and capital of a kingdom
of the fame name, in the ifland of Ceylon. It has beenr
often burnt by the Portuguefe, when they were mafters
of thefe coafts. The houfcs are very poor, low, and
badly furniflied. E. Long. 79. 12. N. Lat. 7. 35.
Candy, or Sugar-Candy, a preparation of fugar
made by melting and cryftallizing it fix or feven times
over, to render it hard or tranfparent. It is of three
kinds, white, yellow, and red. The white comes from
the loaf-fugar, the yellow from the caflbnado, and the
CANDYING, the adt of preferring fimples in fub- 'L
ftance, by boiling them in fugar. The performance of ane e‘
this originally belonged to the apothecaries, but is now
become a part of the bufinefs of the confedtioner.
CANE, in botany. See Arundo.
Cane, denotes alfo a walking ftick. It is cuftomary
to adorn it with a head of gold, filver, agate, &c.
Some are without knots, and very fmooth and even; o-
thers are full of knots, about two inches diftance from
one another. Thefe laft have very little elafticity, and
will not berid fo well as the others.
Canes of Bengal are the moft beautiful which the
Europeans bring into Europe. Some of them are fo
fine, that people work them into bowls or veflels, which
being varniftied over in the infide, with black or yellow
lacca, will hold liquors as well as glafs or China ware
does j and the Indians ufe them for that purpofe.
Cane is alfo the name of a long meafure, which
differs according to the feveral countries where it is
ufed..
At Naples the cane is equal to 7 feet 34- inches Eng-
lifh meafure : the cane of Tholoufe and the Upper
Languedoc, is equal to the varre of Arragon, and
contains five feet 84 inches; at Montpelier, Provence,
Daophine, and the Lower Languedoc, to fix Englirtt
feet 54 inches.
CANEA, a ftrong and confiderable town of the
ifland of Candia, where a bafhaw refides. It is inha¬
bited by 1500 Turks, 2000 Greeks, fome Jews, and
a few French merchants, with their conful. The har¬
bour is pretty good ; but the fortifications are much
out of repair. The environs of the town are admi¬
rable ; being adorned with forefts of olive-trees mixed
with fields, vineyards, gardens, and brooks bordered
with myrtle-trees and laurel-rofes. The chief revenue
of this town confifts in oil-olive. E. Long. 24. 15. N.
Lat. 35. 28.
CANELLA alba, a kind of bark rolled up in long
quills, thicker than cinnamon, and both outwardly and
inwardly of a whitilh colour, lightly inclining to yel¬
low. It is the produce of a tall tree growing in great
plenty in the lowlands in Jamaica and other American
iflands. The canella is the interior bark freed from an
outward thin rough one, and dyed in the (hade. The
(hops diftinguifh two forts of canella, differing from one
another in the length and thicknefs of the quills : they
are both the bark of the fame tree, the thicker being
taken from the trunk, and the thinner from the
branches. This bark is a warm pungent aromatic, not
of the moft agreeable kind, nor are any of the prepa- * See Mate-
rations of it very grateful *. ™ Medicar
CANELLE, or Cane-Land, a large country in the n *01*
ifland of Ceylon, called formerly the kingdam of Cota.
It contains a great number of cantons, the principal of
which are occupied by the Dutch. The chief riches of
this country confifts in cinnamon, of which there are
large forefts. There are five towns on the coaft, fome
forts, and a great number of harbours. The reft of
the country is inhabited by the natives; and there are
feveral rich mines, from whence they get rubies,, fap-
phires, topazes, cats-eyes, and feveral other precious
ftones.
CANEPHORzE, in Grecian antiquity, virgins who,
when they became marriageable, prefented certain baf-
kets.
CAN [ 1616 ] CAN
Ganep'horia "kets full of little curiofilies to Diana, in order to get
II leave to depart out of her train, and change their date
Canicui3- of life.
CANEPHORIA, in Grecian antiquity, a ceremo¬
ny which made part of a feaft, celebrated by the Athe¬
nian virgins, on the eve of their marriage-day.—At
Athens the canephoria confided in this } that the maid,
conduced by her father and mother, went to the tem¬
ple of Minerva, carrying with her a bafket full of pre-
lents, to engage the goddefs to make the marriage-
itate happy ; or, as the fcholiaft of Theocritus has it,
the bafket was intended as a kind of honourable amends
made, to that goddefs, the proteftrix of virginity, for
abandoning her party ; or as a ceremony to appeafe her
wrath. Suidas calls it a feltival in honour of Diana.
Canephoria, is alfo the name of a feftival in honour
of Bacchus, celebrated particularly by the Athenians,
on which the young maids carried golden bafkets full
of fruit, which bafkets were covered, to conceal the
myflery from the uninitiated.
CANES, in Egypt and other eaflern countries, a
poor fort of buildings for the reception of ftrangers and
travellers. People are accommodated in thefe with a
room at a fmall price, but with no other neceffaries; fo
that, excepting the room, there are no greater accom¬
modations in thefe houfes than in the defarts, only that
there is a market near,
CANETO, a ftrong town of Italy in the duchy of
Mantua, feated on the river Oglio, which was taken
by the Imperialifts in 1701, by the French in 1702,
afterwards by the Imperialifts, and then by the French
in lyoy. E. Long. to. 45. N. Lat. 40. 55.
CANGA, in theChinefe affairs, a wooden clog borne
on the neck, by way of punifhment for divers offences.
The canga is compofed of two pieces of wood notched,
to receive the criminal’s neck ; the load lies on his
fhoulders, and is more or lefs heavy according to the
quality of his offence. Some cangas weigh 200 lb ;
the generality from 50 to 60. The Mandarins condemn
to the punifhment of the canga. Sentence of death is
fometimes changed for this kind of punifhment.
CANGE (Charles du Frefne fieur du), one of the
mofl learned writers of his time, was born at Amiens
in 1610, and ftudied at the Jefuits college in that city.
Afterwards he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the law
at Orleans, and gained great reputation by his works,
among which are, 1. The hiftory of the empire of
Conftantinople under the French emperors. 2. John
Cinnamus’s fix books of the biftory of the affairs of John
and Manuel Comnenus, in Greek and Latin, with hi-
florical and philological notes. 3. Glojfarium ad Scrip-
tores mediae <b infinite Latinitatis.
CANICULA, is a name proper to one of the liars of
the conftellation cams major, called alfo fimply the dog-
* See Sirius, fiar; by the Greeks *. Canicula is the tenth
in order in the Britannic catalogue; in Tycho’s and
Ptolemy’s it is the fecond. It is fituated in the mouth of
the conftellation ; and is of the firft magnitude, being
the largeft and brighteft of all the ftars in the heavens.
From the rifing of this liar not cofmically, or with the
fun, but heliacally, that is, its emerfion from the fun’s
rays, which now happens about the 15th day of Au-
guft, the ancients reckoned their dies caniculares, or
dog-days. The Egyptians and Ethiopians began their
year at the rifing of the canicula, reckoning to its rife
again the next year, which is called the anms canarius, CanicuUm
or canicular year. This year confifted ordinarily of JU ^
365 days, and every fourth year of 366, by which it was a L
accommodated to the civil year. The reafon of their
choice of the canicula before the other ftars to compute
their time by, was not only the fuperior btightnefs of
that liar, but becaufe its heliacal rifing was in Egypt a
time of Angular note, as falling on the greatefl aug¬
mentation of the Nile, the reputed father of Egypt.
Epheftion adds, that from the afpeft and colour of
canicula, the Egyptians drew prognoftics concerning
the rife of the Nile; and, according to Florus, pre-
di&ed the future ftate of the year; fo that the firft ri¬
fing of this ftar was annually obferved with great at¬
tention.
CANICULUM, or Caniculus, in the Byzantine
antiquities, a golden flandifh or ink-veffel, decorated
with precious ftones, wherein was kept the facred en- .
caujlum, or red ink, wherewith the emperors figned
their decrees, letters, &c. The word is by fome deri¬
ved from canis, or caniculus; alluding to the figure of
a dog which it reprefented, or rather becaufe it was fup-
ported by the figures of dogs. The caniculum was un¬
der the care of a particular officer of ftate.
CANINA, the north part of the ancient Epirus, a
province of Greece, which now belongs to the Turks,
and lies off the entrance of the gulph of Venice. The
principal town is of the fame name, and is feated on the
fea-coaft, at the foot of the mountains of Chimera. E.
Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 40. 55.
CANINANA, in zoology, the name of a fpecies of
ferpent found in America, and efteemed one of the lefs
poifonous kinds. It grows to about two feet long; and
is green on the back, and yellow on the belly. It feeds
on eggs, and fmall birds; the natives cut off the head
and tail, and eat the body as a delicate difh.
CANINE, whatever partakes of, or has any relation
to, the nature of a dog.
Canine Appetite, amounts to much the fame with
Bulimy.
Canine Madnefs. See (fihe Index fubjoined to) Me¬
dicine.
Canine Teeth, are two iharp-edged teeth in each
jaw; one on each fide, placed between the inciforee
and molares.
CANINI (John Angelo and Marc Anthony), bro¬
thers and Romans, celebrated for their love of antiqui¬
ties. John excelled in deligns for engraving on ftones,
particularly heads; Marc engraved them. They were
encouraged by Colbert to publifti a fucceffion of heads of
the heroes and great men of antiquity, defigned from
medals, antique ftones, and other ancient remains; but
John died at Rome foon after the work was begun: Marc
Anthony, however, procured affiftance, finilhed and
publifhed it in Italian in 1669. The cuts of this edition
were engraved by Canini, Picard, and Valet; and a cu¬
rious explanation is given, which difeovers the Ikill of
the Canini’s in hiftory and mythology. The French
edition of Amfterdam, 1731, is fpurious.
CANIS, or Dog, in zoology, a genus of quadru¬
peds, belonging to the order of ferse. The chara&ers
of the dog are thefe: he has fix fore-teeth in the upper
jaw, thofe in the fides being longer than the interme¬
diate ones, which are lobated; in the under jaw there
are likewife fix fore-teeth, thofe on the fides being lo¬
bated.
CAN [ 1617 ] CAN
Canis. hated, He has fix grinders in the upper, and feven in
” l°wer jaw> The teeth cal'ed dog-teetk are four, one
18 °s' on each fide, both in the lower and upper jaw; they are
fharp-pointed, bent a little inward, and ftand at A di-
ftance from any of the reft.
There are eight fpecies of this genus, ‘viz.
I. The familiaris, or domeftic dog, is diftinguiftied
from the other fpecies, by having his tail bent to the
left fide; which mark is fo Angular, that perhaps the
tail of no other quadruped is bent in this manner. Of
this fpecies there are a great number of varieties. Lin¬
naeus enumerates 11, and Buffon gives figures of no
lefs than 27.—The maftiff is about the fize of a wolf,
with the fides of the lips hanging down, and a full ro-
bull body. The large Danifti dog differs only from
the former in being fuller in the body, and generally
of a larger fize. The gre-hound is likewife the fame
with the maftiff; but its make is more (lender and de¬
licate. Indeed the difference betwixt thefe three dogs,
although perfe&ly diftinguifhable at firft fight, is not
greater than that betwixt a Dutchman, a Frenchman,
and an Italian. The fhepherd’s dog, the wolf-dog, and
what is commonly called the Siberian dog, to which may
be joined the Lapland dog, the Canada dog, and, in
general, all thofe which have ftrait ears and a pointed
fnout, are all one kind, differing only in thicknefs, the
roughnefs or fmoothnefs of their (kin, the length of their
legs, and tails. The hound or beagle, the terrier, the
braque or harrier, and the fpaniel, may be confidered
as the fame kind: they have the fame form and the
fame inftin&s; and differ only in the length of their
legs, and fize of their ears, which in each of them are
long, foft, and pendulous. The bull-dog, the fmall
Danifh dog, the Turkifh dog, and the Iceland dog,
may likewife be confidered as the fame kind, all the va¬
rieties in their appearance taking their rife merely from
climate. For inftance, the Turkifh dog, which has no
hair, is nothing elfe but the fmall Danifh dog tranf-
ported to a warm climate, which makes the hair fall off.
A dog of any kind lofes its hair in very warm climates.
But this is not the only change which arifes from dif¬
ference of climate. In fome countries, the voice is chan¬
ged ; in others, dogs become altogether filent. In fome
climates they lofe the faculty of barking, and howl like
wolves, or yelp like foxes. Warm climates even change
their form and inftin&s: they turn ill-fhaped, and their
ears become ftrait and pointed. It is only in temperate
climes that dogs preferve their natural courage, ardour,
and fagacity.
In order to give an idea of the different kinds of
dogs in different climates, and of the varieties produ¬
ced by commixtures, we (hall give an explanation of
Buffon’s genealogical tree, fee Plate LXX. fig. 1. This
tree is conftrufted in the form of a geographical chart,
in which the fituation of the different climates to which
the particular dogs belong, is obferved as accurately as
the nature of the thing will admit.
The fhepherd’s dog is the flump of the tree ; this
dog, when tranfported to Lapland, or any very cold
climate, affumes an ugly appearance, and its legs be¬
come fhort. But, in Britain, Ruffia, Siberia, &c. where
the cold is not fo rigorous, and the people are more ci¬
vilized, he arrives at greater perfe£lion, both in form
and fagacity. The fame fhepherd’s dog, when brought
up in a country fully civilized, as Britain or France,
Vol. III.
lofes his favage air, his ftrait ears, his thick long hair,
and becomes what is called a bull-dog, a i'beagk,
or hound. Thefe changes, Buffon attributes to the in¬
fluence of the climate, the manners of the people, &c.
The maftiff and the bull-dog have their ears ftill partly
ftrait, or half-pendent, and refemble in their manners
and fanguine difpofition the dog from which they de¬
rive their origin. The beagle or hound preferves lefs
of the appearance of its origin than the other two; its
ears are long and entirely pendent; the foftnefs, the
traftability, the timidity of this dog, Buffon confiders
as fo many proofs of its great degeneracy, or rather of
that perfe&ion which it acquires by culture and living
among a civilized people.
The hound, the fmall fpotted fetting-dog, and the
terrier, are all of the fame family; for all the three
kinds are often produced at the fame litter, although
the female hound had been covered only by one of thefe
kinds.
When the hound is tranfported to Spain, or Bar¬
bary, where almoft every animal has fine, long, downy
hair, it is changed into a water-hound, or fpaniel. And
the fmall and large fpaniel, which differ only in the tail,
when carried to Britain, are changed from a white to
a black colour, and become what are called the large
and fmall Jhagged dogs.
The maftiff, when carried to the north, is changed
into the large Danifh dog; and when tranfported to
the fouth, it becomes a gre-hound. The large gre-
hounds come from the Levant; thofe of a lefier fize come
from Italy; and the Italian gre-hounds, when brought
to Britain, become what the French call Icvrons, that
is, gre-hounds of the leaft fize.
The great Danifh dog, when carried to Ireland, the
Ukrain, Tartary, &c. is changed into the Irifh dog,
which is the largeft of all dogs.
The bull-dog, when carried from Britain to Den¬
mark, becomes the fmall Danifh dog; and this fmall
Danifh dog, when tranfported into a warm climate, lofes
its hair, and is changed into the Turkifh dog.
All thefe races or families, with their varieties, are
produced by the influence of climate, food, and edu¬
cation : the other kinds marked in the tree are not pure
or diftinft families, but are produced by the commix¬
ture of the other families. Thefe mungrel dogs, with
the particular parents which produce them, are marked
out in the tree by dotted lines. For example,
The gre-hound and maftiff produce the mungrel gre-
hound, which is likewife called the gre-hound with
wolf’s hair. The large Danifh dog and the large fpa¬
niel produce the Calabrian dog; which is a beautiful
dog, with long bufhy hair, and of a larger fize than
the maftiff. The fpaniel and the final! Danifh dog pro¬
duce the lion-dog, which is a very rare kind. It is
needlefs to give more examples, as they can eafily be
traced from the dotted lines in the tree.
Dr Caius has left, among feveral other tradls relating
to natural hiftory, one written exprefsly on the fpecies
of Britifh dogs: befides a brief account of the variety
of dogs then exifting in this country, he has added a
fyftematic table of them: his method is fo judicious,
that we (hall make ufe of the fame; explain it by a
brief account of each Jrind; and point out thofe that
are no longer in ufe amonglt us.
9 T
The Dog.
Synopsis
Canis.'
CAN
Tfce Dog.
[ 1618 ] CAN
hunting-matches. It had as fagacious noftrils as the Canis.
blood-hound, and was as fierce. The D
f. The third fpecies is the levinarius, or lorarius ; ;
the leviner or lyemmer: the firft name is derived from
the lightnefs of the kind; the other from the old word
lyemme, a thong; this fpecies being ufed to be led in a
thong, and flipped at the game. Our author fays that
this dog was a kind that hunted both by fcent and
fight; and in the form of its body obferved a medium
between the hound and the gre-houndi This probably
is the kind now known among us by the name of the
Irijh gre-kottnd, a dog now extremely fcarce in that
kingdom, the late king of Poland having procured from
them as many as poffible. They were of the kind called
by Buffon legrand Danois, and probably imported there
by the Danes who long pofTeffed that kingdom. Their
ufe feems originally to have been for the chafe of wolves
with which Ireland fwarmed till the latter end of the
laft century. As foon as thefe animals were extirpated,
the numbers of the dogs decreafed; for, from that pe¬
riod, they were kept only for (late.
g. The vertagus, or tumbler, is a fourth fpecies;
which took its prey by mere fubtilty, depending nei¬
ther on the fagacity of its nofe, nor its fwiftnefs: if it
came into a warren, it neither barked, nor ran on the
rabbits; but by a feeming negleA of them, or atten-
a. The firft variety is the ^errar/a/, or terrier, which tion to fomething elfe, deceived the objeft till it got
takes its name from its fubterraneous employ; being a within reach, £o as to take it by a fudden fpring. This
fmall kind of hound ufed to force the fox, or other beafts dog was lefs than the hound, more feraggy, had prickt
of prey, out of their holes; and, in former times, rab- up ears, and by Dr Caius’s defeription feems to an-
bits out of their burrows into nets. fwer to the modern lurcher.
b. The leverarius, or harrier, is a fpecies well known The third divifion of the more generous dogs com¬
at prefent: it derives its name from its ufe, that of prehends thofe which were ufed in fowling,
hunting the hare; but under this head may be placed h. Firft, the Hifpaniolus, or fpaniel r from the name,
the fox-hound, which is only a ftronger and fleeter va- it may be fuppofed that we were indebted to Spain for
riety, applied to a different chace. this breed. There were two varieties of this kind: the
c. The fanguinariusy blood-hound, or Jlcut-hounde firft ufed to fpring the game, which are the fame with
of the Scots, was a dog of great ufe, as already noticed our ftarters. The other variety was ufed only for the net,
under the article Y>\.o<ro-Hound. _ and was called index, or the fetter; a kind well known
The next divifion of this fpecies of dogs compre- at prefent. This kingdom has been long remarkable for
hends thofe that hunt by the eye; and whofe fuccefs producing dogs of this fort, particular care having been
depends either upon the quicknefs of their fight, their taken to preferve the breed in the utmoft purity. They
fwiftnefs, or their fubtilty. are ftill diffinguiftied by the name of Englijh [paniels;
d. The agafawsy or gaze-hound, was the firft: it fo that, notwithftanding the derivation of the name, it
chaced indifferently the fox, hare, or buck. It W'ould is probable they are natives of Great Britain.
deleft from the herd the fatteft and faireft deerpurfue _ i. The aquaticus, or fynder, was another fpecies ufed
it by the eye; and, if loft for a time, recover it again in fowling ; was the fame with our water-fpaniel; and
by its Angular diftinguifhing faculty; nay, {hould the was ufed to find or recover the game that was (hot.
beaft rejoin the herd, this dog would fix unerringly k. The Melitaus, or fotor, the fpaniel gentle or com-
on the fame. This fpecies is now loft, or at leaft un- forter of Dr Caius (the modern lap-dog), was the
known to us. laft of this divifion. The Maltefe little dogs were as
e. The next kind is the leporartusy or gre-hound. Dr much efteemed by the fine ladies of paft times, as thofe
Cains informs us, that it takes its name quod prxcipui of Bologna are among the modern. Old Hollinglhed
gradusfit inter canes, “ the firft in rank among dogs is ridiculoufly fevere on the fair of his days, for their
that it was formerly efteemed fo, appears from the fo- exceffive paflion for thefe little animals; which is fuffi-
reft-laws of king Canute, who enafted that no one un- cient to prove that it was, in his time *, a novelty. * The reiKj
der the degree of a gentleman fhould prefume to keep 2. The fecond grand divifion of dogs comprehends of queen ^
a gre-hound; and ftill more ftrongly from an old Wellh the ruftici, or thofe that were ufed in the country l'zaleih' l
faying which figmfies, that « you may know a gentle- a. The firft fpecies is the paftoralis, or fhepherd’s
man by his hawk, his horfe, and his gre-hound." dog; which is the fame that is ufed at prefent, either
The variety called the Highlandgre-hound, and flow in guarding our flocks, or in driving herds of cattle
become very fcarce, is of very great fize, ftrong, deep- This kind is fo well -trained for thefe purpofes, as to at-
chefted, and covered with long rough hair. This kind tend to every part of the herd be it ever fo lame- con-
was much efteemed in former days, and ufed in great fine them to the road; and force in every ftraeder.
numbers by the powerful chieftains in their magnificent without doing it the leaft injury.
Synopsis of British Dogs.
f f Hounds. CTerrier
I
£ ^
n
D- So C
l
< Harrier
^Blood-hound
Gaze-hound
Gre-hound
Leviner, or Lyemmer
Tumbler
Spaniel
Setter
Water-fpaniel, or finder
Spaniel gentle, or comforter
Shepherd’s dog
Maftiff, or ban dog.
Wappe
Turnfpit
Dancer.
b. The
Canis.
The Dog.
Cynegethon,
lin. its.
CAN [ 16
b. The next is the villaticut, or catenarius; the
maftiff' or band dog; a fpecies of great fize and
ftrength, and a very loud barker. Caius tells us that
three of thefe were reckoned a match for a bear; and
four for a lion: but from an experiment made in the
Tower of London, that noble quadruped was found an
unequal match to only three. Two of the dogs were
difabled in the combat, but the third forced the lion to
feek for fafety by flight. The Englifli bull-dog feems
to belong to this fpecies ; and probably is the dog our
author mentions under the title of laniarius. Great Bri¬
tain was fo noted for its maftiffs, that the Roman empe¬
rors appointed an officer in this ifland under the name
of procurator cynegii, whofe foie bufinefs was to breed,
and tranfmit from hence to the amphitheatre, fuch as
would prove equal to the combats of the place. Gra-
tius fpeaks in high terms of the excellency of the Bri-
tilh dog.
Atque ipfes libeat penetrate Britannos?
0 quanta eft merces, et quantum impendia fupra !
Si non ad fpeciem, moitnurojque decores
Protinus : hxc una eft catulis jaciura Britannis.
At magnum cum vcnit opus, promendaque virtus,
Et vocat extreme pneccps di/crimine Mavors, '
Non tunc egregios tantum admirere Moloflas.
If Britain's diftant coaft we dare explore.
How much heyond the coft the valued (tore;
If (hape and beauty not alone we prire.
Which nature to the Britijh hound denies:
But when the flighty toil the huntfman warms,
And all the foul is rous’d by fierce alarms,
When Mars calls furious to th’ enfanguin’d field,
Even bold Moloftians then to thefe muft yield.
Strabo tells us that the maftiffs of Britain were trained
to war, and were ufed by the Gauls in their battles;
and it is certain, a well trained maftiff might be of ufe
in diftreffing fuch half-armed and irregular combatants,
as the adverfaries of the Gauls feem generally to have
been before the Romans conquered them.
3. The faft diviflort is that of the degeneresy or curs.
a. The firft of thefe was the •wappe, a name derived
from its note; its only ufe was to alarm the family by
barking,, if any perfon approached the houfe.
b. Of this clafs was the fer/rztar, or turn-fpit; and
laftly the Jaltator, or dancing-dog ; or fuch as was
taught variety of tricks, and carried about by idle peo¬
ple as a (hew, Tbefe degeneres were of no certain
ffiape, being mongrels or mixtures of all kinds of dogs.
Having thus traced the varieties of the dog, and no¬
ticed the peculiarities of each, we ffiall now give its ge¬
neral natural hiftory.
From the ftructure of the teeth, it might be con¬
cluded a priori that the dog is a carnivorous animal.
He does not, however, eat indiferiminately every kind
of animal fubftance. There are fome birds, as the co-
lymbus ar&icus, which the water-dog will lay hold of
with keennefs, but will not bringoutof the water, becaufe
its fmell is exceedingly offenfive to him. He will not
eat the bones of a goofe, crow, or hawk : but he de¬
vours even the putrid flefti of moft other animals. He
is poflefied of fuch ftrong digeftive powers, as to draw
nourifhment from the hardeft bones. When fleffi can¬
not be procured, he will eat fifti, fruits, fucculent herbs,
and bread of all kinds. When opprefled with ficknefs-
to which he is very fubjeft, efpecially in the beginning
of fummer, and before ill weather, in order to pro¬
cure a puke, he eats the leaves of the quicken-grafs,
19 1 CAN
the bearded wheat-grafs, or the rough cock’s-foot grafs,
which gives him immediate relief. When he fteals a
piece of fleffi, as confcious of the immorality of the ac¬
tion, he runs off with his tail hanging and bent in be¬
twixt his feet.
His drink is water, which he takes in fmall quanti¬
ties at a time, by licking with his tongue. He is in
fome meafure obliged to lick in this manner, otherwife
his nofe would be immerfed in the water.
His excrements are generally hard fcybals, which,
efpecially after eating bones, are white, and go by the
name of album grtecum among phyficians. This album
graecum was for a long time in great repute as a feptic;
but it is now entirely difregarded. He does not throw
out his excrements promifeuoufly upon every thing that
happens to be in the way, but upon ftones, trunks of
trees, or barren places. This is a wife inftitution of
nature ; for the excrements of a dog deftroy almoft e-
very vegetable or animal fubftance. They are of fuch
a putrid nature, that if a man’s ffioe touches them
when recently expelled, that particular part will rot in
a few days. He obferves the fame method in making
his urine, which he throws out at a fide. It is re¬
markable, that a dog will not pafs a ftone or a wall a-
gainft which any other dog has piffed, without follow¬
ing his example, although a hundred ffiould occur in a
few minutes, in fo much that it is aftoniffiing how fuch
a quantity can be fecreted in fo ffiort a time.
The dog is an animal not only of quick motion, but
remarkable for travelling very long journeys. He can
eafily keep up with his mafter, either on foot or horfe-
back, for a whole day. When fatigued, he does not
fweat, but lolls out his tongue. Every kind of dog can
fwim ; but the water-dog excels in that article.
The dog runs round when about to lie down, in or¬
der to difeover the moft proper fituation. He lies ge¬
nerally on his bread, with his head turned to one fide,
and fometimes with his head above his two fore-feet.
Hefleeps little, and even that does not feem to be very
quiet; for he often ftarts, and feems to hear with
more acutenefs in deep than when awake. They
have a tremulous motion in fleep, frequently move their
legs, and bark, which is an indication of dreaming.
Dogs are poffeffed of the fenfation of fmelling in a
high degree. They can trace their mafter by the fmell
of his feet in a church, or in the ftreets of a populous
city. This fenfation is not equally ftrong in every
kind. The hound can trace game, or his mafter’s fteps,
24hourS afterwards. He barks more furioufly the nearer
he approaches the fowls, unlefs he be beat and trained
to filence.
The dog eats envioufly, with oblique eyes : is an
enemy to beggars : bites at a ftqne flung at it: is fond
of licking wounds: howls at certain notes in mufic, and
often urines on hearing them.
With regard to the propagation of dogs ; the females
admit the males before they are 12 months old. They
remain in feafon to,'12, or even 15 days, during which
time they will admit a variety of males. They come
in feafon generally twice in the year, and more fre¬
quently in the cold than in the hot months. The male
difeovers the condition of the female by the fmell; but
ffie feldom admits him the firft fix or feven days. One
coitus will make her conceive a great number of young;
but, when not reftrained, ffie will admit feveral dogs
9 T 2 every
The Dog.
CAN [ 1620 ] CAN
Canis. every day : die feems to have no choice or prediiec- ed to draw little carts to the herb-market; and in Si- Cams. I
*—  tion, except in favour of large dogs: from this circum- beria, draws a fledge with his mafter in it, or loaden
thsDojj. ftance> it fometimes happens, that a fmall female, who with provifions.
has admitted a madiff, perilhes in bringing forth her The dog is liable to many difeafes, as the fcab, mad-
young. During the time of copulation, thefe animals nefs, &c. and he feldom wants the taenia or tape-worm
cannot feparate themfelves, but remain united fo long in his guts, efpecially if he drinks dirty water. [See
as the eredtion fubfifts. This is owing to the ftrufture Plate LXX. and LXXL]
of the parts. The dog has not only a bone in his pe- II. The fecond fpecies of this kind is the lupus,. or The Wolf,
nis, but in the middle of the corpus cavernofum there wolf, which is diftinguifhed from the dog by having
is a large hollow, which is blown up in the time of e- its tail turned inward. The wolf is larger and fiercer
redion to a confiderable bulk. The female, on the than a dog. His eyes fparkle, and there is a great
other hand, has a larger clitoris than perhaps any other degree of fury and wildnefs in his looks. He draws
animal; befides, a large firm protuberance rifes in the up his claws when he walks, to prevent his tread from
time of copulation, and remains perhaps longer than being heard. His neck is Ihort, but admits of very
that of the male, and prevents him from retiring till it quick motion to either fide. His colour is generally
fubfides: accordingly, after the aft of copulation is o- blackifh. Like moll ferocious animals, he can bear
ver, the male turns about in order to reft himfelf on his hunger a very long time ; but, at laft, when the appe-
legs, and remains in that pofition till the parts turn tite for viftuals becomes intolerable, he grows perfeft-
flaccid. The female goes with young about nine weeks, ly furious, and will attack men, horfes, dogs, and cattle
They generally bring forth from fix to twelve puppies, of all kinds; even the graves of the dead are not proof
Thofe of a fmall fize bring forth five, four, and fome- again!! his rapacity. This circumftance is finely de¬
times but two. They continue to copulate and bring fcribed, in the following lines,
forth during life, whidh lafts generally about 14 or 151
years. The whelps are.commonly blind, and cannot
open their eyes, till the 10th or 12th day ; the males are
like the dog, theTemales like the bitch. In the fourth
month, they lofe fome of their teeth, which are foon
fucceeded by others.
The dog has fuch a ftrong refemblance to the wolf
and the fox, that he is commonly fuppofed to be the
produftion of one or other of thefe animals tamed and
civilized. Buffon informs us, that he kept a young dog
and a young wolf together till they were three years of
age, without their difcovering the leaft inclination to
copulate. He made the fame experiment upon a dog
and a fox; but their antipathy was rather increafed
when the female was in feafon. From thefe experi¬
ments he concludes, that dogs, wolves, and foxes, are
perfeftly diftinft fpecies of animals. There has, how¬
ever, been lately an inftance to the contrary. Mr Brooke,
animal-merchant in Holborn, turned a wolf to a Po¬
meranian bitch in heat; the congrefs was immediate,
and as ufual between dog and bitch: fhe produced ten with hunger, feldom ventures out of the woods.* They
puppies. Mr Pennant fays he faw one of them that make a howling noife in the night, and affemble toge-
had very much the refemblance of a wolf, and alfo ther in troops in order to devour their prey. The*fe-
much of its nature; being flipped at a weak deer, it males are in heat in winter; and followed by feveral
inftantly caught at the animal's throat and killed it. males, which occafions great combats. She goes with
With regard to the natural difpofition of the dog : young ten weeks; near her time, prepares a foft bed
in a favage ftate, he is fierce, cruel, and voracious; of mofs, in fome retired place ; and brings forth from
but, when civilized and accuftpmed to live with men, five to nine at a birth The wolf is a native of Eu-
he is poffefled of every amiable quality. He feems rope, and frequents the woods of many parts of the
to have no other defire than to pleafe and proteft his continent to this day. The teeth of this animal are
mafter. ^ He is gentle, obedient, fubmiffive, and faith- large and fharp ; and its bite is terrible, as its ftrength
ful. 1 hefe difpofitions, joined to his almoft un- is great. The hunters therefore clothe their dogs, and
bounded fagacity, juftly claim the efteem of mankind, guard their necks with fpiked collars. Wolves are pro-
Accordingly no animal is fo much careffed or refpefted: fcribed animals, deftroyed by pit-falls, traps, or poifon:
he is fo duftile, and fo much formed to pleafe, that he a peafant in France who kills a wolf, carries its head
affumes the very air and temper of the family in which from village to village, and collefts fome fmall reward
he refides. from the inhabitants : the Kirghis-Khaiffacks take the
An animal endowed with fuch uncommon qualities wolves by the help of a large hawk called berkut, which
muft anfwer many ufeful purpofes. His fidelity and is trained for the diverfion, and will faften on them
vigilance are daily employed to proteft our perfons, our and tear out their eyes. This ifland, a few centuries
flocks, or our goods. The acutenefs of his fmell gains ago, was much infefted by them. It was, as appears
him employment in hunUng : he is frequently employ- by Hollinglhed, very noxious to the flocks in Scotland
eu as a turnlpit: at Bruuels and in Holland, he is train- in 1577; nor was it entirely extirpated till about 1680,
By wintry famine rous’d, 
Cruel as death, and hungry as the grave!
Burning for blood ! bony, and ghant, and grim!
Aflembling wolves in raging troops defcend;
And, pouring o’er the country, bear along.
Keen as the north-wind fweeps thegiolTy fnow.
All is their prize. They faften on the fteed,
Prefs him to earth, and pierce his mighty heart.
Npr can the bull his awful front defend,
Or ftiake the murthering favages away.
Rapacious at the mother’s throat they fly.
And tear the fcreaming infant from her breaft.
The god-like fape of Man avails him nought.
Even beauty, force divine! at whofe bright glance
The generous lion ftands in foften’d gaze,
Here bleeds, a haplefs undiftinguifti’d prey.
But if, appris’d of the fevere attack,
The country be ftiut up, lur’d by the fcent,
On church-yards drear (inhuman to relate!)
The difappointed prowlers fall, and dig
The (hrouded body from thegrave; o’er which,
Mix’d with foul lhades, and frighted ghofts, they howl.
Thomson’s Winter.
The wolf is extremely fufpicious, and, unlefs Drefle
when
I’Iafr LXX.
<xx>nbi^\x.oTa//<’ t/^rnit/^ratrt/ ty' Doc n.
TIFIF.
4; ft<’//>> .
CAN [ 1621 ] CAN
Cauls, when the laft wolf fell by the hand of the famous Sir
■ Ewen Cameron. We may therefore with confidence
affert the non-exiftence of thefe animals, notwithftand-
ing M. de Buffon maintains that the Englifh pretend
to the contrary. - It has been a received opinion, that
the other parts of thefe kingdoms were in early times
delivered from this peft by the care of king Edgar. In
England he attempted to effedf it by commuting the
punifhments of certain crimes into the acceptance of a
certain number of wolves tongues from each criminal;
and in Wales, by converting the tax of gold and filver
into an annual tax of 300 wolves heads. But, notwith-
fianding thefe his endeavours, and the affertions of
fome authors, his fcheme proved abortive. We find,
that, fome centuries after the reign of that Saxon mo¬
narch, thefe animals were again increafed to fuch a de¬
gree, as to become again the objeft of royal attention :
accordingly Edward I. ifiued out his royal mandate to
Peter Corbet to fuperintend and affift in the deftrudlion
of them in the feveral counties of Glocefter, Worcefter,
Hereford, Salop, and Stafford ; and in the adjacent
county of Derby, (as Cambden,~p. 902, informs us),
certain perfons at Wormhiil held their lands by the
duty of hunting and taking the wolves that infefted the
country, whence they were ftyled 'wolve-hunt. To look
back into the Saxon times, w'e find, that in Athel-
ftan’s raign wolves abounded fo in Yorkfhire, that a
retreat was built at Flixton in that county, “ to de-
* fend paffengers from the wolves, that they fhould not
be devoured by themand fuch ravages did thofe
animals make during winter, particularly in January,
when the cold was fevereft, that the Saxons diftinguifhed
that month by the name of the ’wolf-motith. They al-
fo called an outlaw wolf s-head, as being out of the pro-
te&ion of the law, profcribed, and as liable to be killed
as that dellru&ive beaft. Ireland was infefted by wolves
for many centuries after their extinftion in England;
for there are accounts of fome being found there as late
as the year 1710, the laft prefentment for killing of
wolves being made in the county of Cork about that
time. [Plate LXXI. fig. 5.]
^The III. The hyjena has a ftrait jointed tail, with the
',a:na’ hair of its neck ereft, fmall naked ears, and four toes
on each foot. It inhabits Afiatic Turky, Syria, Per-
fia, and Barbary. Like the jackal, it violates the re-
pofitories of the dead, and greedily devours the putrid
contents of the grave; like it, preys on the herds and
• flocks ; yet, for want of other food, will eat the roots
of plants, and the tender fhoots of the palms: but, con¬
trary to the nature of the former, it is an unfociable
animal; is folitary, and inhabits the chafms of the
rocks. The fuperftitious Arabs, when they kill one,,
carefully bury the head, left it fhould be employed for
magical purpofes ; as the neck was of old by the Thef-
falian forcerefs.
Vijcera non lynch, non dim nodus hy<enx
Defult. Lucan, vi 674.
The ancients were wild in their opinion of the hyaena :
they believed that its neck confifted of one bone with¬
out any joint; that it changed its fex ; imitated the
human voice; had the power of charming the fhep-
herds, and, as it were, rivetting them to the place they
flood on : no wonder that an ignorant Arab fhould at¬
tribute preternatural powers to its remains. They are
cruel, fierce, and untameable animals, of a moft male¬
volent afpedl; have a fort of obftinate courage, which Canis.
will make them face ftronger quadrupeds than them-  
felves. Ksempfer relates, that he faw one which had
put two lions to flight, regarding them with the utmoft
coolnefs. Their voice is hoarfe, a difagreeable mixture
of growling and roaring.
Mr Pennant defcribes a variety of this fpecies, undiftin-
gnifhed by former naturalifts, which he calls the fpotted
hyxna. It has a large and fiat head; fome long hairs
above each eye; very long w'hifkers on each fide of the
nofe ; a fhort black mane ; hair on the body fhort and
fmooth; ears (hort and a little pointed, their outfide
black, in fide cinereous ; face and upper part of the
head black; body and limbs reddifh brown, marked
with diftindl black round fpots ; the hind legs with
black tranfverfe bars; the tail fhort, black, and full
of hair. It inhabits Guinea, Ethiopia, and the Cape :
lives in holes in the earth, or cliffs of the rocks ; preys
by night; howls horribly ; breaks into the folds, and
kills two or three fheep; devours as much as it can,
and carries away one for a future repaft; will attack
mankind, fcrape open graves, and devour the dead.
Bofman has given this creature the name oijackal; by
which Buffon being milled, makes it fynonimous with
the common jackal.
IV. The vulpes, or fox, has a ftrait tail, white at TheFox,
the point. His body is yellowifh, or rather ftraw-co-
loured ; his ears are fmall and ereft ; his lips are whi-
tifh, and his forefeet black. From the bafe of the tail
a ftrong fcent is emitted, which to fome people is very
fragrant, and to others extremely difagreeable. The
fox is a native of almoft every quarter of the globe, and
is of fuch a wdld and favage nature that it is impoffible
fully to tame him'. He is efteemed to be the moft
crafty of all beafts of prey. His craftinefs is chiefly
difcovered by the fchemes he falls upon in order to
catch lambs, geefe, hens, and all kinds of fmall birds.
When the females are in feafon, they make a difagree¬
able yelping noife in the night. It breeds only once
in a year, (except fome accident befalls the firft litter),
and brings four or five young, which, like puppies, are
born blind. It is a common received opinion, that this
animal will produce with the dog kind : which may be
well founded; fince it has been proved that the con¬
generous wolf will, as noticed above. The fox flies
when he hears the explofion of a gun, or fmells gun¬
powder. He is exceedingly fond of grapes, and does
much mifchief in vineyards. Various methods are daily
employed to deftroy foxes: they are hunted with dogs;
iron traps are frequently fet at their holes; and their
holes are fometimes fmoked to make them run out, that
they may the more readily fall into the fnares, or be
killed by dogs or fire-arms. But all the arts that have
been employed are infufficient for rooting them out of
any country. They have fo many paffages in their
dens, frequently at a great diftance, that they often
make their efcape. The fox fleeps much in the day,
but is in motion the whole night in fearch of prey. It
will feed on flelh of any kind; but its favourite food is
lambs, rabbits, hares, poultry, and feathered game :
it will, when urged by hunger, eat carrots and infers;
and thofe that live near the fea-coafts, for want of o-
ther food, will eat crabs, Ihrimps, or fliell-fifli. The
fox is a great deftroyer of rats, and field -mice ; and,
like the cat, will play with them a confiderable time
before
CAN [ 1622 ] CAN
Ornis. before it puts them to death. When the fox has ac-
quired a larger prey than it can devour at once, it ne-
The Fox. v£r beg;ns to feed till it has fecured the reft, which it
does with great addrefs. It digs holes in different pla¬
ces ; returns to the fpot where it had left the booty ;
and (fuppoftng a whole flock of poultry to have been
its prey) will bring them one by one, and thruft them
in with its nofe, and then conceal them by ramming
the loofe earth on them till the calls of hunger incite
him to pay them another vifit. Of all animals the fox
has the moft fignificant eye, by which it expreffes every
paffion of love, fear, hatred, &c. It is remarkably
playful; but, like all favage creatures half reclaimed,
will on the leaft offence bite thofe it is moft familiar
with. It is a great admirer of its bufhy tail, with
which it frequently amufes and exercifes itfelf, by run¬
ning in circles to catch it: and, in cold weather, wraps
it round its nofe. The fmell of this animal is in gene¬
ral very ftrong, but that of the urine is remarkably fe¬
tid. This feems fo offenfive even to itfelf, that it will
take the trouble of digging a hole in the ground,
ftretching its body at full length over it; and there, af¬
ter depofiting its water, cover it over with the earth, as
the cat does its dung. The fmell is fo bffenfive, that it
has often proved the means of the foxes efcape from
the dogs; who have fo ftrong an averfion at the filthy
effluvia, as to avoid encountering the animal it came
from. It is faid that the fox makes ufe of its urine as an
expedient to force the cleanly badger from its habita¬
tion : whether that is the means, is rather doubtful ;
but that the fox makes ufe of the badger’s hole, is cer¬
tain : not through want of ability to form its own re¬
treat, but to fave itfelf fame trouble ; for after the ex-
pulfion of the firft inhabitant, the fox improves as well
as enlarges it confiderably, adding feveral chambers,
and providently making feveral entrances to fecure a
retreat from every quarter. In warm weather, it will
quit its habitation for the fake of balking in the fun, or
to enjoy the free air ; but then it rarely lies expofed,
but choofes fome thick brake, that it may reft fecure
from furprize. Crows, magpies, and other birds, who
confider the fox as their common enemy, will often,
by their notes of anger, point out its retreat.—The
Ikin of this animal is furnifhed with a warm foft fur,
which in many parts of Europe is ufed to make muffs
and to line clothes. Vaft numbers are taken in Le Val-
lais, and the Alpine parts of Switzerland. At Eau-
fanne there are furriers who are in poffeffion of be¬
tween 2000 and 3000 Ikins, all taken in one winter.
Plate LXXI. fig. 4.
Of the fox there are feveral varieties ; as,
1. The field-fox, or alopex of Linnaeus, who makes
it a diftinft fpecies ; but it is every way the fame with
the common fox, except in the point of the tail, which
is black.
2. The crofs-fox, with a black mark palling tranf-
verfely from Ihoulder to Ihoulder, with another along
the back to the tail. It inhabits the coldeft parts of
Europe, Afia, and North-America : a valuable fur,
thicker and fofter than the common fort: great num¬
bers of the Heins are imported from Canada.
3. The black fox is the moft cunning of any, and
its Hein the moft valuable ; a lining of it is, in Ruffia,
efteemed preferable to the fineft fables : a Angle Hein
will fell for 400 rubles. It inhabits the northern parts
of Afia, and North-America. The laft is inferior in Canis.
goodnefs.
4. The brant fox, as defcribed by Gefner and Lin- rhcFox-
naeus, is of a fiery rednefs ; and called by the firll
brctnd-fuchf, by the laft brandraef: it is fcarce half the
lize of the common fox: the nofe is black, and much
fnarper; the fpace round the ears ferruginous; the
forehead, back, Ihoulders, thighs, and fides black mix¬
ed with red, alh-colour and black; the belly yellowilh ;
the tail black above, red beneath, and cinereous on its
fide. It is a native of Penfylvania.
5. The corfac-fox, with upright ears, foft downy
hair; tail bufhy; colour in fummer pale tawney,
irt winter grey : the bafe and tip of the tail black : a
fmall kind. It inhabits the defarts beyond the Yaik:
lives in holes: howls and barks : is caught by the Kir-
gis Khaiffacks with falcons and gre-hounds : 40 or
50,000 are annually taken, and fold to the Ruffians, at
the rate of 40 kopeiks, or 20 pence, each : the former
ufe their fkins inflead of money : great numbers are
fent into Turky.
6. There are three varieties of foxes found in the
mountainous parts of thefe iflands, which differ a little
in form, but not in colour, from each other. They
are diftinguifhed in Wales by as many different names.
The milgi, or gre-houndfox, is the largeft, talleft, and
boldeft ; and will attack a grown fheep or wedier: the
mafiff-fox is lefs, but more ftrongly built: the corgi,
or cur-fox, is the leaft ; lurks about hedges, out-houfes,
&c. and is the moft pernicious of the three to the fea¬
thered tribe. The firft of thefe varieties has a white
tag or tip to the tail; the laft a black. When hunted,
they never run diredlly forward, but make a great ma¬
ny doublings and turnings; and when in danger of be¬
ing taken, they emit fuch a fmell from their pofteriors
that the hunters can hardly endure it.
V. The lagopus, or ardlic fox, with a fharp nofe ;
fhort rounded ears, almoft hid in the fur; long and
foft hair, fomewhat woolly ; fhort legs ; toes covered
on all parts, like that of a common hare, with fur ; tail
fhorter and more bufhy than that of the common fox,
of a bluifh grey or afh colour, fometimes white: the
young of the grey are black before they come to matu¬
rity : the hair much longer in winter than fummer, as
is ufual with animals of cold climates. It inhabits the
countries bordering on the Frozen Sea ; Khamtchat-
ka, the ifles between it and America, and the oppofite
parts of America difcovered in captain Bering’s expedi¬
tion, 1741 ; is again found in Greenland, Iceland,
Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and Lapland. It bur¬
rows underground, forms holes many feet in length ;
and ftrews the bottom with mofs. In Greenland and
Spitzbergen it lives in the cliffs of rocks, not being
able to burrow, by reafon of the froft : two or three
pair inhabit the fame hole. They are in heat about
Lady-day ; and during that time, they continue in the
open air, but afterwards take to their holes. They go
with young nine weeks: like dogs, they continue united,
in copulation : they bark like that animal, for which
reafon the Ruffians call them pefzti, or dogs. They
have all the cunning of the common fox ; prey on
geefe, ducks, and other water-fowl, before they can fly;
on groufe of the country, on hares, and the eggs of
birds; and in Greenland (through neceffity), on ber¬
ries, fhell-fifh; or any thing the fea flings up. But their
CAN [ 1623 j CAN
• Cams, principal food in the north of Afia and in Lapland, is
” the leming, or Lapland marmot: thofe of the countries
laft mentioned are very migratory, purfuing the leming
which is a wandering animal : fometimes thefe foxes
will defert the country for three or four years, probably
in purfuit of their prey; for it is well known that the
migrations of the leming are very inconflant, it ap¬
pearing in fome countries only once in feveral years.
The people of Jenefea fufpeft they go to the banks of
the Oby. They are taken in traps: oft-times the
glutton and great owl deftroy them before the hunter
can take them out: the fkins are of fmall value : the
great rendezvous of thefe animals is on the banks of the
Frozen Sea, and the rivers that flow into it, where they
are found in great troops.
VI. The aureus, or jackal; of the form of a wolf,
jac -a, 'c. much ]efs. the colour of a bright yellow. It inha¬
bits all the hot and temperate parts of Afia; is found in
Barbary and other parts of Africa as low as the Cape
of Good Hope. They go in packs of 40, 50, and
even of 200 ; and hunt like hounds in full cry, from
evening to morning : they deftroy the flocks and poul¬
try ; ravage the ftreets of villages, and gardens near
towns, and will even d^ftroy children that are unpro-
tedled : they will enter (tables and out-houfes, and de¬
vour fkins, and any thing elfe formed of that material:
there is fcarce any animal they will leave unmolefted :
in default of living prey, they will feed on roots, fruits,
and the moft infected carrion : they will greedily difin-
ter the dead, and feed on putrid corpfes ; for which
reafon, in many countries, the graves are made of a
great depth, and well fecured againft their attacks :
they attend caravans, and follow armies, in hopes that
death will provide them a banquet: their howls and
clamours are dreadful; and fo loud, that people can
fcarce hear one another fpeak : during the day they are
filent, and retire to their dens. Dellon fays, that they
are fometimes tamed, and kept among other domeftic
animals.
This animal is commonly called the lion's provider,
from an opinion that it rouzes the prey for that bad-no-
fed quadruped. The faft is, that every creature in the
foreft is fet in motion by the fearful cries of the jackals;
v the lion, and other beafts of prey, by a kind of in-
ftin£t, attend to the chace, and feize fuch timid ani¬
mals as betake themfelves to flight at the noife of this
nightly pack. It is defcribed by Oppian under the
name or yellow wolf; who mentions its hor¬
rible howl. It is ftrange that an animal fo common in
the Levant, (hould never have been brought over to jre
defcribed by any modern naturalift. The defcriptions
yet remain very obfcure ; and there is (till a great un¬
certainty whether the jackal and the adive of Mr Buf-
fon are the fame or different animals.
VII. The mexicanus has a fmooth crooked tail.
The body is alh-coloured, variegated with yellow fpots.
It is a native of Mexico, and is called the mountain-cat
by Seba. It agrees with the European w©lf in its man¬
ners; attacks cattle, and fometimes men.
VIII. The thous has a fmooth crooked tail; the up¬
per part of its body is grey, and its belly white. It is
about the fize of a large cat; and, according to Lin¬
naeus, is found at Surinam: it is mentioned by no o-
ther naturalift.
Can is Major, the Great Dog, in aftronomy, a con-
ftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, below Orion’s feet, Cams
tho’ fomewhat to the weftward of him. For the num- r H .
ber of his ftars, fee Astronomy, n° 206. anna 1S‘
Canis Minor, tho Little Dog, in aftronomy, a con-
ftellation of the northern hemifphere; called alfo by the
Greeks procyon, and by the Latins antecanis, and ca-
nicula. See Canicula ; and Astronomy, n° 206.
CANISIU'S (Henry), a native of Nimeguen, and
one of the moft learned men of his time, was profeffor
of canon law at Ingolftadt; and wrote a great number
of books, the principal of which are, 1. Summa Juris
Canonici. 2. Antique lettiones, a very valuable work.
He died in 1609.
CANKER, a difeafe incident to trees, proceeding
chiefly from the nature of the foil. It makes the bark
rot and fall. If the canker be in a bough, cut it off;
in a large bough, at fome diftance from the ftem; in a
fmall one, clo(e to it: but for over-hot ftrong ground,
the ground is to be cooled about the roots with pond-
mud and cow-dung.
Canker, among farriers, See Farriery, $xliv. 2.
CANNA, Indian cane ; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The indica, or common broad-leaved
flowering cane, is a native of both Indies; the inhabi¬
tants of the Britifli {(lands in America call it Indian
foot, from the roundnefs and hardnefs of the feeds. It
hath a thick, fleftiy, tuberous root, which divides into
many irregular knobs; it fends out many large oval
leaves, without order. At their firft appearance the
leaves are like a twifted horn, but afterwards expand,
and are near a foot long, and five inches broad in the
middle; leffening gradually to both ends, and termi¬
nated in a point. The (talks are herbaceous, riling four
feet high, and are encompaffed by the broad leafy foot-
ftalks of the leaves; at the upper part of the (talk the
flowers are produced in loofe fpikes, each being at firft
covered with a leafy hood, and turns to a brown co¬
lour. The flowers are fucceeded by a fruit or capfule,
oblong,- rough, and crowned with the three-cornered
empalement of the flower which remains. When the
fruit is ripe, the capfule opens lengthwife into three
cells, filled with round, (hining, hard, and black feeds.
2. The latifolia, with a pale red flower, is a native of
Carolina, and fome other northern provinces of Ame¬
rica. 3. The glauca, with a very large flower, is a
native of South America. 4. The lutea, with obtufe,
oval leaves, is lefs common in America than the other
forts. 5. The coccinea, hath larger leaves than any of
the other fpecies, and the (talks rife much higher. The
flowers are produced in large fpikes; and are of a bright
crimfon, or rather fcarlet colour.
Culture. Thefe plants muff always be kept in pots
of rich earth, to be moved to (belter in winter. They
are propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed in the
fpring; and in fummer, vthen the plants are a little ad¬
vanced in growth,, prick them feparately in fmall pots
of rich earth, plunging them alfo in the hot-bed, gi¬
ving (hade, water, and frefli air; to which laft harden
them by degrees, till they bear it fully. In October
they muft be removed into a very good ftove or green-
houfe.
CANNABIS, hemp ; a genus of the pentandria
order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants. Of this
there is but one fpecies, viz. the fativa. This is prq-
paga-
/
CAN [ 1624 ] CAN
Cannabis, pagated in the rich fenny parts of Lincolnfhire in great
“ ’ quantities, for its bark, which is ufeful for cordage,
cloth, &c. and the feeds abound with oil. Hemp is
always fown on a deep, moift, rich foil, fuch as is
found in Holland, Lincolnlhire, the fens of the ifland
of Ely, where it is cultivated to great advantage, as it
might be in many other parts of England where there
is a foil of the fame kind; but it will not thrive on clayey
or ftiff cold land. The ground on which hemp is de-
figned to be fown fhould be well ploughed, and made
very fine by harrowing. About the middle of April
the feed may be fown; three bufhels is the ufual allow¬
ance for an acre, but two are fufficient. In the choice
of the feed, the heavieft and brighteft coloured ihould
be preferred ; and particular care fhould be had to the
kernel of the feed. For the greater certainty in this
matter, fome of the feeds fhould be cracked, to fee
whether they have the germ or future plant perfedl:
for, in fome places, the male plants are drawn out too
foon from the female ; i- e. before they have impreg¬
nated the female plants with the farina ; in which cafe,
though the feeds produced by thefe females may feem
•See Botany, fa;r to the eye, yet they will not grow *, according
fe£t. iii. to dodtrine of Linnaeus. When the plants are
come up, they fhould be hoed out in the fame manner
as is pradlifed for turnips, leaving them two feet apart;
obferve alfo to cut down all the weeds, which, if well
performed, and in dry weather, will deftroy them.
This crop, however, will require a fecond hoeing, in
about fix weeks after the firft ; and, if this is well per¬
formed, the crop will require no further care. The
firft feafon for pulling hemp is ufually about the middle
of Auguft, when they begin to pull what they call
x\\t hev/p, being that which is compofed of the
male plants ; but it would be the much better method
to defer this for a fortnight or three weeks longer, un¬
til thofe male plants have fully fhed their farina or dull,
without which the feeds will prove only empty hulks.
Thefe male plants decay foon after they have fined their
farina. The fecond pulling is a little after Michael¬
mas, when the feeds are ripe. This is nfually called
karle hemp, and confifts of the female plants which
were left. This karle hemp is bound in bundles of a
yard compafs, according to ftatute meafure, which are
laid in the fun for a few days to dry; and then it is
Hacked up, or houfed, to keep it dry till the feed can
be threfhed out. An acre of hemp, on a rich foil, will
produce near three quarters of feed, which, together
with the unwrought hemp, is worth from fix to eight
pounds. Hemp is efteemed very effe&ual for deftroy-
ing weeds: but this it accomplifhes by impoverifhing
the ground, and thus robbing them of their nourifh-
ment; fo that a crop of it muft not be repeated on the
fame fpot.—From the leaves of hemp pounded and
boiled in water, the natives of the Eaft Indies prepare
an intoxicating liquor of which they are very fond.
The plant, when frelh, has a rank narcotic fmell;
the water in which the ftalks are foaked, in order to
feparate the tough rind for mechanic ufes, is faid to be
violently poifonous, and to produce its effedls aimoft as
foon as drank. The feeds alfo have fome fmell of the
herb, and their tafte is un&uous and fweetiih : they are
recommended, boiled in milk, or triturated with water
into an emulfion, againft coughs, heat of urine, and the
like. They are alfo faid to be ufeful in incontinence of
urine, and for reftraining venereal appetites 5 but ex* Canme.
perience does not warrant their having any virtues of that —  
kind.
CANNAE, (anc. geog.), a mean hamlet of Apulia
in the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Aufidus ;
raifed out of obfeurity by a moft terrible overthrow
given the Romans by the Carthaginians under Hanni¬
bal. The Roman confuls were C. Terentius Varro,
and L. Emilius Paulus. Their army was vaftly fupe-
rior in numbers to the Carthaginians ; but the latter
were fuperior in cavalry. Notwithftanding, however,
that the Romans were no fewer than 87,000, fo great
was the fame of Hannibal, that the confuls were di¬
vided in their opinion as to the venturing of an engage¬
ment. Emilius was for avoiding a battle, and accord-
ingly encamped on the eminences where the cavalry of
the enemy could not a& ; but next day, it being Var-
ro’s turn to command, he advanced into the plain in
which Cannas was fituated, and brought the army into
fuch a fituation that an engagement became unavoid¬
able. The Romans were then drawn up in the ufual
manner ; the hajlati in the firft line, the principes in
the fecond, and the triarii in the third. The cavalry
were ported on the wings. On the right, the Roman
knights flanked the legionaries; in the left, the cavalry
of the allies covered their own infantry. The two con¬
fuls commanded the tw o wings, Emilius the right, and
Terentius the left; and the two procunfuls Servilius
and Attilius the main body. On the other hand, Han¬
nibal, whofearmy confiftedof 40,000 foot, and 10,000
horfe, placed his Gaulilh and Spanilh cavalry in his
left wing, to face the Roman knights; and the Numi-
dian horfe in his right, over againtt the cavalry of the
allies of Rome. As to his infantry, he divided the
African battalions into two bodies; one of which he
ported near the Gaulifh and Spanifti horfe, the other
near the Numidian. Between thefe two bodies were
placed on one fide the Gaulilh, on the other the Spa¬
nilh infantry, drawn up in fuch a manner as to form an
obtufe angle projedling a confiderable way beyond the
two wings. Behind this line he drew up a fecond
which had no projedtion. Afdrubal commanded the
left wing ; Maherbal the right; and Hannibal himfelf,
with his brother Mago, the main body. He had alfo
taken care to port himfelf in fuch a manner that the
wind Vulturnus, which rifes at certain Hated times,
Ihould blow direftly in the faces of the Romans du¬
ring the fight, and cover them with duft. The onfet
was begun by the light-armed infantry ; the Romans
difeharging their javelins, and the laleares their ftones,
with pretty equal fuccefs ; neverthelefs, the conful E-
milius was wmunded. Then the Roman cavalry in the
right wing advanced againft the Gaulilh and Spanilh
in Hannibal’s left. As they were Ihut in by the river
Aufidus on one fide, and by their infantry on the other,
they did not fight, as ufual, by charging and wheel¬
ing off, and then returning to the charge ; but con¬
tinued fighting each man againft his adverfary, till one
of them was killed or retired. After they had made
prodigious efforts on both fides to overbear each other,
they all on a fudden difmounted, and fought on foot
with great fury. In this attack the Gauls and Spa¬
niards foon prevailed; put the Romans to the rout; and,
purfuing them along the river, ftrewed the ground with
their dead bodies, Afdrubal giving no quarter. This
ac-
CAN [ i
Cannse a&ion was fcarce over, when the infantry on both fides
Cann . advanced. The Romans firft fell upon the Spaniards
  ' and Gauls, who, as already obferved, formed a kind
of triangle projecting beyond the two wings. Thefe
gave ground, and, purfuant to Hannibal’s directions,
funk into the void fpace in their rear; by which means
they infenfibly brought the Romans into the centre of
the African infantry, and then the fugitives rallying,
attacked them in front, while the Africans charged
them in both flanks. The Romans, being by this
artful retreat drawn into the fnare and furrounded,
no longer kept their ranks, but formed feveral platoons,
in order to face every way. Emilius, who was on the
right wing, feeing the danger of the main body, at
the head of his legionaries a&ed the part both of a
foldier and general, penetrating into the heart of the
enemy’s battalions, and cutting great numbers of them
in pieces. All the Roman cavalry that were left, at¬
tended the brave conful on foot; and, encouraged by
his example, fought like men in defpair. But, in the
mean time, Afdrubal, at the head of a detachment of
Gaulifh and Spanifh infantry brought from the centre,
attacked Emilius’s legionaries with fuch fury, that they
were forced to give ground and fly : the conful being
all covered with wounds, was at laft killed by fome of
the enemy who did not know him. In the main body,"
the Romans, though invefted on all fides, continued
to fell their lives dear ; fighting in platoons, and mak-
ing a great flaughter of the enemy. But being at length
overpowered, and difheartened by the death of the two
proeonfuls Servilius and Attilius who headed them,
they difperfed and fled, fome to the right, and others
to the left, as they could find opportunity ; but the
Numidian horfe cut moft of them in pieces: the whole
plain was covered with heaps of dead bodies, infomuch
that Hannibal himfelf, thinking the butchery too ter¬
rible, ordered his men to put a flop to it.—There is a
great difagreement among authors as to the number of
Romans killed and taken at the battle of Cannae. Ac¬
cording to Livy, the republic loft 50,000 men inclu¬
ding the auxiliaries. According to Polybius, of 6000
Roman horfe, only yoefcaped to Venufia with Teren-
tius Varro, and 300 of the auxiliary horfe. As to the
infantry, that writer tells us, that 70,000 of the Ro¬
man foot died on the field of battle fighting like brave
men ; and that 13,000 were made prifoners. Accord¬
ing to Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus, of 6000 horfe, only
370 efcaped the general flaughter, and of 80,000 foot,
3000 only were, left. The moft moderate computation
makes the number of Romans killed to amount to
45,000.
CANNEL coal. See Amphelites.
CANNES, a town of France, in Provence, and in
the viguerie of Grafle, feated on the coaft of the Me¬
diterranean fea, with a harbour and a caftle. E. Long.
7. 7. N. Lat. 43. 34.
CANNON, a military engine for throwing balls,
&c. by the help of Gunpowder.
The invention of brafs cannon is by Laney afcribed
to J. Owen: he fays, that they were firft known in
England in the year 1535; but yet acknowledges,
that, in 1346, there were four pieces of cannon in the
Englifh army at the battle of Creffy, and that thefe
were the firft that were known in France. And Meze-
ray relates, that king Edward, by five or fix pieces
Vol. III.
62s ] CAN
of cannon, (truck terror into the French army, it be- Cannon,
ing the firft time they had feen any of thefe thundering
machines *. The Germans carry the invention farther an"u
back, and attribute it to Albertus Magnus, a Domini- * See Anil-
can monk, about the year 1250. Vofiius rejects all^7')'*
thefe opinions, and finds cannon in China almoft 1700
years ago. According to him, they were mounted by
the emperor Kitey in the year of Chrift 85.
For the calling of cannon, fee Foundery. For their
different parts, proportions, management, operation,
and effefts, fee Gunnery.
Cannon, with letter-founders and printers, the name
of the largeft fize of letters they ufe.
CANNONADE, the application of artillery to the
purpofes of war, or the diredtion of its efforts againft
fome diftant objedl intended to be feized or deftroyed,
as a (hip, battery, or fortrefs. See Gunnery.
Since a large (hip of war may be confidered as a
combination of floating batteries, it is evident that the
efforts of her artillery muft be greatly fuperior to thofe
of a fortrefs on the fea-coaft; that is to fay, in general;
becaufe, on fome particular occafions, her fituation may
be extremely dangerous, and her cannonading inef-
fedtual. Her fuperiority confifts in feveral circum-
ftances, as the power of bringing her different batteries
to converge to one point; of fhifting the line of her
attack fo as to do the greateft poffible execution againft
the enemy, or to lie where (lie will be the lead expo-
fed to his (hot; and chiefly becaufe, by employing a
much greater number of cannon againft a fort than it
can poflibly return, the impreffion of her artillery
againft (lone-walls foon becomes decifive and irrefift-
ible. Befides thefe advantages in the attack, (he is alfo
greatly fuperior in point of defence: becaufe the cannon-
(hot, pafiing with rapidity through her fides, feldom do
any execution out of the line of their flight, or occafion
much mifchief by their fplinters; whereas they very foon
(hatter and deftroy the faces of a parapet, and produce
incredible havoc among the men by the fragments of the
(tones, &c. A (hip may alfo retreat when (he finds it
too dangerous to remain longer expofed to the enemy’s
fire, or when her own fire cannot produce the defired
effedl. Finally, the fludluating fituation of a (hip, and
of the element on which (lie reds, renders the effedts of
bombs very uncertain, and altogether deftroys the ef-
fedt of the ricochet, or rolling and bounding (hot, which
is fo pernicious and deftrudlive in a fortrefs or land en¬
gagement. The chief inconveniency to which a (hip is
expofed, on the contrary, is, that the low-laid cannon,
in a fort near the brink of the fea, may ftrike'her re¬
peatedly on or under the furface of the water, fo as to
fink her before her cannonade can have any confider-
able efficacy.
CANNULA, in furgery, a tube made of different
metals, principally of filver and lead, but fometimes of
iron.
They are introduced into hollow ulcers, in order to
facilitate a difcharge of pus or any other fubftance; or
into wounds, either accidental or artificial, of the large
cavities, as the thorax or abdomen: they are ufed in
the operation of bronchotomy; and, by fome, after cut¬
ting for the (lone, as a drain for urine.
Other cannulas are ufed for introducing cauteries,
either adlual or potential, into hollow parts, in order
to guard the parts adjacent to that to be cauterized,
9 U from
CAN [ 16:
Cano from injury. They are of various figures ; fome being
It oval, fome round, and others crooked.
::anon• CANO, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, with a
town of the fame name. It is bounded by Zaara on the
north, by the river Niger on the fouth, the kingdom of
Agades on the weft/and that of Caffina on the eaft.
Some of the inhabitants are herdfmen, and others till
the ground and dwell in villages. It produces corn,
rice, and cotton. Here are alfo many deferts, and
mountains covered with woods, in which are wild ci¬
trons and lemon-trees. The walls and houfes of the
town are made of clay, and the principal inhabitants
are mfrchants. E. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat. 21. 5.
Canoeia, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
foted on the weftern bank of Lago Maggiore, or the
Greater Lake. E. Long. 8. 47. N. Lat. 45. 55.
CANOE, a fort of Indian boat or velfel, formed of
the trunk of a tree hollowed, and fometimes of feveral
pieces of the bark put together.
Canoes are of various fixes, according to the ufes for
which they may be defrgned, or the countries wherein
they are formed. The larged are made of the cotton
tree; fome of them will carry between 20 and 30
lioo-lheads of fugar or molaffes. Some are made to carry
fail: and for this purpofe are fteeped in water till they
become pliant; after which their fides are extended,
and ftrong beams placed between them, on which a
deck is afterwards laid that ferves to fupport their fides.
The other forts very rarely carry fail, unlefs when go¬
ing before the wind: their fails are made of a fort of
fhort lilk grafs or rufhes. They are commonly rowed
with paddles, which are pieces of light wood fomewhat
refembling a corn-lhovel; and, inftead of rowing with
it horizontally like an oar, they manage it perpendicu¬
larly. The fmall canoes are very narrow, having only
room for one perfon in breadth, and feven or eight
lengthwife. The rowers, who are generally American
favages, are very expert in managing their paddles uni¬
formly, and in balancing the canoes with their bodies;
which would be difficult for a ftranger'to do, how well
accullomed foever to the conducing of European boats,
becaufe the canoes are extremely light, and liable to be
overturned. The American Indians, when they are un¬
der the neceffity of landing to avoid a water-fall, or of
croffing the land from one river to another, carry their
canoes on their heads, till they arrive at a place where
they can lanch them again—This is the general con-
ftruftion of canoes, and method of managing them :
but fome nations have velfels going under the name
of canoes, which differ confiderably from the above;
as the inhabitants of Greenland, Hudfon’s-bay, Ota-
heite, &e. See Greenland, &c.
CANON, commonly called prebendary, a perfon who
poffeffes a prebend, or revenue allotted for the perform¬
ance of divine fervice in a cathedral or collegiate
church. Originally, canons were only priefts, or infe¬
rior ecclefiaftics, who lived in community, refiding near
the cathedral church to affift the bifhop, depending
entirely on his will, fupported by the revenues of his
bifhopric, and living in the fame houfe as his domeftics
or counfellors, &c. By degrees thefe communities of
priefts, fhaking off their dependence, formed feparate
bodies ; in time they freed them.felves from their rules,
and at length ceafed to live in a community. It is
maintained, that the colleges of canons, which have
16 ] CAN
been introduced into each cathedral, were not in the Canon,
ancient church, but are of modern appointment.
In the Romifh church, when a perfon is promoted to
the office of a canon, he muft be prefented in a very
ceremonious manner to the chapter, who affemble in
the cathedral, in order to receive him : he kiffes the
altar thrice, after which he goes and takes his place in
the choir ; he afterwards makes his confeffion of faith
aloud, and fwears to obferve the ordinances of the
church and his holinefs the pope : being thus folemnly
inftalled, he is empowered to affift at the chapter, to
chaunt the office of the choir, &c.
Canons are of various kinds; as,
CtfriZ/W Canons, thofe attached, or, as the Latins
call it, incardiuati, to a church, as a prieft is to a
parilh.
Domicellory Canons, young canons, who, not being
in orders, had no right in any particular chapters.
Expettative Canons were fnch as, without having
any revenue or prebend, had the titles and dignities of
canons, a voice in the chapter, and a place in the choir,
till fuch time as a prebend fliould fall.
Foreign Canons, fuch as did not officiate in the ca-
nonries to which they belonged. To thefe were op-
pofed manfionary canons.
Regular Canons, thofe who ftilllive in community,
and who, like religious, have, to the praftice of their
rules, added the folemn profefiioft of vows.
Tertiary Canon, a perfon who had only the third
part of the revenues of the canonicate.
Canon, in an eccleliaftical fenfe, a law, rule, or re¬
gulation of the policy and difeipline of a church, made
by councils either general, national, or provincial.
Canons of the Apofles, a colleftion of eccleftaftical
laws, which, though very ancient, were not left us by
the apoftles. It is true, they were fometimes called
apofolic canons ; but this means no more than that
they were made by biffiops, who lived foon after the
apoftles, and were called apofolic a l men. Theyconfift
of regulations, which agree with the difeipline of the
fecond and third centuries: The Greeks generally count
85; but the Latins receive only 50, nor do they ob’-
ferve all thefe.
Canon of Mafs, in the Romilh church, the name of
a prayer which the prieft reads low to himfelf, the peo¬
ple kneeling.
In this part of the mafs, the prieft particularly men¬
tions fome perfons for whom he is going to offer the
facrifices, and prays to God for the redemption of their
fouls, the hopes of their falvation, &c.
Pafchal Canon, a table of the moveable feafts, fliew-
ing the day of Eafter, and the other feafts depending
on it, for a cycle of 19 years.'
Canon of Scripture, a catalogue or lift of the in-
fpired writings ; or fuch books of the Bilile as are
called canonical, becaufe they are in the number of
thofe books which are looked upon as facred, in oppo-
fition to thofe which either are not acknowledged as
divine books, or are rejected asfpurious, and are called
apocryphal.
The canon of Scripture may be confidered either as
Jewidi or Chriftian, with refpeft to the facred writings
acknowledged as fuch by the Jews, and thofe admitted
by the Chriftians.
The firft canon, or catalogue of the facred books,
was
CaftOil.
CAN [ 1627 ] CAN
was made by the Jews ; but who was the author of it,
is not fo certain. The five books of Mofes were, quef-
tionlefs, colle&ed into one body within a fiiort time
after his death ; fince Deuteronomy, which is an a-
biidgement of the other four, was laid in the taber¬
nacle near the ark, according to the command he gave
to the Levites : fo that the firft canon of the facred
writings confided only of the five books of Mofes.
There were no more added to them till the divifion of
the ten tribes ; fince the Samaritans acknowledged none
elfe. However, fince Mofes, there were feveral pro¬
phets and other writers divinely infpired, who com-
pofed either the hiilory of their own times, or prophe¬
tical books, and divine writings, or pfalms to the praife
of God ; but it cannot be difcovered that, any time
before the captivity, they were colle&ed into one body,
and comprifed under one and the fame canon. It is
evident that, in our Saviour’s time, the canon of the
Holy Scripture was already drawn up, fince he cites
the laws of Mofes, the prophets, and the pfalms, which
are the three forts of books of which that canon is com-
pofed, and which he often ftyles the Scripture, or the
Holy Scripture.
It is generally received, that Ezra was the principal
author of this canon, though Nehemiah had fome (hare
in it; and that he re-eftabli(hed, corre&ed, and ordered
the facred books to be written in new characters.
The Jewilh canon is generally called the canon of
Ezra : but it is certain, that all the books were not
received into the canon of the Scriptures in his time ;
for Malachi, it is fuppofed, lived after him; and, in
Nehemiah, mention is made of Jaddua the high prieft,
and of Darius Codomanus, a king of Perfia, who lived
at leaft too years after his time. Dr Prideaux, with
great appearance of reafon, fays, it is molt probable,
that the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah,
and Either, as well as Malachi, were afterwards ad¬
ded in the time of Simeon the juft ; and that it was
not till then that the Jewilh canon of the Holy Scrip-
ture was fully completed. And, indeed, thefe lall
books feem very much to want the accuracy and Ikill
of Ezra, in their publication; for they .fall Ihort of
the exa&nefs found in the other parts of the Hebrew
Scriptures. There are fome authors who pretend, that
the Jews have made one or more canons ; and that they
have added to the former the books of Tobit, Judith,
Ecclefiafticus, Wifdom, and the Maccabees: but it is
moft evidently true, thad the Jews had no other canon
but that of Ezra, nor confeffed any other books for
facred but thofe it contains. The two aflemhlies of
the fynagogue, which, as it is pretended, were held for
that purpofe, are mere chimeras; nor have any ancient
writers faid any thing of them.
As for the Chriftian church, there is no doubt but
it acknowledged thofe books to be canonical, which
were cited as of divine authority, by Chrift and his
apoftles: the ancient catalogues of the canonical books
of the Old Teftament, which are to be met with in
Chriftian writers, are conformable to the canon of the
Jews, and contain no other books; the Chriftian
church, for feveral of the firft; ages, receiving the in¬
fpired writers no further than the Jewilh canon. The
firft and moft ancient catalogue of this kind, is that of
Malito, bilhop of Sardis, who flourilhed in the reign of
Marcus Antoninus. It agrees with the Jewilh canon,
excepting his omiflion of Efther, and that he makes Canon.
Ruth and Judges two books. Origen has given us a   
lift of the facred books, in which he takes in Efther,
and joins Ruth with Judges. St Gregory Nazianzen
divides the books of Scripture into hiftorical, poetical,
and prophetical: he reckons 12 hiftorical books, viz.
the five books of Mofes, with Jolhua, Judges, Ruth,
the two books of Kings, Chronicles, and Efdras. Five
poetical books, Job, Daniel, and the three books of
Solomon. Five prophetical books, viz. four great pro¬
phets, and 12 fmall ones. The council of Laodicea
was the firft fynod in which the number of the canoni¬
cal books was afeertained: this council alfigns only 22
books to the Old Teftament, including Efther, and
joining Baruch and the Lamentations with Jeremiah.
St Epiphanius reckons 27 canonical books of the Old
Teftament; yet he admits no more than are in the ca¬
talogue ofOrigen, and obferves that the Jews had re¬
duced them to 22. The third council of Carthage, in
the year 397, admitted the books of Wifdom, Eccle¬
fiafticus, Tobit, Judith, and the two books |of Mac¬
cabees, into the canon. The church of Rome has
agreed herein with that of Africa : for Innocent I. in
his-letter to Exuperius, places the fame books in the
canon of Scripture, as pope Gelafius, in the council
held in the year 494 ; and the decree of pope Euge-
nius, and the canon of the council of Trent, agree
with the canon of the council of Carthage. That the
council of Trent had no prior authority to proceed on,
excepting fome flender pretence from the council of
Carthage above mentioned, appears from the current
teftimony of the Latin church.
As to the canon of the New Teftament, it is to be
obferved, that the four Evangelifts, the Ads of the
Apoftles, all the Epiftles of St Paul except that to
the Hebrews, and the firft .Epiftles of St Peter and
St John, have been received as canonical by the una¬
nimous confent of all the churches in all times: the
Epiftle of St James, that of St Jude, the fecond Epif-
tle of St Peter, and the fecond and third Epiftles of
St John, were not received by all the churches from
the beginning, as canonical ; but have fince been ac¬
knowledged as genuine, and therefore admitted into
the canon.
We muft obferve, that the canon of the New Tef¬
tament was neither fettled by any fynod, or lingle au¬
thority : this colledion was formed upon the unani¬
mous confent of all the churches, who, by conftant
tradition, reaching to the apoftolical age, had received
fuch a number of them as were written by infpired
authors.
Canon, in monadic orders, a book wherein the re¬
ligious of every convent have a fair tranfeript of the
rules of their order, frequently read among them, as
their local ftatutes.
Canon is alfo ufed for the catalogue of faints ac¬
knowledged and canonized in the Romiih church.
Canon, in mufic. In modern mufic it is a kind of
fugue which they call a perpetual fugue, becaufe the
different parts, beginning one after another, repeat in-
ceflantly the fame air.
Formerly, fays Zarlino, they placed, at the head of
perpetual fugues, particular dire&ions which fhewed
how this kind of fugues was to be fung; and thefe di-
re&ions being properly the rules by which perpetual
9 U 2 fugues
CAN [ 1628 ] CAN
fugues were compofed were called canoni, rules or ca¬
tions. From this cuftom, others taking the title for the
thing fignifted, by a metonimy, termed this kind of
compofition canon. Such canons as are compofed with
the greateft facility, and of confequence moft generally
ufed, begin the fugue either with the o&ave or the u-
nifon; that is to fay, that every part repeats in the fame
tone the melody of the preceding: in order to form a
canon of this kind, it is only neceflary for the compo-
fer to make an air according to his tafte; to add in
fcore as many parts as he chufes, where the voices in
odtave or unifon repeat the fame melody; then forming
a Tingle air from all thefe parts fucceffively executed, to
try whether this fucceflion may form an entire piece
which wall give pleafure, as well in the harmony as the
melody.
In order to execute fuch a canon, he who fings the
firft part begins alone, and continues till the air is fi-
niihed; then recommences immediately, without any fu-
fpence of found or interruption of time: as foon as he
has ended the firft: couplet, which ought to ferve for
the perpetual fubjeft upon which the whole canon has
been compofed, the fecond part begins and repeats the
fame couplet, whiht the firfi: who had begun purfues
the fecond: others in fucceffion begin, and proceed the
fame way, as foon as he who precedes has reached the
end of the firfl: couplet. Thus, by inceffantly recom¬
mencing, an univerfal clofe can never be found, and the
canon may be repeated as long as the fingers pleafe.
A perpetual fugue may likewife confift: of parts which
begin with the intervals of fourth or fifth; or, in other
words, every part may repeat the melody of the firft, a
fourth or a fifth higher or lower. It is then neceflary
that the whole canon fliould be invented di prima in-
tenzione, as the Italians fay; and that fiiarps or flats
fhould be added to the notes, whofe natural gradations
do not anfwer exactly, by a fourth or fifth, to the me¬
lody of the preceding part, and produce the fame in¬
tervals with itfelf. Here the compofer cannot pay the
lead regard to modulation; his only care is, that the
melody may be the fame, which renders the formation
of a canon more difficult; for at every time when any
part refumes the fugue, it takes a new key; it changes
the tone almoft at every note, and what is ft ill worfe,
no part is at the fame time found in the fame tone with
another; hence it is that this kind of canons, in other
refpe&s, far from being eafy to be purfued, never pro¬
duces a pleafing effedt, however good the harmony
may be, and however properly it may be fung.
There is a third kind of canon, but very fcarce, as
well becaufe it is extremely difficult, as becaufe it is for
the moft part incapable of giving pleafure, and can boaft
no other merit but the pains which have been thrown
away in its compofition. This may be called a double
canon inverted, as well by the inverfions which are prac-
tifed in it with refpedt to the melody of the parts, as
by thofe which are found among the parts themfelves,
in finging. There is fuch an artifice in this kind of ca¬
non, \\aX, whether the parts be fung in their natural
order, or whether the paper in which they are fet be
turned the contrary way, to fing them backward from
the end to the beginning, in fuch a manner that the
bafs becomes the upper part, and the reft undergo a fi-
milar change, ftill you have pretty harmony, and ftill
a regular canon. The reader may confult Rouffeau’s
Di&ionary in this article, where he is referred to plate D
fig. 1 r. for two examples of canons of this fort extrac¬
ted from Bontempi, who likewife gives rules for their
compofition. But he adds, that the true principle from
which this rule is deduced will be found at the word
Syjieme, in his account of the fyftem of Tartini, to which
we muft likewife once more refer the reader; as a quo¬
tation of fuch length muft have protra&ed our article
to an enormous extent.
To form a canon in which the harmony may be a
little Varied, it is neceffary that the parts ftiould not fol¬
low each other in a fucceffion too rapid, and that the
one ftiould. only begin a confiderable time after the o-
ther. When they follow one another fo immediately as
at the diftance of a femibreve or a minim, the duration
is not fufficient to admit a great number of chords, and
the canon muft of neceffity exhibit a difagreeable mo¬
notony; but it is a method of compofing, without much
difficulty, a canon in as many parts as the compofer
chufes. For a canon of four bars only, will confift of
eight parts if they follow each other at the diftance of
half a bar; and by each bar which is added, two parts
will conftantly be gained.
The emperor Charles VI. who was a great mufician
and compofed extremely well, took much pleafure in
compofing and finging canons. Italy is ftill replete with
moft beautiful canons compofed for this prince, by the
beft mafters in that country. To what has been faid
by Roufteau, we need only fubjoin, that the Englifti
catch and the Italian canon are much the fame; as any
intelligent reader may perceive, • from comparing the
ftru&ure and execution of the Englifti catch with the
account of canons which has now been given.
CANON-Z.tfw, a collection of ecclefiaitical laws, fer-
ving as the rule and meafure of church-government.
The power of making laws was exercifed by the
church before the Roman empire became Chriftian.
The canon-law that obtained throughout the Weft, till
the 12th century, was the collection of canons made by
Dionyfius Exiguus in 520, the capitularies of Charle-
magne, and the decrees of the popes from Sircius to
Anaftafius.
The canon-law, even when papal authority was at
its height in England, was of no force when it was found
to contradict the prerogative of the king, the laws, fta-
tutes, and cuftoms of the realm, or the doctrine of the
eftabliftied church.
The ecclefiaftical jurifdiCtion of the fee of Rome in
England was founded on the canon-law; and this
created quarrels between kings and feveral archbiftiops
and prelates who adhered to the papal ufurpation,
Befides the foreign canons, there were feveral laws
and conftitutions made here for the government of the
church: but all thefe received their force from the royal
aflentand if, at any time, the ecclefiaftical courts did,
by their fentence, endeavour to enforce obedience to fuch
canons, the courts at common law, upon complaints
made, would grant prohibition. The authority veiled
in the church of England of making canons, was afcer-
tained by a ftatute of Henry VIII. commonly called
the att of the clergy's fubmijfwn; by which they ac¬
knowledged, that the convocation had always been af-
fembled by the king’s writ; fo that though the power
of making canons refided in the clergy met in convo¬
cation, their force was derived from the authority of
CAN [ i
Canonefc the king’s aflenting to and confirming them.
Canonical old canons continued in full force till the reign
1 of J^mes 1. when the clergy being affembled in convo¬
cation, the king gave them leave to treat and confult
upon canons ; which they did, and prefented them to
the king, who gave them the royal aifent: thefe were
a collection out of the feveral preceding canons and in¬
junctions. Some of thefe canons are now obfolete. In
the reign of Charles I. feveral canons were paffed by
the clergy in convocation.
CANONESS, in the Romifii church, a woman who
enjoys a prebend, affixed, by the foundation, to maids,
without their being obliged to renounce the world or
make any vows.
CANONICA, in philofopbical hiftory, an appella¬
tion given by Epicurus to his doctrine of logic. It was
called canonica, as confiding of a few canons or rules
for directing the underftanding in the purfuit and know¬
ledge of truth. Epicurus’s canonica is reprefented as a
very flight and infufficient logic by feveral of the anci¬
ents, who put a great value on his ethics and phyfics.
Laertius even affures us, that the Epicureans rejected
logic as a fuperfluous fcience; and Plutarch complains
that Epicurus made an unflulful and prepofterous ufe
of fyllogifms. But thefe cenfures feem too fevere. Epi¬
curus was not averfe to the ftudy of logic, but even gave
better rules in this art than thofe philofophers who
aimed at no glory but that of logics. He only feems
to have rejeded the dialectics of the ftoics, as full of
vain fubtleties and deceits, and fitted rather for parade
and deputation than real ufe. The ftrefs of Epicurus’s
tanonica confilts in his doCtrine of the criteria of truth.
All queftions in philofophy are either concerning words
or things: concerning things, we Ceek their truth ; con¬
cerning words, their fignification : things are either na¬
tural or moral; and the former are either perceived by
fenfe, or by the underftanding. Hence, according to
Epicurus, arife three criterions of truth, viz. fenfe, an¬
ticipation or prsenotion, and paffion. The great canon
or principle of Epicurus’s logic is, that the fenfes are
never deceived; and therefore, that every fenfation or
perception of an appearance is true.
CANONICAL, fomething that belongs to, or par¬
takes of the nature of, a rule or canon.
Canonical CtoZ/dWi?, is that fubmiffion which, by
the ecclefiaftical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to
their bifhops, and religious to their fuperiors.
Canonical Sins, in the ancient church, thofe which
were capital or mortal. Such efpecially were idolatry,
' murder, adultery, herefy, and fchifm.
Canonical Punijhments, are thofe which the church
may inflidt; fuch as excommunication, degradation,
and penance, in Roman Catholic countries, alfo fail¬
ing, alms, whipping, &c.
Canonical Life, the method or rule of living pre-
fcribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community.
The canonical life was a kind of medium between the
monaftic and clerical lives. Originally the orders of
monks and clerks were entirely diftintt; but pious per-
fons, in procefs of time, inftituted colleges of priefts
and canons, where clerks brought up for the miniftry,
as well as others already engaged therein, might live
under a fixed rule, which, though fomewhat more eafy
than the monaftic, was yet more reftrained than the fe-
cular. This was called the canonical life, and thofe
629 ] CAN
who embraced it canons.—Authors are divided about Canonical
the founder of the canonical life. Some will have it to II
be founded by the apoftles: others afcribe it to pope Ca,\on,za‘
Urban I. about the year 1230, who is faid to have or- llon’
dered biftiops to provide fuch of their clergy as were
willing to live in community, with neceflaries out of the
revenues ot their churches. The generality attribute it
to St Auguftine; who, having gathered a number of
clerks to devote themfelves to religion, inftituted a mo-
naftery within his epifcopal palace, where he lived in
community with them. Onuphrius Panvinius brings
the inftitution fomewhat lower; according to him, pope
Gelafius I. about the year 495, placed the firft regular
canons of St Auguftin in the Lateran church.
Canonical Letters, in the ancient church, were a
fort of tellimonials of the orthodox faith, which the
bilhops and clergy fent each other to keep up the ca¬
tholic communion, and diftinguifh orthodox Chriftians
from Arians and other heretics. They were denomi¬
nated canonical, either as being compofed according to
a certain rule or form ; or becaufe they were given to
the canonici, that is, thofe comprehended in the canon
or catalogue of their church. When they had occafion
to travel into other diocefes or countries, dimiflbry and
recommendatory letters, alfo letters of peace, &c. were
fo many fpecies of canonical letters.
Canonical is alfo an appellation given to thofe epi-
ftles in the New Teftament more frequently called ca¬
tholic os general epiftles.
CANONIST, a perfon /killed in, or who makes pro-
feffion of the ftudy and pradlice of, the canon law. Ca-
nonifts and civilians are ufually combined in the fame
perfons: And hence the title of doctor juris utriufque,
or legum doflor, ufually expreffed in abbreviature,
L.L.D. or J.U.D.
CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the Romifli
church, by which perfons deceafed are ranked in the
catalogue of the faints. It fucceeds beatification *. * See Beati-
Before a beatified perfon is canonized, the qualifica- f'catiw.
tions of the candidate are ftridtly examined into, in
fome confiftories held for that purpofe ; after which,
one of the confiftorial advocates, in the prefence of the
pope and cardinals, makes the panegyric of the perfon
who is to be proclaimed a faint, and gives a particular
detail of his life and miracles : which done, the holy
father decrees his canonization, and appoints the day.
On the day of canonization the pope officiates in
white, and their eminences are dreft in the fame colour.
St Peter’s church is hung with rich tapeftry, upon
which the arms of the pope, and of the prince or llate
requiring the canonization, are embroidered in gold
and iilver. An infinite number of lights blaze all round
the church, which is crowded with pious fouls, who
wait with devout impatience till the new faint has made
his public entry as it were into paradife, that they may
offer up their petitions to him without danger of be¬
ing rejected.
The following maxim with regard to canonization is
now obferved, though it has not been followed above a
century, viz. not to enter into the inquiries prior to ca¬
nonization, till 50 years, at lead, after the death of the
perfon to be canonized. By the ceremony of canoni¬
zation, it appears that this rite of the modern Romans
has fomething in it very like the apotheofis or deifica¬
tion of the ancient Romans, and, in all probability,
takes
CAN [ 1630 ] CAN
Canonry takes its rife from it; at lead feveral ceremonies of the Andrew Cant’s time, the word has been extended tp Cant,
!| fame nature are confpicuous in both. fignify all fudden exclamations, and whining unmufical Cantabria.
  CANONRY, the benefice filled by a canon. It dif- tones, efpecially in praying and preaching. But this
fers from a prebend, in that the prebend may fubfift origin of the word has been difputed by others ; and
without the canonicate ; whereas the canonicate is infe- perhaps thetrue derivation is from the Latin cantare
parable from the prebend: again the rights of fuffra- “ to fing.”
ges, and other privileges, are annexed to the canoni- Cant is alfo applied to words and phrafes affe&ed
cate, and not to the prebend. by particular perfons or profeffions for low ends, and
CANOPUS, in aftronomy, a ftar of the firft mag- not authorifed by the ettablifhed language *. The * See CanA
nitude in the rudder of Argo, a conftellation of the difference between cant and technical feems to be this: '"fLan-
fouthern hemifphere. See Astronomy, n° 206.
Canopus, in Pagan mythology, one of the deities
of the ancient Egyptians, an$l, according to fome, the
god of water. It is faid, that the Chaldeans, who
worlhipped fire, carried their fancied deity thro’ other
countries to try its power, in order that, if it obtained
the vi&ory over the other gods, it might be acknow¬
ledged as the true objett of worfhip ; and it having ea-
lily fubdued the gods of wood, ftone, brafs, filver, and
gold, its priefts declared, that all gods did it homage.
This the priefts of Canopus hearing, and finding that
the Chaldeans had brought their god to contend with
Canopus, they took a large earthen velfel, in which
they bored feveral holes, which they afterwards flop¬
ped with wax, and having filled the veffel with water,
painted it of feveral colours, and fitting the head of aft
idol to it, brought it out, in order to contend with the
Chaldean deity. The Chaldeans accordingly kindled
their fire all around it; but the heat having melted the
wax, the water gufhed out thro’ the holes, and extin-
guiftied the fire ; and thus Canopus conquered the god
of the Chaldeans.
Canopus, or Canohus, according to Strabo, had
been Menelaus’s pilot, and had a temple eredled to him
in a town called Canopus, near one of the mouths of the
Nile. Dionyfius mentions it:
Kxi Tiftu®- ■o-fpcrurov A/u.vk\ui oio Kavs>/3a.
There ftands Canobus’ temple known to fame ;
The pilot who from fair Amycla came.
Voffius remarks, on this occafion, the vanity of the
Greeks, who, as he conjectures, hearing of an Egyp¬
tian deity named Canopus, took from thence an oppor¬
tunity of deifying the pilot of Menelaus who bore the
fame name, and giving out that the Egyptian god Ca¬
nopus had been a Greek: F. Monfaucon gives feveral
reprefentations of this deity. One, in allufion to the
victory abovementioned, throws out water on every
fide through little holes.
CANSO, a fea-port town of Acadia, or Nova Sco¬
tia, in North America, feated on a narrow ftrait
which feparates Nova Scotia from Cape Breton. Near
this town is a fine fiihery forced. W. Long. 62. N.
Lat. 46.
CANSTAT, a town of Swabia, in Germany, in the
duchy of Wirtemberg, fituated on the river Neckar, in
E. Long. 9. 9. N. Lat. 48. 51.
CANT, a quaint affeCted manner of fpeaking, ad¬
apted chiefly to the lower fort. Skinner racks his in¬
vention for the origin of this word ; which he fuccef-
fively deduces from the German, Flemifh, and Saxon
tongues. According to the general opinion, Cant is
originally the proper name of a Cameronian preacher
in Scotland, who by exercife had obtained the faculty
of talking in the pulpit in fuch a tone and dialed as was
underftood by none but his own congregation : fince
the former is reftrained to words introduced out of fol- 8ua^c' I
ly, affedation, or impo’fture; the latter is applied to fuch
as are introduced for the fake of clearnefs, precifion,
and figpificancy.
Cant- T’bribers, in fliip-building, thofe timbers which
are fituated at the two ends of a (hip. They derive
their name from being canted, or raifed obliquely from
the keel; in contradirtindion from thofe whofe planes
are perpendicular to it. The upper ends of thofe on '
the boon, or fore-part of the (hip, are inclined to the
ftern; as thofe in the after, or hind part, incline to the
(tern-poft above. See Stuv-Building.
CANTABRIA, (anc. geog.), a diftrid of Terra-
conenfis, on the Oceanus Cantabricus or bay of Bif-
cay ; now Biscay. The inhabitants were famous for
their warlike charader. In conjundion with the A-
fturians *, they carried on defperate wars with the Ro- * See Aftul
mans ; but were fubdued by them, about 2 5 years be- ria. 1
fore Chrift. Being impatient, however, of a foreign
yoke, they in a few years revolted. Moft of their youth
had been already taken prifoners by the Romans, and
fold for (laves to the neighbouring nations : but having
found means to break their chains, they cut the throats
of their mafters; and returning into their own country,
attacked the Roman garrifons with incredible fury.
Agrippa marched againft them with great expedition ;
but, on his arrival, met with fo vigorous a refiftance,
that his foldiers began to defpair of ever beifig able to
reduce them. As the Cantabrians had waged war with
the Romans for upwards of 200 years, they were well
acquainted with their manner of fighting, no way infe¬
rior to them in courage, and were now become defpe¬
rate ; well knowing, that if they were conquered, af¬
ter having fo often attempted to recover their liberty,
they muft exped the moft fevere ufage, and cruel fla-
very. Animated with this refledion, they fell upon
the Romans with a fury hardly to be exprefled, routed
them in feveral engagements, and defended themfeives
when attacked by the enemy with fuch intrepidity, that
Agrippa afterwards owned, that he had never, either
by fea or land, been engaged in a more dangerous en-
terprize. That brave commander was obliged to ufe in¬
treaties, menaces, and to brand fome of his legionaries
with ignominy, before he could bring them to enter the
lifts with fuch a formidable enemy. But having at laft,
with much ado, prevailed upon them to try the chance
of an engagement in the open field, he fo animated
them by his example, that, after a moft obftinate dif-
pute, he gained a complete vhftory, which indeed coft
him dear, but put an end to that deftru&ive war. All
the Cantabrians fit to bear arms were cut in pieces; their
caflles and ftrong holds taken and rafed ; and the’ir wo¬
men, children, and old men, (none elfe being left alive),
were obliged to abandon the mountainous places, and
fettle in. the plain.
CAN-
CAN [ 1631 ] CAN
iCantabrica CANTABRICA, in botany, afynonirae of a fpe-
II cies of Convolvulus.
j Cantata. CANTABRUM, in antiquity, a large kind of flag
ufed by the Roman emperors, diftingiufhed by its pecu¬
liar colour, and bearing on it fome words or motto of
good omen, to encourage the foldiers.
CANTACUZENUS (Johannes), of Conftanti-
nople, a celebrated ftatefman, general, and hiftorian,
was born in that city, of a very ancient and noble fami¬
ly. He was bred to letters and to arms, and admitted
to the higheft offices of the date. The emperor An-
dronicus loaded him with wealth and honour; made
him generaliffimo of his forces ; and was defirous of ha¬
ving him join hint in the government, but this he refu-
fed. Andronicus dying in 1341, left to Cantacuzenus
the care of the empire, till his fon John Paleologus,-
who was then but nine years of age, fhould be fit to
take it upon himfelf. This trull he faithfully dif-
charged ; till the emprefs dowager and her fa&ion
forming a party againft him, declared him a traitor.
On this the principal nobility and the army befought
him to afcend the throne ; and accordingly he was
crowned on the 21st of May, 1342. This was follow¬
ed by a. civil war, which lalted five years ; when he ad¬
mitted John a partner with him in the empire, and their
union was confirmed by his giving him his daughter in
marriage. Siifpicions and enmities, however, foon a-
rifing, the war broke out again, and continued till John
took Conftantinople, in 1355. A few days after, Can¬
tacuzenus, unwilling to continue the efl’ufion of blood,
abdicated his lhare of the empire, and retiring to a mo-
naftery, took the habit of a monk, and the name of
yoafapbas. His wife alfo retired to a nunnery, and
changed her name of Irene for that of Eugenia. In
this retirement he lived till the y'ear 1411, when he
was upwards of too years of age. Here he wrote a hi-
ffory of his own times, a Latin tranflation of which,
from the Greek manufcript, was publilhed by Ponta-
nus at Ingollladt, in 1603 ; and a fplendid edition was
printed at Paris, in 1645, in three volumes folio, of
the original Greek, and Pontanus’s Latin verfion.
He alfo wrote an Apology for the Chriftian religion
againft; that of Mahomet, under the name of Chrifto-
ditlus.
CANTALIVERS, in architefiure, pieces of wood
framed into the front or fides of a houfe, to fufpend
the mouldings and eyes over it.
CANTAR, or Cantaro, in commerce, a weight
ufed in Italy, particularly in Leghorn, to weigh fome
forts of merchandifes.—There are three forts of canta-
ri, or quintals ; one weighs 150 pounds, another 151,
and the third 160 : the lirft ferves to weigh alum and
cheefe ; the fecond is for fugar, and the third for wool
and cod-filh.
Cantar is alfo a meafure of capacity ufed at Cochin,
and containing four rubis.
CANTARINI (Simon), a famous painter, called
the Pefarefe, from his being born at Pefaro, was the
difciple of Guido ; and copied the manner of his ma¬
tter fo happily, that it is often difficult to diftinguifh
between their works. He died at Verona in 1648.
CANTATA, in mufic, a fong or compofition, in¬
termixed with recitatives, airs, and different move¬
ments, chiefly intended for a Angle voice, with a tho¬
rough bafs, though fometimes for other inftruments.
The cantata, when performed with judgment, has Csntazaro
fomething in it very agreeable; the variety of the Cant|rl)Ury.<
movement not clogging the ear, like other compofi- J
tions. It was firft uled in Italy, then in France, whence
it pafied to us.
CANTAZARO, an epifcopal city of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the territory of Calabria
Ulterior. It is the refidence of the governor of the
province, and is feated near the fea, in E. Long. 17. p.
N. Lat. 38. 59.
CANTECROIX, a fmall territory of the Nether¬
lands, in Brabant, and in the quarter of Antwerp, with
the title of a principality ; there is a fmall town of the
fame name, but Lire is the capital.
CANTEMIR (Demetrius), fon of a prince of Mol¬
davia. Difappoiuted by not fucceeding his father in
that dignity, held under the Ottoman Port, he went
over with his army to the Czar Peter the great, againft
whom he had been fent by'the Grand Signior: he fig-
nalized himfelf in the Czar’s fervice ; and in the repu¬
blic of letters, by a Latin hiftory of the origin and de¬
cline of the Ottoman empire, &c. Died in 1723.
Cantemir (Antiochus), efteemed the founder of the
Ruffian poetry, was the youngeii fon of the preceding.
Under the moll ingenious profeflbrs, whom the czar
had invited to Peterfburgh, he learned mathematics,
phylic, hiftory, moral philofophy, and polite literature;
without negledling the ftudy of the Holy Scriptures,
to which he had a great inclination. Scarce had he fi-
nilhed his academic courfe, when he printed a Concord¬
ance to the Pfalms in the Ruffian language, and was
eledled member of the academy. The affairs of Hate,
in which he was foon after engaged, did not make him
negledl his literary purfuits. In order to make him¬
felf ufeful to his fellow-citizens, he compofed his fatires,
to ridicule certain prejudices which had got footing
among them. When but 23 years of age, be was no¬
minated minifter at the court of Great Britain; and
his dexterity in the management of public affairs was as
much admired, as his taile for the fciences. He had
the fame reputation in France, whither he went in
1738, in quality of minifter plenipotentiary, and foon
after was invefted with the charadlerof ambaffador ex¬
traordinary. The wife and prudent manner in which
he conduced himfelf during the different revolutions
which'happened in Ruffia during his abfeuce, gained
him the confidence an5 efteem of three fucceffive princes.
He died of a dropfy, at Paris, in 1744, aged 44. Befides
the pieces already mentioned, he wrote, 1. Some fa¬
bles and odes. 2. A tranflation of Horace’s epiftles
into Ruffian verfe. 3. A profe tranflation of Fonte-
uelle’s plurality of worlds; and, 4. Algarotti’s dia¬
logues on fight. The abbe Guafco has written his life
in French, and tranflated his fatires into that language.
CANTERBURY, a city of England, and capital
of the county of Kent,- fituated in E. Long. 1. 15. N.
Lat. 51. 16. It had the names of Durovernum and
Darvemam given it by the Romans, and Durober?:ia
by Bede, which are thought to be derived from Dur-
'wkem, fignifying a rapid ftream, fuch as the Stour, on
which it (lands, is. The Britons called it Caer-Kent,
i. e. the city of Kent; and its prefent Engliffi name is
of the fame import, derived from the Saxon. Modern
writers in Latin call it Cantuaria. Its great antiqui¬
ty appears not only from Antoninus’s itinerary, but
from
CAN [ 1632 ] CAN
Ontcrbury, from the military way which has been difcovered here,
Cameras. an[j t{)e caufevVays leading to Dover and Lymme, be-
fides the coins and other curiofities found about it.
The arcliiepifcopal and metropolical dignity feems to
have been fettled here very early, about the beginning
of the ninth century, if not fooner; and to prevent its
being removed, an anathema was decreed againft any
■who fhould attempt. After that, the city flourilhed
greatly ; though it fuffered in common with other
towns during the Danifh invafions, and at other times
by the cafualties of fire. The city was given intirely
to the bifhops by William Rufus, and was held in the
utmoft veneration in the Popilh times, efpecially after
the murder of Becket in the reign of Henry II. to
•whofe (hrine fo great was the refort, and fo rich were the
offerings, that Erafmus, who was an eye-witnefs of its
wealth, fays the whole church and chapel in which he
was interred glittered with jewels; and at the diffolu-
tion, the plate and jewels filled two great cherts, each of
which required eight ftrong men to carry out. The
cathedral was granted by Ethelbert, king of Kent, up¬
on his cpnverfion, to Auftin the monk, together with
his palace, and the royalty of the city and its territo¬
ries. This Auftin founded a monaftery for monks,
called from him Auguftin. After the cathedral had
been feveral times deftroyed by fire and rebuilt, the pre-
fent was begun about the year 1174, and augmented
and embellifhed by the fucceeding archbilhops, till it
was completed in the reign of Henry V. It is a
noble Gothic pile, and before the reformation had
37 altars. A great many kings, princes, cardinals,
and archbifhops, are buried in it. At the diffolution,
Henry VIII. feized all the-revenues both of the church
and monaftery, except what he allotted for the main¬
tenance of a dean, 12 prebendaries, and fix preachers,
whom he eftablifhed in place of the monks. Befides the
cathedral and other churches, as well as a monaftery,
the city had anciently a caftle on the fouth-fide, and
ftrong walls, with towers, a ditch, and rampart; it
had alfo a mint and an exchange. As to its govern¬
ment, it feems to have been entirely fubjedt to the
archbilhop, both in fpirituals and temporals; at leaft
from the time that William Rufus gave it folely to bi-
fhop Anfelm, till the reformation. It is now a county
of itfelf; and the corporation confifts of a mayor, re¬
corder, 12 aldermen, a (heriff, 24 common-council-men,
a mace-bearer, fword-bearer, and ftur ferjeants at mace.
Every Monday a court is held at Guildhall for civil and
criminal caufes ; and every other Tuefday for the go¬
vernment of the city. With refpeft to its prefent con¬
dition, here are at prefent no lefs than 2000 or 3000
French Proteftants employed in the filk manufafture.
Befides the cathedral, it contains 15 parifti-churches,
feven hofpitals, a free-fchool, a houfeof corredtion, a
gaol for criminals, and a fumptuous conduit for fupply-
ing the inhabitants with water. It confifts of four
ftreets, difpofed in the form of a crofs, and divided in¬
to fix wards, which are about three miles in circumfe¬
rence. It is furrounded on all hands with hop-grounds
much to its advantage, and is famed for its excellent
brawn.
Canterbury-^//, in botany, the Englifti name
of a fpecies of Campanula.
CANTERUS (William), an eminent linguift and
philologer, was born at Utrecht, in 1542. He ftudied
at Louvain and Paris ; and gave furprifing proofs of Cantharides
his progrefs in Greek and Latin literature. He after- ll_
wards vifited the feveral univerfities of Germany and I- Canticles-
taly ; and died at Louvain, in 1575, aged 33. He un-
derftood fix languages, befides that of his native coun¬
try; and, notwithftanding his dying fo young, wrote
feveral philological and critical works, among which
are, Nota, Scholia> Emendationes, et- Explicationes, in
Euripidem, Sophoclem, JEfchylum, Ciceronem, Proper-
tium, Aufoniurn, &c. and many tranflations of Greek
authors.
CANTPIARIDES. See Cantharis and Meloe.
CANTHARIS, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be¬
longing to the order of infe&a coleoptera. The feelers
of this genus are fetaceous ; the breaft is marginated,
and (horter than the head; the elytra, or wing-cafes,
are flexile; and the fides of the belly are plated and pa-
pillous. Linnaeus enumerates 27 fpecies of the eantha-
ris, moft of them to be found in different parts of Eu¬
rope. The cantharis ufed in making bliftering plafters,
is ranked under a different genus, viz. the Meloe.
CANTHI, in anatomy, cavities at the extremities
of the eye-lids, commonly called the corners of the eye;
the greater of them, or the greater canthus, is next the
nofe ; the lefferof them, or the little canthus, lies to¬
wards the temple.
CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, otherwife called the Song of Solomon; by the
Jews the Song offings, Canticum canticorum. The book
of Canticles is ufually fuppofed to be an epithalamium
compofed by Solomon, on occafion of his marriage
with the king of Egypt’s daughter. But thofe who pe¬
netrate further into the myftery, find in it the marriage
of Jefus Chrift with human nature, the church, and
good men. On this principle the Canticles is held to
be a continued allegory, wherein, under the terms of
a common wedding, a divine and fpiritual marriage is
expreffed. This fong contains the adventures of feven
days and feven nights ; the exaft time allowed for the
celebration of marriage among the Hebrews. The Jews
themfelves, apprehending the book liable to be under-
ftood in a grofs and carnal manner, prudently prohibi¬
ted the reading of it before the age of 30, and the fame
ufage anciently obtained in the Chriftian church. A-
mong the ancients, Theodore Mopfuetanus rejefted the
book of Canticles as not divine. Divers rabbins have
alfo queftioned its being written by infpiration. The
Anabaptifts generally lay it afide as a dangerous com-
pofition. It is alleged, that the name of God is not
once found in it. Mr Whifton has a difcourfe exprefs
to prove, that the Canticles is not a facredbookof the
Old Teftament. He alleges it indeed to have been
written by king Solomon the fon of David ; but af-
ferts that it was compofed at the time when that prince,
blinded by his concubines, was funk in lull and idola¬
try. This he chiefly infers from the general charadter
of vanity and diffolutenefs which reigns thro’ the Can¬
ticles ; in which there is not, according to Whifton,
one thought that leads the mind towards religion, but
all is worldly and carnal, to fay no worfe. For the
myftic fenfe, he afferts it to be without foundation; and
that the book is not cited as canonical by any writer
before the deftrudtion of Jerufalem. Mr Whifton will
have it to have been taken into the canon between the
years 77 and 128, when allegories came into vogue,
and
Cantin
I II
Canto.
CAN [ 1633 ] CAN
and the rabbins began to corrupt the text of Scripture.
Grotius, Nierembergius, the Dutch divines who criti-
cifed F. Simon, Menetrier, Bafnage, and fome others,
feem alfo to take the Canticles for a profane compofi-
tion, on a footing with the love-pieces of Catullus or
Ovid. But this opinion is refuted by Michaelis, Ma-
jus, Witfius, Nat. Alexander, Outrcin, Francius, and
others. MrWhifton’s arguments have been particular-
Jy confidered by Itchener. R. Akiba finds the book
of Canticles more divine than the reft : the whole
world, according to this rabbin, is not worth that day
when the Canticles was given to Ifrael ; for, whereas
all the hagiographers are holy, the Canticles is the ho¬
ly of holies.
CANTIN (Cape), a promontory of the coaft of
Morocco in Africa, fituated iri W. Long. 10. 2. N.
Lat. 33. 9.
CANTING, a fea-phrafe, denotes the aft of turn¬
ing any thing about.
Canting Language ox dialed, is a myfterious fort
of jargon ufed by gypfies, thieves, and {trolling beg¬
gars, to exprefs their fentiments to each other, without
being underftood by the reft of mankind. This dialeft
is not founded on any rules : yet, even out of that ir¬
regularity, many words feem to retain fomething of
fcholarfhip ; as togeman a gown, from toga in the La¬
tin ; pannam, bread, from pants ; cafan, cheefe, from
cafeus, &c.' It is obfervable, that, even unknown to
ourfelves, we have adopted fome of their turns into our
vulgar language ; as bits and bilk, to cheat; bounce, to
vapour; bowfe, ftrong drink; filch, to fteal; flog, to whip;
rig, game or ridicule; roajl, to rally; rhino, money.
From the fame fource proceed the words Jham, banter,
bubble, bully, Jharper, cutting, Jhuffling, palming, &c.
An anonymous author has given a canting diftionary,
comprehending all the terms ufed by the feveral tribes
of gypfies, beggars, ftioplifters, highwaymen, foot¬
pads, and other clans of cheats and villains, with a
colleftion of fongs in the canting dialeft ; London,
1725, S”0.
CANTIUM, (anc. geog.) a promontory of Britain,
literally denoting a head-land, giving name to a terri¬
tory called Cantium, now Kent. The promontory is
now called the North Foreland.
CANTO denotes a part or divifion of a poem, an-
fwering to what is otherwife called a book. The word
is Italian, where it properly fignifies fiong. Tafib, Ari-
ofto, and feveral other Italians, have divided their longer
or heroic poems into cantos. In imitation of them, Scar-
ron has alfo divided his Gigantomachia, and Boileau
bis Lutrin, into chants or fongs. The like ufage has
been adopted by fome Englilh writers, as Butler, who
divides his Hudibras, and Dr Garth his Difpenfary,
into cantos. A late tranflator of part of Virgil’s JI-
neid has even fubdivided a book of Virgil into feveral
cantos.
Canto, in the Italian mufic, fignifies a fang: hence
canto /implies is where all the notes or figures are equal,
and called alfo canto fefmo; canto figurato, that where
the figures are unequal, and exprefs different motions.
Canto alfo fignifies the treble part of afong: hence
canto concertante, the treble of the little chorus ; canto
ripieno, the treble of the grand chorus, or that which
fings only now and then in particular places. Canto
fignifies the firft treble, unlefs fome other word be
VOL. III.
added to it, as fecondo, in which cafe it denotes the fe- Canton:
cond treble.  
CANTON, in geography, denotes a fmall diftrift or
country conftituting a diftinft government: fuch are
the cantons of Switzerland.
Canton, or flfiuang-tong, a province of the empire
of China in Alia. It is bounded on the north by
Kyang-fi ; on the north-eaft, by Fokeyn ; on the weft,
by Quang-fi and the kingdom of Tonquin ; and the
reft is walked by Nan-hay, or the fea of the foutb.
This province is reckoned the moft confiderable in
China, not only on account of its extent, but alfo be-
caufe of its vaft commerce, opulence, advantageous fitu-
ation, and great number of its ports. Its inhabitants are
computed to amount to 383,360 families, or 1,9^8,029
men. The foil is fo fertile, that it produces twb crops
of corn yearly; and in the like plenty all forts of grain,
fruits, and vegetables, with every thing that can con¬
tribute to the pleafures of life. The climate is warm,
but clear ; and the people are flout and healthy. The
commodities of this province are of the moft valuable
kind ; fuch as diamonds, and precious ftones of all
forts ; pearls, gold, filver, and other metals, curioufly
wrought for various ufes. Silks, cottons, and linens of
all kinds, are alfo manufaftured and exported in great
quantities, as wrell as china-ware and japan-work; in
which fuch multitudes are employed, that, notwith-
ftanding the fertility of the province, it doth not pro¬
duce a fufficient quantity of provifions for its inhabi¬
tants, but is aflifted by fome of the neighbouring ones.
They ufe here the fame way of hatching eggs in ovens
and dunghills that they do in Egypt. The eggs of
ducks, which are in great plenty, are particularly ufed
in this manner: they have alfo a method of preferving
them frefti all the year round by covering them with a
fort of pafte. We are told of a curious Angularity of
the ducks and chickens fo hatched; viz. that the owners
carry them in boats to the fea -fide, at low water, where
they feed on fuch infefts as they can find ; but though
the droves are thus naturally intermixed, no fooner
does the owner ftrike on a bafon, as a fignal to return,
than each drove returns to its own boat, as pigeons do
to their holes. The governor or viceroy of Canton is
alfo governor of Quang-fi ; for which reafon he com¬
monly refides at Chau-king, to communicate his orders
to both provinces with the greater facility. He keeps
a great number of foldiers, to fupprefs highwaymen
and pirates, which are.very troublefome. For the fame
end there are are a great number of fortreffes both on
the fea-coafts and inland, moft of them like large ci¬
ties, very ftrong, and well garrifoned, befides inferior
ones difperfed in proper places. This province is di¬
vided into ten capital jurifdiftions; Canton or Quang-
chew the chief, Shauchew,Nan-yong, Whechew, Chau-
chew, Chau-king, Kau-chew, Lyen-chew, Lwy-chew,
and Kyun-chew; which laft is the capital of the ifland
of Haynan.
Canton, a large, populous, and wealthy maritime
city of China, capital of the province of that name. It
is feated on the mouth of the river Ta-ho or great ri¬
ver, which is here very wide and fpacious, and forms
the bay called Humen, or tyger’s gate, though it hath
nothing terrible in it except a few forts built to keep
off the pirates. The city is very large; being reckoned,
with its fuburbs, upwards of 20 miles in compafs. It
9 X may
CAN [ 1634 ] CAN
Cantoning may be properly faid to confift of three cities, each of
tl them furrounded with ftrong and lofty walls, yet fo as
Canute’ to have a communication with each other by ftatcly
gates, which are only Ihut up at night. The ft reels are
long and ftraight, paved with flag-ftones, and adorned
with feveral triumphal arches. There are alfo bazars
or covered market-places full of (hops. The houfes are
only a ground-floor built with earth, and covered with
tiles; however, the fhops give it a very neat look. The
better fort of people are carried about in chairs; bat
the common people walk bare-footed and bare-headed;
and their goods are carried by porters, for they have
no waggons. At the end of every ftreet is a barrier
which is Ihut in the evening, as well as the gates of the
city, fo that people are obliged to be at home early.
The number of inhabitants is computed at 1,000,000.
E. Long. 112. 27. N. Lat. 25. 20.
CANTONING, in the military art, is the allotting
diftinft and feparate quarters to each regiment 5 the
town where they are quartered being divided into as
many cantons as there are regiments.
CANTRED, oi-Cantref, fignifies an hundred vil¬
lages. It is a Britifh word, compounded of the adje&ive
cant, i. e. hundred; and tref,n town or village. In
Wales fome of the counties are divided into cantreds,
as in England into hundreds.
CANTY RE. See K1 n tv re .
CANTZ, a town of Silelia in Germany. E. Long.
16. 36. N. Lat. 51. 6.
CANVAS, in commerce, a very clear unbleached
cloth of hemp, or flax, wove regularly in little fquares.
It is ufed for working tapeftry with the needle, by
palling the threads of gold, filver, filk, or wool, through
the intervals or fquares.
Canvas is alfo a coarfe cloth of hemp, unbleached,
fomewhat clear, which ferves to cover womens flays,
alfo to ftiffen mens clothes, and to make fome other of
their wearing-apparel, &c.
Canvas is ufed among the French for the model and
firft words, where an air or piece of mufic is compofed,
and given to a poet to regulate and finilh.
Canvas is alfo a name fometimes given to fail-
cloth.
Canvas, among painters, is the cloth on which they
ufually draw their pictures; the canvas being fmoothed
over with a flick-ftone, then fized, and afterwards
whited over, makes what the painters call their primed
cloth, on which they draw their firft Iketches with coal
or chalk, and afterwards finilh with colours.
CANUTE, the firft Danilh king of England after
Ironfide. He married Emma widow of king Ethelred;
and put to death feveral perfons of quality who flood
in his way to the crown. Having thus fettled his power
in England, he made a voyage to his other kingdom of
Denmark, in order to refift the attacks of the king of
Sweden ; and he carried along with him a great body
of the Englilh under the command of the earl of God¬
win. This nobleman had here an opportunity of per¬
forming a fervice by which he both reconciled the
king’s mind to the Englilh nation, and, gaining to
himfelf the friendlhip of his fovereign, laid the founda¬
tion of that immenfe fortune which he acquired to his
family. He was ftationed next the Swedilh camp; and,
obferving a favourable opportunity which he was ob¬
liged fuddenly to feize, he attacked the enemy in the
night, drove them fuddenly from their trenches, threw Canute,
them into diforder, purfued his advantage, and obtained '
a decifive viftory over them. Next morning, Canute,
feeing the Englilh camp entirely abandoned, imagined
that thefe difaffedted troops had deferted to the enemy;
and he was agreeably furprifed to find that they were
at that time engaged in purfuit of the difcomfited
Sweden. He was fo pleafed with this fuccefs, and the
manner of obtaining it, that he bellowed his daughter
in marriage upon Godwin, and treated him ever after
with the moft entire confidence and regard.
In another voyage which he afterwards made to
Denmark, Canute attacked Norway, and expelled
the juft but unwarlike Olaus from his kingdom, of
which he kept pofleflion till the death of that prince.
He had now by his conquefts and valour attained the
utmoft height of his ambition ; and having leifure from
wars and intrigues, he felt the unfatisfaftory nature of
all human enjoyments; and, equally weary of the glory
and turmoils of this life, he began to caft his view to¬
wards that future exiftence which it is fo natural for
the human mind, whether fatiated by profperity or
difgufted with adverfity, to make the objedt of its at¬
tention. Unfortunately the fpirit which prevailed in
that age gave a wrong diredlion to his devotion ; and,
inftead of making atonement to thofe whom he had
formerly injured by his adls of violence, he entirely
employed himfelf in thofe exercifes of piety which
the monks reprefented as moft meritorious. He built
churches; he endowed monafteries; he enriched eccle-
fiaftics; and he bellowed revenues for the fupport of
chantries at Affington and other places, where he ap¬
pointed prayers to be faid for the fouls of thofe who
had there fallen in battle againft him. He even under¬
took a pilgrimage to Rome, where he fojourned a con-
fiderable time; and, befides obtaining from the Pope
fome privileges for the Englilh fchool erected there, he
engaged all the princes through whofe dominions he was
obliged topafs,to defift from thofeheavyimpofitions and
tolls which they were accuftomed to exadl from the Eng¬
lilh pilgrims. By this fpirit of devotion, no lefs than by
his equitable and politic adminiftration, he gained in a
good meafure the affedtions of his fubjedts.
Canute, who was the greateft and moft powerful
prince of his time, fovereign of Denmark and Norway
as well as of England, could not fail to meet with adu¬
lation from his courtiers; a tribute which is liberally
paid even to the meaneft and weakeft of princes. Some
of his flatterers breaking out one day in admiration of
his grandeur, exclaimed, that every thing was pofiiblc
for him : upon which, the monarch, it is faid, ordered
his chair to be fet on the fea-lhore while the tide was
making; and, as the waters approached, he commanded
them to retire, and to obey the voice of him who was
lord of the ocean. He feigned to fit fome time in ex¬
pedition of their fubmiflion; but when the fea ftill
advanced towards him, and began to walh him with its
billows, he turned to his courtiers, and remarked to
them. That every creature in the univerfe was feeble
and impotent, and that power refided with one Being
alone, in whofe hands were all the elements of nature,
who could fay to the ocean, “ Thus far lhalt thou go,
and no farther,” and who could level with his nod the
moft towering piles of human pride and ambition.
From that time, it is faid, he never would wear a crown.
He
C A O [ 1635 ] CAP
Camone He died in the 20th year of his reign ; and was intcr-
II red at Winchefter, in the old monaiiery.
Caoutc lour. CANZONE, in mufic, fignifies, in general, a fong
where fome little fugues are introduced: but it is
fometimes ufed for a fort of Italian poem, ufually
pretty long, to which mufic may be compofed in the
ftyle of a cantata. If this term be added to a piece of
infirumental mufic, it fignifies much the fame as can¬
tata : if placed in any part of a fonata, it implies the
fame meaning as allegro,, and only denotes that the part
to which it is prefixed is to be played or fung in a brifk
and lively manner.
CANZONETTA, a diminutive of canzone, deno¬
ting a little fhort fong. The canzonette neapolitane
has two drains, each whereof is fung twice over, as
the vaudevilles of the French : the canzonette ficiliane
is a fpecies of jigg, the meafure whereof is ufually
twelve eighths, and fix eighths, and fometimes both, as
rondeaus.
CAORLO, a fmall ifland in the gulf of Venice, on
the coaft of Friuli, 20 miles fouth-weft of Aquileia,
fubjeft to Venice. It has a town of the fame name,
with a bifhop’s fee.
CAOUTCHOUC, or Kaout'chuck, a refin found
in different parts of Afia and South America, and pof-
feffed of the mod Angular properties. No fubdance is
yet known which is lo pliable, and at the fame time fo
eladic ; and it is farther a matter of curiofity as being
capable of refiding the a&ion of very powerful men-
drua. From the account of M. de la Condanaine, we
learn, that this fubdance oufes out, under the form of a
vegetable milk, from incifions made in a certain fpecies
of tree in the country in which it is found. This liquor
gradually dries, and is formed into a fubdance of the
appearance of leather, which is in a very high degree
pliable and eladic, while at the fame time it poffeffes a
confiderable degree of folidity. On account of thefe
roperties, the Omaguas, a numerous nation on the
anks of the river of the Amazons, employ this refin,
while yet in the date of milk, for making feveral uten-
fils, as goblets, bottles, and the like. As the fame pro¬
perties would render it of fingular utility for many
other purpofes in arts, philofophers have long endea¬
voured to difcover fome method of diffolving it in fuch
a manner, that it would affume different figures with
equal eafe as when in its original date of milk. In the
memoirs of the academy of fciences for 1768 we have
an account of feveral attempts for this purpofe, and
how it may be effe&ed.—The date of vegetable milk
in which the caoutchouc refin is found when it comes
from the tree, led Mr Macquer to imagine that it was
compofed of an oil and a watery matter. From its
wanting aromatic fiavour, from its little volatility, and
from its being incapable of folution in fpirit of wine,
he concluded that the oil which entered its compofition
was not an effential, but a fatty, one. Hence he thought
it probable that it paffed from a fluid to a folid form by
the evaporation of the watery part, and that the oily
folvents would reduce it to a foft date. The firfl trials
he made for diffolving it were with lintfeed oil, effence
of turpentine, and feveral others. But all he could ob¬
tain by means of thefe menflrua was a vifcid fubdance
incapable of being hardened, and totally void of elafii-
city. The re&ified effential oil of turpentine was em¬
ployed feemingly with greater fuccefs. To feparate from
this menflruum the Caoutchouc which it had diffolved, Caoutchouc,
Mr Macquer added fpirit of wine: but the confequence CaP-
was, that part only of the oil united with the fpirit j
the red remaining obdinately attached to the refin
which it had diffolved, and thus preventing it from af-
fuming a folid confidence. The author next endea¬
voured to diffolve it by means of heat in Papin's di-
geder. But neither water, nor fpirit of wine, although
in this way capable of diffolving the harded bones,
could produce any other effeft upon it than to render
it more firm than before. After this, he tried what ef-
fedl the milky juice of other vegetables would have up¬
on it. He ufed feveral kinds, particularly that of the
fig. But, in this way, he could obtain no folution.
From the great volatility of ether, he was next induced
to try it as a mendruum; and, for this purpofe, he pre¬
pared fome with great attention. The caoutchouc, cut
into little bits, and put into a proper veffel with as
much ether as was fufficient to cover it, was perfeftly
diffolved without any other heat than that of the at-
mofphere. This folution was tranfparent, and of an
amber colour. It dill preferved the fmell of ether, but
mixed with the difagreeable odour of the caoutchouc,
and it was a little lefs fluid than pure ether. Upon its
being thrown into water, no milky liquor was produ¬
ced ; but there arofe to the furface a folid membrane
which poffeffed the great eladicity and other peculiar
properties of the caoutchouc.
The Indian method of forming bottles, goblets, &c.
of the caoutchouc is, by making moulds of clay, which
they cover with thin layers of the caoutchouc, taking
care never to lay on a freflr one till the former is dry.
After it has acquired the proper thicknefs, by an in-
drument fitted for that purpofe, they take out the
clay. The fame procefs may be followed in forming
veffels of the caoutchouc diffolved in ether. But in
forming fmall veffels, Mr Macquer did not employ
moulds made of clay, but of wax, which were eafily re¬
moved, by throwing the veffel after it was formed into
boiling water.
Of this gum, it is faid, the Chinefe make elaflic
rings for lafeivious purpofes.—Among us, it is ufed by
furgeons for inje&ing liquids, and by painters for rub¬
bing out black-lead pencil marks.
CAP, a part of drefs made to cover the head, much
in the figure thereof.
The ufe of caps and hats is referred to the year
1449, the firft feen in thefe parts of the world being
at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen : from that
time they beg^n to take place of the hoods, or cha-
peroons, that had been ufed till then. When the cap
was of velvet, they called it mortier; when of wool,
Amply bonnet. None but kings, princes, and knights,
were allowed the ufe of the mortier. The cap was
the head-drefs of the clergy and graduates: Church¬
men and members of univerfities, ftudents in law, phy-
fic, &c. as well as graduates, wear fquare caps in moft
univerfities. Doftors are diftinguilhed by peculiar
caps, given them in affuming the do&orate. Pafquier
fays, that the giving the cap to ftudents in the uni¬
verfities, was to denote that they had acquired full
liberty, and were no longer fubjeft to the rod of their
fuperiors, in imitation of the ancient Romans, who
gave a pileus or cap to their flaves, in the ceremony
of making them free. The cap is alfo ufed as a mark
9X2 of
Cap
II ,
Caperolans.
.CAP [ 1636 ] CAP
of infamy in Italy. The Jews are diilinguiihed by a
yellow cap at Lucca, and by an orange one in France.
Cap of Maintenance, one of the regalia, or orna¬
ments of date belonging to the kings of England, be¬
fore whom it was carried at the coronation and other
great folemnities. Caps of maintenance are alfo car¬
ried before the mayors of the feveral cities in England.
Cap,- in fhip-building, a ftrong, thick, block of
wood, ufed to confine two mails together, when one is
erefted at the head of the other in order to lengthen it.
It is for this purpofe furniihed with two holes perpen¬
dicular to its length and breadth, and parallel to its
thicknefs : one of thefe is fquare, and the other round;
the former being folidly fixed upon the upper end of
the lower mail, whilft the latter receives the mail em¬
ployed to lengthen it, and fecures it in this pofition.
CAPACIO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples, and in the hither Principato. E.
Lbng. 15. 18. N. Lat. 40. 40.
CAPACITY, in a general fenfe, an aptitude or
difpofition to hold or retain any thing.
CAPACity, in geometry, is thefolid contents of any
body; alfo our hollow meafure for wine, beer, corn,
fait, &c. are called meafures of capacity.
Capacity, in law, the ability of a man, or body
politic, to give or take lands or other things, or fue
afkions.
Our law allows the king two capacities ; a natural,
and a political : in the firft, he may purchafe lands to
him and his heirs; in the fecond, to him and his fuc-
ceflbrs. The clergy of the church of England have
the like.
CAPE, in geography, an high land running out
with a point, into the fea, as Cape-Nord, Cape-Horn,
the Cape of Good-Hope, &c.
Cape Breton. See Breton.
Cape Coaji Caflk. See Coast.
Cape of Good-Hope. See Good-Hope.
Cape Verd. See Verd.
CAPELLA, in aftronomy, a bright fixed ftar in
the left Ihoulder of the conftellation auriga.
CAPELLAS (Lewis), an eminent French Pro-
teftant divine, born at Sedan in Champagne about the
year 1579. He was author of fome learned works;
but is chiefly known from the controverfy he engaged
in with the younger Buxtorf concerning the antiquity
of Hebrew points, which Capellas undertook to dif-
prove. His Critica Sacra was alfo an elaborate work,
and excited fome difputes: he died in 1658, having
made an abridgement of his life in his work De gente
Capellori.
CAPELLE, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
the Tierache, eight miles from Guife. It was taken
by the Spaniards in 1636; but retaken the year after.
E. Long. 3. 59. N. Lat. 49. 58.
CAPELLETS, in farriery. See there, § xxxvi. 4.
CAPER, in botany. See Capparis.
CAPEROLANS, a congregation of religious in
Italy, fo called from Peter Caperole their founder, in
the 15th century.
The Milanefe and Venetians being at war, the en¬
mity occafioned thereby fpread itfelf to the very cloy-
fters. The fuperiors of the province of Milan, of mi¬
nor brothers, which extended itfelf as far as the ter¬
ritories of the republic of Venice, carried it fo haugh¬
tily over the Venetians, that thofe of the convent of Caperquih
Brefcia refolved to ftiake off a yoke which was grown II. I
infupportablc to them. The fuperiors, informed of Capi3S'. ■>
this, expelled out of the province thofe whom they
confidered as the authors of this defign ; the principal
of whom were Peter Caperole, Mathew de Tharvillo,
and Bonaventure of Brefcia. Peter Caperole, a man
of an enterprizing genius, found means to feparate the
convents of Brefcia, Bergamo, and Cremona, from the
province of Milan, and fubjedt them to the conventuals.
This occafioned a law-fuit between the vicar-general
and thefe convents, which was determined in favour of
the latter; and thefe convents, in 1475, by the autho¬
rity of Pope Sixtus IV. were eredted into a dittindl
vicariate, under the title of that of Brefcia. This not
fatisfying the ambition of Caperole, he obtained, by
the interpofition of the Doge of Venice, that this vi¬
cariate might be eredted into a congregation, which
was called from him Caperolans. This congregation
ftill fubfifts in Italy, and is compofed of 24 convents,
fituated in Brefcia, Bergamo; and Cremona.
CAPERQUIN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Waterford, and province of Munlter, fituated on the
river Blackwater. W. Long. 7. 50. N. Lat. y2. 5.
CAPESTAN, a town of France, in Lower Lan¬
guedoc, in the diocefe of Narbonne, and near the
royal canal. E. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 43. 3^.
CAPHAR, a duty which the Turks raife on the
Chriftians, who carry or fend merchandifes from Alep¬
po to Jerufalem and other places in Syria.
This duty of caphar was firft impofed by the Chri¬
ftians themfelves, when they were in poffelfion of the
Holy Land, for the maintenance of the troops which
were planted in difficult pafles to obferve the Arabs
and prevent their incurfions. It is ftill continued, and
much increafed by the Turks, under pretence of de¬
fending the Chriftians againft the Arabs; with whom,
neverthelefs, they keep a fecret intelligence, favouring
their excurlions and plunders.
CAPI-aga, or Chvov-Hgafi, a Turkiffi officer,
who is, as it were, grand matter of the feraglio. He
is the firft in dignity and repute of all the white eu¬
nuchs, and is always near the Grand Signior’s perfon.
It is he who introduces ambaffadors to audience, and
all the great affairs pafs through his hand before they
come to that of the prince.
CAPIAS, in law, a writ of two forts ; one before
judgment in an action, and the other after. That be¬
fore judgment is called capias ad refpondendum, where
an original is iffued out, to take the defendant, and
make him anfwer the plaintiff. That after judgment
is of divers kinds; as,
Capias ad Satisfaciendum, a writ of execution that
iffues on a judgment obtained, and lies where any per¬
fon recovers in a perfonal aftion, as for debt, damages,
&c. in which cafes this writ iffues to the fheriff com¬
manding him to take the body of him againft whom
the debt is recovered, who is to be kept in prifon till
he make fatisfa&ion.
Capias pro Fine is a writ lying where a perfon is fined
to the king, for fome offence committed againft a fta-
tute, and he does not difcharge the fine according to
the judgment; therefore his body fliall be taken by
this writ, and committed to goal till the fine is paid.
Capias Utlegatum, a writ which lies againft any one
out-
CAP [it
Capias outlawed, upon any action perfonal or criminal, by
, i[. which the fheriff is ordered to apprehend the party out-
^ J_ lawed, for not appearing On the exigent, and keep him
in fafe cuftody till the day of return, when he is or¬
dered to prefent him to the court, to be there farther
ordered for his contempt.
Capias in Withernam, a writ that lies for cattle in
^withernam: that is, where a diftrefs taken is driven
out of the county, fo that the (heriff cannot make de¬
liverance upon a replevin ; then this writ ilfues, com¬
manding the IherifF to take as many beafts of the dif-
trainer, &c.
CAPIGI, in the Turkifh affairs, the name of
certain inferior officers belonging to the feraglio, to the
number of 500, whdfe bufinefs it is to affift the janizaries
in guarding the firft and fecond gate of that palace ;
whence alfo the name Capigi, which fignifies a gate.
CAPILLAMENT, in a general fenfe, fignifies a
hair; whence the word is applied to feveral things,
which on account of their length or their finenefs re-
femble hairs: as,
Capillaments of the Nerves, in anatomy, thefine
fibres or filaments whereof the nerves are compofed.
CAPILLARY, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given to things on account of their extreme finenefs, or
refembling hair.
Capillary ‘Tubes, in phyfics, are fmall pipes of
glafs, whofe canals are extremely narrow, their diame¬
ter being only a half, a third, or a fourth of a line.
Theafcentof water, &c. in capillary tubes, is a phe¬
nomenon that has long embarraffed the philofophers:
for let one end of a glafs tube open at both extremities,
be immerged in water, the liquor within the tube will
rife to a confiderable height above the external furface:
or if two or more tubes are immergedin the fame fluid,
one a capillary tube, and the other of a larger bore,
the fluid will afcend higher in the former than in the
latter; and this will be in a reciprocal ratio of the dia¬
meters of the tubes.
In order to account for this phenomenon, it will be
t lieceffary firft to premife, that the attraction between
the particles of glafs and water is greater than the at¬
traction between the particles of water themfelves : for
if a glafs tube be placed in a pofition parallel to the
horizon, and a drop of water be applied to the under
fide of the tube, it will adhere to it ; nor will it fall
from the glafs till its bulk and gravity are fo far in-
creafed, as to overcome the attraction of the glafs.
Hence it is eafy to conceive how fenfibly fuch a power
muft aCt on the furface of a fluid, not vifcid, as water,
contained within the fmall cavity or bore of a glafs-
tube ; as alfo that it will be proportionably ftronger
as the diameter of the bore is fmaller; for it will be
evident that the efficacy of the power is in the inverfe
proportion of the diameter, when it is confidered, that
fuch particles only as are in contaCt with the fluid,
and thofe immediately above the furface, can effeft it.
Now thefe particles form a periphery contiguous to
the furface, the upper part of which attracts and raifes
the furface, while the lower part, which is in contaCt
with it, fupports it: fo that neither the thicknefs nor
length of the tube is of any confequence here; the peri¬
phery of particles only, which is always proportionable
to the diameter of the bore, is the only afting power.
The quantity of the fluid railed will therefore be as the
37 J CAP
furface of the bore which it fills, that is, as the dia- Capillary
meter; for otherwife the effeCt would not be proportion- II.
al to the caufe, fince the quantities are always as the Capltal'.
ratio of the diameters ; the heights therefore to which
the fluids will rife, in different tubes, will be inverfely
as the diameters.
Some doubt whether the law holds throughout, of
the afcent of the fluid being always higher as the tube
is fmaller; Dr Hook’s experiments, with tubes almolt
as fine as cobwebs, feem to fhew the contrary. The
water in thefe, he obferves, did not rife fo high as one
would have expe&ed. The higheft he ever found it,
was at 21 inches above the level of the water in the
bafon; which is much ftiort of what it ought to have
been by the law abovementioned. See Cohesion.
Capillary Veffels. Many fmall veffels of animal
bodies have been difcovered by the modern invention
of injedting the veffels of animals with a colouring fluid
which upon cooling grows hard. But though moft
anatomifts know the manner of filling the large trunks,
few are acquainted with the art of filling the capillaries.
Dr Monro has given what he after many trials has found
moft fuccefsful *. See Injection. * Medical
CAPILLUS veneris. See Adianthum. v^r’
CAPILUPI, or Capilupus, (Camillas), a native *
of Mantua in the i6rh century. He wrote a book in-
titled The Stratagem; in which he relates not only1
what was perpetrated at Paris during the maffacre on
St Bartholomew’s day, but alfo the artful preparations
which preceded that horrid maffacre. It is, however,
blended with a great number of faliities.
CAPILLTPI (Loelius), an Italian poet brother to
the former, made himfelf famous by fome Centos of
Virgil. The manner in which he applied Virgil’s ex-
prelfions to reprefent things which the poet never
dreamt of, is admired. His Cento again!! women is
very ingenious, but too fatirical. The poems of Capi-
lupi are inferted in the Dclicix Poetarum Italorum.
CAPITA, (diftribution by), in law, fignifi.es the
appointing to every man an equal !hare of a perfonal
eftate ; when all the claimants claim in their own rights,
as in equal degrees of kindred, and not jure reprefen-
tationis.
Capita, (fucceffion by), where the claimants are
next in degree to the anceftor, in their own right, and
not by right of reprefentation.
CAPITAL, of the Latin caput “ the head ”, is
ufed on various occafions, to exprefs the relation of a
head, chief, or principal: thus.
Capital City, in geography, denotes the principal
city of a kingdom, ftate, or province.
Capital Stock, among merchants, bankers, and
traders, fignifies the fum of money which indviduals
bring to make up the common ftock of a partnerfliip
when it is firft formed. It is alfo faid of the ftock
which a merchant at firft puts into trade for his account.
It likewife fignifies the fund of a trading company or
corporation, in which fenfe the word ftock is generally
added to it. Thus we fay, the capital ftock of the
bank, &c. The word capital is oppofed to that of pro¬
fit or gain, though the profit often increafes the capi¬
tal, and becomes of itfelf part of the capital, when
joined with the former. • See
Capital Crime, fuch a one as fubje&s the criminal Crime
to capital punilhment, that is, to lofs of life *. Punijhment.
Capi-
CAP [ 1638 ] CAP
pital Capital Pitture, in painting, denotes one of the
II. fined and mod excellent pieces of any celebrated mader.
plt0 • Capital Ze/tov, in printing, large or initial let¬
ters, wherein titles, &c. are compofed ; with which all
periods, verfes, &c. commence; and wherewith alfo all
proper names of men, kingdoms, nations, &c. begin.
The pra&ice which, for fome time, obtained among
our printers, of beginning every fubdantive with a ca¬
pital, is now judly fallen into difrepute ; being a ma-
nifed perverfion of the defign of capitals, as well as an
offence againd beauty and didin&nefs.
Capital, in archite&ure, the uppermod part of a
column or pilader, ferving as the head or crowning,
and placed immediately over the diaft, and under the
entablature. See Architecture.
CAPITANATA, one of the 12 provinces of the
kingdom of Naples, in Italy, bounded on the north by
the Gulph of Venice, on the ead by the Terra di Bar-
ri, on the fouth by the Bafilicata and the Farther Prin-
cipato, and on the wed by the county di Molife and
a fmall part of Hither Abruzzo. It is a level country,
without trees; the foil fandy, the air hot: the land,
however, near the rivers, is fertile in padures. The ca¬
pital town is Manfredonia.
CAPITANIA, in geography, an appellation given
to the 12 governments edablilhed by the Portuguefe in
the Brafils.
CAPITATION, a tax or impofition raided on each
perfon, in proportion to his labour, indudry, office,
rank, &c. It is a very ancient kind of tribute. The
Latins call it tributurn, by which taxes on perfons are
didinguifhed from taxes on merchandife, which were
called veftigalia.
Capitations are never pra&ifed among us but in exi¬
gencies of date. In France the capitation was intro¬
duced by Lewis XIV. in 1695 ; and is a tax very dif¬
ferent from the faille, being levied from all perfons
whether they be fubjeft to the taille or not. The clergy
pay no capitation, but the princes of the blood are not
exempted from it.
CAPITE, inlaw, [from caput, i. e. rex; whence
tencre in capite, is to hold of the king, the head or lord
paramount of all the lands in the kingdom): An an¬
cient tenure of land, held immediately of the king, as
of his crown, either by knight’s fervice, or by foccage.
It is now aboliflied. See Tenure.
Capite Cenfi, in antiquity, the lowed rank of Ro¬
man citizens, who in public taxes were rated the lead
of all, being fuch as never were worth above 365 affes.
They were fuppofed to have been thus called, becaufe
they were rather counted and marffialled by their heads
than by their edates. The capite cenfi made part of the
fixth clafs of citizens, being below the proletarii, who
formed the other moiety of that clafs. They were not
enrolled in the army, as being judged not able to fup-
port the expence of war; for in thofe days the foldiers
maintained themfelves. It does not appear, that be¬
fore Caius Marius any of the Roman generals lided
the capite cenfi in their armies.
CAPITOL, Capitolium, in antiquity, a famous
fort or cadle, on the Mons Capitolinus at Rome, where¬
in was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, thence alfo deno¬
minated Capitolinus, in which the fenate anciently af-
fembled; and which dill ferves as the city-hall, or
town-houfe, for the meeting of the confervator* of the
Roman people.—It had its name capital, from caput, a Capitol
man’s head, faid to have been found frelh, and yet !J
bleeding, upon digging the foundation of the temple apll0l> *
built in honour of Jupiter. Arnobius adds, that the
man’s name was Talus, whence caput-tolium.—The fird
foundations of the capitol were laid by Tarquin the
Elder, in the year of Rome 139. His fucceffor Servius
raifed the walls; and Tarquin the Proud finifhed it, in
the year 221. But it was not confecrated till the third
year after the expulfion of the kings, and edablifhment
of the confulate. The ceremony of the dedication of
the temple was performed by the conful Horatius in
246.
The capitol confided of three parts ; a nave facred
to Jupiter; and two wings, the one confecrated to Juno,
the other to Minerva: it wasafeended to by dairs; the
frontifpiece and fides were furrounded with galleries, in
which thofe who were honoured with triumphs enter¬
tained the fenate at a magnifieent banquet, after the fa-
crifices had been offered to the gods.
Both the infide and outfide were enriched with an in¬
finity of ornaments, the mod didinguilhed of which
was the datue of Jupiter, with his golden thunderbolt,
his feeptre, and crown. In the capitol alfo were a
temple to Jupiter the guardian, and another to Juno,
with the mint; and on the defeent of the hill was the
temple of Concord. This beautiful edifice contained
the mod facred depofits of religion, fuch as the ancylia,
the books of the Sibyls, ebc.
The capitol was burnt under Vitellius, and rebuilt
under Vefpafian. It was burnt a fecond time by light¬
ning under Titus, and redored by Domitian.
Anciently the name capitol was likewife applied to
all the principal temples, in mod of the colonies
throughout the Roman empire ; as at Condantinople,
Jerufalem, Carthage, Ravenna, Capua, fee.—That of
Tholoufe, has given the name of capitouls to its eche-
vins or (heriffs.
CAPITOLINE games, annual games indituted by
Camillus, in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in com¬
memoration of the capitol’s not being taken by the
Gauls. Plutarch tells us, that a part of the ceremony
confided in the public criers putting up the Hetrurians
to fale by au&ion: they alfo took an old man, and ty¬
ing a golden bulla about his neck, expofed him to the
public derifion. Fedus fays they alfo dreffed him in a
pretexta.--There was another kind of Capitoline games,
indituted by Domitian, wherein there were rewards
and crowns bedowed on the poets, champions, orators,
hidorians, and muficians. Thefe lad Capitoline games
were celebrated every five years, and became fo famous,
that, indead of calculating time by ludra, they began
to count by Capitoline games, as the Greeks did by O-
lympiads. It appears, however, that this cudom was
not of long continuance.
CAPITOLINUS (Julius), an hidorian in the be-
inning of the fourth age under Dioclefian, to whom
e inferibed the Lives of Verus, Antoninus Pius, Clo-
dius Balbinus, Macrinus, the Maximins, and the Gor-
dians. He wrote other lives, which are mod of them
lod.
CAPITOUL, an appellation given to the chief ma-
gidrates of Thouloufe, on account of their meeting in
a place called the Capitol. They are eight in number;
are chofen annually; and have each the government of
CAP [ 1639 ] CAP
Capitulation a capitoulate, or precinft, like the wards of London, comprehending all that country which lies between Cappadocia.
il _ CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a treaty mount Taurus and the Euxine Sea. It was divided by “
Cappadocia, between the inhabitants or garrifon of a place the Perfians into two fatrapies or governments ; by the
belieged, and the befiegers, for the delivering up the Macedonians into two kingdoms, the one called Cap-
place on certain conditions.—The moft honourable and padocia ad Taurum ; the other Cappadocia ad Pontum,
ordinary terms of capitulation are, To march out at and commonly Pontus; for the hiftory, &c. of which
the breach with arms and baggage, drums beating,
colours flying, a match lighted at both ends, and fomc
pieces of cannon, waggons and convoys for their bag¬
gage and for their fick and wounded.
Capitulation, in the German polity, a contraft
which the emperor makes with the eleftors, in the name
laft, fee the article Pontus.
Cappadocia Magna, or Cappadocia properly fo call¬
ed, lies between the 38 and 41 degrees of north lati¬
tude. It was bounded by Pontus on the north, Lycao-
nia and part of Armenia Major on the fouth, Galatia
on the weft, and by Euphrates and part of Armenia
of all the princes and ftates in the empire, before he is Minor on the eaft. The firft king of Cappadocia wre
declared emperor, and which he ratifies before he is read of in hiftory was Pharnaces, who was preferred
raifed to that fovereign dignity. The principal points to the crown by Cyrus king of Perfia, who gave him
which the emperor undertakes to obferve are, 1. To his After Atofla in marriage. This is all we find re¬
defend the church and empire. 2. To obferve the fun¬
damental laws of the empire. And, 3. To maintain
and preferve the rights, privileges, and immunities of
the eleftors, princes, and other ftates of the empire,
fpecified in the capitulation. Thefe articles and capi¬
tulations are prefented to the emperor by the ele&ors
only, without the concurrence of the other ftates, who
have complained from time to time of fuch proceed¬
ings ; and in the time of the Weftphalian treaty, in
corded of him, except that he was killed in a war with
the Hyrcanians. After him came a fucceflion of eight
kings, of whom we know fcarce any thing but that
they continued faithful to the Perfian intereft. In the
time of Alexander the Great, Cappadocia was govern¬
ed by Ariarathes II. who, notwithftanding the vafl:
conquefts and fame of the Macedonian monarch, con¬
tinued unfhaken in his fidelity to the Perfians. Alex¬
ander was prevented by death from invading his domi-
648, it was propofed to deliberate in the following nions ; but Perdiccas marching againft him with
diet, upon a way of making a perpetual capitulation;
but the ele&ors have always found means of eluding
the execution of this article. In order, however, to give
fame fatisfa&ion to their adverfaries, they have inferted
in the capitulations of the emperors, and in that of Fran¬
cis I. in particular, a promife to ufe all their influence
to bring the affair of a perpetual capitulation to a con-
clufion. Some German authors own, that this capitu-
powerful and well difciplined army, difperfed his for¬
ces, and having taken Ariarathes himfelf prifoner, cru¬
cified him, with all thofe of the royal blood whom he
could get into his power. Diodorus tells us that he
was killed in the battle. He is faid to have reigned
82 years. His fon Ariarathes III. having efcaped the
general flaughter of the royal family, fled into Arme¬
nia, where he lay concealed, till the civil diffenfions
lation limits the emperor’s power; but maintain that it which arofe among the Macedonians gave him a fair
does not weaken his fovereignty: though the moft part
maintain that he is not abfolute, bccaufe he receives the
empire under conditions which fets bounds to an abfo¬
lute authority.
CAPNOIDES, in botany, the trivial name of afpe-
cies of Fumaria.
opportunity of recovering his paternal kingdom. A-
myntas, at that time the governor of Cappadocia, op-
pofed him; but being defeated in a pitched battle, the
Macedonians were obliged to abandon all the ftrong
holds. Ariarathes, after a long and peaceable reign,
left his kingdom to his fon Ariaramnes II. He applied
CAPO find, a large barren rock in the territory of himfelf more to the arts of peace than war, in confe-
the Genoefe, which has a caftle on its eaftern peak.
Near it is a fmall harbour of the fame name, 13 miles
eaft by fouth of Genoa.
Capo d’ljiria, a confiderable town of Italy, in Iftria,
on the gulph of Tripfte, with a bifhop’s fee, and fubjeft
to the Venetians. The air iswholefome and temperate;
its principal revenue confiftsin wine and fait. E. Long.
14. o. N. Lat. 45. 48.
CAPON, a cock-chicken, gelded as foon as left by
quence of which Cappadocia flourifhed greatly during
his reign. He was fucceeded by his fon AriarathesIV.
who proved a very warlike prince, and having overcome
Arfaces, founder of the Parthian monarchy, confider-
ably enlarged his own dominions.
He was fucceeded by Ariarathes V. who marrying
the daughter of Antiochus the Great, entered into an
alliance with that prince againft the Romans ; but An¬
tiochus being defeated, the king of Cappodocia was ob-
the dam, or as foon as he begins to crow. They are of liged to fue for peace, which he obtained, after ha-
ufe either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheafants, &c.
and defend them from the kites and buzzards; or to
feed for the table, they being reckoned more delicate
than either a cock or a hen.
CAPONIERE, or Capponiere, in fortification, a
covered lodgement, funk four or five feet into the
ground, encompaffed with a little parapet about two
ving paid 200 talents by way of fine, for taking up
arms againft the people of Rome. He afterwards af-
fifted the republic with men and money againft Perfeu*
king of Macedon, on which account he was by the fe-
nate honoured with the title of the friend and ally of the
Roman people. He left the kingdom in a very flouriih-
ing condition to his fon Mithridates, who on his acceffion
feet high, ferving to fupport feveral planks covered took the name of Ariarathes VI.
with earth. The caponiere is large enough to contain
15 or 20 foldiers; and is ufually placed in the glacis on
the extremity of the counterfcarp, and in dry moats ;
having little embrafures for the foldiers to fire through.
CAPPADOCIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia,
This prince (furnamed Philopator, from the filial
refpedt and love he {hewed his father from his very in¬
fancy) immediately renewed the alliance with Rome.
Out of mere good-nature he reftored Mithrobuzanes fon
to Ladriades king of the Leffer Armenia to his father’s
Cappsdoci
CAP [ 1640 ] CAP
kingdom, though he forefaw that the Armenians would
" lay hold of that opportunity to join Artaxias, who was
then on the point of invading Cappadocia. Thefe dif¬
ferences, however, were fettled, before they came to
an open rupture, by the Roman legates; and Ariarathes
feeing himfelf thus delivered from an impending war by
the mediation of the republic, prefented the fenate with
a golden crown, and offered his fervice wherever they
thought proper to employ him. The fenate in return
fent him a ftaff, and chair of ivory ; which were pre-
fents ufually bellowed on thofe only whom they looked
upon as attached to their intereft. Not long before
this, Demetrius Soter king of Syria had offered Aria¬
rathes hisfifter in marriage, the widow of Perfeusking
of Macedon: but this offer the king of Cappadocia was
obliged to decline for fear of offending the Romans; and
his fo doing was in the higheft degree acceptable to
the republic, who reckoned him among the chief of her
allies. Demetrius, however, being greatly incenfed
at the flight put upon his filler, fet up a pretender to
the throne, one Orophernes, a fuppofititious, or, as
others call him, a natural fon of the deceafed king.
The Romans ordered Eumenes king of Pergamus to
1 aflill Ariarathes with all his forces ;■ which he did, but
to no purpofe; for the confederates were overthrown by
Demetrius, and Ariarathes was obliged to abandon the
kingdom to his rival. This happened about 159 years
before Chrifl, and the ufurpers immediately difpatched
ambaffadors to Rome with a golden crown. The fe¬
nate declined accepting the prefent, till they heard his
pretenfions to the kingdom ; and this Orophernes, by
fuborned witnefies, made appear fo plain, that the fe¬
nate decreed that Ariarathes and he fhould reign as
partners; but next year, Orophernes was driven out by
Attains brother to Eumenes, and his fucceffor to the
kingdom of Pergamus.
Ariarathes, being thus reflored, immediately de¬
manded of the Priennians 400 talents of gold which
Orophernes had depofited with them. They honeflly
replied, that as they had been trufled with the money
by Orophernes, they could deliver it to none but him¬
felf, or fuch as came in his name. Upon this, the king
entered their territories with an army, deflroying all
with fire and fword. The Priennians, however, flill
perfevered in their integrity ; and though their city was
befieged by the united forces of Ariarathes and Atta¬
ins, not only made an obflinate defence, but found
means to reftore the fum to Orophernes. At laft they
applied to the Romans for affiflance, who enjoined the
two kings to raife the fiege, under pain of being de¬
clared enemies to the republic. Ariarathes immediate¬
ly obeyed; and marching his army into Affyria,joined
Alexander Epiphanes againfl Demetrius Soter, by
whom he had been formerly driven out of his kingdom.
In the very firft engagement Demetrius was flain, and
his army entirely difperfed, Ariarathes having on that oc-
cafion given uncommon proofs of his courage and con-
du£l. Some years after, a war breaking out between
the Romans and Ariftonicus who claimed the kingdom
of Pergamus in right of his father, Ariarathes joined
the former, and was flain in the fame battle in which
P. Craffus proconful of Afia was taken, and the Ro¬
man army cut in pieces. He left fix fons by his wife
Laodice, on whom the Romans bellowed Lycaonia and
Cilicia. But Laodice, fearing left her children, when
they came of age, fhould take the government out of Cappadod
her hands, poiforied five of them, the youngefl only 
having efcaped her cruelty by being conveyed out of
the kingdom. The queen heifelf was foon after put to
death by her fubjedts, who could not bear her cruel
and tyrannical government.
Laodice was fucceeded by Ariarathes VII. who,
foon after his acceflion, married another Laodice,
daughter of Mithridates the Great, hoping to find in
that prince a powerful friend to fupport him againft Ni-
comedes king of Bithynia, who laid claim to part of
Cappadocia. Bat Mithridates, intlead of affifting,
procured one Gordius to poifon, his unhappy fon-in-law;
and, on his death, feized the kingdom, under pretence:
of maintaining the rights of the Cappadocians againft
Nicomedes, till the children of Ariarathes were in a
condition to govern the kingdom. The Cappadocians
at Rrfl fancied themfelves obliged to their new protec¬
tor ; but, finding him unwilling to refign the kingdom
to the lawful heir, they rofe up in arms', and, driving
out all the garrifons placed by Mithridates, placed on
the throne Ariarathes VIII. eldeft fon of their deceafed
king.
The new prince found himfelf immediately engaged
in a war with Nicomedes; but, being affifted by Mi¬
thridates, not only drove him out of Cappadocia, but
ftripped him of a great part of his hereditary domi¬
nions. On the conclufion of the peace, Mithridates
feeking for fome pretence to quarrel with Ariarathes,
infifted upon his recalling Gordius, who had murdered
his father; which being rejected with abhorrence, a war
enfued. Mithridates took the field firft, in hopes of
over-running Cappodocia before Ariarathes could be in
a condition to make head againft him ; but, contrary
to his expe&ation, he was met on the frontiers by the
king of Cappadocia with an army no way inferior to
his own. Hereupon he invited Ariarathes, to a confe¬
rence; and, in fight of both armies, ftabbed him with a
dagger, which he had concealed under his garment.
This ftruck fuch terror into the Cappadocians, that
they immediately difperfed, and gave Mithridates an
opportunity of pofleffing himfelf of the kingdom with¬
out the lead oppofition. The Cappadocians, however,
not able to endure the tyranny of his prefects, foon
Ihook off the yoke; and recalling the king’s brother,
who had fled into the province of Afia, proclaimed him
king. He was fcarce feated on the throne, however,
before Mithridates invaded the kingdom at the head of
a very numerous army, and having drawn Ariarathes to
a battle, defeated his army with great daughter, and
obliged him to abandon the kingdom. The unhappy
prince foon after died of grief; and Mithridates be¬
llowed the kingdom on has fon, who was then but
eight years old, giving him alfo the name of Aria¬
rathes. But Nicomedes Philopator king of Bithynia,
fearing left Mithridates, having now got poffelfion of
the whole kingdom of Cappadocia, fhould invade his
territories, fuborned a youth to pafs himfelf for the
third fon of Ariarathes, and to prefent to them a petition
in order to be reftored to his father’s kingdom. With
him he fent to Rome Laodice, filler of Mithridates,
whom he had married after the death of her former huf-
band Ariarathes. Laodice declared before the fenate,
that Ihe had three fons by Ariarathes, and that the pe¬
titioner was one of them; but that Ihe had been obli-
ged
CAP [ 1641 ] CAP
1 (Cappadocia, ged to keep him concealed, left^he fliould undergo the
' j i'ame fate with his brothers. The fenate affared him
that they would at all events reinftatc him in his king¬
dom. But, in the mean time, Mithridates having no¬
tice of thefe tranfa&ions, difpatched Gordius to Rome,
to undeceive the fenate, and to perfuade them that the
youth to whom he had refigned the kingdom of Cap¬
padocia was the lawful fon of the late king, andgrand-
fon to Ariarathes who had loft his life in the fervice of
the Romans againft Ariftonicus. This unexpedted em-
baffy put the fenate upon inquiring more narrowly in¬
to the matter, whereby the whole plot was difcovered ;
upon which Mithridates was ordered to refign Cappa¬
docia, and the kingdom was declared free. The Cap¬
padocians, however, in a ftiort time fent ambaffadors
to Rome, acquainting the fenate that they could not
live without a king. This greatly furprifed the Ro¬
mans, who had fuch an averfion to royal authority; but
they gave them leave to eleft a king of their own nation.
As the family of Pharnaces was nowextinft, the Cap¬
padocians chofe Ariobarzanes ; and their choice was ap¬
proved by the fenate, he having on all occafions (hown
himfelf a fteady friend to the Romans.
Ariobarzanes had fcarce taken pofieffion of his king¬
dom, when he was driven out by Tigranes king of Ar¬
menia; who refigned Cappadocia to the fon of Mithri¬
dates, in purfuance of an alliance previoufly concluded
between the two parties. Ariobarzanes fled to Rome ;
and, having engaged the fenate in his caufe, he re¬
turned into Afia with Sylla, who was enjoined to re-
ftore him to his kingdom. This was eafily performed
by Sylla, who, with a fmall body of troops, routed
Gordius who came to meet him on the borders of Cap¬
padocia at the head of a numerous army. Sylla, how¬
ever, had fcarce turned his back, when Ariobarzanes
was again driven out by Ariarathes the fon of Mithri¬
dates, on whom Tigranes had beftowed the kingdom
of Cappadocia. This obliged Sylla to return into A-
fia, where he was attended with his ufual fuccefs, and
Ariobarzanes was again placed on the throne. After the
death of Sylla, he was the third time forced by Mithri¬
dates to abandon his kingdom ; but Pompey,having en¬
tirely defeated Mithridates near mount Stella, reitored
Ariobarzanes to his throne, and rewarded him for his
fervices during the war, with the provinces of Sophene,
Gordiene, and great part of Cilicia. The king, how¬
ever, being now advanced in years, and defirous of
fpending the remainder of his life in cafe, refigned the
crown to his fon Ariobarzanes, in prefence of Pom¬
pey ; and never afterwards troubled himfelf with af¬
fairs of ftate.
Ariobarzanes II. proved no lefs faithful to the Ro¬
mans than his father had been. On the breaking out
of the civil war between Caefar and Pompey, he fided
with the latter; but after the death of Pompey, he was
received into favour by Casfar, who even beftowed up¬
on him great part of Armenia. While Caefar was en¬
gaged in a war with the Egyptians, Pharnaces king
of Pontus invaded Cappadocia, and ftripped Ariobar¬
zanes of all his dominions ; but Caefar, having defeated
Pharnaces, reftored the king of Cappadocia, and ho¬
noured him with new titles of friendftiip. After the
murder of Caefar, Ariobarzanes, having refufed to join
Brutus and Caflius, was by them declared an enemy to
the republic, and foon after taken prifoner and put
Vol. III.
to death. He was fucceeded by his brother Ario- Cappadocia,
barzanes III. who was, by Marc Anthony, deprived
both of his kingdom and life 5 and in him ended the fa¬
mily of Ariobarzanes.
Archelaus, the grandfon of that general of the fame
name who commanded againft Sylla in the Mithridatic
war, was by Marc Anthony placed on the throne of
Cappadocia, though nowife related either to the fa¬
mily of Pharnaces or Ariobarzanes. His preferment
was entirely swing to his mother Glaphyra, a woman
of great beauty, but of a loofe behaviour, who, in return
for her compliance with the defires of Anthony, ob.
tained the kingdom of Cappadocia for her fon. In the
war between Auguftus and Anthony, he joined the
latter; but, at the interceflion of the Cappadocians,
was pardoned by the emperor. He afterwards received
from him Armenia the Lefier, and Cilicia Trachsa, for
having affifted the Romans in clearing the feas of pi¬
rates who greatly infefted the coafts of Afia. He con-
tradfted a ftrhft friendftiip with Herod the Great, king
of Judasa; and even married his daughter Glaphyra to
Alexander, Herod’s fon. In the reign of Tiberius,
Archelaus was fummoned to appear before the fenate;
for he had always been hated by that emperor, be-
caufe in his retirement at Rhodes he had paid him no
fort of refpeft. This had proceeded from no averfion
in him to Tiberius, but from the warning given Ar¬
chelaus to his friends at Rome. For Caius Caefar, the
prefumptive heir to the empire, was then alive, and had
been fent to compofe the differences of the eaft, whence
the friendftiip of Tiberius was then looked upon as dan¬
gerous. But when he came to the empire, Tiberius,
remembering the difrefpeA ftiewn him by Archelaus,
enticed the latter to Rome by means of letters from Li-
via, who promifed him her fon Tiberius’s pardon, pro¬
vided he came in perfon to implore it. Archelaus o-
beyedthe fummons, and haftened to Rome; where he
was received by the emperor with great wrath and con¬
tempt, and foon after accufed as a criminal in the fe¬
nate. The crimes of which he was accufed were mere
fi&ions; but his concern at feeing himfelf treated as a
malefa&or wTas fo great, that he died foon after of grief,
or, as others fay, laid violent hands on himfelf. He is
faid to have reigned 50 years.
On the death of Archelaus, the kingdom of Cappado¬
cia was reduced to a Roman province, and governed
by thofe of the equeftrian order. It continued fubjeft
to the Romans till the invafion of the eaftern empire
by the Turks, to whom it is now fubjedf, but has
no diftinguifliing modern name. In what was an¬
ciently called Cappadocia, however, the Turks have
four Beglerbeglics, called Siivas, Trebizond, Marafch,
and Cogni.
In the time of the Romans, the inhabitants of Cap¬
padocia bore fo bad a chara&er,and were reputed fo vici¬
ous and lewd, that, among the neighbouring nations, a
wicked man was emphatically called a Cappadocian. In
after ages, however, their lewd difpofition was fo cor-
re&ed and reftrained by the pure do&rines of Chri-
ftianity, that no country whatever has produced greater
champions of the Chriftian religion, or given to the
church prelates of more unblemilhed charafters.
We have now no fyftem of the Cappadocian laws, and
fcarce wherewithal to form any particular idea of them.
As to their commerce, they carried on a confiderable
9 Y trade
CAP [ 1642 ] CAP
Cappadocia trade In horfes, great numbers of which were produ- middle are placed a great number of long ftamina, fur- Capparia,
I! ced in their country ; and we read of them in Scrip- rounding a ftyle which rifes above them, and crowned Capra'
Capparis. ture as frequenting the fairs of Tyre with this commo- with an oval germeh, which afterwards becomes a cap-
~ | dity. As Cappadocia abounded with mines of filver, fule filled with kidney-lhaped feeds.
brafs, iron, and alum, and afforded great ftore of ala- Culture. This plant is very difficultly preferved in
bafter, cryftal, and jafper, it is probable that they Britain: it delights to grow in crevices of rocks, old
might fupply the neighbouring countries with thefe walls, &c. and always thrives beft in an horizontal po-
commodities. fture ; fo that, when planted either in pots, or in the full
The religion of the ancient Cappadocians was much ground, they feldom thrive, though they may be kept
the fame with that of the Perfians. At Comana there alive for fome years. They are propagated by feeds
was a rich and (lately temple dedicated to Bellona; in the warm parts of Europe, but very feldom in Bri-
whofe battles the priefts and their attendants ufed to tain.
reprefent on dated days, cutting and wounding each Ufes. The buds, pickled with vinegar, See. are
other as if feiaed with an enthufiadic fury. No lefs fa- brought to Britain annually from Italy and the Medi-
mous and magnificent were the temples of Apollo Ca- terranean. They are fuppofed to excite appetite and
tanius, and of Jupiter: the lad of which had 3000 fa- affid digedion ; and to be particularly ufeful as deter-
cred fervants, or religious votaries. 'The chief pried gents and aperients in obdrudlions of the liver and
was next in rank to that of Comana; and, according to fpleen.
Strabo, had an yearly revenue of 15 talents. Diana Per-
fica was worfhipped in a city called Cajiaballa, where
women, devoted to the worfliip of that goddefs, were
reported to tread barefooted on burning coals, with¬
out receiving any hurt. The temples of Diana at Dio-
fpolis, and of Anias at Zela, were likewife held in great
veneration both by the Cappadocians and Armenians,
who docked to them from all parts. In the latter were
tendered all oaths in matters of confequence ; and the
chief among the priefts was no way inferior in dignity,
power, and wealth, to any in the kingdom; having a
royal attendance, and an unlimited authority over all
the inferior fervants and officers of the temple. The
Romans, who willingly adopted all the fuperftitions and
fuperftitious rites of the nations they conquered, great¬
ly increafed the revenues of this and other temples ;
conferring the priefthood on fuch as they thought mod
fit for carrying on their defigns.—We are told that hu-'
man facrifices were offered at Comana ; and that this
barbarous cuftom was brought by Oreftesandhis fifter
Iphigenia from Taurica Scythica, where men and wo¬
men were immolated to Diana. But this cuftom, if
ever it obtained in Cappadocia, was aboliffied in the
times of the Romans.
CAPPANUS, a name given by fome authors to
a worm that adheres to and gnaws the bottoms of
(hips; to which it is extremely pernicious, efpecially
in the Eaft and Weft Indies: to prevent this, feveral
(hips have lately been (heathed with copper ; the firft
trial of which was made on his majefty’s frigate the
Alarm.
CAPPARIS, the Caper-bush ; a genus of the mo-
gynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants.
There are feven fpecies. The fpinofa, or common ca¬
per, is a low (hrub, generally growing out of the joints
of old walls, the fiffures of rocks, and amongft rubbiffi,
in mod of the warm parts of Europe: it hath woody
(talks, which fend out many lateral (lender branches ;
under each of thefe are placed two Ihort crooked fpines,
between which and the branches comes out the foot-
ftalks of the leaves, which are (ingle, (hort, and fuftain
a round, fmooth, entire leaf. At the intermediate
joints between the branches, come out the flowers on
long foot-ftalks ; before thefe expand, the bud with the
empalement is gathered for pickling. Thofe which are
laft, expand in form of a fingle rofe, having five large
white petals, which are roundiffi and concave; in the
CAPRA, or Goat, a genus of quadrupeds belong¬
ing to the order of pecora. The horns are hollow, turn¬
ed upwards, ere6l, and fcabrous. There are eight fore¬
teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper; and
they have no dog-teeth. This genus confifts of 12 fpe¬
cies, viz.
E The H iRCU s,,or common goat, with arched cari- pjate
nated horns, and a long beard. It is a native of the LXXIV-
eaftern mountains.
The goat is an animal of more fagacity than the
(heep. Inftead of having an antipathy at mankind,
they voluntarily mingle with them, and are eafily ta¬
med. Even in uninhabited countries, they betray no
favage difpofitions. In the year 1698,30 Engliffi vef-
fel having put in to the ifland of Bonavifta, two ne¬
groes came aboard, and offered gratis to the captain as.
many goats as he pleafed. The captain expreffed his-
aftoniffiment at this offer. But the negroes replied, that?
there were only 12 perfons in the ifland ;.that the goats--
had multiplied to fuch a degree, that they were become-
extremely trcnblefome; and that, inftead of having any
difficulty in catching them, they followed the mem
wherever they went, and were fo obftinately officious,
that they could not get quit of them upon any account
whatever.
Goats are fenfible ofcareffes, and capable of a con-
fiderable degree of frfendftiip. They are ftronger,
more agile, and lefs timid, than (heep. They have a
lively, capricious, and v/andering difpofition ; are fond
of high and folitary places; and frequently deep upon
the very points of rocks. They are more eafily fup-
ported than any other animal of the fame fizc ; for there-
is hardly an herb, or the bark of a tree, which they will
not eat with pleafure. Neither are they liable to fo
many difeafes as (heep: they can bear heat and cold
with lefs inconvenience. The aftions and movements -
of animals depend more upon the force and variety of
their fenfations, than the ftru&ure of their bodies; the
natural ineonftancy or fancifulnefs of goats is accord¬
ingly expreffed by the irregularity of their actions: they
walk, flop ftiort, run, jump, (how, and hide themfelves, ■
as it were by mere caprice, and without any other caufe
than what arifes from the natural vivacity of their tern--
per.
The buck will copulate when he is a year old, and
the female when (he is feven months. But as this is ra¬
ther premature, they are generally reftrained till they
be
CAP
'Capra, be 18 months or two years. The buck is bald, beau-
“7 “tiful, and vigorous; one is fufficient to ferve 150 fe¬
males. A buck for propagation fhould be large, hand-
fome, and about two years of age ; his neck Ihould
be fhort, and flefhy; his head (lender; his ears pen¬
dent ; his thighs thick; his limbs firm; his hair black,
thick, and foft; and his beard fhould be long and
bufhy. females are generally in feafon from Sep¬
tember to the end of November. At that time the
males drive whole flocks of the females continually from
place to place, and fill the whole atmofphere around
them with their ftrong difagreeable odour; which, tho’
as difagreeable as afafoetida itfelf, yet may be condu¬
cive to prevent many diftempers, and to cure nervous
and hyfterical ones. Horfes are fuppofed to be much
irefrefhed by it; on which account many people keep a
he-goat in their ftuds or ftables.
Goats go with young four months and an half, and
bring forth from the latter end of February to the latter
end of April: having only two teats, they generally bring
forth but one or two young ; fometimes three; and in
good warm paftures there have been inftances, tho’ rare,
■of their bringing forth four at a time. They continue
fruitful till they are feven years of age; but a buck
goat is feldom kept after he is five. Both young and
old are affedfed by the weather; a rainy feafon makes
them thin, a dry funny one makes them fat and
blythe: their exceffive venery prevents their longevity;
for in our climate they feldom live above 11 or 12
years.
The food of this animal cods next to nothing, as it
lives moftly upon fuch plants as are reje&ed by other
cattle, and can fupport itfelf even upon the molt bar¬
ren mountains. But their produce is valuable. The
whiteft wigs are made of its hair; for which purpofe
that of the he-goat is moll in requeft: the whiteft and
cleareft is feledted from that which grows on the
haunches, where it is longeft and thickeft: a good Ikin
well haired is fold for a guinea; though a fkin of bad
hue, and fo yellow as to baffle the barber’s Ikill to
bleach, will not fetch above 18 or 2 /. The Wellh
goats are far fuperior in fize, and in length and fine-
nefs of hair, to thofe of other mountainous countries.
Their ufual colour is white: thofe of France and the
Alps are ftiort-haired, reddilh, and the horns final].
Bolfters made from the hair of a goat were in ufe in
the days of Saul, as appears from 1 Samuel xix. 13.
The fpecies very probably was the Angora goat, which
is only found in the Eaft; and whofe foft and filkyhair
fupplied a moft luxurious couch.
The fuet of the goat is in great efteem as well as the
hair. Many of the inhabitants of Caernarvonfhire fuf-
fer thefe animals to run wild on the rocks in winter as
well as in fummer; and kill them in Odtober for the
fake of their fat, either by (hooting them with bullets,
or by running them down with dogs like deer. The
goats killed for this purpofe are about four or five years
old. Their fuet will make candles far fuperior in white-
nefs and goodnefs to thofe made from that of the Iheep
or the ox, and accordingly brings a much greater price
in the market; nor are the horns without their ufe, the
country people making of them excellent handles for
tucks and pen-knives. The Ikin is peculiarly well ad¬
apted for the glove manufa&ory, efpecially that of the
kid: abroad it is drefied and made into (lockings, bed-
C A P
ticks, bed-hangings, (heets, and even (hirts. In the C
army it covers the horfeman’s arms, and carries the  
foot-foldier’s provifions. As it takes a dye better than
any other fkin, it was formerly much ufed for hangings
in the houfes of people of fortune, being fufceptible of
the richeft colours, and when flowered andornamented
with gold and filver became an elegant and fuperb fur¬
niture.
The flefti is of great ufe to the inhabitants of thofe
countries which abound with goats; and affords them
a cheap and plentiful provifion in the winter months,
when the kids are brought to market. The haunches
of the goat are frequently failed and dried, and fupply
all the ufes of bacon: this by the Welfh is called coch
yr'wden, or hung venifon. The meat of a fplayed goat
of fix or feven years old (which is called hyfr) is reck¬
oned the bell; being generally very fat and fweet. This
makes an excellent pafty; goes under the name at rock
.venifon; and is little inferior to that of the deer.
The milk of the goat is fweet, nourilhing, and me¬
dicinal. It is an excellent fuccedaneum for afs’s milk ;
and has (with a tea-fpoonful of hartfhorn drunk warm
in bed in the morning, and at four in the afternoon,
and repeated for fome time) been a cure for phthifical
people before they were gone too far. In fome of the
mountainous parts of Scotland and Ireland, the milk is
made into whey, which has done wonders in this and
other cafes where coolers and reftoratives are neceffary;
and to many of thofe places there is as great a refort
of patients of all ranks, as there is in England to the
fpaws or baths. It is not furprifing that the milk of
this animal is fo falutary, as it broufes only on the tops,
tendrils, and flowers, of the mountain (hrubs, and me-
dicinals herbs; rejefting the groffer parts. The blood
of the he-goat, dried, was formerly reckoned a fpecific
in pleurifies, and is even taken notice of by Dr Mead
for this purpofe, but is now defervedly negledled.
Cheefe made of goat’s milk is much valued in fome of
our mountainous countries, when kept to a proper age;
but has a peculiar tafte and flavour.
II. The ibex, or wild-goat, is the flock from whence
the tame fpecies fprung. It has large knotty horns re¬
clined upon its back, is of a yellowifli colour, and its
beard is black. The females are lefs, and have fmaller
horns, more like thofe of a common (he-goat, and with
few knobs on the upper furface: they bring one young
one, feldom two, at a birth. They inhabit the highell
Alps of the Grifons country and the Valais; are alfo
found in Crete. They are very wild, and difficult to be
(hot, as they always keep on the higheft points. Their
chace is exceedingly dangerous: being very ftrong, they
often tumble the incautious huntfman down the preci¬
pices, except he has time to lie down and let the ani¬
mals pafs over him. They are faid. not to be long-
lived.
III. The mambrina, or Syrian goat, with reclined
horns, pendent ears, and a beard. It is a native of the
Eaft. Their ears are of a vaft length; from one to two
feet; and fometimes fo troublefome, that the owners
cut off one to enable the animal to feed with more eafe.
Thefe animals fupply Aleppo with milk.
IV. The rupicapra, or lhamoy-goat, has ereft and
hooked horns. The body is of a dulky red colour; but
the front, top of the head, gullet, and infide of the ears,
are white; the under part of the tail is blackilh; and
9 Y 2 the
[ 1643 ]
CAP [ 1644 ] CAP
Capra. the upper lip is a little divided. It inhabits the Alps
  of Dauphine, Switzerland, and Italy; the Pyrenean
mountains; Greece, and Crete: does not dwell fo high
in the hills as the ibex, and is found in greater num¬
bers. They feed before fun-rife, and after fun-fet. In
winter, they lodge in hollows of the rocks, to avoid the
falls of the Avelencbes: during that feafon, they eat
the flender twigs of trees, or the roots of plants and herbs
which they find beneath the fnow. They are very ti¬
mid and watchful: each herd has its leader, who keeps
fentry on foifte high place while the reft are at food;
and if it fees an enemy, gives a {harp fort of hifs, by
way of fignal, when they inftantly take to flight. They
have a moft piercing eye, and quick ear and (cent; and
are exceffively fwift and active. They are hunted during
winter for their {kins, which are very ufeful in manu-
faftures ; and for their flefli, which is very well tailed.
The chace is a laborious employ:. they muft be got at
by furprife, and are often {hot with riffle-barrePd guns.
In their ftomach is often a hairy ball, covered with a
hard cruft, of an oblong form. They are faid to be
long-lived ; bring two, feldom three, young ones at a
time.
V. The dhpressa, is an African goat, with fmall
depreffed horns, bent inwards, lying on the head. It
is about the fize of a kid; and the hair is long and pen-
dulous.
VI. The re vers A, is likewife an African goat, with
eredl horns, and curved back at the points. It is about
the fize of a kid of a year old.
VII. The gazella, has long, eredl, cylindrical
horns, annulated near the bafe. It inhabits Egypt, the
Cape, Arabia, the Levant, and India, dwelling in the
plains.
VIII. The ceryicapra, with plated cylindrical
horns, inhabits Barbary. The hair near the horns is
longer than in any other part of the body. The fe¬
males want horns: Mr Haffelquift gives the following
account of this fpecies. “ The cervicapra is larger,
fwifter, and wilder, than the common rock-goat, and
can fcarcely be taken without a falcon. It is met with
near Aleppo. I have feen a variety of this which is
common in the Eaft, and the horns appear different;
perhaps it is a diftinfl fpecies. This animal loves the
fmoke of tobacco; and, when caught alive, will ap¬
proach the pipe of the huntfman, though olherwife more
timid than any animal. This is perhaps the only crea¬
ture, befides man, that delights in the fmell of a poifon-
ous and {linking plant. The Arabians hunt it with a
falcon (falco gentilis, Lin.^1 I had an excellent oppor¬
tunity of feeing this fport near Nazareth in Galilee.
An Arab, mounted on a fwift courfer, held the falcon
in his hand, as huntfmen commonly do: when he efpied
the rock-goat on the top of a mountain, he let loofe
the falcon, which flew in a diredl line like an arrow,
and attacked the animal; fixing the talons of one of
his feet into the cheek of the creature, and the other
into its throat, extending his wings obliquely over the
the animal; fpreading one towards one of its ears, and
the other to the oppofite hip. The animal, thus attack¬
ed, made a leap twice the height of a man, and freed
himfelf from the falcon: but being wounded, and lo-
fing his ftrength and fpeed, he was again attacked by
the falcon; which fixed the talons of both its feet into
the throat of the animal, and held it fall, till the huntf¬
man coming up, took it alive, and cut its throat; the Capr*. Lj
falcon drinking the blood as a reward for his labour. — f**
A young falcon, which was learning, was likewife put
to the throat of the goat: by this means are young fal¬
cons taught to fix their talons in the throat of the ani¬
mal, as being the propereft part; for ftiould the falcon
fix them in the creature’s hip, or fome other part of the
body, the huntfman would not only lofe his game, but
his falcon alfo: for the animal, roufed by the wound,
which could not prove mortal, would run to the de¬
farts and the tops of the mountains, whither its enemy,
keeping its hold, would be obliged to follow; and, be¬
ing feparated from its mafter, muft of courfe perifti.”
IX. The bezoartica, or bezoar goat, is bearded,
and has cylindrical, arched, and wholly annulated horns.
It is a native of Perfia. The bezoar is found in one of *seeB««ar 11
its ftomachs, called abomafus*. ana Abom+-l h
X. The tartarica, has cylindrical, ftraight, annu- /us.
lated horns; the points inclining inward, the ends
fmooth; the other part furrounded with very promi¬
nent annuli; of a pale yellow colour, and the greateft
part femipellucid; the cutting teeth are placed io loofe
in their fockets, as to move with the leaft touch. The
male is covered with rough hair like the he-goat, and
has a very ftrong fmell; the female is fmoother. The
hair on the bottom of the fides and the throat is long,
and refembles wool; that on the fides of the neck and
head is hpaiy; the back and fides of a dirty white;
the breaft, belly, and infide of the thighs, of a fflining
white. The females are hornlefs and timid: if attacked
by wolves or dogs, the males place them in a circle,
and Hand round them with their heads towards the e-
nemy, and will defend them ftoutly. They bleat like
Cheep: their common pace is a trot; when they go fafter,
it is by leaps. They are fwifter than roebucks. They
feed by lifting up the upper mandible, and going back¬
ward. The {kin is foft, and excellent for gloves, belts,
&c. Their beft feafon is in September: at other times,
the {kins are penetrated by worms. The fat refembles
that of mutton; in tafte, like that of a buck: the head
is reckoned the moft delicate part. They are found be¬
tween the Tanais and Borifthenes, and as far as Altra-
can, in flocks of 6000 or 10,000.
XI. The ammon, has femicircular, plain, white horns,
and no beard. It is about the fize of a ram, and is a
native of Siberia.
XII. The dorcas, or antelope, has cylindrical an¬
nulated horns, bent backward, contorted, and arifing
from the front between the eyes. It is a native of A-
frica and Mexico. Thefe animals are of a moft elegant
and adive make; of a reftlefs and timid difpofition; ex¬
tremely watchful; of great vivacity; remarkably fwift;
exceedingly agile; and moft of their boundings fo light,
fo elaftic, as to ftrike the fpedator with aftoaifliment.
What is very fingular, they will (lop in the middle of
their courfe for a moment gaze at their purfuers, and
then refume their flight.
As the chace of thefe animals is a favourite diverfion
with the Eaftern nations, from that may be colleded
proofs of the rapid fpeed of the antelope tribe. The
gre-hound, the fleeteft of dogs, is unequal in the courfe;
and the fportfman is obliged to call in the aid of the falcon
trained to the work, to feize on the animal and impede
its motions, to give the dogs time to overtake it. In
India, and Perfia a fort of leopard is made ufe of in the
chace;
c A p L 1645 ]
Capra chace: this is an animal that takes its prey, not by fwift- of the zodiac.
Capricorn ne*'s ^oot, ^ut ^ t^e greatne^s °f its fpringsJ by mo-
«tions fimilar to that of the antelope; but fhould the
leopard fail in its firft eflay, the game efcapes.
Some fpecies of the antelopes form herds of 2000 or
3000, while others keep in fmall troops of five or fix.
They generally refide in hilly countries; though fome
inhabit plains: they often broufe like the goat, and
feed on the tender Ihoots of trees, which gives their flefit
an excellent flavour. This is to be underftood of thofe
that are taken in the chace; for thofe that are fattened
in houfes are far lefs delicious. The flefh of fome fpe¬
cies are faid to tafte Of mulk, which perhaps depends
on the qualities of the plants they feed on.
CAP
See Astronomy, n° 206.
The ancients accounted Capricorn the tenth fign ;
and when the fun arrived thereat, it made the winter fol-
ftice with regard to our hemifphere: but the ftars ha¬
ving advanced a whole fign towards the eaft, Capricorn
is now rather the nch fign; and it is at the fun’s entry
into Sagittary that the folftice happens, though the an¬
cient manner of fpeaking is ftill retained.
This fign is reprefented on ancient monuments, me¬
dals, &c. as having the forepart of a goat and the hind-
part of a filh, which is the form of an iEgipan; fome-
times fimply under the form of a goat.
‘Tropic of Capricorn, a leffer circle of the fphere,
which is parallel to the equinoftial, and at 230 30' di-
Mr Pennant makes the antelope a diftinft genus of ftance from it fouthwards; palling through the begin-
animals, forming a link between the goat and the deer*: ning of Capricorn.
with the firft of which they agree in the texture of the CAPRIFICATION, a method ufed in the Levant,
horns, which have a core in them, and they never call; for ripening the fruit of the domeftic fig-tree, by means
them; with the laft, in the elegance of their form, and of infefts bred in that of the wild fig-tree,
great fwitnefs. He diftinguilhes feveral fpecies, among The moft ample and fatisfadtory accounts of this
which he ranks the gazella, the cervicapra, the lezoar-
tica, and the tartarica of Linnaeus, defcribed above,
vn. vni. ix. x. with the moschus grimmia^oi the
fame author.
Chf^x-Saltans, in meteorology, a fiery meteor or
exhalation fometimes feen in the atmofphere. It forms
an infle&ed line, refembling in fome meafure the ca-
perings of a goat; whence it has its name.
CAPRALA, an ifle of Italy, in the Tufcan fea, to
the north-eaft of Corfica, on which it depends. It is
pretty populous, and has a ftrong caftle for its defence, tree. The fecond is the domeftic or garden fig-tree.
It is about 15 miles in circumference. E. Long. 11. 5. The former bears fucceffively, in the fame year, three
N. Lat. 43. 1 5. forts of fruit, called fornites, cratitires, and orni; which,
CAPRARIA, in botany, a genus of the angiofper- though not good to eat, are found abfolutely neceflary
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants, towards ripening thofe of the garden-fig. Thefe fruits
There is but one fpecies, the biflora, which is a native have a fleck even flan; are of a deep green colour; and
of the warm parts of America. Being a troublefome
weed, and without beauty, it is never cultivated, ex¬
cept in botanic gardens for the fake of variety.
CAPRAROLA, one of the moft magnificent pa¬
laces in Italy, feated on a hill, in Ronciglione, whofe
foot is watered by the river Tircia. It was built by car¬
dinal Farnefe; and has five fronts, in the middle of
which is a round court, though all the rooms are fquare,
and well proportioned. It is 27 miles north-weft of
Rome.
CAPREiE. See Capri.
CAPREOLUS (Elias), an excellent civilian, and
learned hiftorian, born in Brefcia in Italy, wrote an hi-
.ftory of Brefcia, and other works: died in 1519.
CAPRI, (anciently Capretf), a city and ifland at the
entrance of the gulph of Naples, E. Long. 14. 50. N.
Lat. 40. 45.—The ifland is only four miles long, and
contain in their dry and mealy infide feveral male and
female flowers placed upon diftintf foot-ftalks, the for¬
mer above the latter. The fcrnites appear in Auguft,
and continueto Novemberwithout ripening: in thefe are
bred fmall worms, which turn to a fort of gnats no¬
where to be feen but about thefe trees. In O&ober and
November, thefe gnats of themfelves make a pun&ure
into the fecond fruit, which is called cratitires. Thefe
do not fliow themfelves till towards the end of Septem¬
ber. The fornites gradually-fall away after the gnats
are gone ; the cratitires, on the contrary, remain on
the tree till May, and inclofe the eggs depofited by the
gnats when they pricked them. In May, the third fort
of fruit, called orni, begins to be produced by the wild
fig-trees. This is much bigger than the other two ;
and when it grows to a certain fize, and its bud begins
■to open, it is pricked in that part by the gnats of the
one broad; the chy is a bifhop’s fee, fituated on a high cratitires, which are ftrong enough to go from one
rock at the weft end of the ifland. Capresc was an- fruit to another to depofit their eggs. It fometimes
ciently famous for the retreat of the emperor Tiberius happens that the gnats of the cratitires are flow to
for feven years, during which he indulged himfelf in the come forth in certain parts, while the orni in thofe
moft fcandalous debaucheries *. There flood a pharos very parts are difpofed to receive them. In this cafe,
on this ifland, which, a few days before the death of the huibandman is obliged to look for the cratitires in
that emperor, was overthrown by an earthquake. another part, and fix them at the ends of the branches
CAPRIATA (Peter John), a civilian and hiftorian, of thofe fig-trees whofe orni pre in a fit difpofition to
, . tt .c-    rr .1  ‘r, ! 
was born at Genoa. He wrote, in Italian, the hiftory
of the wars of Italy; an Englifh tranflation of which
was printed in London in 1663.
CAPRICORN, in aftronomy, one of the 12 figns
be pricked by the gnats. If they mifs the opportunity,
the orni fall, and the gnats of the cratitires fly away.
None but thofe that are well acquainted with the cul¬
ture know the critical moment of doing this: and in-
order
Capricorn,
Caprifica-
curious operation in gardening are thofe of Tournefort
and Pontedera : the former, in his Voyage to the Le¬
vant, and in a Memoir delivered to the academy of
fciences at Paris in 1705 ; the latter, in his Anthologia.
The fubftance of Tournefort’s account follows. “ Of
the thirty fpecies or varieties of the domeftic fig-tree
which are cultivated in France, Spain, and Italy, there
are but two cultivated in the Archipelago. The firil
fpecies is called ornos, from the old Greek erinos, which
anfwers to caprificus in Latin, and fignifies a wild fig-
CAP [ .646 ] CAP
CaprifioE. or(ler to know it, their eye is perpetually fixed on the
ti"n' bud of the fig; for that part not only indicates the
€aP"smu ‘ time that the prickers are to iffue forth, but alfo when
—  the fig is to be fuccefsfully pricked: if the bud is too
hard and compact, the gnat cannot lay its eggs; and
the fig drops, when the bud is too open.
“ The ufe of all thefe three forts of fruit is to ripen
the fruit of the garden fig-tree, in the following man¬
ner. During the months of June and July, the peafants
take the orw, at the time their gnats are ready to break
out, and carry them to the garden fig-trees: if they
do not nick the moment, the orw fall; and the fruit of
the do me (tic fig-tree, not ripening, will in a very little
time fall in like manner. The peafants are fo well ac¬
quainted with thefe precious moments, that, every
morning, in making their infpe&ion, they only transfer
to their garden fig-trees fuch as are well condi¬
tioned, otherwife they lofe their crop. In this cafe,
however, they have one remedy, though an indifferent
one ; which is, to ftrew over the garden fig-trees ano¬
ther plant in whofe fruit there is alfo a fpecies of gnats
which anfwer the purpofe in fome meafure.”
The caprification of the ancient Greeks and Romans,
deferibed by Theophraftus, Plutarch, Pliny, and other
authors of antiquity, correfponds in every circumftance
with what ispra&ifed at this day in the Archipelago and
in Italy. Thefe all agree in declaring, that the wild
fig-tree, caprificus, never ripened its fruit; but was ab¬
solutely neceffary for ripening that of the garden or
domeftic fig, over which the hufhandmen fufpended its
branches.—The reafon of this fuccefs poffibly may be,
that, by the pun&ures of thefe infefts, the veffels of the
fruit are lacerated, and thereby a greater quantity of
nutritious juice derived thither. Perhaps, too, in de-
pofiting their eggs, the gnats leave behind them fome
fort of liquor proper to ferment gently wjth the milk
of the figs, and to make their flefh tender. The figs in
Provence, and even at Paris, ripen much fooner for ha¬
ving their buds pricked with a ftraw dipped in olive-
oil. Plumbs and pears likewife, pricked by fome in¬
fers, ripen much the fafter for it; and the flefh round
fuch punfture is better tailed than the reft. It is not
to be difputed, that confiderable changes happen to the
contexture of fruits fo pricked, juft the fame as to parts
of animals pierced with any fharp inftrument.
CAPRIMULGUS, Goat-sucker, or Fern-owl,
in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of pafleres. The beak is incurvated, fmall, tapering,
and depreffed at the bafe; the mouth opens very wide.
t There are two fpecies. i.The Europaeus, with the
LXXIV. tubes of the noftrils hardly vilible. It feeds on moths,
•gnats, dorrs or chaffers ; from which Charlton calls
it a dorr-hawk, its food being entirely of that fpecies of
beetle during the month of July, the period of that
infe&’s flight in this country. This bird migrates. It
makes but a fhort flay with us : appears the latter end
of May ; and difappears, in the northern parts of our
ifland, the latter end of Auguft ; but, in the fouthern,
flays above a month later. It inhabits all parts of Bri¬
tain from Cornwall to the county of Rofs. *Mr Scopoli
ieems to credit the report of their fucking the teats of
oats, an error delivered down from the days of Ari-
otle. Its notes are mod Angular. The loudelt fo much
refembles that of a large fpinning wheel, that the Welfh
call this bird aderyny droell, or the wheel-bird. It be¬
gins its fong mo ft pun&ually on the clofe of day, fit- Capriro
ting ufually on a bare bough, with the head lower Sus
than the tail, the lower jaw quivering with the efforts. %
The noife is fo very violent, as to give a fenfible vibra- P-
tion to any little building it chances to alight on and emit
this fpecies of note. Theother is a fharp fqueak, which it
repeats often ; this feems a note of love, as it is obferved
to reiterate it when in purfuit of the female among the
trees. It lays its eggs on the bare ground; uiually
two : they are of along form, of a whitifh hue, prettily
marbled with reddifh brown. The length of this bird
is !Ot inches; extent 22. Plumage, a beautiful mix¬
ture of white, black, afh-colour, and ferruginous, dif-
pofed in lines, bars, and fpots. The male is diftinguifhed
from the female by a great oval white fpot near the
end of the three firft quill-feathers, and another-on the
outmoft feathers of the tail.—2. The Amcricanus, has
the tubes of the noftrils very confpicuous. It is a night¬
-bird,-and is found in America.
CAPRIOLES, in the menage, leaps that a horfe
makes in the fame place without advancing, in fuch a
manner, that, when he is at the height of the leap, he
jerks out with his hinder legs even and near. It is the
moft difficult of all the high menage. It differs from a
croupade, in this, that, in a croupade, a horfe does not
{how his fhoes ; and from a ballotade, becaufe in this
he does not jerk out. To make a horfe work well at
caprioles, he mull be put between two pillars, and
taught to raife firft his fore-quarters, and then his
hind-quarters while his fore ones are yet in the air;
for which end you muft give him the whip and the
poinfon-
CAPSA, (anc. geog.), a large and ftrong town of
Numidia, fituated amidft vaft defarts, wafte, uncultiva¬
ted, and full of ferpents, where Jugurtha kept his
treafure. In his time it was taken and rafed by Ma¬
rius the Roman general, who put to death all the ci¬
tizens capable of bearing arms, and fold the reft for
flaves. It was, however, afterwards rebuilt by the
Romans, and ftrongly fortified ; but, on the decline of
their empire, was taken and demolifhed a fecond time,
by Occuba a famous Arab general. The walls of the
citadel are Hill remaining, and are monuments of the
ancient glory and ftrength of Capfa. They are 24 fa¬
thoms in height, and five in thicknefs, built of large
fquare Hones, and have now acquired the folidity and
firmnefs of a rock. The walls of the town were re¬
built by the inhabitants fince their firft demolition ;
but were afterwards deftroyed by Jacob Almanzar,
who fent a governor and troops into the province. In
Marmol’s time Capfa was very populous, and abounded
with (lately mofques and other ftru&ures of fuptrb
and elegant workmanfhip : but at prefent it is occupied
by a poor and indigent people, fleeced and oppreffed
by the Tunefe government. In the very centre of the
city Hands an inclofed fountain, which both fupplies
the people with drink, and affords them an agreeable
bath. The adjacent country is now cultivated, and
produces feveral kinds of fruits; but the climate is
unhealthy. The inhabitants are remarkable for their
peevifhnefs of temper. Both men and women drefs
handfomely except their feet, which they cover with
coarfe fhoes of bungling workmanfhip, and made of
the rough fkins of wild beafts, equally inconvenient
and unbecoming. E. Long. 9. 3. N. Lat. 33. 15.
CAP-
Capficiir
CAP
[ 1647 ]
CAP
CAPSICUM, or Guinea-pepper a genus of the then they Ihould be boiled in the vinegar to make them Capficum
‘ monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of green; but they want no addition of any fpice, and „ i
plants,
Specie*. I. The annuum, with oblong fruit, is the
common long-podded capficum commonly cultivated in
the gardens. Of this there is one kind with red, and
are the wholefomeft and belt pickle in the world. The ap an'
tenth fpecies is ufed for making what is called cayan-
butter, or pepper-pets, by the inhabitants of America,
and which they efteem the bed of all the fpices.. Th^
another with yellow fruit: and of thefe there are feveral following is a receipt for making of a pepper-pot. Take
varieties, differing only in the fize and figure of theii
fruit. 2. The tetragonum, commonly called bell pep'
per. The fruit of this is red, and is the only kind pro¬
of tfm ripe feeds of this fort of capficum, and dry them
well in the fun : then put them into an earthen or done
pot, mixing-flour between every ftratum of pods; and,
per for pickling, the flcin being tender; whereas thofe put them into an oven after the baking of bread, that
of the other forts are thin and tough. The pods are they may be thoroughly dried: after which they muft
from an inch to an inch and half or two inches long ; be well cleanfed from the flour; and if any of the ftalks
are very large, fwelling, and wrinkled, flatted at the remain adhering to the pods, they fhould be taken off,
top, where they are angular, and fometimes ftand eredl, and the pods reduced to a fine powder : to every ounce
at others grow downward. 3. The cerafifbrme,
a round fmooth fruit, doth not grow fo tail
with
the
of this add a pound of wheat-flour, and as much leaven
as is fufficient for the quantity intended. After this-
other forts, but fpreads near the ground ; the leaves has been properly mixed and wrought, it flrould be?
come out in clufters, are of a fliining green, and ftand made into fmall cakes, and baked in the fame manner
on long footftalks. The fruit is of a beautiful red, and as common cakes of the fame fize : then cut them into
of the fize of a cherry. 4. The pyramidale, is a na- fmall parts, and bake them again, that they may be as
tive of Egypt, and hath much narrower leaves than dry and hard as bifcuit; which being powdered and
the other forts. The pods always grow ere£, and are lifted, is to be kept for ufe. This is prodigioufly hot
produced in great plenty, fo that the plants make a and acrimonious, felting; the mouth as it were on fire,
good appearance for three months in the winter. 5. The It is by fame recommended as a medicine for flatulen-
minimum, commonly called bird-pepper, rifes with a cies ; but it is greatly to be doubted whether all thofe.
fhrubby ftalk four or five feet high ; the leaves are of hot irritating medicines are not productive of more
a lucid green; the fruit grows at the divifion of the harm than good,i in this country at leaft. If the ripe
branches, Handing erect: thefe are fmall, oval, and of pods of capficum are thrown into the fire, they will-
a bright red ; they are much more (harp and biting raife ftrong and noifome vapours, which occafion vehe-
than thofe of the other forts. Befides thefe fpecies, ment freezing, coughing, and often vomiting, in thofe
who are near the place, or in the room where they are-
burnt. Some perfons have mixed the powder of the,
pods with fnuff, to give to others for diverfion : but.
where it is in quantity, there may be danger in ufing-
> for it will occafion fuch violent fits of fneezing, as
botanifts defcribe as many more ; viz. the cordiforme,
with heart-lhaped fruit; the angulofum, with angular
heart-flraped fruit ; the olivaforme, with oval fruit ;
the conoide, commonly called hen-pepper, with a coni¬
cal red fruit growing ere£t; and the frutefcens, with
fmall pyramidal fruit growing ereft ; commonly called' to break the blood-veffels of the head,
Barbary pepper. Thefe, however,, have no remarkable-
properties different from the others.
Culture. The three firft fpecies are annual plants,
and muft be propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed ii
CAPSQUARES, ftrong plates of iron which come
over the trunpionsiof a gun,, and keep it in the car¬
riage. They are faftened by a hinge to.the prize-plate,
that they may lift up and down, and form a part of an
the fpring, and treated in the feme manner with other arch in the middle to receive a third part of the thick-
exotics; they will however bear the open air, after
being inured to it by degrees. The plants of the fe-
cond fort, whofe fruit is ufed for pickling, fhould be
taken from the hot-bed, and planted in a rich fpot of
nefs of the trunnions: for two thirdsare let into the
carriage, and the other end is faftenesd by two iron
wedges called the fore-locks and keys.-
CAPSTAN, or Capstern, a ftrong maffy co¬
ground in a warm fituation about a foot and an half lumn of timber, formed like a truncated cone, and
afunder. They muft be fhaded till they have taken
root, and afterwards duly watered in dry weather.
having its upper extremity pierced with a number of
holes to receive the bars or levers. It is let perpendi-
which will greatly promote their growth and caufe cularly down through the decks of a fhip ; and is fixed
them to be more fruitful, and likewife enlarge the
fize of the fruit. By this management, three or four
crops of fruit- for pickling may be obtained the feme
year. The other forts are more tender; and therefore
muft be planted in pots plunged in a moderate hot-bed,.
and fheltered under a frame.
Ufes, &c. The feccnd fort, as already obferved.
fuch a manner, that the men, by turning it horizon¬
tally with their bars, may perform any work which re¬
quires an extraordinary effort.
A capftern is compofed of feveral parts, where A is Plate
the barrel, <!> the whelps, c the drum-head, and zf the
fpindle. The whelps rife out from the main body oi^' s“
the capftern like buttreffes, to enlarge the fweep, fo
produces fruit fit for pickling ; for which purpofe they that a greater quantity of cable, or whatever rope en-
n ....I.—j., u-ief— .j :— x*. £.n circles the barrel* may be wound about it-at one turn.
without adding much to the weight of the capftern.
The whelps reach downwards from the lower part of
mull be gathered before they arrive at their full fize,
while their rind is tender. They muft be flit down on
one fide to get out the feeds, after which they fhould
be foaked two or three days in felt and water; when the drum-head to.the deck. The drum-head is a broad,
they are taken out of this and drained, boiling vinegar * cylindrical piece of wood refembling a mill-ftone, and
mull be poured on them in a fufficient quantity to co- fixed immediately above the barrel and whelps. On .
ser them, and clofely flopped down-for two months j. the outfide of this piece are cut a number of fquare .
holes-
CAP [ 1648 ] CAP
Capftan. liolea parallel to the deck to receive the bars. The
"   .fpjnc}]e or pivot d, which is fhod with iron, is the axis
or foot upon which the capftern refts, and turns round
in the faucer, which is a fort of iron focket let into a
wooden flock or flandard called the Jlep, reding upon
and bolted to the beams.
Befides the different parts of the capdern above ex¬
plained, it is furnifhed with feveral appurtenances, as
the bars, the pins, the pawls, the fwifter, and the fau¬
cer, already defcribed. The bars are long pieces of
wood, or arms, thrud into a number of fquare holes in
the drum-head all round, in which they are as the radii
of a circle, or'the fpokes in the nave of a wheel. They
are ufed to heave the capdern round, which is done by
the men fetting their breads againd them, and walking
about, like the machinery of a horfe-mill, till the opera¬
tion is finifhed.—The pins e, are little bolts of iron
thrud perpendicularly through the holes of the drum¬
head, and through a correfpondent hole in the end of
the bar, made to receive the pins when the bars are
fixed. They are ufed to confine the bars, and to pre¬
vent them from working out as the men heave, or when
the fhip labours. Every pin is fadened to the drum¬
head with a fmall iron chain ; and that the bars may
exa&ly fit their refpeftive holes, they are all numbered.
—The pawls f, 1. are fituated on each fide the cap-
ftern, being two fhort bars of iron, bolted at one end
through the deck to the beams clofe to the lower part
of the whelps ; the other end, which occafionally turns
round on the deck, being placed in the intervals of the
whelps, as the capdern turns round, prevents it from
recoiling or turning back by any fudden jerk of the
cable, as the fhip rifes on the fea, which might greatly
endanger the men who heave. There are alfo banging
pawls gg, n° 3. ufed for the fame purpofes, reaching
from the deck above to the drum-head immediately be¬
low it. The fwifter is a rope pafied horizontally thro*
holes in the outer end of the bars, and drawn very tight;
the intent of this is to keep the men deady as they
walk round when the fhip rocks, and to give room for
a greater number to affid bv pulling upon the fwifter
itfelf.
The mod frequent ufe of the capdern is to heave in
the cable, and thereby remove the fhip, or draw up
the anchor. It is alfo nfed to wind up any weighty
body, as the mads, artillery, &c. In merchant-fhips
it is likewife frequently employed to difcharge or take
in the cargo, particularly when confiding of weighty
materials that require a great exertion of mechanical
powers to be removed.
There are commonly two capderns in a man of war,
the main and the gear capdern ; the former of which
has two drum-heads, and may be cd\\e& z. double one.
This is reprefented in n° 3. The latter is reprefented
in n° 2.
Formerly the bars of the capdern went entirely thro’
the head of it, and confequently were more than double
the length of the prefent ones ; the holes were there¬
fore formed at different heights, as reprefented in n° 1.
But this machine had feveral inconveniences, and has
long been entirely difufed in the navy. Some of thefe
fort of capderns, however, are dill retained in mer¬
chant-fhips, and are ufually denominated crabs. The
fituation of the bars in a crab, as ready for heaving, is
reprefented in n° 4.
To Rig the Capstern, is to fix the bars in their re- Capfule,
fpe&ive boles, and thrud in the pins, in order ta con- Capt*i>»<
fine them.—Surge the Capstern, is the order to :
flacken the ropebeaved round upon it, of which there
are generally two turns and a half about the barrel at
once, and fometimes three turns.—To Heave the Cap.
stern, is to go round with- it heaving on the bars,
and drawing in any rope of which the purchafe is crea¬
ted.—To Come-up the Capstern, is to let go the rope
upon which they had been heaving.—To Pawl the Cap¬
stern, is to fix the pawls to prevent it from recoiling
during any paufe of heaving.
CAPSULE, in a general fenfe, denotes a receptacle
or cover in form of a bag.
Capsule, among botanids, a dry, hollow, feed-vef-
fel, or periearpium, that cleaves or fplits in fome de¬
terminate manner. See Pericarpium.
This fpecies of feed-veffel is frequently flefhy and
fucculent, like a berry, before it has attained maturi¬
ty ; but, in ripening, becomes dry, and often fo eladic
as to dart the feeds from their departments with confi-
derable velocity. This eladicity is remarkably confpi-
cuous in wood-forrel; balfam, mpatiens; African
fpiraea, diofma-, fraxinella; jujlicia; ruellia; barleria;
lathrcea ; and many others.—The general aptitude or
difpofition of this fpecies of feed-veffel to cleave or fe-
parate for the purpofe of difperfing its feeds, didin-
guidres it not lefs remarkably than its texture from the
pulpy or fucculent fruits of the apple, berry, and
cherry kind. This opening of the capfule for dif-
charging its feeds when the fruit is ripe, is either at
the top, as in mod plants ■, at the bottom, as in triglo-
chin; at the fide through a pore, or fmall hole, as in
campanula and orchis; horizontally, as in plantain, a-
maranthns, and anagallis ; or longitudinally, as incon-
volvulus* All fruit that is jointed, opens at every one
of the joints, each of which contains a fingle feed.
Capfules, in fplitting, are divided, externally, into one
or more pieces, called by Linnasus, valves. The in¬
ternal divifions of the capfules are called cells, locula-
menta : thefe, in point of number, are exceedingly di-
verfified ; fome having only one cell, as the primrofe ;
and others many, as the water-lilly. Hence a capfule is
termed unilocular, bilocular, trilocular, &c. according
as it has one, two, three, &c. cells or cavities.
Capsul.se Atrabiliarice, called alfoglandula renales,
and renes fuccenturiati. See Anatomy, n° 361.
CAPTAIN, a military officer, whereof there are
feveral kinds, according to their commands.
Captain of a Troop or Company, an inferior officer
who commands a troop of horfe, or a company of foot,
under a colonel. The duty of this officer is to be care¬
ful to keep his company full of able-bodied foldiers; to
vifit their tents and lodgings, to fee what is wanting;
to pay them well; to caufe them keep themfelves neat
and clean in their cloaths, and their arms bright. He
has power in his own company of making ferjeants,
corporals, and lanfpefades.
In the horfe and foot guards, the captains have the
rank of colonels.
Captain-he who commands in chief.
Captain Lieutenant, he who with the rank of cap¬
tain, but the pay of lieutenant, commands a troop or
company in the name and place of fome other perfon
who is difpenfed with on account of his quality from
per-
CAP [ 1649 j CAP
CaPta!n- performing; the fun&ions of his poft.
Thus the colonel being ufually captain of the firft
company of his regiment, that company is commanded
by his deputy under the title of captain lieutenant.
So in England, as well as in France, the king, queen,
dauphin, princes, &c. have ufually the title of captain
of the guards, gens d' armes. See. the real duty of which
offices is performed by captain-lieutenants.
• Captain Reformed, one who, upon the redu&ion of
the forces, has his commiffion and company fupprefled ;
yet is continued captain, either as fecond to another,
or without any poft or command at all.
Captain of a Ship of War, the officer who com¬
mands a {hip of the line of battle, or a frigate carrying
20 or more cannon. The charge of a captain in his
majefty’s navy is very comprehenfive, in as much as
he is not only anfwerable for any bad condudl in
the military government, navigation, and equipment of
of the ffiip he commands, but alfo for any negledl of
duty or ill management in his inferior officers,‘whofe
feveral charges he is appointed to fuperintend and re¬
gulate.
On his firlt receiving information of the condition
and quality of the {hip he is appointed to command, he
muft attend her conftantly, and haften the neceffary
preparations to fit her for lea. So ftrift, indeed, are the
injunftions laid on him by the lord high admiral, or
commiffioners of the admiralty, that he is forbid
to lie out of his {hip, from his arrival on board to
the day of his difeharge, unlefs by particular leave
from the admiralty or from his commander in chief.
He is enjoined to (how a laudable example of honour
and virtue to the officers and men; and to difeounte-
nance all diffolute, immoral, and diforderly pradlices,
and fuch as are contrary to the rules of fubordination
and difeipline ; as well as to correct thofe who are
guilty of fuch offences as are puniffiable according to
the ufage of the fea. He is ordered particularly to fur-
vey all the military (lores which are fent on board, and
to return whatever is deemed unfit for fervice. His di¬
ligence and application are required to procure his
complement of men ; obferving carefully to enter only
fuch as are fit for the neceffary duty, that the govern¬
ment may not be put to uuneceffary expence. When
his (hip is fully manned, he is expe&ed to keep the
eftablilhed number of men complete, and fuperintend
the mufter himfelf if there is no clerk of the check at
the port. When his (hip is employed on a cruizing
ftation, he is expe&ed to keep the fea the whole length
of time previoufly appointed; but if he is compelled
by fome unexpefted accident to return to port fooner
than the time limited, he ought to be very cautious in
the choice of a good fituation for anchoring, ordering
the mafter or other careful officers to found and difeo-
ver the depths of water and dangers of the coaft. Pre¬
vious to any poffibility of an engagement with the
enemy, he is to quarter the officers and men to the ne¬
ceffary ftations according to their office and abilities,
and to exercife them in the management of the artil¬
lery, that they may be more expert in time of battle.
His ftation in the time oF an engagement is on the
quarter-deck: at which time he is expe&ed to take all
opportunities of annoying his enemy, and improving
every advantage over him; to exhibit an example of
courage and fortitude to his officers and crew; and to
Vol. HI.
place his fhip oppofite to his adverfary in fuch a pofi- Capt
tion as that every cannon (hall do effectual execution. I!
At the time of his arrival in port, after his return from '“p
abroad, he is to affemble his officers, and draw up a
detail of the obfervations that have been made during
the voyage, of the qualities of the (hip as to her trim,
ballad, (towage, manner of failing, for the information
and dire&ion of thofe who may fucceed him in the
command: and this account is to be figned by himfelf
and officers, and to be returned to the refident commif-
fioner of the navy at the port where the (hip is dif-
charged.
Captain of a Merchant-flip, he who has the di¬
rection of the (hip, her crew, and lading, &c. In fmall
{hips and (hort voyages, he is more ordinarily called
the mafter. In the Mediterranean, he is called thepa-
troon.—The proprietor of the veffel appoints the cap¬
tain or mafter ; and he is to form the crew, and chufe
and hire the pilots, mates, and feamen ; though, when
the proprietor and mafter refide on the fame fpot, they
generally aft in concert together.
Captain Bajhaiv, or Capondan Bajhaw, in the
polity of the Turks, fignifies the Turkilh high admi¬
ral. He poffeffes the third office of the empire, and
is invefted with the fame power at fea that the vizir
has on (hore. Soliman II. inftituted this office in fa¬
vour of the famous Barbaroffa, with abfolute autho¬
rity over the officers of the marine and arfenal, whom he
maypunifti, caffiier, orputtodeath, as foonas he is with¬
out the Dardanelles. He commands in chief in all the
maritime countries, cities, eaftles, &c. and, atConftanti-
nople, is the firft magiftrate of police in the villages on
the fide of the Porte, and the canal of the Black-Sea.
The mark of his authority is a large Indian cane, which
he carries in his hand, both in the arfenal and with the
army.—The captain-baftiaw enjoys two forts of reve¬
nues; the one fixed, the other cafual. The firft arife
from a capitation of the iflands in the Archipelago, and
certain governments in Natolia and Galipoli. The
latter confift in the pay of the men who die during a
campaign ; in a fifth of all prizes made by the begs;
in the profits accruing from the labour of the (laves,
whom he hires as rowers to the grand fignior; and in
the contributions he exafts in all places where he
paffes.
CAPTION, in Scots law, a writ iffuing under his
majefty’s fignet, in his majefty’s name, obtained at the
inftance of a creditor in a civil debt, commanding mef-
fengers at arms and other officers et the law to appre¬
hend and imprifon theperfon of the debtor until he pay
the debt.
CAPTIVE, a Have, or a perfon taken from the
enemy.
Formerly captives in war became the flaves of thofe
who took them; and though flavery, fuch as obtained
among the ancients, is now aboliihed, fome fhadow
of it ftill remains in refpeft of prifoners of war, who
are accounted the property of their captors, and have
no right to liberty but by conceffion from them.—The
Romans ufed their captives with great feverity ; their
necks were expofed to the foldiers to be trampled on,
and their perfons afterwards fold by public auftion.
Captives were frequently burnt in the funeral piles of
the ancient warriors, as a facrifice to the infernal gods.
Thofe of royal or noble blood had their heads (haven,
9 Z and
CAP [165
Captivity and their hair fent to Rome to ferve as decorations for
II . female toys, &c. They were led in triumph loaded
Capuchins. cha;ns through Rome, in the emperor’s train, at
leaft as far as the foot of the Capitoline mount, for they
were not permitted to afcend the facred-hill, but car¬
ried thence to prifon. Thofe of the prime quality were
honoured with golden chains on their hands and feet,
and golden collars on their necks. If they made their
efcape, or killed themfelves, to avoid the ignominy of
being carried in triumph, their images or effigies were
frequently carried in their place.
CAPTIVITY, in a general fenfe, the ftate or con¬
dition of a captive.
Captivity, in facred hiftory, a puniffiment which
God inflifted upon his people for their vices and infi¬
delities. The firft of thefe captivities is that of Egypt,
from which Mofes delivered them ; after which, are
reckoned fix during the government of the judges; but
the greateft and molt remarkable were thofe^of Judah
and Ifrael, which happened under the kings of each of
thefe kingdoms. It is generally believed, that the ten
tribes of Ifrael never came back again after their dif-
perlion; and Jofephus and St Jerom are of this opi¬
nion : neverthelefs, when we examine the writings of
the prophets, we find the return of Ifrael from capti¬
vity pointed out in a manner altnoft as clear as that of
the tribes of Benjamin and Judah: See Hofea i. 10, 11.
Amos ix. 14. The captivities of Judah are generally
reckoned four; the fourth afid laft of which fell in the
year of the world 3416, under Zedekiah : and from
this period begins the 70 years captivity foretold by
Jeremiah.
Since the deftruftion of the temple by the Romans,
the Hebrews boaft that they have always had their
heads or particular princes, whom they call princes of
the captivity, in the call and weft. The princes of the
captivity in the eaft governed the Jews that dwelt in
Babylon, Aflyria, and Perfia ; and the princes of the
captivity in the weft governed thofe who dwelt in Ju¬
daea, Egypt, Italy, and in other parts of the Roman
empire. He who refided in Judaea commonly took up
his abode at Tiberias, and aflumed the name of Rof-
chahboth, “ head of the fathers or patriarchs.’.’ He
prefided in aflemblies, decided in cafes of confcience,
levied taxes for the expenfes of his vjfits, and had offi¬
cers under him who were difpatched through the pro¬
vinces for the execution of his orders. As to the prin¬
ces of the captivity at Babylon, or the eaft, we know
neither the original nor fucceffion of them. It only ap¬
pears that they were not in being before the end of the
fecond century.
CAPUA, (anc. geog.) a very ancient city of Italy,
in Campania, and capital of that diftridt. It is famous
for the abode of Hannibal the Carthaginian general af¬
ter the battle of Cannae, and where Livy accufes him,
* See kl,t unjuftly, of having enervated himfelf with plea-
Carihage, fures *. It ftill retains the name, and is the fee of an
aP 113. archbiffiop. It is feated on the river Vulturno, in E.
Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 41. 7.
CAPUCHINS, religious of the order of St Francis
in its ftridteft obfervance ; deriving their name from ca-
puce, or capuchon, a fluff cap, or cowl, wherewith they
cover their heads. They are clothed with brown, or
grey ; always bare-footed ; are never to go in a coach,
nor ever (have their beard. The capuchins are a re-
o ] CAR
form made from the order of minors, commonly called Caput
cordeliers, fet on foot in the 16th century, by Matthew
Bafchi, a religious obfervant of the monaftery of Mon- ara > *-
tefiafcone; who, being at Rome, was advertifed feve-
ral times from heaven, to praftife the rule of St Fran-
ci s tothe letter. Upon this, he made application to
pope Clement in 1525; who gave him permiffion to
retire into a folitude, with as many others as chofe to
embrace the ftridf obfervance. In 1528, they obtained
the pope’s bull. In 1529, the order was brought into
complete form ; Matthew was eledfed general, and the
chapter made conftitutions. In 1543, the. right of
preaching was taken from the capuchins by the pope:
but in 1545, it was reftored to them again with ho¬
nour. In 1578, there were already 17 general chap¬
ters in the order of capuchins.
CAPUT lupinum. Anciently an outlawed felon
was faid to have caput lupinum, and might be knocked
on the head like an ivolf, by any one that ffiould meet
him; b.ecaufe, having renounced all law, he was to be
dealt with as in a ftate of nature, when every one that
ffiould find him might flay him : yet now, to avoid
fuch inhumanity, it is holden that no man is entitled
to kill him wantonly and wilfully ; but in fo doing he
is guilty of murder, unlefs it is done in the endeavour to
apprehend him.
Cavvt Mortuum, * Latin name given to fixed and
exhaufted refiduums remaining in retorts after diftilla-
tions, As thefe refiduums are very different, accord¬
ing to the fubftances diftilled, and the degree of heat
employed, they are by the more accurate modern che-
mifts particularly fpecified by adding a term denoting
their qualities; as earthy refiduum, charry refduum, fa-
line refduum, &c.
CARABINE, a fire-arm ftiorter than a mulket, car¬
rying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by the light horfe,
hanging at a belt over the left,moulder. The barrel
is two feet and an half long; and is fometimes furrow¬
ed fpirally within, which is faid to add to the range of
the piece.
CARABINEERS, regiments of light horfe, carry¬
ing longer carabines than the reft, and fometimes ufed
on foot.
CAR ABUS, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera, or the beetle kind.
The feelers are briftly ; the breaft is (haped like a heart,
and marginated; and the elytra are likewife marginated.
There are 43 fpecies of this genus, moftly dirtinguiffied
by their colour. The moft remarkable is the crepitans,
or bombardier, with the breaft, head, and legs, fer¬
ruginous or iron-coloured, and the elytra black. It
keeps itfelf concealed among ftones, and feemsto make
little ufe of its wings: when it moves, it is by a fort of
jump; aqd whenever it is touched, one is, furprifed to
hear a noife refembling the difcharge of a mulket in
miniature, during which a blue fmoke may be percei¬
ved to proceed from its anus. The infedf may be made
at any time to play off its artillery, by fcratching its
back with a needle. If we may believe Rolander, who
firft made thefe obfervations, it can give 20 difcharges
fucceffively. A bladder placed near the anus is the ar-
fenal whence it derives its ftore, and this is its chief
defence againft an enemy, although the fmoke emitted
feems to be altogether inoffenfive, except it be by caufing
a fright, or concealing its courfe. Its chief enemy is
another
CAR [ 1651 ] CAR
Caracalla another fpecies of the fame genus, but four times larger:
It . when purfued and fatigued, the bombardier has recourfe
Caraccl‘ to this ftratagem, by lying down in the path of the
large carabus, which advances with open mouth and
claws to feize it; but, on the difcharge of this artillery,
fuddenly draws back, and remains a while confufed :
during which the bombardier conceals himfelf in fome
neighbouring crevice; and if not happy enough to find
one, the large carabus returns to the attack, takes the
infeft by the head, and tears it off.
CARACALLA (M. Antoninus Baffianus), em¬
peror after his father Severus in 211, put the phyfi-
cians to death for not difpatching his father as he would
"have had them. He killed his brother Geta ; and put
Papinianus to death, becaufe he would not defend nor
excufe his parricide. In fhort, it is faid that 20,000
perfons were maffacredby his order. He married Ju¬
lia, his father’s widow. Going to Alexandria, he flew
the inhabitants, and applied to the magicians and aftro-
logers. At laft, going from Edefla to Mefopotamia,
-one of his captains flew him, by order of Macrinus, who
fucceeded him. He died after he had reigned fome-
what more than fix years.
CARACCAS, a diftrift of Terra Firma in South
America, belonging to the Spaniards. The coaft is
rocky and mountainous, interfperfed with fmall fertile
valleys ; fubje&ed at certain feafons of the year to dry
north-weft winds, but bleffed in general with a clear air
and wholefome climate. A very great illicit trade is
carried on by the Englilh and Dutch with this province,
notvvithftanding all the vigilance of the Spaniards, who
have fcouts perpetually employed, and breaftworks rai¬
led in all the valleys. A vaft number of cacao-trees
are cultivated in this province ; and it is reckoned that
the crop of cacao produced here amounts to more than
100,000 fanegas of 110 pounds each. The country of
Santa Fe confumes 20,000 ; Mexico a little more ; the
Canaries a fmall cargo ; and Europe from 50 to 60,000.
The cultivation of the plant employs 10 or 12,000 ne¬
groes. Such of them as have obtained their liberty
have built a little town called Nirva, into which they
will not admit any white people. The chief town is like-
wife called Caraccas, and is fituated in N. Lat. 10. to.
Dampier fays it Hands at a confiderable diftance from
thefea; is large, wealthy, and populous; and extremely
difficult of accefs, by reafon of the deep and craggy hills
over which an enemy muft take his route. The com¬
merce of this town, to which the bay of Guaira at two
leagues diftance ferves for a harbour, was for a long
time open to all the fubjefts of the Spanilh monarchy,
and is ftill fo to the Americans ; ‘but the Europeans are
not fo well treated. In 1728 a company was formed
at-St Sebaftian, which obtained an exclufive right of
maintaining connexions with this part of the new
world. Four or five Ihips, which they difpatch every
year, fail from thence, but they return to Cadiz.
CARACCI, (Lewis, Auguftin, and Hannibal),
three celebrated painters of the Lombard fchool, all of
Bologna. Lewis was born in 1555 ; and was coufm-
german to Auguftin and Hannibal who were brothers,
the fons of a taylof who was yet careful to give them
a liberal education. They were both difciples of
their coufin Lewis. Auguftin gained a knowledge of
mathematics, natural philofophy, mufic, poetry, and
moft of the liberal arts; but, though painting was his
principal purfuit, he learned the art of engraving from C*ncei.
Cornelius Cort, and furpafled all the mafters of his
time. Hannibal, again, never deviated from his pencil.
—Thefe three painters, at length, having reaped all
the advantages they could by contemplation and prac¬
tice, formed a plan of afibciation, continued always to¬
gether, and laid the foundation of that celebrated
fchool which has ever fince been known by the name of
Caracci’s academy. Hither all the young ftudents, who
had a view of becoming mafters, reforted to be inftruc-
ted in the rudiments of painting ; and here the Carac-
ci taught freely, and without referve, all that came.
Lewis’s charge was to make a colleXion of antique
ftatues and bas-reliefs. They had defigns of the
beft mafters, and a colleXion of curious books on all
fubjeXs relating to their art; and they had a Ikilful
anatomift always ready to teach what belonged to the
knitting and motions of the mufcles, <bc. There were
often difputations in the academy ; and not only pain¬
ters, but men of learned profeffions, propofed que-
ftions, which were always decided by Lewis. Every
body was well received ; and though ftated hours were
allotted to treat of different matters, yet improvements
might be made at all hours by the antiquities and the
.defigns which were to be feen.
The fame of the Caracci reaching Rome, the cardinal
Farnefe fent for Hannibal thither, to paint the gallery
of his palace. Hannibal was the more willing to go, be¬
caufe fie had a great defire to fee Raphael’s works, with
the antique ftatues and bas-reliefs. The gufto which
he took there from the ancient fculpture, made him
change his Bolognian manner for one more learned but
lefs natural in the defign and in the colouring. Au¬
guftin followed Hannibal, to affift him in his underta¬
king of the Farnefe gallery; but the brothers not
rightly agreeing, Farnefe fent Auguftin to the court
of the duke of Parma, where he died in the year 1602,
being only 45 years of age. His moft celebrated piece
of painting is that of the communion of St Jerom, in
Bologna.
In the mean while, Hannibal continued working in
the Farnefe gallery at Rome; and, after inconceivable
pains and care, finiftied the paintings in the perfeXion
in which they are now to be feen. He hoped that the
cardinal would have rewarded him in fome proportion
to the excellence of his work, and the time it took him
up, which was eight years; but he was difappointed.
The cardinal, influenced by an ignorant Spainard his
domeftic, gave him but a little above 200/. though it
is certain he deferved more than twice as many thou-
fands. When the money was brought him, he was fo
furprifed at the injuftice done him, that he could not
fpeak a word to the perfon who brought it. This con¬
firmed him in a melancholy to which his temper natu¬
rally inclined, and made him refolve never more to touch
his pencil; which refolution he had undoubtedly kept,
if his neceffities had not compelled him to break it. It
is faid that his melancholy gained fo much upon him,
that at certain times it deprived him of the ufe of his
fenfes. It did not, however, put a flop to his amours;
and his debauches at Naples, whither he had retired for
the recovery of his health, brought a diftemper upon
him of which he died in 1609, when he was 49 years
of age. His veneration for Raphael was fo great, that
it was his deathbed requeft to be buried in the fame
9 Z 2 tomb
Cara&
CAR [ 1652 ] CAR
Caracci tomb with him; which was accordingly done, in the
II pantheon or rotunda at Rome. There are extant fe-
Caraft. vera| pr;nts 0f the bleffed Virgin, and fome other fub-
" jefts etched by the hand of this incomparable artift.
He is faid to have been a friendly, plain, honeft, and
open-hearted man; very communicative to his fcho-
Jars; and fo extremely kind to them, that he general¬
ly kept his money in the fame box with his colours,
where they might have recourfe to either as they had
occafion.
While Hannibal Caracci worked at Rome, Lewis
was courted from all parts of Lombardy, efpecially by
the clergy, to make pictures in their churches; and we
may judge of his capacity and facility, by the great
number of pictures he made, and by the preference
that was given him to other painters. In the midft of
thefe employments, Hannibal folicited him to come and
afiift him in the Farnefe gallery; and fo earneftly, that
he could not avoid complying with his requeft. He
went to Rome; correfted feveral things in that gallery;
painted a figure or two himfelf; and then returned to
Bologna, where he died in 1619, aged 64.
CARACOL, in the menage, the half turn which
an horfeman makes, either to the right or left.—In the
army, the horfe always make a caracol after each dif-
charge, in order to pafs the rear of the fquadron.
Caracol, in architedlure, denotes a ftair-cafe in a
helix or fpiral form.
CARACOLI, a kind of metal of which the Carib-
bees, or natives of the Lefier Antilles, make a fort of
ornament in the form of a crefcent, which they alfo call
caracoli.—This metal comes from the main land ; and
the common opinion is, that it is a compound of filver,
copper, and gold, fomething like the Corinthian brafs
among the ancients. Thefe metals are fo perfeftly mixed
and incorporated together, that the compound which
refults from them, it is faid, has a colour that never al¬
ters, how long foever it remains in the fea or under
ground. It is fomewhat brittle; and they who work at
it are obliged to mix a large proportion of gold writh
it, to make the compound more tough and malleable.
CARACT, or Carat, the name of that weight
which exprefles the degree of finenefs that gold is of.
The word is alfo written, car raft, carrat, karrafi, and
karrat. Its origin is contefted: But the moft probable
opinion is that of Kennet, who derives it from carefta,
a term which anciently denoted any weight, and came
not till of later days to be appropriated to that which
expreffes the finenefs of gold and the gravity of dia¬
monds.
Thefe carats are not real determinate weights, but
only imaginary. The whole mafs, be the weight what
it will, is conceived to be divided into 24 carats; and
as many 24th parts as it contains of pure gold, it is
called gold of fo many carats, or fo many carats fine.
Thus, gold of 18 carats is a mixt, of which 18 parts is
pure gold, and the other fix an inferior metal, &c. This
is the common way of reckoning in Europe, and at the
gold mines in the Spaniih Weft Indies, but with fome
variation in the fubdivifion of the carat: among us, it
is divided into four grains; among the Germans, into
12 parts; and by the French, according to Mr Hellot,
into 32. The Chinefe reckon by a different divifion
called touches, of which the higheft number, or that
which denotes pure gold, is 100; fo that 100 touches
correfpond to our 24 carats, &c.
Caract is alfo a certain weight which goldfmiths II . II
and jewellers ufe wherewith to weigh precious ftones ara a^' ^M
and pearls.—In this fenfe, the word is by fome fup-
pofed to be derived from the Greek xff«T(ov, a fruit
which the Latins call fliqua, and we carob bean; each
of which may weigh about four grains of wheat, whence
the Latin ftliqua has been ufed for a weight of four
grains. This caradt weighs four grains, but they are
fomething lighter than the grains of other weights.
Each of thefe grains is fubdivided in -J-, 5, -g-, Ty, &c.
CARACTACUS, a renowned king of the ancient
Britifh people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales.
Having valiantly defended his country feven years a-
gainft the Romans, he was at length defeated ; and
flying to Cartifmunda, queen of the Brigantes (inha¬
bitants of Yorkfhire), was by her treacheroufiy deli¬
vered up to the Romans, and led in triumph to the em¬
peror Claudius then at York; where his noble beha¬
viour, and heroic but pathetic fpeech, obtained him
not only his liberty, but the efteem of the emperor,
A.D. 52.
CARAGROUTH, in commerce, a filver coin of
the empire, weighing nine drachms. It goes at Con-
ftantinople for 120 afpers. There are four forts of them,
which are all equally current and of the fame value.
CARAITES, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory of the
Jews, a religious fed! among that people, who adhere
clofely to the text and letter of the Scriptures, rejedfing
the rabbinical interpretations and the cabbala. The
Caraites pafs for the moft learned of the Jewifh doc¬
tors. They are chiefly to be met with in Poland, Muf-
covy, and the Eaft; and are but few in comparifon of
the bulk of the Jews who are of the party of the rab¬
bins. The latter have fo great an averfion to the Caraites,
that they will have no alliance or even converfation
with them: they treat them as baftards; and would a
Caraite turn rabbinift, the other Jews would not receive
him.
CARAMANIA, a confiderable province of Turky,
in Afia, in the fouth part of Natolia. Bajazet united
this province to his empire about the year 1488, and
fince that time it has continued in the poffeffion of the
Turks. Satalia was the capital city, but is now much
decayed.
CARAMANTA, a town of South America, and
capital of a province of the fame name in Terra Firma,
and in the audience of Santa Fe. W. Long. 72. 35.
N. Lat. 5. 18. The province of Caramanta is extended
on both fides the river Cauca; and is bounded on the
N. by the diftridl of Carthagena, on the E. by New
Granada, on the S. by Popayan, and on the W. by Po-
payan and by the audience of Panama. It is a valley
furrounded on every fide by very high mountains.
CARANNA, ovKaranna, a very fcarce gum which
comes from New Spain. It is faid to poffefs many ex¬
traordinary medical virtues, but the prefent praftice
takes no notice of it.
CARANUS, the firft king of Macedon, and the fe-
venth of the race of the Heraclides. See Macedonia.
CARAT. See Caract.
CARAVAGGIO (Michael Angelo da), a celebra¬
ted painter, born at Caravaggio, a village in Milan, in
1596. He was at firft only a day-labourer: but ha¬
ving feen fome painters at work upon a wall which he
helped
CAR
onvaggio, helped to raife, he was fo charmed with their art, that
applied to the ftudy of it; and made fo confiderable
a progrefs in a few years, that he was admired at Rome,
Venice, and other parts of Italy, as the author of a new
ftyle in painting. Upon his firft going to Rome, he
was compelled by his neceffities to paint flowers and
fruit, under Giofeppino; but growing tired of that
fubjeft, and returning to hiftories, he made ufeof a me¬
thod quite different from that of Giofeppino, and fol¬
lowed nature as much too clofely as the other departed
from her, by imitating her defefts as well as her beau¬
ties. Thus cramping his invention, he underftood but
little either of defign or decorum in his compofitions:
he had however as good a gufto in colouring as he had
a bad one in defign. His pieces are to be found in moft
of the cabinets of Europe; and there is a picture of his
drawing in the Dominican church at Antwerp, which
Rubens ufed to call his majier.
CARAVi^N, or Karavanne, in the eaft, fignifies
a company or affembly of travellers and pilgrims, and
more particularly of merchants, who, for their greater
fecurity, and in order to affift each other, march in a
body through the defarts, and other dangerous places,
which are infefted with Arabs or robbers.
There are four regular caravans which go yearly to
Mecca; the firft from Damafcus, compofed of the pil¬
grims from Europe and Alia; the fecond from Cairo,
for the Mahometans of Barbary ; the third from Zibith,
a place near the mouth of the Red Sea, where thofe of
Arabia and India meet; the fourth from Babylon,
where the Perfians affemble.—Moft of the inland com¬
merce of the Eaft is carried on by caravans. The late
czar Peter the Great, eftabliflied a trade between Ruffia
and China by means of a caravan. M. Bougnon, geo¬
grapher to the duke of Lorrain, has given a treatife of
the caravans of merchants in Afia; wherein he (hews
of what they are compofed, how many forts there are,
the feveral ufes of the different forts of animals in them;
the prices given for them, the officers and men ap¬
pointed to conduft them, and the pay of each, with
their manner of marching, halting, fighting, retreating,
&c.—Caravans of this kind are large convoys of armed
men, merchants, and travellers, with divers forts of ani¬
mals for the carriage of their provifions. There are com¬
monly four chief officers of a caravan, viz. the caravan
bachi, or chief; the captain-guide; captain of reft; and
captain of diftribution. The firft has abfolute command
over all the reft: the fecond is abfolute in the march:
the office of the third only commences when the cara¬
van flops and makes a ftay: to the'fourth it belongs to
difpofe of every part of the corps, in cafe of an attack
or battle; he has alfo the infpedlion over the diftribu¬
tion of provifions, which is made under him by feveral
diftributors, who give fecurity to the mafter of the ca¬
ravan, and have each of them a certain number of per-
fons, elephants, dromedaries, &c. to take care of at
their own peril. The treafurer of the caravan makes a
fifth officer, who has under him feveral agents and inter¬
preters, who keep journals of all that paffes, for the fa-
tisfa&ion of thofe concerned in fitting out the caravan.
Any dealer is at liberty to form a company, in or¬
der to make a caravan He in whofe name it is raifed,
is confidered as the caravan bachi, or chief of the ca •
ravan, unlefs he appoint fome other in his place. If
there are feveral merchants equally concerned, they e-
CAR
left a caravan bachi; after which, they appoint officers Caravanfera
to conduft the caravan and decide all controverfies that ll
may arife during the journey. Carbuncle.
There are alfo fea caravans; eftablifhed on the fame
footing, and for the fame purpofes: fuch is the cara¬
van of vejjels, from^Conftantinople to Alexandria.
CARAVANSERA, or Karavansera, a place ap¬
pointed for receiving and loading the caravans.
It is commonly a large fquare building, in the middle
of which there is a very fpacious court; and under the
arches or piazzas that furround it there runs a bank,
raifed fome feet above the ground, where the merchants,
and thofe who travel with them in any capacity, take
up their lodgings as well as they can; the beafts of
burden being tied to the foot of the bank. Over the
gates, that lead into the court, there are fometimes
little rooms, which the keepers of the caravanferas let
out at a very high price to fuch as have a mind to be
private.
The caravanferas in the Eaft are fomething of the
nature of the inns in Europe; only that you meet with
little accommodation either for man or beaft, but are
obliged to carry almoft every thing with you: there is
never a caravanfera without a well, or fpring of water.
Thefe buildings are chiefly owing to the charity of the
Mahometans; they are efteemed facreddwellings, where
it is not permitted to infult any perfon, or to pillage
any of the effefts that are depofited there.—There are
alfo caravanferas where moft things may be had for mo¬
ney ; and as the profits of thefe are confiderable, the
magiftrates of the cities to whofe jurifdiftion they be¬
long, take care to (lore them well. There is an infpec-
tor, who, at the departure of each caravan, fixes the
price of the night’s lodging, from which there is no
appeal.
CARAVANSERASKIER, the fteward or keeper
of a Caravansera.—He keeps an account of all the
merchandifes that are fold upon truft, and demands the
ayments of the fums due to the merchants for what
as been fold in the caravanfera, on the feller’s paying
two per cent.
CARAWAY, in botany. See Carum.
CARBONADE, or Carbonado, in cookery; fldh*
fowl, or the like, feafoned, and broiled on the coals.
CARBUNCLE, in natural hiftory, a very elegant
gem, whofe colour is deep red, with an admixture of
fcarlet.
This gem was known among the ancients by the
name of anthrax. It is ufually found pure and fault •
lefs, and is of the fame degree of hardnefs with the fap-
phire: it is naturally of an angular figure; and is found
adhering, by its bafe, to a heavy and ferruginous ftone
of the emery kind: its ufual fize is near a quarter of
an inch in length, and two thirds of that in diameter
in its thickeft parts: when held up againfl the fun, it
lofes its deep tinge, and becomes exaftly of the colour
of a burning charcoal, whence the propriety of the name
which the ancients gave it. It bears the fire unaltered,
not parting with its colour, nor becoming at all the pa¬
ler by it. It is found only in the Eaft Indies, fo far as
is yet known ; and there but very rarely.
Carbuncle, or Anthrax, in medicine, an inflamma¬
tion which arifes, in time of the plague, with a veficle
or blifter almoft like that produced by burning.
Carbuncle, in heraldry, a charge or bearing, con-
fifting
[ ]
CAR [ 1654 ] CAR
CarcalTe fitting of eight radii, four whereof make a common
II crofs, and the other four a faltier.
Car(1, Some call thefe radii buttons, or ftaves, becaufe round,
and enriched with buttons, or pearled like pilgrims
ftaves, and frequently tipped or terminated with flower-
de-luces ; others blazon them, royal fceptres, placed in
faltier, pale and fefle.
CARCASSE, or Carcuss, in the art of war, an
iron-cafe, or hollow capacity, about the bignefs of a
bomb, of an oval figure, made of ribs of iron, filled
with combuftible matters, as meal-powder, faltpetre,
fulphur, broken glafs, lhavings of horn, turpentine,
tallow, &c. It has two or three apertures out of which
the fire is to blaze; and the defign of it is to be thrown
out of a mortar, to fet houfes on fire, and do other exe¬
cution. It has the name carcajfe, becaufe the circles
which pafs from one ring or plate to the other feem
to reprefent the ribs of a human carcafe.
CARCASSONE, an ancient city of France, in
Lower Languedoc, with a biftrop’s fee. It is divided
into the upper and lower town. They are both fur-
rounded with walls; and though their fituations are
different, they are both watered by the river Aude. The
upper town is feated on a hill, with a caftle that com¬
mands it, as well as the lower town. It is ftrong, not
only by its fituation on a craggy rock, but alfo by fe-
veral large towers which are joined to its walls, and
which render it of difficult accefs. The cathedral
church is remarkable for nothing but its antiquity.
The lower town is large, and built after the modern
tafte. Thettreets are very ftraight; and lead to a large
fquare in the middle, from whence may be feen the four
gates of the town. There is here a manufacture of
cloth. The neighbouring country is full of olive-trees;
and in the mountains there a fine marble, commonly
called marble of Languedoc. E. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat.
43. ti. _ '
CARCERES, in the ancient Circenfian games, were
inclofures in the circus, wherein the horfes were reftrain-
ed till the fignal was given for ftarting, when, by an
admirable contrivance, they all at once flew open.
CARCINOMA, in medicine; the fame with Can¬
cer.
CARD, among artificers, an inftrument confitting
of a block of wood, befet with ffiarp teeth, ferving to
arrange the hairs of wool, flax, hemp, and the like:
there are different kinds of them, as hand-cards, ftock-
cards, &c. They are made as follows.
A piece of thick leather, of the fize intended for
the card, is {trained in a frame for that purpofe; and
then pricked full of holes, into which the teeth or pieces
of iron wire are inferted. After which the leather is
nailed by the edges to a flat of piece of wood, in the
form of an oblong fquare, about a foot in length, and
half a foot in breadth, with a handle placed in the middle
of one of the longer fides.
The teeth are made in the following manner. The
wire being drawn of the fize intended, a fkain or num¬
ber of wires are cut into proper lengths by means of a
gauge, and then doubled in a tool contrived for that
purpofe: after which they are bent into the proper
dire&ion by means of another tool; and then placed in
the leather, as mentioned above.
Cards, among gamefters, little pieces of fine thin
pafteboavd of an oblong figure, of feveral fizes; but
moft commonly, in Britain, three inches and an half Card,
long, and two and an half broad, on which are painted
feveral points and figures.
The moulds and blocks for making cards are exadlly
like thofe that were ufed for the firft printed books. They
lay a fheet of wet or moift paper on the block, which is
firft flightly done over with a fort of ink made of lamp¬
black diluted in water, and mixed with fome ftarch to
give it a body. They afterwards rub it off with a round
lift. The court-cards are coloured by . means of feveral
patterns, ftyled fane-files. Thefe confift of papers cut
through with a penknife; and in thefe apertures, they
apply feverally the various colours, as^red, black, &c.
Thefe patterns are painted with oil-colours, that the
brufhes may not wear them out; and when the pattern
is laid on the pafteboard, they flightly pafs over it a
brufh-full of colour, which, leaving it within the open¬
ings, forms the face or figure of the card.
Among fharpers, divers forts of falfe and fraudulent
cards have been contrived;, as, 1. Marked cards, where
the aces, kings, queens, knaves, are marked on the cor¬
ners of the backs with fpots of different number and
order, either with clear water or water tinged with pale
Indian ink, that thofe in the fecret may diftinguifli
them. Aces are marked with fingle fpots on two cor¬
ners oppofite diagonally ; kings with two fpots at the
fame corners; knaves with the fame number tranfver-
fed. 2. Breef cards, thofe which are longer or broader
than the reft t chiefly ufed at whift and piquet. The
broad cards are ufually for kings, queens, knaves, and
aces; the long for the reft. Their defign is to diredl the
cutting, to enable him in the fecret to cut the cards dif-
advantageoufly to his adverfary, and draw the perfon
unacquainted with the fraud to cut them favourably
for the {harper. As the pack is placed either endwife
or fidewife to him that is to cut, the long or broad
cards naturally lead him to cut to them. Breef cards
are fometimes made thus by the manufa&urer; but, in
in defeat of thefe, {harpers pare all but the breefs with
a penknife or razor. 3. Corner denotes four cards
turned down finely at one corner, to ferve as a fignal
to cut by. 4. Middle bend, or Kingfton-bridge, is
where the tricks are bent two different ways, which
caufes an opening or arch in the middle, to diredl like-
wife the cutting.
Cards were invented about the year 1390, to divert
Charles VI. of France, who had fallen into a melan¬
choly difpofition. The inventor propofed, by the fi¬
gures of the four fuits or colours, as the French call
them, to reprefent the four claffes of men in the king¬
dom. By the cacurs (hearts) are meant gens decho-
eur, choir-men, or ecclefiaftics ; and therefore the Spa¬
niards, who certainly received the ufe of cards from the
French, have copas, or chalices, inftead of hearts. The
nobility, or prime military part of the kingdom, are
reprefented by the ends or points of lances or pikes ;
and our ignorance of the meaning or refemblance of the
figure induced us to call them fpades : The Spaniards
have efpadas, fwords, in lieu of pikes, which are of
fimilar import. By diamonds are defigned the order of
citizens, merchants, or tradefmen, carreaux, (fquare
ftones, tiles, or the like) : The Spaniards have a coin,
dincros, which anfwers to it; and the Dutch call the
French word carreaux 11 firemen,’' ftones and diamonds,
from the form. Trefie, the trefoil-leaf, or clover-
grafs
CAR [if
Card grafs (corruptly called cluls), alludes to the hufband-
II men and peasants. But how this fuit came to be called
ar an‘ clubs, is not eafily explained ; unlefs, borrowing the
game from the Spaniards, who have bajlos (ftaves or
clubs) inftead of the trefoil, we give the Spanifli lig-
nification to the French figure.
The hiftory of the four kings, which the French, in
drollery, fometimes call the cards, are David, Alex¬
ander, Csefar, and Charles ; which names were then,
and ftill are, on the French .cards. Thefe refpeftable
names reprefent the four celebrated monarchies of the
Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks under Charle¬
magne. By the queens are intended Argine, Efther,
Judith, and Pallas, (names retained in the French
cards), typical of birth, piety, fortitude, and wifdom,
the qualifications refiding in each perfop. Argine is an
anagram for regina, queen by defcent. By the knaves
were deiigned the fervants to knights, (for knave ori¬
ginally meant only feryant); but French pages and
valets^ now indifcriminately ufed by various orders of
perfons, were formerly only allowed to perfons of qua¬
lity, efquires (efcuires) fhield or armour bearers. Ci¬
thers fancy that the knights themfelves were defigned
by thofe cards; becaufe Hogiere and Lahire, two
names on the French cards, were famous knights at
the time cards were fuppofedto have been invented.
Deceptions nvith Cards. See Legerdemain, feft. i.
CARDAMINE, ladies-smock ; a genus of the
filiquofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants. Of this there are xy fpecies; but the moft re¬
markable is the pratenfis, with a large purplifh flower.
This grows naturally in many parts of Britain, and is
alfo called cuckow-flonuer. There are four varieties, viz.
the Angle, with purple and white flowers, which are
frequently intermixed in the meadows; and the double,
of both colours. The Angle forts are not admitted in¬
to gardens ; but the double deferve a place, as making
a pretty appearance during the time they are in flower.
They will thrive in a moift ftiady border; and are pro¬
pagated by parting their roots, which is belt perform¬
ed in autumn. They delight in a foft loamy foil, not
too fluff. By fome the plant is reckoned antifcorbutic.
CARDAMOM, in the Materia Medica. See Amo-
mum ; .and Materia Medica, n°2IO, 211.
CARDAN (Jerom), one of the moft extraordinary
geniufes of his age, was born at Pavia on the 24th of
September 1501. As his mother was not married, fhe
tried every method to procure an abortion, but without
effeft. She was three days in labour, and they were
at laft obliged to cut the child from her. He was born
with his head covered with black curled hair. When
he was four years old, he was carried to Milan ; his fa¬
ther being an advocate in that city. At the age of
20, he went to ftudy in the univerfity of that city; and
two years afterwards, he explained Euclid. In 1524,
he went to Padua; and the fame year he was admitted
to the degree of mafter of arts : in the end of the fol¬
lowing year, he took the degree of doftor of phyfic.
He married about the year 1531. For ten years be¬
fore, his impotency had hindered him from having know¬
ledge of a woman ; which was a great mortification to
him. He attributed it to the evil influences of the
planet under which he was born. When he enume¬
rates, as he frequently does, the greateft misfortunes
cf his life, this ten years impotency is always one. At
>55 ] CAR
the age of 33, he became profeflbr of mathematics at Cardan.
Milan. In 1539, he was admitted member of the
college of phyficians at Milan ; in 1543, he read
public lectures of medicine in that city, and at Pavia
the year following; but difcontinued them becaufe he
could not get payment of his falary, and returned to
Milan. In 1552, he went into Scotland, having been fent
for by the archbifliop of St Andrews, who had in vain
applied to the French king’s phyficians, and afterwards
to thofe of the emperor of Germany. This prelate,
then 40 years old, had for ten years been affli&ed with
a Ihortnefs of breath, which returned every eight days
for the two laft years. He began to recover from the
moment that Cardan prefcribed for him. Cardan took
his leave of him at the end of fix weeks and three days,
leaving him prefcriptions which in two years wrought
a complete cure.
. Cardan’s journey to Scotland gave him an opportu¬
nity of vifiting feveral countries. He crofled France
in going thither ; and returned through Germany, and
the Low Countries, along the banks of the Rhine. It
was on this occafion he went to London and calculated
king Edward’s nativity. This tour took up about four
months : after which, coming back to Milan, he con¬
tinued there till, the beginning of Odtober 1552 ; and
then went to Pavia, from whence he was invited to
Bologna in 1562. He taught in this laft city till the
year 1570; at which time he was thrown into prifon ;
but fome months after, he was fent home to his own
houfe. He Jeft Bologna in 1571 ; and went to
to Rome, where he lived for fome time without any
public employment. He was, however, admitted a
member of the college of phyficians, and received a
penfion from the Pope. He died at Rome on the 2iSE
of September 1575, according to Thuanus. This ac¬
count might be fufficient to fhow the reader that Car¬
dan was of a very fickle temper ; but he will have a
much better idea of his fingular and odd turn of mind
by examining what he himfelf has written concerning
his own good and bad qualities. He paid himfdf con¬
gratulatory compliments for not having a friend in this
world; butthat, in requital, he wasattended by anaerial
fpirit, emaned partly from Saturn and partly from Mer¬
cury, who was the conftant guide of his a&ions, and
teacher of every duty to which he was bound. He
declared too, that he was fo irregular in his manner of
walking the ftreets, as induced all beholders to point -
at him as a fool. Sometimes he walked very flowly,
like a man abforbed in profound meditation ; then all
on a fudden quickened his fteps, accompanying them
with very abfurd attitudes. In Bologna his delight
was to be drawn about in a mean vehicle with three
wheels. When nature did not vifit him with any pain,
he would procure to himfelf that difagreeable fenfation
by biting his lips fo wantonly, or pulling his fingers
to fuch a vehement degree, as fometimes to force the
tears from his. eyes: and the reafon he affigned for fo
doing, was to moderate certain impetuous failles of
the mind, the violence of which was to him by far
more infupportable than pain itfelf; and that the fure
confequence of fuch a fevere difcipline was the en¬
joying the pleafure of health. He fays elfewhere, that,
in his greateft tortures of foul, he ufed to whip his legs
with rods, and bite his left arm ; that it was a great
relief to him to weep, but that very often he could not;
CAR [ 16
Cardan, that nothing gave him more pleafure than to talk of
  things which made the whole company uneafy ; that
he fpoke on all fubje&s, in feafon and out of feafon ;
and he was fo fond of games of chance, as to fpend
whole days in them, to the great prejudice of his family
and reputation, for he even flaked his furniture and
his wife’s jewels.
Cardanus makes no fcruple of owning that he was
revengeful, envious, treacherous, a dealer in the black
art, a backbiter, a calumniator, and addi&ed to all
the foul and deteftable excefles that can be imagined :
yet, notwithftanding (as one would think) fo humbling
a declaration, there was never perhaps a vainer mor¬
tal, or one that with lefs ceremony exprefied the high
opinion he had of himfelf, than Cardanus was known
to do, as will appear by the following proofs. “ I have
been admired by many nations ; an infinite number of
panegyrics, both in profe and verfe, have been com-
pofed to celebrate my fame. I was born to releafe the
world from the manifold errors under which it groaned.
What I have found out could not be difcovered either
by my predeceflbrs or my cotemporaries ; and that is
the reafon why thofe authors who write any thing
worthy of being remembered, fcruple not to own that
they are indebted to me for it. I have compofed a
book on the dialeftic art, in which there is neither one
fuperfluous letter nor one deficient. I finiflied it in
feven days, which feems a prodigy. Yet where is there
a perfon to be found, that can boaft of his having be¬
come mafter of its do&rine in a year? And he that
fhall have comprehended it in that time, muft appear to
have been inftru&ed by a familiar daemon.”
The fame capricioufnefs obfervable in his outward
conduft is to be obferved in the compofition of his
works. We have a multitude of his treatifes in which
the reader is flopped almoft every moment by the ob-
fcurity of his text, or his digrelflons from the point in
hand. In his arithmetical performances there are feve-
ral difcourfes on the motions of the planets, on the
creation, and on the tower of Babel. In his diale&ic
work, we find his judgment on hiftorians and the writers
of epiftles. The only apology which he makes for the
frequency of his digreffions is, that they were purpofe-
ly done for the fooner filling up of his Iheet, his bar
gain with the bookfeller being at fo much per flteet;
and that he worked as much for his daily fupport, as
for the acquifition of glory. The Lyons edition of
his works, printed in 1663, confifts often volumes in
folio.
It was Cardanus who revived in latter times all the
fecret philofophy of the Cabbala or Cabbalifts, which
filled the world with fpirits; a likenefs to whom, he af-
ferted, we might attain by purifying ourfelves with phi¬
lofophy. He chofe for himfelf, however, notwith¬
ftanding fuch reveries, this fine device, 7cm pus meet pof-
Jefw, tempus meus ager: “ Time is my foie poffelEon,
and the only fund I have to improve.”
In fa£t, when we confiderthe tranfeendent qualities of
Cardan’s mind, we cannotdeny his having cultivated it
with every fpecies of knowledge, and his having made
a greater progrefs in philofophy, in the medical art,
in aftronomy, in mathematics, &c. than the greateft
part of his cotemporaries who had applied their minds
but to one of thofe fciences.
Scaliger affirms, that Cardan, having fixed the time
j6 ] CAR
of his death, abftained from food, that his predi&ion Cardiac j
might be fulfilled, and that his continuance to live It.
might not diferedit his art. Cardan’s father, who was Ca^|fgan*
a do&or of medicine, and a profeflbr of civil and ca-  L_
non law, died in the fame manner, in the year 1524,
having abftained from all fuftenance for nine days. His
fon tells us, that'he had white eyes, and could fee in
the night-time.
CARDIAC, in a general fenfe, fignifies all medi¬
cines beneficial to the heart, whether internally or ex¬
ternally applied. The word comes from the Greek
word *■*£*“*, cor; the heart being reputed the immediate
feat of their operation.
Cardiacs, in a more particular fenfe, denote medi¬
cines which raife the fpirits, and give prefent ftrength
and checrfulnefs ; thefe amount to the fame with what
are popularly called cordials. Cardiacs are medicines
anciently fuppofed to exert themfelves immediately in
comforting and ftrengthening the heart: but the mo¬
dern phyficians rather fuppofe them to produce the ef-
feft by putting the blood into a gentle fermentation,
whereby the fprings, before decayed, are repaired and
invigorated, and the tone and elafticity of the fibres of
the veffels rettored; the confequence of which is a more
eafy and brilk circulation.
CARDIALGIA, in medicine, a violent fenfation
of heat or acrimony felt towards the upper or left ori¬
fice of the ftomach, though feemingly at the heart;
fometimes accompanied with palpitations of the heart,
fainting, and a propen fity to vomit: better known by
the name of cardiac paJfiony or heart-burn. See (Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
CARDIFF, a town of Glamorganfliire, in South
Wales, feated on the river Tave, in a rich and fruitful
foil. It is a large, compaA, well-built town, having a
caftle, a wall, and four gates, built by Robert Fitz-
Hamon, a Norman, about the year 1100. It is go¬
verned by the conftable of the caftle, 12 aldermen, 12
burgefles, &c. and fends one member to parliament.
Here the affixes and feffions are held, befides feveral
courts. There is a handfome bridge over the river, to
which fmall veffels come to take in their lading. It has
now only one church, St Mary’s having been longfince
thrown down by the undermining of the river. The
caftle, though much decayed, makes a grand appear¬
ance even at this time ; and the. walls of the town
are very ftrong and thick. The church has a fine
tower-fteeple, and the town-hall is a good ftruAure.
The magiftrates are ele&ed every year by the majority
of the burgeffes. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 51. 30.
CARDIGAN, the capital town of Cardiganfhire,
in South Wales, is feated near the mouth of the river
Teivy, on the Irifh channel. It is indifferently large
and well-built, containing three wards, one church, and
the county-goal. It is governed by a mayor, 13 aider-
men, 13 common-council-men, &c. Here are the
ruins of a caftle which was built by Gilbert de Clare,
about the year 1160. It fends one member to parlia¬
ment; and has two markets, held on Tuefdays and Sa¬
turdays. W. Long. 4. 38. N. Lat. 52. 15.
CARDIGANSHIRE, a county of South Wales,
bounded on the north by Merionethfliire and Mont-
gomeryftiire, on the eaft by Radnorlhire and Breck-
nockfhire, on the weft by the Irifti Sea, and on the
fouth by Caermarthenlhire. Its length from north-weft
to
CAR [ 1657 J CAR
Cardinal, to fouth-eaft is about and its breadth near 20.
   The air, as in other parts of Wales, varies with the
foil, which in the fouthern and weftern parts is more
upon a level than this principality generally is, which
renders the air mild- and temperate. But as the northern
andeaftern parts are mountainous, they are confequent-
ly more barren and bleak. However, there are cattle
bred in all parts ; but they have neither wood nor coals
of their own for fuel: they have rich lead mines, and
fifh in plenty, with fowls both tame and wild. The
principal rivers are the Teivy, the Ridol, and the Ift-
with. This county hath five market-towns, viz. Car¬
digan, Aberiftwith, Llanbadarnvawn, Llanbedar, and
Tregaron, with 77 parifhes ; and was formerly com¬
puted to have upward of 3000 houfes, and 520,000
acres of land. It fends two members to parliament; one
for the county, and one for Cardigan.
CARDINAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation gi-
-ven to things on account of their pre-eminence ; thus
we fay cardinal virtues, &c.
Cardinal Signs, in the zodiac, are Aries, Libra,
Cancer, and Capricorn.
Cardinal Points, in cofmography, are th eeaft,
weft, north, and fouth.
Cardinal, an ecclefiaftical prince in the Romifh
church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at
the election of a pope. The cardinals were originally
no more than deacons, to .whom was intrufted the care
of diftributing the alms to the poor in the feveral quar¬
ters of Rome : and as they held aflemblies of the poor
in certain churches of their feveral diftrifts, they took
the title of thefe churches. They began to be called
cardinals in the year 300, during the pontificate of St
Sylvefter, by which appellation was meant the chief
priefts of a parifh, and next in dignity to a bifhop.
This office grew more confiderable afterwards, and by
fmall degrees arrived at its prefent height, in which it
is the reward of fuch as have ferved his holinefs well,
even princes thinking it no diminution of their honour
to become members of the college of cardinals.
The cardinals compofe the pope’s council, and till
the time of Urban VIII. had the title of the snofi illu-
flrious; hut by a decree of that pope, in 1630, they
had the title of eminence conferred on them.
At the creation of a new cardinal, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of opening and fhutting his
mouth, which is done in a private confiftory. The
Ihutting his mouth implies the depriving him of the
liberty of giving his opinion in congregations ; and
the opening his mouth, which is performed 15 days
after, fignifies the taking off this reftraint. How¬
ever, if the pope happens to die during the time a
cardinal’s mouth is fhut, he can neither give his voice
in the ele&ion of a new pope, nor be himfelf advanced
to that dignity.
The cardinals are divided into fix orders or clafles,
confiding of fix bifhops, 50 pfiefts, and 14 deacons,
making in all 70 ; which conftitute the facred college.
The number of cardinal-bifhops has very feldom been
changed, but that of priefts and deacons has varied at
different times.
The privileges of cardinals are very great. They have
an abfolute power in the church during the vacancy of
the holy fee : they have a right to eleift the new pope,
and are the only perfons on whom the ele&ion can fall:
Vol. III.
moft of the grand offices in the court of Rome are fill- Cardinal
ed by cardinals. The drefs of a cardinal is a red fou- (
tanne, a rocket, a fhort purple mantle, and the red rcer'
hat. When they are fent to the courts of Princes, it is
in quality of legates a latere; and when they are ap¬
pointed governors of towns, their government is called
by the name of legation.
Cardinal is alfo a title given to fome bifhops, as
thofe of Mentz and Milan, to the archbifhop of
Bourges; and the abbot of Vendome calls himfelf car-
dinalis natus.
Cardinal’s Flower. See Rapuntium.
CARDlOlD, in the higher geometry, an algebrai¬
cal curve, fo called from its refemblance to an heart.
CARDIOSPERMUM, heart-pea; a genus of
the trigynia order, belonging to the odtandria clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies, both natives of the £afl:
and Weft Indies; but have no great beauty, or any o-
ther remarkable property.
CARDIUM, or Cockle, in zoology, a genus of
infefts belonging to the order of vermes teftaceae. The
fhell confifts of two equal valves, and the tides are e-
qual. There are 21 fpecies of this genus. Common
on all fandy coafts, lodged a little beneath the fand;
their place marked by a depreffed fpot. They are
wholefome and delicious food.
CARDONA, a handfome town of Spain, in Cata¬
lonia, with a itrong caftle, and the title of a duchy.
Near it is an inexhauftible mountain of fait of feveral
colours, as red, white, carnation, and green : but
when wafhed, it becomes white. There are alfo vine¬
yards which produce excellent wine, and very lofty
pine-trees. It is feated on an eminence, near the river
Cardenero. E. Long. x. 26. N. Lat. 41. 42.
CARDUUS, the thistle ; a genus of the poly-
gamia requalis order, belonging to the fyngenefiaclafs
of plants. Of this genus there are 26 fpecies, ten of
which are natives of Britain, and being troublefomc
weeds require no defcription. Some few of the exotic
kinds are propagated in gardens for the fake of variety;
but even thefe have neither beauty nor any other pro¬
perty to recommend them.
Carduus Benediftus. See Cnicus.
CAREENING, in the fea-language, the bringing
a (hip to lie down on one fide, in order to trim and
caulk the other fide. See Plate LXXXIV. fig. 2.
A Ihip is faid to be brought to the careen, when, the
moft of her lading being taken out, ffie is hulled down
on one fide, by a fmall veffel, as low as neceffary ; and
there kept by the weight of the ballaft, ordnance,
&c. as well as by ropes, left her mafts fiiould be ftrain-
ed too much ; in order that her fides and bottom may
be trimmed, feams caulked, or any thing that is faul¬
ty under water mended. Hence when a ftiip lies on
one fide when Ihe fails, fhe is faid to fail on the careen.
CAREER, in the menage, a place inclofed with a
barrier, wherein they run the ring.
The word is alfo ufed for the race or courfe of the
horfe itfelf, provided it do not exceed 200 paces.
In the ancient circus, the career was the fpace the
bigae, or quadrigae, were to run at full fpeed, to gain
the prize. See Circus.
Career, in falconry, is a flight or tour of the bird,
about 120 yards. If Ihe mount more, it is called a
double career; if lefs, a femi-career.
10 A CA-
Carelia
II
Caribbee.
CAR [ 1658 ] CAR
CARELIA, the eaftern province ef Finland ; di¬
vided into Swedifh Carelia, and Mufcovite Carelia.
The capital of the latter is Povenza, and of the for¬
mer Weiburg.
CARELSCROON, a fea-port town of Sweden, in
Blekingia, or JBleking, on the Baltic Sea, with a very
good harbour, defended by two forts. It was built
ui 1679 ; and is very populous, with arfenals for the
marine : the houfe of the dire&or-general of the admi¬
ralty is in this town, and here the Swedes lay up their
royal navy. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 56. 15.
CARENTAN, a town of France in Lower Nor¬
mandy, and in the Contentin, with an ancient caftle.
W. Long. 1. 14. N. Lat. 49. 20.
CARET, among grammarians, a charafter marked
thus a, fignifying that fomething is added on the mar¬
gin, or interlined, which ought to come in where the
caret ftands.
CAREW (George), born in Devonfhire in 1557, an
eminent commander in Ireland, was made prefident of
Munfter fey queen Elizabeth ; when, joining his forces
with the earl of Thomond, he reduced the Irilh infur-
gents, and brought the earl of Defmond to his trial. King
James made him governor of Guernfey, and created
him a baron. As he was a valiant commander, he was
no lefs a polite fcholar ; and wrote Pacata Hibernia, a
hiftory of the late wars in Ireland, printed after his
death, in 1633. He made feveral colle&ions for a hi¬
ftory of Henry V. which are digefted into'Speed’s Hi¬
ftory of Great Britain. Befides thefe, he »colledfed
materials of Irifh hiftory in four large MSS> volumes,
now in the Bodleian library, Oxford.
Carew (Thomas), defcended from the family of
Carewin Gloucefterfhire, was gentleman of the privy
chamber to Charles I. who always efteemed him one
of the moft celebrated wits of his court. He was much
refpefted by the poets of his time, particularly by Ben
Johnfon, and Sir William Davenant; and left behind
him feveral poems, and a mafque called Cxltim Britan-
nicum, performed at Whitehall on Shrove Tuefday
night, 1633, by the king, and feveral of his nobles
with their fons. Carew was aflifted in the contrivance
by Inigo Jones, and the mufic was fet by Mr Henry
Lawes of the king’s chapel. He died in the prime of
life, about the year 1639.
CARGADORS, a name which the Dutch give to
thofe brokers whole bufinefs is to find freight for Ihips
outward bound, and to give notice to the merchants,
who have commodities to fend by fea, of the Ihips that
are ready to fail, and of the places for which they are
bound.
CARGAPOL, or Kargapol, the capitol of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name, in the province of Dwina, in
Mufcovy: E. Long. 36°. N. Lat. 63°.
CARGO denotes all the merchandifes and effefts
which are laden on board a (hip.
Super-Ch^oo, a perfon employed by merchants to
go a voyage, overfee the cargo, and difpofe of it to
the beft advantage.
CARIATI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and province of Hither Calabria, with a bi-
Ihop’s fee, and.the title of a principality. It is two miles
from the gulph of Taranto, and 37 north-eaft of Cofen-
za. E. Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 30. 38.
CARIBBEE islands, a clufter of iflands fituated
in the Atlantic ocean betweed 59 and 63 degrees of Caribbre.
weft longitude, and between 11 and 18 degrees of north *
latitude. They lie in the form of a bow or femicircle,
ftretching almoft from the coaft of Florida north,
to near the river Oroonoque. Thofe that lie neareft
the eaft have been called the Windward Ijlands, the
others the Leeward, on account of the winds blow¬
ing generally from the eaftern point in thofe quarters.
Abbe Raynal conje&ures them to be the tops of very
high mountains formerly belonging to the continent,
which have been changed into iftands by fome revolu¬
tion that has laid the flat country under water. The
dire£tion of the Caribbee iflands, beginning from To¬
bago, is nearly north and N. N. W. This dire&ion
is continued, forming a line fomewhat curved towards
the north-weft, and ending at Antigua. In this place
the line becomes at once curved; and, extending itfelf
in a ftraight diredljon to the weft and north-weft, meets
in its courfe with Porto-Rico, St Domingo, and Cu¬
ba, known by the name of the Leeward Ijlands, which
are feparated from each other by channels of various
breadths. Some of thefe are fix, others 15 or 20 leagues
broad; but in all of them the foundings are from 100
to 120 or 150fathom. Between Granada and St Vin¬
cents there is alfo a final) archipelago of 30 leagues, in
which the foundings are not afcove ten fathom. The
mountains in the Caribbee iflands run in the fame direc¬
tion as the iflands themfelves. The diredtion is fo re¬
gular, that if we were to confider the tops of thefe moun¬
tains only, independent of their bafes, they might be
looked upon as a chain of hills belonging to the conti¬
nent, of which Martinico would be the moft north-
wefterly promontory. The fprings of water which flow
from the mountains in the Windward Iflands, run all
in the weftern parts of thefe iflands. The whole eaftern
coaft is without any running water. No fprings come
down there from the mountains: and indeed they would
have there been ufelefs ; for after having run over a very
fhort traft of land, and with great rapidity, they would
have fallen into the fea. In Porto Rico, St Domingo,
and Cuba, there are a few rivers that difcharge them¬
felves on the northern fide, and whofe fources rife in the
mountains running from eaft to weft, that is, thro’ the
whole length of thefe iflands. From the other fide of
the mountains facing the foiith, where the fea, flowing
with great impetuofity, leaves behind it marks of its
inundations, feveral rivers flow down, the mouths of
which are capable of receiving the largeft fliips. The
foil of the Caribbees confifts moftly of a layer of clay
or gravel of different thicknefs ; under which is a bed
of ftone or rock. The nature of fome of thofe foils is
better adapted to vegetables than others. In thofe
places where the clay is drier and more friable, and
mixes with the leaves and remains of plants, "a layer of
earth is formed of greater depth than where the clay is
moifter. The fand or gravel has different properties ac¬
cording to its peculiar nature; wherever it is lefs hard,
lefs compadl, and lefs porous, final! piecesfeparate them¬
felves from it, which, though dry, preferve a certain
degree of coolnefs ufeful to vegetation. This foil is
called in America, a puniice-flone foil. Wherever the
clay and gravel do not go through fuch modifications,
the foil becomes barren, as foon as the layer formed by
the decompofition of the original plants is deftroyed.
When the Europeans landed on the Caribbee iflands,
they
Ciribbee.
CAR [ 1659 ] CAR
they found them covered with large trees, conne&ed as
it were to one another by a fpecies of creeping plant,
which, rifing up in the fame manner as the ivy, wove
itfelf around all the branches, and concealed them from
fight. There was fo great plenty of this plant, and it
grew fo thick, that it was impoffible to penetrate into
the woods before it was cut down. In thefe forefts
there were varieties of trees that were exceeding lofty,
very ftraight, and without any excrefcences or defeats.
The annual fall and breaking down of the leaves of
ihofe trees, and the decay of their trunks thro’ length
of time, formed a moift fediment upon the ground, and
occafioned a moft furprifing degree of vegetation when
the trees were rooted up. In whatever foil thefe trees
grew, their roots were feldom two feet deep, and very
often lefs, though they extended themfelves on the fur-
face in proportion to the weight they had to fupport.
The trees that grew on the tops of mountains, or in
fteep places, were very hard. Their bark was fmooth,
and firmly fixed to the wood. Several of them hardly
yielded to the (harpeft hiftrument, and it was neceffary
to burn them in order to root them up. The valleys
abounded with foft wood; and at the foot of thefe, an
infinite variety of plants, fome of which were ufed by
the natives for food.—We need not here recount the
particulars already mentioned under the article Ameri¬
ca, concerning the indolent and favage life of the in¬
habitants of thefe iflands; nor give a detail of their re-
duftion by the Spaniards and other European powers,
which falls to be mentioned under the name of each
particular ifiand: but (hall here only obferve, that by a
treaty concluded in January 1660, between the French
and Englifh, the Caribs were confined to the iflands of
St Vincents and Dominica, where all the fcattered body
of this people were united, and at that time did not ex¬
ceed in number 6000 men.
As the Caribbee iflands are all between the tropics,
their inhabitants are expofed, allowing for the varieties
refulting from difference, of fituation and foil, to a per¬
petual heat, which generally increafes from the rifing
of the fun till an hour after noon, and then declines in
proportion as the fun declines. The variations of the
temperature of the air feem to depend rather on the
wind than on the changes of the feafons. In thofe pla¬
ces where the wind does not blow, the air is excef-
fively hot, and none but the eafterly winds contribute
to temper and refrelh it: thofe that blow from the
fouth and weft, afford little relief; but they are much
lefs frequent and lefs regular than that which blows
from the eaft. The branches of the trees expofed to
the influence of the latter are forced round towards the
weft : but their roots are ftronger, and more extended
under the ground, towards the eaft than towards the
weft; and hence they are eafily thrown down by ftrong
weft winds or hurricanes from that quarter. The eaft¬
erly wind is fcarce felt in the Caribbee iflands before
9 or 10 o'clock in the morning, increafes in proportion
as the fun rifes above the horizon, and decreafes as it
declines. Towards the evening it ceafes entirely to
blow on the coafts, but not on the open tea. It has alfo
been obferved, that it blows with more force, and more
regularity, in the dog-days than at any other time of
the year.
The rain alfo contributes to the temperature of the
Caribbee iflands^ though not equally in them all. In
thofe places where the eafterly wind meets with no-
thing to oppofe its progrefs, it difpels the clouds as    
they begin to rife, and caufes them to break either in
the woods or upon the mountains. But whenever the
ftorms are too violent, or the blowing of the eafterly
wind is interrupted by the changeable and temporary
efleft of the foutherly and wefterly ones, it then begins
to rain. In the other Caribbee iflands where this wind
does not generally blow, the rains are fo frequent and
plentiful, efpecially in the winter feafon, which hits
from the middle of July to the middle of Oftober, that,
according^ to the moft accurate obfervations, as much
rain falls in one week as in our climates in a year. In-
ftead of thofe mild refrefhing ftiowers which fall in the
European climates, the rains of the Caribbee iflands are
torrents, the found of which might be miftaken for hail,
were not that almoft totally unknown under fo burn¬
ing a iky. Thefe ihowers indeed rtfrefti the air; but
they occafion a dampnefs, the effefts of which are not
lefs difagreeable than fatal. The dead muft be interred
within a few hours after they have expired. Meat will
not keep fweet above 24 hours. The fruits decay, whe¬
ther they are gathered ripe or before their maturity.
The bread muft be made up into bifeuits, to prevent its
growing mouldy. Common wines turn four, and iron
turns nifty, in a day’s time. The feeds can only be pre-
ferved by conftant attention and care, till the proper
feafon returns for fowing them. When the Caribbee
iflands were firft difeovered, the corn that was conveyed
there for the fupport of the Europeans, was fo foon da¬
maged, that it became neceffary to fend it out in the
ears. This neceffary precaution fo much enhanced the
price of it, that few were able to purchafe it. Flour was
then fubftituted in lieu of corn; which lowered indeed
the expences of tranfport, but had this inconvenience,
that it was fooner damaged. It was imagined by a mer¬
chant, that if the flour were entirely feparated from the
bran, it would have the double advantage of being
cheaper, and keeping longer. He caufed it therefore
to be fifted, and put the fineft flour into ftrong calks,
and beat it clofe together with iron hammers, till it
became fo clofe a body that the air could fcarcely pe¬
netrate it. This method was found to anfwer the pur-
pofe; and if, by it, the flour cannot be preferved as
long as in our dry and temperate climates, it may be
kept for fix months, a year, or longer, according to the
degree of care taken in the preparation.
However troublefome thefe effe&s of the rain may
be, it is attended with fome others ftill more formi¬
dable ; namely, frequent and dreadful earthquakes.
Thefe happening generally during the time or towards
the end of the rainy feafon, and when the tides are high-
eft, fome ingenious naturalifts have fuppofed that there
might be a connexion between them. The waters of
the Iky and of the fea undermine, dig up, and ravage
the earth in feveral different ways. Among the various
Ihocks to which the Caribbee iflands are expofed from
the fury of the boifterous ocean, there is one diftin-
guilhed by the name of raz de maree, or 'whirlpool. It
conftantly happens, once, twice, or thrice, from July to
O&ober, and always on the weftern coafts, becaufe it
takes place after the time of the wefterly or foutherly
winds, or while they blow. The waves, which at a di-
ftance feem to advance gently within 400 or 500 yards,
fuddenly fwell againft the Ihore, as if afted upon in an
10 A 2 oblique
CAR r 1660 1 CAR
Caribbiana, oblique dlreftion by fome fuperior force, and break with
Carica. the greateft impetuofity. The fhips which are then upon
the coaft, or in the roads beyond it, unable either to
keep their anchors, or to put out to fea, are dalhed to
pieces againft the land, and all on board mod com¬
monly perifh. The hurricane is another terrible phe¬
nomenon in thefe iflands, by which incredible damage
is occafioned; but happily it occurs not often.
The produce of the Caribbee iflands is exceedingly
valuable to the Europeans, confiding of fugar, rum,
moloffes, indigo, &c. a particular account of which is
given under the names of the refpedxive iflands as they
occur in the order of the alphabet.
CARIBBfANA, or Caribiana, the north ead
coad of Terra Firma, in South America, otherwife
called Nenv Andalusia.
CARICA, the papaw ; a genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants.
Species. 1. The papaya rifes with a thick, foft,
herbaceous flem, to the height of 18 or 20 feet, na¬
ked till within two or three feet of the top. The leaves
come out on every fide, upon very long foot-dalks.
Thofe which are fituated undermod are almofl hori¬
zontal, but thofe on the top are ere&: thefe leaves in
full grown plants are very large, and divided into many
lobes deeply fmuated. The dem of the plant, and alfo
the footdalks of the leaves, are hollow; and the whole
abounds with a milky acrid juice. The flowers of the
male plant are produced from between the leaves, on
the upper part of the plant. They have footdalks near
two feet long; at the end of which the flowers fland in
loofe cinders, each having a feparate fliort foot-dalk :
thefe are of a pure white, and have an agreeable odour.
The flowers of the female papaya alfo come out from
between the leaves towards the upper part of the plant,
upon very ftiort footdalks, fitting clofe to the dem :
they are large, and bell-fhaped, compofed of fix petals,
and are commonly yellow; when thefe fall away, the
germen fwells to a large flefliy fruit, of the fize of a
imall melon. Thefe fruits are of different forms: fome
angular, and compreffed at both ends; others oval, or
globular; and fome pyramidal: the fruit alfo abounds
with the fame acrid and milky juice as the plants.
2. The profopofa, differs from the other in having a
branching dalk, the lobes of the leaves entire, the flower
of a rofe colour, and the fruit ffiaped like a pear.
Culture^ &c. Thefe plants being natives of hot coun¬
tries, cannot be preferved in Britain unlefs conflantly
kept in a warm dove, which fliould be of a proper
height to contain them. They are eafily propagated
by feeds, which are annually brought in plenty from
the Wed Indies, though the feeds of the European
plants ripen well. The feeds fhould be fown in a hot¬
bed early in the fpring: when the plants are near two
inches high, they fliould be removed into feparate fmall
pots, and each plunged into a hot-bed of tanners bark,
carefully fliading them from the fun till they have taken
root; after which, they are to be treated in the fame
manner as other tender exotics. When they are remo¬
ved into other pots, care mud be taken as much as pof-
fible to preferve the ball of eaith about them, becaufe
wherever their roots are laid bare they feldom furvive.
When they are grown to a large fize, they make a noble
appearance with their drong upright dems, garnifhed
on every fide near the top with large fliining leaves,
fpreading out near three feet all round the flem: the Carieatura
flowers of the male fort coming out in cinders on every ^ II
fide, and the fruit of the female growing round the annt la‘
dalks between the leaves, are fo different from any thing
of European production, as well to entitle thefe plants
to a place in the gardens of the curious. The fruit of
the fird fpecies is by the inhabitants of the Caribbec.
iflands eaten with pepper and fugar as melons, but is
much inferior to a melon in its native country; but thofe
which have ripened in Britain were dctedable, the only
ufe to which Mr Miller fays he has known them put,
was, when they were about half grown, to foak them in
fait water to get out the acrid juice, and then pickle
them for onangos, to which they are a good fubditute.
CARICATURA, in painting, denotes the conceal¬
ment of real beauties, and the exaggeration of blemifhes,
but dill fo as to preferve a refemblance of the objeft.
CARICOUS, an epithet given to fuch tumours as
refemble the figure of a fig. They are frequently foCffid
in the piles.
CARIES, the corruption or mortification of a
bone. See (the/Wex fubjoined to) Medicine.
CARIGNAN, a fortified town of Piedmont, fitua¬
ted on the river Po, about feven miles fouth of Turin.
E. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat. 44. 30. It was taken in T544,
by the French ; who demoliflied the fortifications, but
fpared the cadle. It was alfo taken, and retaken, in
1691.
CARING LA, an epifcopal towm of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and Terra di Lavoro. E. Long.
15. 5. N. Lat. 41. 15.
CARINTHIA, a duchy of Germany, in the circle
of Auflria, bounded by the archbiflioprie of Saltzburg
on the north, and by Carniola and the Venetian terri¬
tories on the fouth, on the wed by Tyrol, and on the
eafl by Stiria. A part of this country was anciently
called Carnia, and the inhabitants Carni; but the for¬
mer afterwards obtained the name of Carinthia, and the
latter Carantani or Carinthi. The air of this country
is cold, and the foil in general mountainous and bar¬
ren ; but there are fome fruitful dales and valleys in it,
which produces wheat and other grain. The lakes,
brooks, and rivers, wdiieh are very numerous, abound
with filh; and the mountains yield lead and iron, and
in many places are covered with woods. The river
Drave, which runs acrofsthe country, is the mod confi-
derable in Carinthia. The inhabitants are partly de-
feendants of the ancient Germans, and partly of the
Sclavonians or Wends. The dates are conflituted as
in Audria, and their affemblies are held at Clagenfurt.
The archbiffiop of Saltzburg and the bifhop of Bam¬
berg have confiderable territories in this country. Chri-
dianity was planted here in the 7th century. The only
proftffion tolerated at prefent is the Roman catholic.
The bidiops are thofe of Gurk and Lavant, who are
fubjedl to the archbilhop of Saltzburgh. This duchy
was formerly a part of Bavaria. In the year 1282, the
emperor Rodolph I. gave it to Maynard count of Tyr-
rol, on condition, that, when his male iffue failed, it
Ihould revert to the houfe of Audria; which happened
in 1331. Carinthia has its particular governor, or/aW-
captaitiy as he is called; and contributes annually, to¬
wards the expence of the military eflablilhment, 637,695
florins. Only one regiment of foot is ufually quartered
in it.
CARIPI,
CAR [ 1661 ] CAR
Car!pi CARIPI, a kind of cavalry in the Turki/h army, tween the Petterel on the eaft, and the Caude on the
The caripi, to the number of about 1000, are not flaves, weft. It is furrounded by a ftrong ftone wall, and has a
ir e'_ nor bred up in the feraglio, like the reft; but are gene- pretty large caftle in the weftern part of it, as alfo a
rally Moors, or renegado Chriftians, who having follow- a citadel in the eaftern part, built by Henry VIII, It
ed adventures, being poor, and having their fortune to flouriftied in the time of the Romans, as appears from
feek by their dexterity and courage, have arrived at the the antiquities that are to be met with here, and the
rank of horfe-guards to the Grand Signior. Roman coins that have been dug up. At the departure
CARISBROOK-castle, a caftle lituated in the of,the Romans this city was ruined by the Scots and
middle of the ifle of Wight, where king Charles I. was Pifts; and was not rebuilt till the year 680, by Eg-
imprifoned. W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 50. 40. frid, who encompaffed it with a wall, and repaired the
CARISTO, an epifcopal city of Greece, in the eaft- church. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the whole country
ern part of the ifland of Negropont, near cape Loro, was again ruined, and the city laid defolate by the in-
E. Long. 24. 15. N. Lat. 38. 6. curfions of the Norwegians and Danes. In this condi-
CARKE, denotes the 30rh part of a sarplar of tion it remained till the time of William Rufus; who
wool. repaired the v ails and the caftle, and caufedthe houfes
CARLETON (Sir Dudley), was born in Oxford- to be rebuilt. It was fortilied by Henry I. as a bar-
fhire, 1573, and bred in Chrift-church college. He rier againft Scotland; he alfo placed a garrifon in it,
went as fecretary to Sir Ralph Winwood into the Low and made it an epifcopal fee. It was twice taken by the
Countries, when king James refigned the cautionary Scots, and afterwards burnt accidentally in the reign of
towns to the States; and was afterwards employed for Richard II. The cathedral, the fuburbs, and 1500
20 years as ambaffador to Venice, Savoy, and the U- houfes, were deftfoyed at that time. It is at prefent
nited Provinces. King Charles created him vifcount in a good condition; and has three gates, the Englifh
Dorchefter, and appointed him one of his principal fe- on the fouth, the Scotch on the north, and the Iriflron
cretaries of ftate; in which office he died in 1631. He the weft. It has two parifhes, and as many churches,
was efteemed a good ftatefman, though an honeft man; St Cuthbert and St Mary’s, the laft of which is the ca-
and publiftied feveral political works. thedral, and is feparated from the town by a wall of
CARLINA, the carline thistle; a genus of the its own. The eaftern part, which is the neweft, is a cu-
polygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyngenefia rious piece of workmanlhip. The choir with the aifles
clafs of plants. There are feven fpecies, only one of is 71 feet broad; and has a ftately eaft window 48 feet
which is a native of Britain, viz. the vulgaris. The high and 30 broad, adorned with curious pillars. The
others arc natives of the fouth of France or Italy; and roof is elegantly vaulted with wood; and is embellilhtd
are very eafily propagated in this country by feeds, with the arms of England and France quartered; as
which muft be fown on a bed of frelh undunged earth, alfo with Piercy’s, Lucy’s, Warren’s, Mowbray’s, and
where they are to remain, as they do not bear tranf- many others. In the choir are the monuments of three
planting. When the plants appear above ground, they bilhops who are buried there. The weft end was in part
ihould be carefully weeded, and afterwards thinned, demolilhed in 1641, in the time of the civil wars. The
leaving them about ten inches or a foot afunder. The Pi&s wall, which was built acrofs the country from
fecond year moft of them will flower: but, unlefs the Newcaftle, terminates near this place. Carlifle was ta-
feafon proves dry, they rarely produce good feeds in this ken by the rebels, Nov. 15, 1745; and was retaken by
country, and fome of the plants decay foon after they the duke of Cumberland, on the 10th of December fol-
have flowered, fo that it is pretty difficult to maintain lowing. It is governed by a mayor, twelve aldermen,
them here. The roots are ufed in medicine, and for two bailiffs, &c. and has a confiderable market on Sa-
that purpofe are imported from thofe countries where turdays. The manufa&ures of Carlifle are chiefly of
the plants grow naturally. As we receive them they printed linens, forwhich near 3000/. per annum is paid
are about an inch thick, externally of a rufty brown co- in duties. It is alto noted for a great manufadlure of
lour, corroded as it were on the furface, and perforated whips, in which a great number of children are em-
vvith numerous fmall holes, appearing on the furface as ployed.—Salmons appear in the Eden in numbers, fo
if worm-eaten. They have a ftrong fmell, and a fub- early as the months of December and January ; and the
acrid, bitterifli, weakly aromatic tafte. They are look- London and even Newcaftle markets are fupplied with
ed upon to be warm alexipharmics and diaphoretics, early fifh from this river: but it is remarkable, that they
Frederic Hoffman the Elder, relates that he has obfer- do not vifit the Elk in any quantity till April ; not-
ved a deco&ion of them in broth to occalion vomiting, withftanding the mouths of the two rivers are at a fmall
They have been for fome time greatly efteemed among diftance from each other.
foreign phyficians; but never were much in ufe in this CARLOCK, in commerce, a fort of ifinglafs, made
country. The prefent pra&ice has entirely reje&ed with the fturgeon’s bladder, imported from Archangel,
them, nor are they often to be met with in the /hops. The chief ufe of it is for clarifying wine, but it is alfo
Carline, or Caroline, a filver coin current in the ufed by the dyers. The beit carlock comes from Aftra-
Neapolitan dominions, and worth about 4^. of our mo- can, where a great quantity of fturgeon is caught,
ney. CARLOSTAD, or Carlstad, a town of Sweden
CARLINGFORD, a port-town of Ireland, feated in Wermeland, feated on the lake Warmer, in E. Long,
on Carlingford bay, in the county of Louht, and pro- 14. 4. N. Lat. 59. 16.
vince of Leinfter, 22 miles north of Drogheda. W. Carlostad, or Carljladt, a town of Hungary, ca-
Long. 6. 24. N. Lat. 24. 5. pital of Croatia, and the ufual refidence of the gover-
CARLISLE, the capital city of the county of Cum- nors of the province. It is feated on the river Kulph,
berland, feated on the fouth of the river Eden, and be- in E. Long. 16. 5. N. Lat. 45. 34.
Carlifle
Carloftad.
CAR-
CAR [ 1662 ] CAR
Cjrlowiu CARLO WITZ, a {mall town of Hungary, in Scla-
II vonia, remarkable for a peace concluded here between
Carurtlitej. ^ 'purjcs ancj Chriftians in 1669. It is feated on the
weft fide of the Danube, in E. Long. 19. 5. N. Lat.
45- 25-
CARLSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and biftiopric of Wurtzburg, feated on
the river Maine, in E. Long. 9. 51. N. Lat. 50. o.
CARMAGNIOLA, a fortified town of Italy, in
Piedmont, with a good caftle. It was taken by the
French in 1691, and retaken by prince Eugene the
fame year. It is feated in a country abounding in corn,
flax, and filk, near the river Po, in E. Long. 7. 32.
N. Lat. 44. 43' .
CARMEL, a high mountain of Pah dine, Handing
on the fkirts of the fea, and forming the moft remarkable
head-land on all that coaft. It extends eaftward from
the fea as far as the plain of Jezreel, and from the city
of that name quite to Casfarea on the fouth. It feems
to have had the name of Carmel from its great fertili¬
ty ; this word, according to the Hebrew import, fig-
nifying the vine of God, and is ufed in fcripture to de¬
note any fruitful fpot, or any place planted with fruit-
trees. This mountain, we are affured, was very fertile.
Mr Sandys acquaints us, that, when well cultivated, it
abounds with olives, vines, and variety of fruits and
herbs both medicinal and aromatic. Others, however,
reprefent it as rather dry and barren; which perhaps
may have happened from the negleft of agriculture fo
comrfion in all parts of the Turkifti empire, efpecially
where they are expofed to the incurfions of the Arabs.
Carmel is the name of the mountain, and of a city
built on it; as well as of a heathen deity worfhipped in
it, but without either temple or ftatue: tho’ anciently
there mull have been a temple, as we are told that this
mountain was a favourite retreat of Pythagoras, who
fpent a good deal of time in the temple, without any
- perfon with him. But what hath rendered mount Car¬
mel moft celebrated and revered both by Jews and Chri¬
ftians, is its having been the refidence of the prophet
Elijah, who is fuppofed to have lived there in a cave,
(which is there Ihown), before he was taken up into
heaven.
CARMELITES, an order of religious, making
©ne of the four tribes of mendicants or begging friars ;
and taking its name from mount Carmel, formerly in¬
habited by Elias, Elifha, and the children of the pro¬
phets ; from whom this order pretends to defcend in
an uninterrupted fucceffion. The manner in which they
make out their antiquity has fomething in it too ridi¬
culous to be Vehearfed. Some among them pretend
they are defcenants of Jefus Chrift; others go further,
and make Pythagoras a Carmelite, and the ancient
druids regular branches of their order. Phocas, a Greek
monk, fpeaks the moft reafonably. He fays, that in his
time, 1185, Elias’s cave was {till extant on the moun¬
tain ; near which were the remains of a building which
intimated that there had been anciently a monaftery :
that, fome years before, an old monk, a prieft of Ca¬
labria, by revelation, as he pretended, from the pro¬
phet Elias, fixed there, and affembled ten brothers.--In
1209, Albert, patriarch of Jerufalem, gave the foli-
taries a rigid rule, which Papebroch has fince printed.
In 1217, or, according to others, 1226, pope Hono-
rius III. approved and conformed it. This rule con¬
tained 16 articles; one of which confined them to their Carmelite!,
cells, and enjoined them to continue day and night in Carmen.
prayer; another prohibited the brethren having any —
property ; another enjoined falling from the feaft of
the holy crofs ,till Eafter, except on Sundays; abfti-
nence at all times from flefti was enjoined by another
article ; one obliged them to manual labour; another
impofed a ftri£t iilence on them from vefpers till the
tierce the next day.
The peace concluded by the emperor Frederic II.
with the Saracens, in the year 1229, fo difadvantage-
ous to Chriftendom, and fo beneficial to the infidels,
occafioned the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land, un¬
der Alan the fifth general of the order. He firft fent
fome of the religious to Cyprus, who landed there in
the year 1238, and founded a monaftery in the foreft
ofFortania. Some Sicilians, at the fame time, leaving
mount Carmel, returned to their own country, where
they founded a monaftery in theTuburbs of Mefiina.
Some Englifti departed out of Syria, in the year 1240,
to found others in England. Others of Provence, in the
year 1244, founded a monaftery in the defart of Ai-
gualates, a league from Marfeilles : and thus, the num¬
ber of their monafteries increafing, they held their Eu¬
ropean general chapter in the year 1245, at their mo¬
naftery of Aylesford in England.—This order is fo
much increafed, that it has, at prefent, 38 provinces; '
befides the congregation.of Mantua, in which are 54
monafteries, under a vicar-general; and the congrega¬
tions of Barefooted Carmelites in Italy and Spain, which
have their peculiar generals.
After the eftablilhment of the Carmelites in Europe,
their rule was in fom'e refpedls altered ; the firft time,
by pope Innocent IV. who added to the firft article a
precept of chaftity, and relaxed the 11th which en¬
joins abftinence at all times from fiefti, permitting them,
when they travelled, to eat boiled flefti: this pope like-
wife gave them leave to eat in a common refeftory,
and to keep affes or mules for their ufe. Their rule
was again mitigated by the popes Euge^ius IV. and
Pius II. Hence the order is divided into two branches,
viz. the Carmelites of the ancient ohfervance, called the
moderate-ov mitigated; and tbofe of the Jlrift ohfervance,
who are the barefooted Carmelites; a reform fet on foot
in 1540, by S. Therefa, a nun of the convent of Avila,
in Caftile : thefe laft are divided into two congrega- j ’
tions, that of Spain, and that of Italy.
The habit of the Carmelites was at firft white, and
the cloak laced at the bottom with feveral lifts. But
pope Honorius IV. commanded them to change it for
that of the Minims. Their fcapulary is a fmall woollen
habit of a brown colour, thrown over their ftioulders.
They wear no linen fliirts; but inftead of them linfey*
wolfey, which they change twice a-week in the fum*
mer, and once a-week in the winter.
If a monk of this order lies with a woman, he is pro- ;!
hibited faying mafs for three or four years, is declared i
infamous, and obliged to difcipline himfelf publicly
once a-week. If he is again guilty of the fame fault,
his penance is doubled ; and if a third time, he is ex- l
pelled the order. N
CARMEft, an ancient term among the Latins, ufed
in a general fenfe to fignify a verfe ; but more particu- ;
larly to fignify a fpell, charm, form of expiation or exe- \
cration, couched in a few words placed in a myftic or¬
der, «I
CAR [ 1663 ] CAR
lafmentalia der, on which its efficacy depended. Pezron derives
II the word carmen from the Celtic carm, the fhout of
armuna. or verfes whjch the ancient bards fung to en¬
courage the foldiers before the combat.— Carmen was
anciently a denomination given alfo to precepts, laws,
prayers, imprecations, and all folemn formulae couched
in a few words placed in a certain order, though writ¬
ten in profe. In which fenfe it was that the elder Cato
wrote a Carmen de moribus, which was not in verfe but
in profe.
CARMENTALIA, a feaft among the ancient Ro¬
mans, celebrated annually upon the 1 Ith of January, in
honour of Carmenta, or Carmentis, a prophetefs of
Arcadia, mother of Evander, with whom fhe came in¬
to Italy 60 years before the Trojan war. The folem-
nity was alfo repeated on the ly11' of January, which
is marked in the old calendar-by Carmentalia relata.
This feaft was eftabliftied on occafion of a great fecun¬
dity among the Roman dames, after a general reconci¬
liation with their huibands, with whom they had been
at variance, in regard of the life of coaches being prohi¬
bited them by an edift of the fenate. This feaft was ce¬
lebrated by the women: he who offered the facrifices
was called facerdos carmentalis.
CARMINATIVES, medicines ufed in colics, or
other flatulent, diforders, to difpel the wind.
The word comes from the Latin carminare, to card
or teaze wool, and figuratively to attenuate and difcufs
wind or vapours, and promote their difcharge by perfpi-
ration. Tho’Dr Quincy makes it more myfterious: He
fays it comes from the word carmen, taking it in the
fenfe of an invocation or charm ; and makes it to have
been a general name for all medicines which operated like
charms, /. e. in an extraordinary manner. Hence, as
the moft violent pains were frequently thofe arifingfrom
pent-upwind, which immediately ceafe upon difperfion;
the term carminative became in a peculiar fenfe applied
to medicines which gave relief in windy cafes, as if they
K cured by inchantment: but this interpretation feems a
little too far drained.
The action of carminatives may be fomewhat un-
derftood by confidering that all the parts of the body
are perfpirable. Sanftorius determines all that we call
•windto be fuch pejfpirable matter as makes its efcape
through the coats of the ftomach and inteftines; be¬
tween the feveral parts of the mufcles alfo may be fuch
perfpirable matter : ‘ now whatever rarefies, and renders
colleftions of thefe vapours thinner, conduces to their
difcharge; and as all thofe things of this denomination
in medicine are warm, attenuant, and confift of light
fubtile parts, it is eafy to underftand how a mixture of
them with the flatus may agitate and rarefy it, efpe-
cially as they alfo create fuch agreeable fenfations on
the fibres, which help, by invigorating their tone, alfo
to expel it.
CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red co¬
lour, bordering upon purple; and ufed by painters-in-
miniature, though rarely on account of its great price.
The manner of preparing it is kept a fecret by the co¬
lour-makers ; neither do any of thofe receipts which
have for a long time been puhlifhed concerning the pre¬
paration of this and other colours at all anfwer the
purpofe. See Colowbl-Making.
CARMONA, a town of Italy in Frioli, and in the
county of Goritz, feated on a mountain near the river
Indri. It belongs to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long.
5. 37. N. Lat. 46. 15.
Carmona, an ancient town of Spain in Andalufia.
The gate towards Seville is one of the moft extraor¬
dinary pieces of antiquity in all Spain. It is feated in
a fertile country, 15 miles eaft of Seville. W. Long. 5.
37. N. Lat. 37. 24.
CARNATION, in botany. See Dianthus.
Carnation-Cc/sj,:?-, among painters, is underftood
of all the parts of a picture, in general, which reprefent
flelh, or which are naked and without drapery. Titian
and Corregio in Italy, and Rubens and Vandyke in
Flanders, excelled in carnations.— In colouring for flefh,
there is fo great a variety, that it is hard to lay down
any general rules for inftrudlion therein ; neither are
there any regarded by thofe who have acquired a fldll
this way : the various colouring for carnations may be
eafily produced, by taking more orl’efs red, blue, yel¬
low, or biftre, whether for the firft colouring, or for
the finilhing : the colour for women fhould be bluilh,
for children a little red, both frefh and gay ; and for
the men it fhould incline to yellow, efpecially if they
are old.
CARNEADES, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
was a native of Cyrene in Africa, and founder of the
third academy. He was fo fond of ftudy, that he not
only avoided all entertainments, but forgot even to eat
at his own table; his maid-fervant Meliffa was obliged
to put the viftuals into his hand.^ He was an antago-
nift of the Stoics ; and applied himfelf with great ea-
gernefs to refute the works of Chryfippus, one of the
moft celebrated philofophtrs of their fedl. The power
of his eloquence was dreaded even by a Roman fenate.
The Athenians being condemned by the Romans to pay
a fine of 500 talents for plundering the city of Oropus,
fent ambaflhdors to Rome, who got the fine mitigated
to 100 talents. Carneades the academic, Diogenes
the Stoic, and Critolaus the Peripatetic, were charged
with this embaffy. Before they had an audience of the
fenate, they harangued to great multitudes in different
parts of the city. Carneades’s eloquence was diftin-
guilhed from that of the others by its ftrength and ra¬
pidity. Cato the elder made a motion in the fenate,
that thefe ambaffadors fnould be immediately fent back,
becaufe it was very difficult to difcern the truth thro’
the arguments of Carneades. The Athenian ambaf-
fadcJrs (faid many of the fenators) were fent rather to
force us to comply with their demands, than to folicit
them, by perfuafion ; meaning, that it was impoffible
to refill the power of that eloquence with which Car¬
neades addreffed himfelf to them. According to Plu¬
tarch, the youth at Rome were fo charmed by the fine
orations of this philofopher, that they forfook their ex-
ercifes and other diverfions, and were carried with a kind'
of madnefs to philofophy; the humour of philofophifing
fpreading like enthufiafm. This grieved Cato, who was
particularly afraid of the fubtilty of wit and ftrength of
argument with which Carneades maintained either fide
of a queftion. Carneades harangued, in •favour of juf-
tice one day, and the next day againft it, to the admi¬
ration of all who heard him, among whom were Galba
and Cato, the greateft orators of Rome. This was
his element; he delighted in demolilhing his own work ^
becaufe he ferved in the end to confirm his grand prin¬
ciple, that there are only probabilities or re.femblances
Carmona
Carneades. ‘
CAR [ 1664 ] CAR
«arnelian of truth in the mind of man ; fo that of tvyo things
II. direftly oppofite, either may be chofen indifferently.
Carniola. Qujntilian remarks, that though Carneades argued in
favour of injuftice, yet he himfelf a&ed according to
the drift rules of juftice. The following was a maxim
of Carneades : “ If a man privately knew that his ene¬
my, or any other perfon whofe death might be of ad¬
vantage to him, would come to fit down on grafs in
which there lurked an afp, he ought to give him no¬
tice of it, though it were in the power of no perfon
whatever to blame him for being blent.” Carneades,
according to fome, lived to be 85 years old; others make
him to be 90: his death is placed in the 4th year of
the i62d Olympiad.
CARNELIAN, in natural hiltory, a precious (lone,
of which there are three kinds, diftinguilhed by three
colours, a red, a yellow, and a white. The red is very
well known among us ; is found in roundifh .or oval
maffes, much like our common pebbles ; and is gene¬
rally met with between an inch and two or three inches
in diameter: it is of a fine, compaft, and clofe tex¬
ture ; of a gloffy furface; and, in the feveral fpecimens,
is of all the degrees of red, from the paleit flefh-co-
lour to the deepeft blood-red. . It is generally.free
from fpots, clouds, or variegations : but fometimes
it is veined very beautifully with an extremely pale
red, or with white; the veins forming concentric cir¬
cles, or other lefs regular figures, about a nucleus, in
the manner of thofe of agates. The pieces of carne-
lian which are all of one colour, andperfeftly free from
veins, are thofe which our jewellers generally make
ufe of for feals, though the variegated ones are much
more beautiful. The carnelian is tolerably hard, and
capable of a very good polifh : it is not at all affefted
by acid menftruums: the fire divefts it of a part of
its colour, and leaves it of a pale red ; and a itrong
and long continued heat will reduce it to a pale dirty
gray.
The fineft carnelians are thofe of the Eaft Indies •
but there are very beautiful ones found in the rivers of
Silefia and Bohemia ; and we have fome not dcfpicable
ones in England.
Though the ancients have recommended the carne¬
lian as aftringent, and attributed a number of fanciful-
virtues to it, we know of no other ufe of the ftone than
the cutting feals on it ; to which purpofe it is excel¬
lently adapted, as being not too hard for cutting, and
yet hard enough not to be liable to accidents, to take
a good polifh, and to feparate eafily from the wax.
CARNERO, in geography, a name given to that
part of the gulph of Venice, which extends from the
weftern coat! of Ulria to the ifland of Groffa and the
eoaft of Morlachia.
Carnero is likewife the name of the cape to the
weft of the mouth of the bay of Gibraltar.
CARNIOLA, a duchy of Germany bounded on
the fouth by the Adriatic fea, and that part of Iftria
poffefied by the republic of Venice ; on the north, by
Carinthia and Stiria ; on the eaft, by Sclavonia and
Croatia; on the weft, by Friuli, the county of Gorz or
Goritz, and a part of the gulph of Venice; extending
in length about 110 miles, and in breadth about 50. It
had its ancient name Carnia, as well as the modern one
Carniola, from its ancient inhabitants the Carni, a
tribe of Scythians, otherwife called Japides, whence
this and the adjacent countries were alfo called Japidia. Carn'oUj
Carniola is full of mountains, fome of which are cul- ^ n-[.or(a
tivated and inhabited, fome covered with wood, others Ca n >or
naked and barren, and others continually buried in
fnow. The valleys are very fruitful. Here are like¬
wife mines of iron, lead, and copper ; but fait muft be
bad from the fovereign’s magazines. There are fe¬
veral rivers, betides many medicinal fprings and in¬
land lakes. The common people are very hardy,
going barefooted in winter through the fnow, with
open breafts, and deeping on a hard bench without
bed or bolfter. Their food is alfo very coarfe and
mean. In winter, when the fnow lies deep on the
ground, the mountaineers bind either fmall batkets, or
long thin narrow boards, like the Laplanders, to their
feet, on which, with the help of a llout ftaff or pole,
they defeend with great velocity from the mountains. '
When the fnow is frozen, they make ufe of a fort of
irons or fkaits. In different parts of the country, the
inhabitants, efpecially the common fort, differ greatly . i
in their drefs, language, and manner of living. In Up¬
per and X.ower Carniola they wear long beards. The I
languages chiefly in ufe are the Sclavonian or Wendifh, j
and German ; the firft by the commonalty, and the
latter by people of fafhion. The duchy is divided in¬
to the Upper, Lower, Middle, and Inner, Carniola. j|
The principal commodities exported hence are iron,
fteel, lead, quickfilver, white and red wine, oil of olives, l!
cattle, fheep, cheefe, linen, and a kind of woollen
fluff called mabalan, Spanifh leather, honey, walnuts,
and timber; together with all manner of wood-work, a|
as boxes, difhes, &c.—Chriftianity was firft planted
here in the eighth century.— Lutheranifm made a con- J|
fiderable progrefs in it; but, excepting the Walachians j
or Ufkokes, who are of , the Greek church, and ftyle
themfelves Staraverzi, i. e. old believers, all the inha-
bitants at prefent are Roman Catholics. Carniola was
long a marquifate or margravate; but in the year 1231
was erefted into a duchy. As its proportion towards j|
the maintenance of the army, it jfeys annually 363,171
florins ; but only two regiments of foot are quartered
in it.
CARNIVAL, or Carnaval, a time of rejoicing, 1
a feafon of mirth, obferved with great folemnity by
the Italians, particularly at Venice, holding from the
twelfth-day till I^ent.
The word is formed from the Italian Carnavalle /
wdiich Mr Du Cange derives from Carn-a-val, by rea-
fon the flefh then goes to pot, to make amends for the
feafon of abftinence then enfuing. Accordingly, in the
corrupt Latin, he obferves, it was called Carnelevamen, ,
and Carnifprivium; as the Spainards ftill denominate
it carries tollendas.
Feafts, balls, operas, concerts of mufic, intrigues,
marriages, &c. are chiefly held in carnival-time. The
carnival begins at Venice the fecond holiday in Chrift- j
mafs: Then it is they begin to wear mafks, and open
their play-houfes and gaming-houfes ; the place of
St Mark is filled with mountebanks, jack-puddings, !
pedlars, whores, and fuch like mob, who flock thi-
ther from all parts. There have been no kfs than
feven fovereign princes and 30,000 foreigners here to
partake of thefe diverfions.
CARNIVOROUS, an epithet applied to thofe a-
nimals which naturally feek and feed on flefh.
It
CAR [ 1665 ] CAR
Carnivo¬
rous
H
Caro.
It has been a difpute among naturalifts, whether of his poems was printed at Venice in 1584. He Carolina. ,
man is naturally carnivorous. Thofe who take the died at Rome in 1566.
negative fide of the queftion, infift chiefly on the CAROLINA, a province of North America, com-
ftru&ure of our teeth, which are moltly incifores or prehending the mod wefterly part of Florida, and
molares; not fuch as carnivorous animals are fur- lying between 29 and 36'degrees of N. Lat. It is
niflied with, and which are proper to tear flelh in bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic, and on the weft
pieces : to which it may be added, that, even when by the Pacific ocean, on the nortli by Virginia, and
we do feed on flefli, it is not without a prepara- on the fouth by the remaining part of Florida,
tory alteration by boiling, roafting, ire. and even then. This country is feated between the extremities of
that it is the hardeft of digeftion of all foods. To heat and cold, though the heat is more troublefome in
thefe arguments Dr Wallis fubjoins another ; which fummer than the cold in winter ; their winters being
is, that all quadrupeds which feed on herbs or plants, very Ihort, and the frofty mornings frequently fuc-
have a long colon, with a coecum at the upper end ceeded by warm days. The air is generally ierene
of it, or fomewhat equivalent, which conveys the and clear the greateft part of the year ; but in Fe-
food by a long and large progrefs, from the ftomach bruary and March, the inhabitants have a cuftom of
downwards, in order to its flower paflage and long- burning the woods, which caules fuch a fmoke as to
er ftay in the inteftines ; but that, in carnivorous ftrangers would feem to proceed from a fog or thick-
animals, fuch caecum is wanting, and inftead thereof nefs in the air. The fmoke of the tar-kilns likewife
there is a more fhort and flender gut, and a quicker deceives ftrangers, and gives them an ill opinion
paflage through the inteftines. Now, in man, the of the air of Carolina ; to which alfo conduces a
coecum is very vifible : a ftrong prefumption that na- cuftom of the Indians of fetting fire to the woods in
ture, who is ftill confiftent with herfelf, did not in- their huntings, for many miles round. The great
tend him for a carnivorous animal.—It is true, the rains are in winter, though they are not without
caecum is but fmall in adults, and feems of little or no heavy Ihowers at midfummer ; add t© thefe the con-
ufe ; but in a foetus it is much larger in proportion : ftant dews that fall in the night, which refrelh the
And it is probable, our cuftom ary change of diet, as ground and fupply the plants with moifture. In
we grow up, may occafion this flirinking. But to North Carolina, the north-weft winds in the winter
thefe arguments, Dr Tyfon replies, that if man had occafion very pinching weather ; but they are not of
been by nature defigned not to be carnivorous, there long continuance. Wefterly winds bring very plea-
would doubtiefs have been found, fomewhere on the fant weather ; but the foutherly are hot and unwhole-
globe, people who do not feed on flelh ; which is not fome, occafioning fevers and other diforders. But
the cale. Neither are carnivorous animals always this muft be underftood of fummer, for in winter they
without a colon and coecum ; nor are all animals car- are very comfortable. The depth of winter is to-
nivorous which have thofe parts : the opoffum, for wards the latter end of February, and then the ice is
inftance, hath both a colon and ccecum, and yet feeds . not ftrong, enough to bear a man’s weight. In Auguft
on poultry and other flefh ; whereas the hedge-hog, and September, there are fometimes great ftorms and
which has neither colon nor coecum, and fo ought to fqualls of wind, which are fo violent as to make lanes
be carnivorous, feeds only on vegetables. Add to of 100 feet wide, more or lefs, through the woods,
this, that hogs, which have both, will feed upon flelh tearing up the trees by the roots. Thefe ftorms ge-
when they can get it; and rats and mice, which have nerally happen once in about feven years; and are at-
large caecums, will feed on bacon as well as bread and tended with dreadful thunder, lightning, and heavy
cheefe. Laftly, the human race are furnilhed with rains. They commonly happen about the time of the
teeth neceflary for the preparation of all kinds of hurricanes which rage fo fatally among the iflands be-
foods; from whence it would feem, that nature in- tween the tropics; and feem to be occafioned by them,
tended we Ihould live on all. And as the alimentary or to proceed from the fame caufe : but by the time
du6l in the human body is fitted for digefting all kinds they reach Carolina, their force is much abated ; and
of food, ought we not rather to conclude, that na- the farther north they proceed, fo much the more do
ture did not intend to deny us any ? they decreafe in fury. The foil on the coaft is fandy;
It is no lefs difputed, whether mankind were carni- but farther up, the country is fo fruitful, that they
vorous before the flood. St Jerom, Chryfoftom, The- have not yet been at the trouble to manure their land,
odoret, and other ancients, maintain, that all animal The grains moft cultivated are Indian corn and rice,'
food was then forbidden ; which opinion is alfo lire- though any fort will thrive well enough ; they have
nuoufly fupported among the moderns by Cureellsus, alfo pulfe of feveral forts, little known in England,
and refuted by Heidegger, Danzius, Bockhart, ire. All kinds of garden fluff ufual in England are cultiva-
CARO (Annibal), a celebrated Italian poet, was ted here, and may be had in great plenty. They
born at Civita Nuovo in 1507. He became fecretary export large quantities yearly of rice, pitch, tar, tur-
to the duke of Parma, and afterwards to Cardianl pentine, deer-ikins, and timber for building ; cyprefs,
Farnefe. He was allb made a knight of Malta. He cedar, faffafras, oak, walnut, and pine. Befides thefe
tranflated Virgil’s ^Eneid into his own language with they alfo fend out beef, pork, tallow, hides, furs,
fuch propriety and elegance of expreflion, that he wheat, peas, potatoes, honey, bees-wax, myrtle-wax,
was allowed by the beft judges, to have equalled the tobacco, fnake-root, cotton, feveral forts of gums and'
original. He alfo tranflated Ariftotle’s rhetoric; two medicinal drugs. Indigo is alfo cultivated in this pro¬
oratorios of Gregory Nazianzen, with a difeourfe of vince, but of an inferior quality to that which comes-
Cyprian. He wrote a comedy ; and a mifcellany from the Caribbee iflands. It hath been attempted
Vol. III. 10 B ja
CAR [ 1666 ] CAR
Carolina, in vain tb cultivate vines, and produce filk, in this
 * country ; for though the froits here do not continue
long without intervals of warmer weather, they are
fufficient to check the growth of the vine, as well as
olives, dates, oranges, ire. The furs are bought of
the Indians with vei milion, lead, gunpowder, coarfe
cloth, iron, and fpirituous liquors. As yet they have
not a fufficient number of handicraftfmen; which
renders labour very dear, and a fupply of cloaths from
Europe neceffary. The afpeft of the country is very
fine, being adorned with beautiful rivers and creeks,
and the woods with lofty timber, which afford delight¬
ful and pleafant feats for the planters, and render the
fencing their lands very eafy. And as they have
plenty of filh, wild-fowl, and venifon, belides other
neceffaries which this country produces naturally,
they live eafy and luxurioufly. The planters and
their families that are born here, are troubled with
few diftempers; and are generally tall, well-made,
and active. The women who are not expofed to the
weather are remarkably fair and handfome, with fine
eyes. They marry at thirteen or fourteen; and
where there is no clergyman, the ceremony is per¬
formed by a juftice of the peace. They are very fruit¬
ful, have eal’y labours, and the children at nine months
old are able to run about the houl'e. Both fexes, as
well young as old, are very dextrous in paddling and
managing the canoes, being bred to it from their infan¬
cy. The religion of the planters is that of the church
of England ; but, as there is liberty of confcience,
here are difienters of all forts—The moft iubftan-
tial people build their houfes with brick and lime made
with oyfter-lhells; for there is no ftone except near
the mountains. The meaner fort make theirs with
rough boards, and cover them with Ihingles. Their
diet, except Indian corn, differs little from ours ; and
they import leveral forts of flrong liquors. Befides
which they have cyder, perfimon, and cedar-beer, of
their own. They have likewife a beer made with
molafies, wheat-bran- and hops, which is very good.
There are mines of pit-coal in this country ; but they
have fuch plenty of wood for firing, that there is no
occafion to work them.
Their rivers are large, and navigable a great many
miles up the country. They rife near the mountains,
and abound with delicate fifh, befides water-fowl of
different kinds. In fome there are illands which yield
good paflure, without the annoyance of wild beafts.
The chief mountains.are the Cherokee or Allegany
mountains, which are fituated north and north-weft,
five or fix hundred miles diflant from the fea. They
are very high ; and abound with trees, plants, ftones,
and minerals, of different kinds. The inhabitants
chiefly make ufe of paper-money among themfelves.
The moft common difeafes are agues, cachexies,
fluxes, the yaws, colicks, convulfions, the hooping-
cough, tetters, the prickly beat, and the itch.
The Indians, like thofe in other parts, are well
made, of a red copper colour, with black hair, and
the whites of their eyes ftreaked with red. They
have no beard nor hair on any part of the body but
* See Ame- the head *. Thofe that are cloathed and brought up
rica, arnong the planters, have their fkins of a bright red-
dilh colour ; but thofe that go naked are more dufky,
from a ciiflom of daubing themfelves with bear’s Carolina*,
greafe. However, by painting themfelves with '
roucou, they appear more red than they naturally ,
would be. They ufe other colours on different occa-
fions. They generally go ftark naked, except a few
who have been taught to be a little more modeft.
They are great fmokers, and good markfmen , and
will walk on the ridge of a houie without fear or dan¬
ger of falling.
This country is divided into North and South Ca¬
rolina, and Georgia ; each of which is under a par¬
ticular governor. The North is lubdivided into four
counties, Granville, Colleton, Berkley, and Craven ;
and South Carolina into two. Clarendon and Albe¬
marle. This laft is alfo divided into fourteen parifhes
or townfhips, each of which has a brick or timber
church. The former likewife has the fame number
of parifhes. Charleftown is the capital of the whole
country.
Carolina was difeovered by Sebaftian Cabot, about
the year 1500, in the reign of Henry VII. but
the fettling of it being neglected by the Englifh, a co¬
lony of French Proteflants, by the encouragement of
Admiral Coligni, were tranfported thither; and named
the place of their firfl fettlement Slrx Carolina, in
honour of their prince, Charles IX. of France : but
in a fhort time that colony was deftroyed by the
Spaniards ; and no other attempt was made by any
European power to fettle there till the year 1664,
when 800 Englifh landed at Cape-Fear in North Ca¬
rolina, and took poffeflion of the country. In 1670
Charles II. of Britain granted Carolina to the Lords
Berkley, Clarendon, Albemarle, Craven and Afh-
ley, Sir George Carteret, Sir William Berkley, and
Sir John Colliton. The plan of government for
this new colony was drawn up by the famous Mr
Locke, who very wifely propofed an univerfal tole¬
ration in religious matters. The only reftridlion in
this refpect was, that every perfon claiming the pro¬
tection of that fettlement, fhoukf, at the age of 17,
regifter himfelf in fome particular communion. To
civil liberty, however, our philofopher was not fo
favourable ; the code of Carolina gave to the eight
proprietors- who founded the colony, and to their
heirs, not only all the rights of a monarch, but all
the powers of a legiflation. The court, which was
cpmpofed of this fovereign body, and called the Pa¬
latine Court, was inverted with the right of nomina¬
ting to all employments and dignities, and even of
conferring nobility ; but with new and unprecedented
titles. They were, for inftance, to create in each
county two caciques, each of whom was to be poffef-
fed of 24,000 acres of land; and a landgrave, who
was to have 80,000. The perfons on whom thefe
honoursfhould be beftowed were to compofe the upper
houfe, and their pofleffions were made unalienable.
They had only the right of farming or letting out a third
part of them at the moft for three lives. The lower
houfe was compofed of the deputies from the feveral
counties and towns. The number of this reprefenta-
tive body was to be increafed as the colony grew
more populous. ’ No tenant was to pay more than
about a fhilling per acre, and even this rent was re¬
deemable. All the inhabitants, however, both flaves
and
CAR f 1667 ] CAR
Carolln* and freemen, were under an obligation to take up
II arms upon the firfl order from the Palatine court.
Carp' It was not long before the defeats of this confti-
tution became apparent. The proprietary lords ufed
every endeavour to eftablilh an arbitrary govern¬
ment ; and, on the other hand, the caloniits exerted
themfelves with great zeal to avoid fervitude. In
confequence of this itruggle, the whole province, di-
ftraited with tumults and diflentions, became inca¬
pable of making any progrefs, though great things had
been expedted from its particular advantages of fitua-
tion. Tho’ a toleration in religious matters was a part
of the original conllitution, diflentions arofe likewrfe
on that account. In 170J, Carteret, now Lord Gran¬
ville, who, as the oldeft of the proprietors, was foie go¬
vernor of the colony, formed a defign of obliging all
the non-conformuts to embrace the ceremonies of the
Church of England; and this adt of violence, though
difavowed and rejedted by the mother-country, in¬
flamed the minds of the people. In 1720, while this
animofity was ftill fublifting, the province was attack¬
ed by feveral ban<Js of favages, driven to defpair by
a continued courfe of the moll atrocious violence and
injuitice. Thefe unfortunate wretches were all put
to the fword : but, in 1728, the lords proprietors ha-
.ving refufcd to contribute towards the expences of
an expedition, of which they were to lhare the im¬
mediate benefits, were deprived of their preroga¬
tive, except Lord Granville, who ftiii retained his
eighth part. The rfft received a recompence of
about 2 4,000 1. The colony was taken under the
immediate protedtion of the crown, and from that
time began to flourifii. The divifion into North and
South Carolina now took place, and the fettlement of
Georgia commenced in 1732. See Georgia.
CAROLINE-book s, the name of four books, com-
pofed by order of Charlemagne, to refute the lecond
council of Nice. Thefe books are couched in very
harlh and fevere terms, containing 120 heads of ac-
cufation againft the council of Nice, and condemning
the worfhip of images. "
CAROLUS, ait ancient Englifh broad piece of gold,
{truck under Charles I. Its value has of late been at
23 fltillings Sterling, though at the time it was coin¬
ed it is fiiid to have been rated at 20 Shillings.
Carolus, a fmall copper coin, with a little filver
mixed with it, ftruck under Charles VIII. of France.
The carolus was worth 12 deniers, when it ceafed to
be current. Thofe which are ftill current in trade in
Lorrain, or in fome neighbouring provinces, go under
the name of French fols.
CAROTIDS, in anatomy, two arteries of the neck,
which convey the blood from the aorta to the brain;
one called the right, and the other the left, Carotid.
CARP, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of a fpe-
ciesofcyprinus. SeeCyrRiNUS; alfo £«r/>-FiSHiNG.
The carp is the moft valuable of all kinds of fifh for
{locking of ponds. It is very quick in its growth,
and brings forth the fpawn three times a-year, ft)
that the increafe is very great. The female does not
begin to breed till eight or nine years old ; fo that in
breeding-ponds a fupply muft be kept of carp of that
age. The heft judges allow, that, in ftocking a
x breeding-pond, four males fhould be allowed to twelve
females. The ufual growth of a carp is two or three Carp
inches in length in a year ; but, in ponds, which re- H
ceive the fattening of common fewers, they have p
been known to grow from five inches to 18 in ore
year. A feeding-pond of one acre extent will very
well feed .300 carp of .three years old, 300 of two
years, and 400 of one year old. Carp delight great¬
ly in ponds that have marley fides ; they love alfo
clay-ponds well iheltered from the winds, and grown
with weeds and long grafs at the edges, which they
feed on in the hot months. Carp and tench thrive
very faft in ponds ^nd rivers near the fea, where the
water is a little brackilh ; but they are not fo well
tafted as thofe which live in frelh water. Grains,
bipod, chickens-guts, and the like, may at times be
thrown into carp-ponds, to help to fatten the fifti.
To make them grow large and fat, the growth of
grals under the water fhould by all means poffible be
encouraged. For this purpofe, as the water de-
creales in the fummer, the fides of the pond left na¬
ked and dry lliould be well raked with an iron rake,
to deftroy all the weeds, and cut up the furface of the
earth : hay-feed fliould then be fown plentifully in
thefe places; and more ground prepared in the lame
manner, as the water falls more and more away.
By this means there will be a fine and plentiful
growth of young grafs along the fides of the pond to
the water’s edge; and when the rains fill up the pond
again, this will be all buried under the water, and
will make a feeding-place for the fiih, where they
will come early in the morning, and will fatten
greatly upon what they find there.
CARP^EA, a kind of dance anciently in ufe among
the Athenians and Magnefians, performed by two
perfons, the one adling a labourer, the other a rob¬
ber. The labourer, laying by his arms, goes to
ploughing and lowing, ftill looking warily about him
as if afraid of being furprifed : the robber at length
appears, and the labourer, quitting his plough, be¬
takes himfelf to his arms, and fights in defence of
his oxen. The whole was performed to the found
of flutes, ^.nd in cadence. Sometimes the robber was
overcome, and-fometimes the labourer ; the vidlor’s
reward being the oxen and plough. The defign of
the exercjfe was to teach and accuftom the peafants
to defend themfelves againft the attacks of ruffians. .
CARPENTER, a perlbn who prablifes Carpen¬
try.
Carpenter of a Ship, an officer appointed to ex¬
amine and keep in order the frame of a fhip, toge¬
ther with her marts, yards, boats, and all other
■wooden machinery. It is his duty in particular to
keep the ihip tight; for which purpofe, he ought fre¬
quently to review the decks and fides, and to caulk
them when it is necellary. In the time of battle, he
is to examine up and down, with all poflible attention,
in the lower apartments of the Ihip, to ftop any holes
that may have been made by ffiot, with wooden
plugs provided of feveral fizes.
CARPENTRAS, an epil'copal town of Provence
in France, and.Capital of Venaiffin. It is fubjeift to
the Pope ; and is feated on the river Aufon, at the
foot of a mountain. E. Long. 5. 6. N. Lat. 44. 4.
CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, framing, and
10 B 2 joining.
CAR r 1668 1 CAR
Carpentum joining large pieces of wood, for the ufes of building.
N . It is one of the arts lubfervient to architefture, and is
_. arp1’, _ divided into houfe-carpentry and fliip-carpentry : the
firft is employed in railing roofing, flooring of houfes,
* See Ship- fc. and the fecond in the building of fhips*, barges,
building. frc, Tiie rules }n carpentry are much the fame with
thofe of Joinery ; the only difference is> that car¬
pentry is uled in the larger and coarfer work, and
joinery in the fmailer and curious.
CARPENTUM, in antiquity, a name common to
divers forts of vehicles, anfwering to coaches as well
as waggons, or even carts, among us. The carpen-
tum was originally a kind of car or vehicle in which
the Roman ladies were carried ; though in after
times it was alfo uled in war. Some derive the
word from carro; others from Garment a the mother
of Evander, by a converfion of the rn into p.
CARPET, a fort of4 covering of fluff, or other ma¬
terials, wrought with the needle or on a loom, which
is part of the furniture of a.houfe, and commonly
Ipread over tables, or laid upon the floor.
Perfian and Turky carpets are thofe moft efteem-
ed ; though at Paris there is a manufactory after the
manner of Perfia, where they make them little in¬
ferior, not to fay finer than the true Perfian carpets.
They are velvety, and perfectly imitate the carpets
which come from the Levant.—There are alfo car¬
pets of Germany, fome of which are made of wool¬
len fluff's, as ferges, ire. and called fquare carpets :
others are made of wool alfo, but wrought with the
needle, and pretty often embellillied with filk ; and,
laftly, there are fome made of dogs hair. We have
likewife carpets made in Britain, which are ufed ei¬
ther as floor-carpets, or to cover chairs, ire. It is
true, we are not arrived at the like perfedion in this
manufaClure with our neighbours the French; but
may not this be owing to the want of a like public
encouragement ?
CARPI, a principality of Modena in Italy, lying
about four leagues from that city. It formerly be¬
longed to the houfe of Pio ; the elder fons of which
bore the title of Princes of St Gregory. In the be¬
ginning of the 14th century Maif cy was the firft
prince of Carpi ; but in the 16th, the Emperor
Charles V. gave the principality to Alfonzo Duke of
Ferrara. This nobleman, in recompence, gave to
Albert Pio, to whom the principality of Carpi be¬
longed of right, the town of Safluolo and fome other
lands. Albert was, however, at laft obliged to re¬
tire to Paris; where, being (tripped of all his eftates,
he died in 15?&, with the reputation of being one of
the beft and braveft men of his age. The family of
Pio is yet in being, and continues attached to the
French Court. Some of them have even been raifed
to the purple, and flill make a figure in Europe.
Carpi, a town of Italy in the duchy of Modena,
and capital of the laft mentioned principality. It has
a ftrong caftle, and is fituated in E. Long. 11. 12.
N. Lat. 44. 45.
Carpi, a town of the Veronefe in Italy, memo¬
rable for a victory gained by the Imperialifts over
the Frence in 1701. It is fubjedi to the Venetians ;
and is fituated on the river Adige, in E. Long. n. 29.
N. Lat. 45. IO*
CARPINUS, the horn-beam ; a genus of the Po- Carpinns : r>i
lyandra order, belonging to the Moncecia clafs of I 1
plants. There are four fpecies, of which only one is Carrla£e‘1
a native of Britain, and this is the only one that me¬
rits notice. It loves a poor ftiff foil on the lides of
hills, is eafily tranfplanted, and bears lopping. Cat¬
tle eat the leaves, but pafturage will not flenrifh un¬
der its {hade. The wood burns like a candle, is very
white, tough, harder than hawthorn, and capable of
fupporting a great weight. It is ufeful in turning,
and for making many implements in hufbandry. It
makes cogs for mill-wheels, even luperior to yew.
The inner bark is much ufed ip Scandinavia to dye
yellow. In Britain, the trees will grow to a large
fize, but are rarely fuffered to do fo ; and of late
years this tree has been confidered only as a fhrub,
and never cultivated but for underwood in the coun¬
try, and in the nurferies to form hedges after the
French manner.
CARPOBALSAM, in the Materia Medica, the fruit
of the tree which yields the true oriental balfam. The
Carpobalfam is uled in Egypt, according to Profper
Alpinus, in all the intentions in which the balfam it-
felf is applied : but the only ufe the Europeans make
of it, is in Venice-treacle and Mithridate ; and in thefe
not a great deal, for cubebs and juniper-berries are
generally fubftituted in its place. S
CARPOCR ATIANS, a branch of the ancient Gno-
ftics, fo called fi‘6m Garpocrates, who in the fecond
century revived and improved upon‘the errors of Si¬
mon Magus, Menander, Saturn inns, and other Gnoftics..
He owned, with them, one foie principle and father
of all things, whofe name as well as nature was un¬
known. The world, he taught, was created by an¬
gels, vaftly inferior to the firft principle. He oppofed
the divinity of Jefus Chrift; making him a mere man,
begotten carnally on the body of Mary by Jofeph,
though poffefled of uncommon gifts which fet him a-
bove other creatures. He inculcated a community of
women ; and taught, that the foul could not be puri¬
fied, till it had committed all kinds of abominations,
making that a neceflary condition of perfection-
CARPUS, the wrift. See Anatomy, n® 53.
CARR, a kind of rolling throne, ufed in triumphs,,
and at the fplendid, entries of princes. See Chariot.
The word is from the ancient Gaulifli, or Celtic, Carr ;
mentioned by Caefar, in his commentaries, under the
name Carrus. Plutarch relates; that Camillus having
entered Ropae in triumph, mounted on a carr drawn
by four white horfes, it was looked on as too haughty
an innovation.
Carr, is alfo ufed for a kind of light open chariot.
The carr, on medals, drawn either by horfes, lions
or elephants, ufually fignifies either a triumph or an
apotheofis; fometimes a procefiion of the images of
the gods at a folemn fupplication, and fometimes of
thofe of fome illuftrious family at a funeral.—The carr
covered, and drawn by mules, only fignifies a confe-
cration, and the honour done any one of having his
image carried at the games of the Circus. See Con¬
secration, ire.
CARRIAGE, a vehicle ferving to convey per fons,
goods, merchandizes, and other things, from one place
to another..
For
; Carriage
i Carrier4.
• "JkoISs
Ltm-Difl.
XAR [ 1669 ] CAR
For the conftruftion and mechanical principles of
wheel-carriages. See Mechanics, n° 59.
Carriage of a Cannon, the frame or timber-work
oh which it is mounted, lerving to point it for Ihoot-
jng, or to carry it from one place to another. It is
made of two planks of wood, commonly of one-half
the length of the gun, called the cheeks, and joined by
three wooden tranfums, ftrengthened with three bolts
of iron. It is mounted on two wheels, but on a march
has two fore-wheels with limbers added. The prin¬
cipal parts of a carriage are the cheeks, tranfums, bolts,
plates, train, bands, bridge, bed, hooks, trunnion-holes
and capfquare.
B/ock-CAKRiAGE, a cart made on purpofe for car¬
rying mortars and their beds from place to place.
Truck-CARRiAGt, two fiiort planks of wood, fup-
ported on two axle-trees, having four trucks of I’olid
wood for carrying mortars or guns upon battery,
where their own carriages cannot go. They are
drawn by men. *
CARRAVEIRA, a town of Turkey in Europe, with
a Greek archbiihop’s fee. E. Long. 22. 25. N. Lat.
40. 27.
CARRICK, the fouthern divifion of the fhire of Ayr
in Scotland. It borders on Galloway ; ftretches 32
miles in length; and is a hilly country fit for pafturage.
The chief rivers are the Stencher and Girven, both a-
bounding with falmon: here are alfofeveral lakes and
forefts ; and the people on the coal! employ them-
felves in the herring-fifhery, though they have no
harbour of any conlequence. The only towns of this
diftricl are Bargeny and Maybole, two inconfiderable
villages, yet the firfi: gives the title of Baron to a
branch of the Hamilton Family.
Carrick on the Sure, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Tipperary and province of Munfter. W.
Long. 7. 14. N. Lat. 52. 16.
CARRiCK-Fergus, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Antrim and province of Ulfter; it is a borough and
market-town, very rich and populous, with a good
harbour and caftle, and fends two members to parlia¬
ment. It is feated on the Irilh channel, on a bay of
the fame name.
CARRIER, is a perfon that carries goods for others
for hire. A common carrier having the charge and
carriage of goods, is to anfwer for the fame, or
the value, to the owner. And where goods are de¬
livered to a carrier, and he is robbed of them, he
lhall be charged and anfwer for them, becaufe of the
hire. If a common carrier who is offered his hire,
and who has convenience, refufes to carry goods,
he is liable to an aftion, in the fame manner as an
inn-keeper who refufes to entertain a gueft. See
Assumpsit.
One brought a box to a carrier, with a large fum of
money, and the carrier demanded of the owner what
was in it; he anfwered, that it was filled with filks,
and fuch like goods : upon which, the carrier took it
and was robbed, and adjudged to make it good; but
a fpecial acceptance, as, provided there is no charge of
money, would have excufed the carrier.—A perfon de¬
livered to a carrier’s book-keeper two bags of money
fealed up, to be carried from London to Exeter, and
toH him that it was L. 200, and took his receipt for
the fame, with promife of delivery for 10 s. per cent.
carriage and rilk: though it be proved that there was
L. 400 in the bags, if the carrier be robbed, he fhall
anfwer only for L. 200, becaufe there was a particu¬
lar undertaking for that fum and no more ; and his re¬
ward, which makes him anfwerable, extends no far¬
ther. If a common carrier lofes goods which he is
intrufled to carry, a fpecial" action on the cafe lies a-
gainft him, on the cuftom of the realm, and not tro¬
ver ; and fo of a common carrier by boat. An action
will lie againft a porter, carrier, or barge-man, upon
his bare receipt of the goods, if they are loll through
negligence. Alfo a lighter-man fpoiling goods he is to
carry, by letting water come to them, a&ion of the
cafe lies again!! him, on the common cultom.
Carrier-P/£<?o», a fort of pigeon ufed, when pro¬
perly trained, to be lent with letters from one place
to another. See Columra.
Though you carry thefe birds hood-winked, 20,
30, nay, 60 or 100 miles, they will find their way in
a very little time to the place where they were bred.
They are trained to this fervice in Turkey and Perfia;
and are carried firft, while young, Ihort flights of half
a mile, afterwards more, till at length they will re¬
turn from the fartheft part of the kingdom. Every
Balhaw has a balket of thefe pigeons bred in the fc -
raglio, which, upon any emergent occafiop, as an in-r
furretflion, or the like, he difpatches, with letters bra¬
ced under their wings, to the feraglio ; which proves
a more fpeedy method, as well as a more fafe onh,
than any other ; he fends out more than one pigeon,
however, for fear of accidents. Lithgow alfures ns,
that one of thefe birds will carry a letter from Baby¬
lon to Aleppo, which is 30 days journey, In 48 hours.
This is alfo a very ancient practice ; Hirtius and Bru¬
tus, at the fiege of Modena, held a correfpondence
with one another by means of pigeons. And Ovid
tells us, that Taurolthenes, by a pigeon Rained with
purple, gave notice to his father of his vkflory at the
Olympic Games, fending it to him at iEgina.
CARRON, a fmall but remarkable river in Scot¬
land, rifing about the middle of the illhmus between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. Both its fource, and
the place where it emptieth itfelf into the fea, are
within the fhire of Stirling, which it divides into two
nearlyequal parts. The whole length of its courfe,
which is from weft to eaft, is not above 14 miles.
It falls into the frith of Forth about three miles to the
north-eaft of Falkirk. The ftream thereof is but
fmall, and fcarce deferves the notice of a traveller ;
yet there is no river in Scotland, and few in the
whole ifland of Britain, whofe banks have been the
fcene of fo many memorable t ran factions.. When
the Roman empire was in all its glory, and had its
eaftern frontiers upon the Euphrates, the banks of
Carron were its boundaries upon the north-weft ; for
the wall of Antoninus *, which was raifed to mark the i
limits of that mighty empire, Hood in the neighbour- '
hood of this river, and ran parallel to it for feveral
miles.
Near the middle of its courfe, in a pleafant valley.
Hand two beautiful mounts, called the Hills of Duni-
pace, which are taken notice of by moft of the Scot-
tifli hiftorians as monuments of great antiquity. The
whole
Carrier
c II
i’/Vak
CAR [ 1670 ] CAR
Garron. whole ftruflure of thefe mounts is of earth ; but they
   are not both of the fame form and dimenfions. The
more eafterly one is perfe&ly round, refembling an
oven, and about fifty feet in height: And that this is
an artificial work does not admit of the leaft doubt;
but we cannot affirm the fame, with equal certainty,
of the other, though it has been generally fuppofed
to be fo too. It bears no refemblance to the eaftern
one either in fhape or fize. At the foundation it is
nearly of a triangular form ; but the fuperftru&ure is
quite irregular ; nor does the height thereof bear any
proportion to the extent of its bale. Thefe mounts
are now planted with firs, which, with the parilh-
church of Dunipace Handing in the middle between
them, and the river running hard by, give this valley
a very romantic appearance. The common account
given of thefe mounts is, that they were erected as
monuments of a peace concluded in that place be¬
tween the Romans and the Caledonians, and that their
name partakes of the language of both people ; Dim
fignifying a hill in the old language of this illand, an,d
Pax “ peace” in the language of Rome. The
compound word, Dunipace, lignifies “ the hills pf
“ peace.” And we find in hiffory, that no lefs than
three treaties of peace were, at different periods,
entered into between the Romans am! Caledonians ;
the firil:, by Severus, about the year 210; the lecond,
foon after, by his fon Caracalla ; and the third, by
the ufurper Caraufius, about the year 280 ; but of
wlffch of thofe treaties Dunipace is a monument, we
do not pretend to determine. If the concurring tei-
timony of hiltorians and antiquaries did not agree in
giving this original to thefe mounts, we would be
tempted to conjecture that they are fepulchral monu¬
ments. Human bones and urns have been difcovered
in earthen fabrics of this kind in many parts of this
iffand, and the little mounts or barrows, which are
fcattered in great numbers about Stonhenge in Salifbury
plain are generally fuppofed to have been the fepul-
chres of the ancient Britons. See Barxows.
From the valley of Dunipace, the river runs for
fome time in a deep and hollow channel, with fteep
banks on both fides : here it palfes by the foundations
of the ancient Roman bridge ; not far from which,
as is generally thought, was the fcenp of the memo¬
rable conference betwixt the Scottiili patriot William
Wallace, and Robert Bruce, father to the king of that
name, which firit opened the eyes of the latter to a
juft view, both of his own true intereft, and that of
his country.
After the river has left the village and bridge of
Larbert, it foon comes up to another fmall valley,
through the midft of which it has now worn out to
itfelf a ftraight channel; whereas, in former ages,
it had taken a confiderable compafs, as appears by
the tradt of the old bed, which is ftiH vifible. The
high and circling banks upon the fouth-fide, give to
this valley the appearance of a fpacious bay ; and,
according to the tradition of the country, there was
once an harbour here : nor does the tradition feem
altogether groundlefs; pieces of broken anchors have
been found here, and fome of them within the me¬
mory of people yet alive. The ftream-tides would
ftill flow near the place, if they were not kept back
by the dam-head built acrofs the river at Stenhoufe ; Carron.l 01
and there is reafon to believe, that the frith flowed ■ -
confiderably higher in former ages than it does at
prefent. In the near neighbourhood of this valley,
upon the fouth, ftand the ruins of ancient Camelon ;
which, after it was abandoned by the Romans, was
probably inhabited, for fome ages, by the natives of
the country.
Another ancient monument, called Arthur’s Oven,
once flood upon the banks of Carron ; but was, with
a fpirit truly Gothic, entirely demolifhed about thirty
years ago. The corner of a fmall inclofure between
Stenhoufe and the Carron iron-works, is pointed out
as the place of its fituation. This is generally fuppo¬
fed to have been a Roman work ; though it is not
eafy to conceive what could be their motive for erect¬
ing fuch a fabric, at fo great a diftance from any other |
of their works, and in a fpot which, at that time,
muft have been very remote and unfrequainted. The
form of it is faid to have been perfectly round, and
riling perpendicular for fome yards at firft, but after¬
wards gradually coptrafted, till it terminated in a
narrow orifice at the top. Antiquaries are not agreed
whether it had been a temple, or a trophy^ or a man-
foleum ; but the moft common opinion is, that it had
been a temple, and, Buchanan thinks, a temple of
Terminus. He<tor Boetus fays, that there were
benches of ftone all around it, upon the inlide ; and
that there had been a large ftone for facrificing :
Upon, o-r an altar, upon the fouth fide.
As Carron extends over the half of the ifthmus,
and runs fo near the ancient boundaries of the Ro¬
man empire, the adjacent country fell naturally to * I
be the feene of many battles and rencounters. Hif-
torians mention a bloody battle fought near this river
between the Romans and the confederate army of the
Scots and P'ufts in the. beginning of the 5th century.
The fceiles of fomt of Oflian’s poems were, in the .opi¬
nion of the tranflator, upon the banks of this river.
Here Fingal fought with Caracul, the fon of the king
of the world, luppofed to have been the fame with
Caracalla the fon of the Roman emperor Severus.
Here alfo young Ofcar, the fon of Oflian, performed
fome of his heroic exploits. Hereabout was-the
ftream of, Crona, celebrated in the ancient compo-
litions of the Gallic bard ; poffibly that now called
the water of Bonny, Which runs in the neighbour¬
hood of the Roman wall, and difehargeth itielfinto
Carron at Dunipace. In thofe poems, mention is
made of a green vale upon the banks of this river,
with a tomb Handing in the middle of it, where
young Ofcar’s party and the warriors of Caros met.
We only take notice of this as it ftrengthens the
conjecture hazarded above, that the mounts of Du¬
nipace, efpecially the more eafterly of them, were
fepulchral monuments. — About the diftance of half a
mile from the river, and near the towiv of Falkirk,
lies the field of that battle which was fought by Wil¬
liam Wallace and the Englifh in the beginning of the
14th century. It goes by the name of GrahavPs
mu'ir, from the valiant John Graham, who fell there,
and whofe grave-ftone is ftill to be feen in the church¬
yard of Falkirk.
The river Carron, though it hath long fince ceafed
to
CAR [ 1671 ] CAR
1 Can-on to roll its ftream amidfl the din of arms, ftill pre-
i H, ferves its fame, by lending its aid to trade and manu-
Cars‘ factures ; (fee the next article).—The river is navi¬
gable for fome miles near its mouth, and a confider-
able trade is carried on upon it by linall craft; for
the convenience of which, its channel has of late
years been draightened and much Ihortened, and the
i secthear- great Canal* has its entrance from it.
fde-CflMrt/. Cab.roK-Works, a large iron-foundery, two miles
north from Falkirk in Scotland. They are conveni¬
ently fituated on the banks of the Carron, three miles
above its entry into the frith of Forth. Above 100
acres of land have been converted into refervoirs and
pools, for water diverted from the river, by magni¬
ficent dams built about two miles above the works,
which, after turning eighteen large wheels for the 1'e-
veral purpofes of the manufacture, falls into a tide-
navigation that conveys their callings to the fea.
Thefe works are the greatell of the kind in Europe,
and were eftablilhed in 1760. At prefent, the build¬
ings are of vaft extent; and the machinery, conltruc-
ted by Mr Smeaton, is the firft in Britain, both in
elegance and correCtnefs: there are i6co men em¬
ployed, to whom is paid weekly 650/. Sterling;
which has greatly enriched the adjoining country :
6500 tons of iron are fmelted annually from the
I mineral with pit-coal, and call into cannon, cylin¬
ders, ire.—In the founding of cannon, thefe works
have lately arrived at fuch perfection, that they make
above 5000 prieces a year, many of which are ex¬
ported to foreign Hates ; and_their guns of new con-
ftruttion are the lightell and neatell now in ufe, not
excepting brafs guns ; the 32 pounder Ihip-gun
weighing 42 hundred-weight, the 6 pounder 8 hun¬
dred-weight and one half, and the other calibers in
proportion.
The prefent proprietors are a chartered Company,
with a capital of 150,000/. Sterling, a common feal,
ire. but their Hock is confined to a very few indivi¬
duals.
CARROT, in Botany. See Daucus.
Deadly-Carrot;. See Thapsia.
CARROUSAL, a courfe of horfes and chariots, or'
a magnificent entertainment exhibited by princes on
fome public rejoicing. It confifls in a cavalcade of
feveral gentlemen, richly drelfed and equipped after
the manner of ancient cavaliers, divided into fqua-
drons, meeting in fome public place, and praCliling
julls, tournaments,, ire. The lafi carroufals were in
the reign of Lewis XIV.
CARS, or Kars, a confiderable and Hrong town of
Afia, in Armenia, feated on a river of the fame name,
with a callle almoH impregnable. E. Long. 43. 50.
N. Lat. 41. 30.
CARSE, or Carfe of Cowry, a diflriCl of Perthlhire
in Scotland. It lies on the north fide of the Tay, and
extends 14 miles in length from Dundee to Perth, and
is from two to four in breadth. It is a rich plain
country, cultivated like a garden, and producing as
good harvells of wheat as any in Great Britain. It a-
\ > bounds with all the necelfaries of life ; but from its low
damp fituation, the inhabitants are fubjeiR to agues,
and the commonalty are in great want of firing. In
this dillrkSt, not far from the Tay, Hands the houfe of
Errol, which formerly belonged to the Earls of that Carftairs-
name, the chiefs of the ancient family of Hay, here- '
ditary conllables of Scotland.
CARSTAIRS (William), an eminent Scots Divine,
whole merit and good fortune called him to atfl in great
Icenes, and to alfociate with men, to whofe Ibciety
and intercourfe his birth gave him few prerenfions to
afpire. A fmall village, in the neighbourhood of
Glafgow, was the place of his nativity. His father,
of whom little is known, exercifed the functions of a
clergyman.
Young CarHairs turned his thoughts to the -profef-
fion of theology; and the perfecutions and opprcfllons
of government, both in regard to civil and religious
liberty, having excited his flrongeft indignation, it be¬
came a matter of prudence that he lliould profecute
his Rudies in a foreign univerlity. He Went accord¬
ingly to Utrecht; and his indullry and attention be¬
ing directed with fkill, opened up and unfolded thofe
faculties, which he was about to employ with equal
honour to his country and to himlelf.
During his refidence abroad, he became acquainted
with Penlionary Fagel, and entered with warmth in¬
to the intereR of the Prince of Orange. On his re¬
turn to Scotland to procure a licenle to teach doc¬
trines which he had Rudied with the greatell care, he
became difguRed with the proud and infolent condudl
of Archbilhop Sharp, and prepared to revifit Holland ;
where he knew that religious liberty was refpebled,
and where he hoped he might better his condition by
the connetHions he had formed.
His expedlations were not vain. His prudence, his
referve, and his political addrefs, were Hrong recom¬
mendations of him to the Prince of Orange, whofe
ambition and policy were to triumph over the obfli-
nate bigotry of the Duke of York. The enemies of
popery in England were numerous and powerful; and
they had entered into a fcheme for the exclufion of
the Duke from the throne. To forward this fcheme,
Carflairs engaged in tranfadTions of equal danger and
importance. Secrets of high moment were intruded
to him. He entered into correfpondence with per-
fonages of diHinguilhed rank. He was employed in
perfonal negociations in Holland, England, and Scot¬
land.
When the rupture between the Prince of Orange
and the Duke of York came to extremity, CarHairs
attended the former in his expedition to England, and
was conflantly confulted by him in ail affairs of deli¬
cacy and moment. The Duke, irrefolute and feeble
in proportion as his fituation was intereHing and dif¬
ficult, fled from a people who had begun to lympathife
with his misfortunes, and from a crown which his po-
Herity perhaps might yet have enjoyed if he had be¬
haved with refolution. The man, whom the celebra¬
ted Turenne had extolled for courage and military
fagacity, difeovered the moR fhameful pufillanimity.
The Prince of Orange was received by a great nation
as its deliverer from civil and religious oppreffion.
- The elevation of his mafler promifed great ad¬
vantage to' CarHairs. He was appointed the King’s
chaplain , for Scotland, and employed in fettling the
affairs of that kingdom. William, who carried politics
into religion, was folicitous that epifeopaey fhould pre¬
vail
CAR [ 1672 ] CAR
Cairfhirs vail there as univerfally as in England. Carftairs, more
U verfant in the affairs of his native country, faw all the
Carte^ impropriety of this project, and the danger that would
arife from the enforcing of it. His realonings, his re-
monftrances, his intreaties, overcame the firmnefs of
King William. He yielded to confiderations founded
alike in policy and in prudence ; and to Carftairs, Scot¬
land is indebted for the full eftablifliment of its church
in the prelbyterian form of government.
The death of King. William was a fevere affliction
to him ; and it happened before that Prince had pro¬
vided for him with the liberality he deferved. He
was continued, however, in the office of chaplain for
Scotland, by Queen Anne ; and he was invited to ac¬
cept the Principality of the Univerfity of Edinburgh.
Placed at the head of the church, he profecuted its in-
terefts with zeal and with integrity. Nor was his
influence and activity confined to matters of religion.
They were exerted with fuccefs in promoting the
culture of the arts and fciences. The univerfities of
Scotland owe him obligations of the higheft kind. He
procured, in particular, an augmentation of thefalaries
of their profeffors; a circumftance to which may be
afcribed their reputation, as it enabled them to culti¬
vate with fpirit the different branches of knowledge.
A zeal for truth, a love of moderation and order,
prudence and humanity, diftinguilhed Principal Car¬
ftairs in an uncommon degree. Plis religion had no
mixture of aufterity ; his fecular tranlacftions were at¬
tended with no imputation of artifice ; and the verfa-
tility of his talents made him pafs with eafe from a
court to a college. This excellent perfon died in
171J ; and in 1774 'ds flate-papen and letters, with
an account of his life, were publilhed in one vol. 4t0
by the Rev. Dr M'Cormick.
CARSUGHI (Rainier), a Jefiiit, born at Citerna
in Tufcany, in 1647, was the author of a Latin poem,
entitled, Ars bene fcribendi, which is efteemed both
for the elegance of the ftile, and for the excellent
precepts it contains. He alfo wrote fome good epi¬
grams. He died in 1709.
CARTAMA, a town of Spain in the kingdom of
Granada, formerly very confiderable. It is feated at
the foot of a mountain, near the river Guadala-Me-
dina, in W. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 36. 40.
CART, a land-carriage with two wheels, drawn
commonly by horfes, to carry heavy goods, isrc. from
one place to another. See Mechanics, n° 59.
Cart-5o^, in law, fignifies wood to be employed
in making and repairing inftruments of hufbandry.
CARTE (Thomas) the hiftorian, was the fon of
Mr Samuel Carte, prebendary of Litchfield, and born
in 1686. When he was reader in the abbey-church
at Bath, he took occafion, in a 30th of January fer-
mon, 1714? to vindicate Charles I. with refpedt to
the Irilh maffacre, which drew him into a controver-
fy with Mr Chandler the diffenting minifter ; and on
the acceffion of the prefent royal family he refufed
to take the oaths to government, and put on a lay
habit. He is faid to have atfted as a kind of fecre-
tary to Bilhop Atterbury before his troubles ; and in
the year 1722, being accufed of high treafon, a re¬
ward of 1000/. was offered for apprehending him :
but Queen Caroline, the great patronefs of learned
men, obtained leave for him to return home in fecu- Carte ]
rity. He publilhed, 1. An edition of Thuanus, in 8
feven volumes folio. 2. The life of the firft Duke of Cal'te5,j:
Ormond, three volumes, folio. 3. The hiftory of
England, four volumes folio. 4. A Colletftion of ori¬
ginal letters and papers concerning the affairs of Eng¬
land, two volumes odtavo ; and fome other works.
He died in April 1754.—His hiftory of England ends
in 1654. His delign was to have brought it down
to the Revolution ; for which purpofe he had taken
great pains in copying every thing valuable that
could be met with in England, Scotland, France,
Ireland, i?c.—He had, (as he himfelf fays, p. 43. of
his vindication of a full anfwer to a letter from a by-
ftander,) u read abundance of collecftions relating to
the time of King Charles II. and had in his power
a feries of memoirs from the beginning to the end of J
that reign ; in which all thofe intrigues and turns
at court, at the latter end of that king’s life, which
Bilhop Burnet, with all his gout for tales of fecret
hiftory, and all his genius for conjedlures, does not
pretend to account for, are laid open in the cleareft
and moft convincing manner; by the perfon who was
moft affected by them, and had the beft reafon to
know them.”—At his death, all his papers came into
the hands of his widow, who afterwards married Mr
Jernegan, a member of the church of Rome.
CAKTR-Blanche, a fort of white paper, figned at
the bottom with a perfon’s name, and fometimes alfo
fealed with his feal, giving another perfon power to
fuperfcribe what conditions he pleafes. Much like
this, is the French blanc figne, a paper without wri¬
ting, except a fignature at the bottom, given by con- Jj
tending parties to arbitrators or friends, to fill up
with the conditions they judge reafonable, in order to
end the difference.
CARTEL, an agreement between two ftates for
the exchange of their prifoners of war.
Cartel, fignifies alfo a letter of defiance, or a
challenge to decide a controverfy either in a tourna¬
ment or in a Angle combat. See Duel.
Cartel-5^, a Ihip commiflioned, in time of war,
to exchange the prifoners of any two hoftile powers;
alfo to carry any particular requeft or propofal from
one to another: for this reafon, the officer who com¬
mands her is particularly ordered to carry no cargo, I
ammunition, or implements of war, except a fingle I
gun for the purpofe of firing fignals.
CARTES (Rene des), defcended of an ancient fa¬
mily in Touraine in France, was one of the moft
eminent philofophers and mathematicians in the 17th !
century. At the Jefuits College at la Fleche, he
made a very great progrefs in the learned languages
and polite literature, and became acquainted with
Father Marfenne. His father defigned him for the
army ; but his tender conftitution then not permitting
him to expofe himfelf to fuch fatigues, he was fent
to Paris, where he lanched into gaming, in which he
had prodigious fuccefs. Here Marfenne perfuaded
him to return to ftudy ; which he purfued till he went
to Holland, in May 1616, where he engaged as a volun- J
teer among the prince of Orange’s troops. While he
lay in garrifon at Breda, he wrote a treatife on rnufic,
and laid the foundation of feveral of his works. He
was
GAR [ 1673 ] CAR
j Cartes was at the fiege of Rochelle in 1628 ; returned to
] U Paris; and} a few days after his return, at an af-
| Cartefians. femblyof men of learning, in the houfe of Monfignor
Bagni the Pope’s Nuncio, was prevailed upon to ex¬
plain his fentiments with regard to philofophy, when
the nuncio urged him to publilh his fyftfm. Upon
this he went to Amfterdam, and from thence to
Franeker, where he began his metaphyji'cal medita¬
tions, and drew up his difeourfe on meteors. He
made a Ihort tour to England ; and not far from
London, made fome obfervations concerning the de¬
clination of the magnet. He returned to Holland,
where he finilhed his treatije on the world.
His books made a great noife in France ; and Hol¬
land thought of nothing but diicarding the old philo¬
fophy, and following his. Voetius being chofen rec¬
tor of the univerfity of Utrecht, procured his philo¬
fophy to be prohibited, and wrote againft him ; but
he immediately publilhed a vindication of himfelf.
In 1647, he took a journey into France, where the
king fettled a penlion of 3000 livres upon him.
Chriltina, queen of Sweden, having invited him into
that kingdom, he went thither, where he was recei¬
ved with the greateft civility by her Majefty, who en¬
gaged him to attend her every morning at 5 o’clock,
to inftrudt her in philofophy, and defired him to re-
vife and digeft all his writings which were unpublilhed,
and to form a complete body of philofophy from
them. • She likewife propofed to allow him a revenue,
and to form an academy of which he was to be the
director. But thefe defigns were broken olf by his
death in 1650. His body was interred at Stockholm,
^nd 17 years afterwards removed to Paris, where a
magnificent monument was eredted to him in the
church of St Genevieve du Mont. The great Dr
Halley, in a paper concerning optics, obferves, that
though fome of the ancients mention refraction as
an effedt of tranfparent mediums, Des Cartes w’as the
firft who difeovered the laws of refradtion, and re¬
duced diqptrics to a fcience. As to his philofophy,
Dr Keil, in his introduction to his examination of Dr
Burnet’s theory of the earth, fays, that Des Cartes
was fo far from applying geometry to natural philo¬
fophy, that his whole fyltem is one continued blunder
on account of his negligence in that point; the laws
obferved by the planets, in their revolutions round the
fun, not agreeing with his theory of vortices. His
philofophy has accordingly given way to the more ac¬
curate difeoveries and demonftrations of the Newto¬
nian fyftem.
CARTESIANS, a fedl of philofophers, who ad¬
hered to the fyftem of Des Cartes, founded on the
two following principles, the one metaphyfical, the
other phyficah The metaphyfical one is, 1 think,
therefore I am; the phyfical principle is, that nothing,
exifts butfubflattcf. Subftance he makes of two kinds;
the one a fubllance that thinks, the other a fubftance
extended ; whence adtual thought, and adtual exten-
fion, are the elfence of fubftance.
The effence of matter being, thus fixed in exten-
fion, the Cartefians conclude that there is no vacuum,
nor any poffibility thereof in nature ; but that the
univerfe is abfolutely full: mere fpace is excluded
by this principle ; becaufe, extenfion being implied in
Vol. HI.
the idea of fpace, matter is fo too. Upon thefe prin- Carthage,
ciples, the Cartefians explained mechanically how the ’
world was formed, and how the prefent celeltial pheno¬
mena came to take place. See Astronomy, n° 77.
CARTHAGE, a famed city of antiquity, the capi¬
tal of Africa Propria ; and which, for many years,
difputed with Rome the fovereignty of the world. 1
According to Velleius Paterculus, this cky was built when
65, according to Juftin and Trogus 72, according to founded,
others ioq or 140 years before the foundations of
Rome were laid. It is on all hands agreed that the
Phoenicians were the founders.
The beginning of the Carthaginian hiftory, like
that of all other nations, is obfeure and uncertain.
In the 7th year of Pygmalion king of Tyre, his fifter 2
Elila, or Dido, is faid to have fled, with fome of her Elifa, or Di¬
companions and vaflals, from the cruelty and avarice cl°, efcapes
of her brother Sichasus. I*-0"? her
She firft touched at the iiland of Cyprus, where flie r° er
met with a prieft of Jupiter, who was defirous of
attending her ; to which fne readily confented, and
fixed the priefthood in his family. At that time, it
was a cuftom in the bland of Cyprus, for the young
women to go on certain ftated days, before marriage,
to the fea-fide, there to look for ftrangers, that might
poffibly arrive on their coafts, in order to proftitute
themfelves for gain, that they might thereby acquire
a dowry. Out of thefe, the Tyrians feledled 80,
whom they carried along with them. From Cyprus
they failed directly for the coaft of Africa; and at laft
fafely landed in the province called Africa Propria,
not far from Utica, a Phoenician city of great anti¬
quity. The inhabitants received their countrymen
with great demonftrations of joy, and invited them to
fettle among them. The common fable is, that the
Phoenicians impofed upon the Africans in the following
manner : they defired, for their intended fettlement,
only as much ground as an ox’s hide would encompafs.
This requeft the Africans laughed at; but were fur-
prifed, when, upon their granting it, they faw Elifa
cut the hide into the fmalieft flireds, by which means 3
it furrounded a large territory ; in which Ihe built the Builds the
citadel called Byrfa. The learned, however, are citadel Byr-
now unanimous in exploding this fable ; and it is cer- ^a*
tain that the Carthaginians for many years paid an
annual tribute to the Africans for the ground they
pollTefled-.
The new city foon became populous and flourilhing,
by the acceffion of the neighbouring Africans, who
came thither at firft with a view of traffic. In a ffiort
time it became fo confiderable, that Jarbas, a neigh¬
bouring prince, thought of making himfelf mafter of
it without any effufion of blood. In order to this, he
defired that an e.mbaffyof ten of the moft noble Car¬
thaginians might be lent him ; and, upon their arrival,
propofed to them a marriage with Dido, threatening
war in cafe of a refulal. The ambafladors, being
afraid to deliver this meflage, told the queen that
Jarbas defired fome perfon might be fent him who
was capable of civilizing his Africans ; but that there
was no poffibility of finding any of her fubjeefts who
would leave his relations for the converfation of fuch
barbarians. For this they were reprimanded by the
queen ; who told them that they ought to be alhamed
4
She kills
herfelf.
Spanifh
mines of
vaft fervice
to the Car¬
thaginians.
6
Firft treaty
between
and Rome.
Sicily inva¬
ded by the
Carthagini¬
ans.
C A R [ 1674 ]
CAR
of refuting to live in any manner for the benefit of
their country. Upon this, they informed her of the
true nature of tlieir metfage from Jarbas; and that,
according to her own decifion, the ought to lacrifice
herfelf for the good of her country. The unhappy
queen, rather than fubmit to be the wife of fuch a
barbarian, caufed a funeral pile to be erefted, and put
an end to her life with a dagger.
This is Juttin’s account of the death of Queen Di¬
do, and is the moft probable ; Virgil’s ftory of her
amour with iEneas, dseing looked upon as fabulous,
even in the days of Macrobius, as we are informed
by that hidorian. How long monarchical govern¬
ment continued in Carthage, or what happened to this
ftate in its infancy, we are altogether ignorant, by
reafon of the Punic Archives being deftroyed by the
Romans ; fo that there is a chafm in the Carthaginian
hiftory for above 300 years. It, however, appears,
that, from the very beginning, the Carthaginians ap¬
plied themfelves to maritime affairs, and Were formi¬
dable by fea in the time of Cyrus and Cambyfes.
From Diodorus Siculus and Judin, it appears, that the
principal fupport of the Carthaginians were the mines
of Spain, in which country they feem to have efta-
bliffied themfelves very early. By means of the riches
drawn from thefe mines, they were enabled to equip
fuch formidable fleets as we are told they fitted out
in the time of Cyrus or Cambyfes. Juftin infinuates,
that the fird Carthaginian fettlement in Spain hap¬
pened when the city of Gades, now Cadiz, was but
of late danding, or even in its infancy. The Spain-
ards finding this new colony begin to flourifh, attack¬
ed it with a numerous army, infomuch that the inha¬
bitants were obliged to call in the Carthaginians to
their aid. The latter very readily granted their requed,
and not only repulfed the Spainards, but made them¬
felves mailers of almoft the whole province in which
their new city dood. By this fuccefs, they were en¬
couraged to attempt the conqued of the whole coun¬
try : but having to do with very warlike nations,
they could not puili tlieir conqueds to any great length
at fird; and it appears from the accounts of Livy
and Polybius, that the greated part of Spain remain¬
ed unfubdued till the times of Hamilcar, Afdrubal, and
Hannibal.
About 503 years before the birth of Chrid, the
Carthaginians entered into a treaty with the Romans.
It related chiefly to matters of navigation and com¬
merce. From it we learn, that the whole ifland of
Sardinia, and part of Sicily, were then fubjetd to
Carthage; that they were very well acquainted with
the cpads of Italy, and had made fome attempts up¬
on them before this time; and that, even at this
early period, a fpirit of jealoufy had taken place be¬
tween the two republics. Some time near this period,
tiie Carthaginians had a mind to difcontinue the tribute
they had hitherto paid the Africans for the ground on
which their city flood. But, notwithdanding all their
power, they were at prefent unfuccefsful; and at
lad were obliged to conclude a peace, one of the ar¬
ticles of which was, that the tribute fliould be conti¬
nued.
By degrees the Carthaginians extended their pow¬
er over all the iflands in the Mediterranean, Sicily
excepted; and for the entire conqued of this, they Carthage, ip
made vad preparations, about 480 years before Chrid. ————
Their army confided of 300,000 men ; their fleet
was compofed of upwards of 2000 men of war, and
3000 tranfports ; and with fuch an immenfe arma¬
ment, they made no doubt of conquering the whole
ifland in a Angle campaign. In this, however, they
found themfelves miferably deceived. Hamilcar their
general having, landed his numerous forces, inveded
Hirnera, a city of confiderable importance. He car¬
ried tan his attacks with the greated afliduity; but was
at lafl attacked in his trenches by Gelon and Theron,
the tyrants of Syracufe and Agrigentum, who gave'
the Carthaginians one of the-greatefl overthrows 8
mentioned in hidory. An hundred and fifty thoufand They are >1
were killed hrthe battle and purfuit, and all the red ^
taken prifoners; fo that of fo mighty an army, not a 10^ ’ *
fingle perfon efcaped. Of the 2000 flaps of war, and
3000 tranfports, of which the Carthaginian fleet con¬
fided, eight flaps only, which then happened to be out
at fea, made their efcape : thefe immediately let fail |
for Carthage; but were all cad away, and every
foul periflted, except a few who were laved in a
finall boat, and at lad reached Carthage with the dif-
mal news of the total lofs of the fleet and army. No
words can exprefs the conflex-nation of the Cartha¬
ginians upon receiving the news of fo terrible a di¬
fader. Ambafladors were immediately difpatched to
Sicily, with orders to conclude a peace upon any
terms. .They put to fea without delay ; and landing
at Syracufe, threw themfelves at the conqueror’s feet. 9
They begged Gelon, with many tears, to receive Peace coiy
their city into favour, and grant them a peace on eluded, j
whatever terms he fliould chufe to preferibe. He
granted their requed upon condition that Carthage
fliould pay him 2000 talents of filver to defray the
expences of the war ; that they fliould build two
temples, where the articles of the treaty fliould be
lodged and kept as facred ; and that for the future
they fhould abflain from human facrifices. This was-
not thought a dear purchafe of a peace for which there
was fuch occafion; and to Ihow their gratitude for
Gelon’s moderation, the Carthaginians complimented
his wife Demarata with a crown of gold worth 10a
talents.
From this time we find little mention of the Car¬
thaginians for 70 years. Some time during this pe¬
riod, however, they had greatly extended their do¬
minions in Africa, and likewife fhaken off the tribute lo
which gave them fo much uneafinefs. They had Difpute
warm difputes with the inhabitants of Cyrene the ca- with the !
pital of Cyrenaica, about a regulation of the limits Cyreneansi
of their refpeclive territories. The eonfequence of
thefe difputes was a war, which reduced both nations
fo low, that they agreed firfl to a celfation of arms,
and then to a peace. At lad it was agreed, that
each ftate Ihould appoint two commiflaries, who
fliould fet out from their refpeeflive cities on the fame
day, and that the fpot on which they met fliould be , r i |
the boundary of both dates. In confequence of this, Story of thaM
two brothers called Philani were lent out from Car- PhiUni. \ -
thage, who advanced with great celerity, while thofe
from Cyrene were much more flow in their motions.
Whether tins proceeded from accident, or defign, or
perfidy,
CAR [ 1675 ] CAR
Carthage, perfidy, we are not certainly informed ; but, be this
' as it will, the Cyreneans finding themfelves greatly
outftripped by the Philseni, accufed them of breach
of faith, affecting that they had fet out before the
time appointed, and confequently that the convention
between their principals was broken. The Philaeni
defired them to propofe fome expedient whereby
their differences might be accommodated ; promifing
to fnbmit to it whatever it might be. The Cyrene¬
ans then propofed, either that the Phikeni fhould re¬
tire from the place where they were, or that they
fhould be buried alive upon the fpot. With this laft
condition the brothers immediately complied, and
by their death gained a large extent of territory to
their country. The Carthaginians ever after cele¬
brated this as a moft brave and heroic action ; paid
them divine honours; and endeavoured to immorta¬
lize their names by erefting two altars there, with
12 fuitable infcriptions upon them.
Sicily inva- About the year before Chrift 4t2, fome difputes
4ed anew, happening between the Egeftines and Selinuntines,
inhabitants of two cities in Sicily, the former called
in the Carthaginians to their afliftance ; and this occa-
fioned a new invafion of Sicily by that nation. Great
preparations were made for this war ; Hannibal,
whom they had appointed general, was empowered
to raife an army equal to the undertaking, and equip
a fuitable fleet. They alfo appointed certain funds
for defraying all the expences of the war, intending
to exert their whole force to reduce the ifland under
! 13 their fubjeftion.
Emporium The Carthaginian general having landed his for-
and Selinus ces? immediately marched for Selinus. In his way
*aken' he took Emporium, a town fituated on the river Ma-
zara ; and having arrived at Seiinus, he immediately
invefted it. The belieged made a very vigorous de¬
fence ; but at laft the city was taken by ftorm, and
the inhabitants were treated with the utmoft cruelty.
All were maffacred by the favage conquerors, except
the women who fled to the temples; and thefe efca-
ped, not through the merciful difpolition of the Car¬
thaginians, but becaufe they were afraid, that if dri¬
ven to defpair they would fet fire to the temples,
and by that means confume the treafure they expec¬
ted to find in thofe places. Sixteen thoufand were
maffacred ; 2250 efcaped to Agrigentum ; and the
women' and children, about 5000 in number, were
carried away captives. At the fame time the tem¬
ples were plundered, and the city rafed to the
* 14 ground.
As Hkewife After the reduction of Selinus, Hannibal laid fiege
Himera. to Himera; that city he defired above all things to
become mafter of, that he might revenge the death
of his grandfather Hamilcar, who had been flain be¬
fore it by Gelon. His troops, flufhed with their late
fuccefs, behaved with undaunted courage ; but find¬
ing his battering engines not to anfwer his purpofe
fufficiently, he undermined the wall, fupporting it
with large beams of timber, to which he afterwards
fet fire, and thus laid great part of it flat on the
ground. Notwithftanding this advantage, however,
the Carthaginians were feveral times repulled with
great flaughter ; but at laft they became mafters of
the place, and treated it in the fame manner as they
had done Selinus. After this, Hannibal, diftnifling Carthage,
his Sicilian and Italian allies, returned to Africa.   
The Carthaginians were now fo much elated, that
they meditated the reduction of the whole ifland.
But as the age and infirmities of Hannibal rendered
him incapable of commanding the forces alone, they
joined in commiffibn with him Imilcar the fon of
Hanno, one of the fame family. On the landing of
the Carthaginian army, all Sicily was alarmed, and
the principal cities put themfelves into the beft ftate r
of defence they were able. The Carthaginians im- Agricren-
mediately marched to Agrigentum, and began to tum befie-
batter the walls with great fury. The befieged, g«k
however, defended themfelves with incredible refb-
lution, in a fally burnt all the machines raifed again!!
their city, and repulfed the enemy with great flaugh¬
ter. The Syracufians in the mean time, being alarm¬
ed at the danger of Agrigentum, lent an army to its
relief. On their approach they were immediately
attacked by the Carthaginians ; but after a fharp dif-
pute the latter were defeated, and forced to fly to
the very walls of Agrigentum, with the lofs of 6000
men. Had the Agrigentine commanders now fallied
our, and fallen upon the fugitives, in all probability
the Carthaginian army mull have been dcltroyed;
but, either through fear or corruption, they refnfed to 16
ftir out of the place, and this occafioned the lofis of it. And taken.
Immenfe booty was found in the city; and the Car¬
thaginians behaved with their ufual cruelty, putting
all the inhabitants to the fword, not excepting even
thofe who had fled to the temples.
The next attempt of the Carthaginians was de-
figned again ft the city of Gela : but the Geleans, be¬
ing greatly alarmed, implored the protection of Syra-
cufe; and, at their requeft, Dionylius was fent to af-
fift them with 2000 foot and 400 horfe. The Gele¬
ans were fo well fatisfied with his conduCt, that they
treated him with the higheft marks of diltinCtion ;
they even fent ambalfadors to Syracufe to return
thanks for the important fervices done them by fend¬
ing him thither ; and foon after he was appointed
generaliflimo of the Syracufian forces and thofe of
their allies again!! the Carthaginians. In the mean
time Imilcar, having rafed the city of Agrigentum,
made an incurfion into the territories of Gela and Co¬
marina ; which having ravaged in a dreadful manner,
he carried off fuch an immenfe quantity of plunder,
as filled his whole camp. He then marched again!! Gela^ede-
the city : but though it was but indifferently forUfied, ged.
he met with a very vigorous refiftance ; and the
place held out for a long time without receiving any
afliftance from its allies. At laft Dionyfius came to
its afliftance with an army of 50,000 foot and loco
horfe. With thefe he attacked the Carthaginian
camp, but was repulfed with great lois; after which,
he called a council of war, the refult of whole deli¬
berations was, that fince the enemy was fo much fu-
perior to them in ftrength, it would be, highly impru¬
dent to put all to the iffue of a battle ; and therefore,
that the inhabitants ftiould be perfuaded to abandon
the country, as the only means of faving their lives.
In confequence of this, a trumpet was fent to Imil¬
car to defire a ceffation of arms till the next day, in
order, as was pretended, to bury the dead, but in
10 C 2 reality
CAR
[ 1676 ]
CAR
Abandoned
by its inha'
reality to give the people of Gela an opportunity of of the other towns having opened their gates at his Carthage.
making their efcape. Towards the beginning of the approach : but thefe baffling his utmoft efforts, he re- ———
night the bulk of the citizens left the place ; and he turned to Motya, and puffled on the fiege of that
himfelf with the army followed them about midnight, place with the utmoft. vigour.
To amufe the enemy, he left 2000 of his light arm- The Carthaginians, in the mean time, though a-
ed troops behind him, commanding them to make larmed at the meffage fent them by Dionyfius, and
fires all night, and fet up loud fhouts as though the though reduced to a miferable fituation by the plague
army ftilf remained in town. At day-break thefe which had broke out in their city, did not defpond, but
took the fame route as their companions, and purfued fent officers to Europe, with confiderable fums, to
their march with great celerity. The Carthaginians raife troops with the utmoft diligence. Ten gallies Syracufiai*
finding the city deferred by the greateft part of its were alfo fent from Carthage to deftroy all the fhips ‘je*
inhabitants, immediately entered it, putting to death that were found in the harbour of Syracufe. The 1 ro^e
all who had remained ; after which, Imilear having Admiral, according to his orders, entered the har-
thoroughly plundered it, moved towards Camarina. bour in the night, without being difcerned by the
The inhabitants of this city had been likewife drawn enemy ; and having funk moft of the fhips he found
off by Dionyfuis, and it underwent the fame fate there, returned without the lofs of a man. 22
with Gela. All this while the Motyans defended themfelves Motya ta-
Notwithftanding thefe fucceffes, however, Imilcar with incredible vigour ; while their enemies, defirous ken by th
finding his army greatly weakened, partly by the ca- of revenging the cruelties exercifed upon their coun- Greeks.
fualties of war, and partly by a plague which broke trymen by the Carthaginians, fought like lions. At
out in it, fent a herald to Syracufe to offer terms of laft the place was taken by ftorm, and the Greek
peace. His unexpeifted arrival was very agreeable foldiers began a general maffacre. For fome time
to the Syracufians, and a peace was immediately con- Dionyfius was not able to reftrain their fury : but at
eluded upon the following terms, viz. That the Car- laft he proclaimed that the Motyans fhould fly to the
thaginians, befides their ancient acquifitions in Sicily, Greek temples; which they accordingly did, and a
fhould ftill poffefs the countries of the Silicani, the Se- flop was put to thre flaughter; but the foldiers took
linuntines, the Himereans, and Agrigentines ; that care thoroughly to plunder the town, in which they
the people of Gela and Camarina fhould-be'permitted found a great treafure.
to refide in their refpeeftive cities, which yet fhould The following fpring, Dionyfius invaded theCartha-
be difmantled, upon their paying an annual tribute to ginian territories, and made an attempt upon Egefte;
the Carthaginians ; that all the other Sicilians fhould but here he was again difappointtd. The Carthagi-
preferve their independency except the Syracufians, nians were greatly alarmed at his progrefs; but, next
who fhould continue in fubjeftion to Dionyfius. year, notwithftanding a confiderable lofs fuftained
The tyrant of Syracufe, however, had concluded in a fea-fight with Leptines, Himilco their general
this peace with no other view than to gain time, and landed a powerful army at Panormus, feized upon
to put himfelf in a condition to attack the Carthagi- Eryx, and then advancing towards Motya, made
nian territories with a greater force. Having ac- himfelf mafter of it, before Dionyfius could fend any
complifhed this, he acquainted the Syracufians with forces to its relief. He next advanced to Meffana,
his defign, and they immediately approved of it; which he likewife befieged and took ; after which moft
upon which he gave up to the fury of the populace, of the Sictili revolted from Dionyfius.
the perfons and poffeffions of the Carthaginians who Notwithftanding this defeiftion, Dionyfius, finding Greeks de4
refided in Syracufe and traded there on the faith of his forces ftill amount to 30,000 foot and 3000 hoffe, featedatf
treaties. As there were many of their Ihips at that advanced againft the enemy. At the fame time, Lep- by tbe.Ca
time in the harbour, laden with cargoes of great va- tines was fent with the Syracufian fleet againft that of thaSimans
lue, the people immediately plundered them ; and, the Carthaginians, but with pofitive orders not to
not content with this, ranfacked all their houfes in a break the line of battle upon any account whatever,
moft outrageous manner. This example was follow- But, notwithftanding thefe orders, he thought proper
ed throughout the whole ifland ; and in the mean to divide his fleet, and the confequence of this was a
time Dionyfius difpatched a herald to Carthage with total defeat ; above 100 of the Syracufian gallies
a letter to the fenate and people, telling them, that being funk or taken, and 20,000 of their men killed 24
if they did not immediately withdraw their garrifons in the battle or in the purfuit. Dionyfius dif- Syracufe
from all the Greek cities in Sicily, the people of Sy- heartened by this misfortune, returned with his army befieSed
racufe would treat them as enemies. With this de- to Syracufe, being afraid that the Carthginian fleet ^e.Cartha
mand, however, he did not allow them to comply ; might become mafters of that city if he Ihould ad- smians*
for without waiting for any anfwer from Carthage, vfmee to fight the land army. Himilco did not fail
he advanced with his army to Mount Eryx, near immediately to invert the capital; and had certainly
which flood the city of Motya, a Carthaginian colony become mafter of it, and confequently of the whole
of great importance, and this he immediately invert- ifland, had not a moft malignant pertilence o.bliaed
ed. But foon after, leaving his brother Leptines to him to defift from all further operations. This dread-
carry on the attacks, he himfelf went with the great- ful malady made great havock among his forces both
eft part of his forces to reduce the cities in alliance by fea and land ; and to complete his misfortunes,
with the Carthaginians. He deftroyed their territo- Dionyfius attacked him unexnedledly, totally ruined
rieswith fire and* fword, cut down all their trees; his fleet, and made .himfelf mafter of his camp. 25
and then he fat down before Egefta and Entella, moft Himilco finding himfelf altogether unable to fuftain Himilco
a n nth p r b^'Sed
CAR
[ 1677 ]
CAR
fa: Carthage.
26
ff Another in
!' vaftonofSi
. «ly.
L' 27
Syracnfians,
affifted by
the Corin-
ioolilh con-
duct of tlie
: Carthagini-
another attack, was obliged to come to a private a- garlands, and adorn their veflels with bucklers both Carthage,
greement with Dionyfius ; who for 300 talents con- of the Greek and Carthaginian form, failed to Sy- '
i^nted to let him efcape to Africa, with the fliattered racufe in a triumphant manner. Upon his arrival
remains of his fleet and army. The unfortunate ge- there, he gave the troops in the citadel to under-
neral arrived at Carthage, clad in mean and fordid ftand, that he had taken the fuccours Timoleon ex-
attire, where he was met by a great number of peo- pelted, thinking by this means to intimidate them to
pie bewailing their fad and inaulpicious fortune. Hi- a furrender. But, while he thus trifled away his time,
milcojoined them in their lamentations; and being the Corinthians marched with great expedition to
unable to furvive his misfortunes, put an end to his Rhegium, and, taking the advantage of a gentle breeze, 29
own life. He had left Mago in Sicily, to take care were eafily wafted over into Sicily. Mago, the Car- Cowardice
of the Carthaginian interelts in the belt manner he thaginian general, was no fooner informed of the ar- of Mago.
could. In order to this, Mago treated all the Sicilians rival of this reinforcement, than he was {truck with
fubjeft to Carthage with the greateft humanity; and terror, though the whole Corinthian army did not
having received a confiderable number of foldiers exceed 4000 men ; and, foon after, fearing a revolt
from Africa, he at laft formed an army with which of his mercenaries, he weighed anchor, in Ipite of all
he ventured a battle : in this he was defeated, and the remonllrances* of Icetas, and let fail for Africa,
driven out of the field, with the lofs of 800 men ; Here he no fooner arrived, than, overcome with grief
which obliged him to delift from farther attempts of and {flame for his unparalled cowardice, he laid vio-
that nature. lent hands on himfelf. His body was hung upon a
NotwithHanding all thefe terrible difafters, the gallows or crofs, in order to deter fucceeding gene-
Carthaginians could not forbear making new at- rals from forfeiting their honour in fo flagrant a man-
tempts upon the ifland of Sicily ; and about the year ner. 30
before Chrift 392, Mago landed in it with an army of After the flight of Mago, Timoleon carried all Exploits of
80,000 men. This attempt, however, was attended before him. He obliged Icetas to renounce his alii- Tim°leott*
with no better fuccefs than before ; Dionyfius found ante with the ftate of Carthage, and even depofed
means to reduce him to fuch ftraits for want of pro- him, and continued his military preparations with
yifions, that he was obliged to fue for peace. This the greateft vigour. On the other hand, the Cartha-
continued for nine years, at the end of which the ginians prepared for the enfuing campaign with the
war was renewed with various fuccefs. It continued greateft alacrity. An army of 70,000 men was fent
with little interruption till the year before Chrift 367, over, with a fleet of 200 {hips of war, and xooo
when, the Syracufian ftate being rent by civil dilfen- tranfports laden with warlike engines, armed cita¬
tions, the Carthaginians thought it a proper time to riots, horfes, and all other forts of provifions. This
exert themfelves, in order to become mafters of the immenfe multitude, however, was overthrown on the
whole ifland. They fitted out a great fleet, and en- banks of the Crimefus by Timoleon : 10,000 were
tered into alliance with Icetas, tyrant of Leontini, left dead on the field of battle ; and of thefe, above
who pretended to have taken Syracufe under his pro- 3000 were native Carthaginians of the bell families
teiftion. By this treaty, the two powers engaged to in the city. Above ij,ooo were taken prilbners ;
aflift each other, in order to expel Dionyfius II. after all their baggage and provifibns, with 200 chariots,
which they were to divide the ifland between them. 1000 coats of mail, and 10,000 {hields, fell into Ti-
The Syracuiians applied for fuccours to the Corin- moleon’s hands. The fpoil, which, confifted chiefly
thians ; and they readily fent them a body of troops of gold and lilver, was fo immenfe, that the whole
under the command of Timoleon an experienced ge- Sicilian army was three days in collebling it and
meral. By a ftratagem, he got his forces landed at ftripping the flain. After this fignal victory, he fl?ft
Tanrominium. The whole of them did not exceed his mercenary forces upon the frontiers of the enemy,
1200 in number : yet with thefe he marched againft to plunder and ravage the country ; while he himfelf re-
Icetas, who was at the head of 5000 men ; his army turnedto Syracufe with the reft of his army, where he
he furprifed at (upper, put 300 of them to the fword, was received with the,greateft demonftrations of joy.
and took 600 prifoners. He then marched to Syracufe, Soon after, Icetas, grown weary of his private ftation,
and broke into one part of the town before the ene- concluded a new peace with the Carthaginians ; and,
my had any notice of his approach : here he took having afiembled an army, ventured an engagement
port, and defended himfelf with fuch refolution, that with Timoleon : but in this he was utterly defeated ;
he could not be diflodged by the united power of and himfelf, with Eupolemus his {’on, and Euthymus
Icetas and the Carthaginians. general of his horfe, were brought bound to Timo-
In this place he remained for fome time, in expec- Icon, by their own foldiers. The two firft were imi¬
tation of a reinforcement from Corinth ; till the arrival mediately executed as tyrants and traitors, and the
of which, he did not judge it pradticable to extend his laft murdered in cold blood ; k etas’s wives and daugh-
conquefts.—The Carthaginians being apprifed that ters were likewife cruelly put to death after a public
the Corinthian fuccours were detained by tempeftuous trial. In a fliort time after, Mamercus another of the
weather at Thurium, polled a ftrong fqu&dron, under Carthaginian confederates was overthrown by Timo-
Hanno their admiral, to intercept them in their Icon, with the lofs of 2000 men. Thefe misfortunes peace con-
paflfage to Sicily. But that commander, not imagi- induced the Carthaginians to conclude a peace on the eluded,
■ning the Corinthians would attempt a paflage to Sicily following terms : That all the Greek cities ftiould be
in fuch a ftormy feafon, left his ftation at Thurium, let free; that the river Halycus Ihould be the boun-
and ordering his feamen to crown themfelves with' dary between the territories of both parties ; that the
natives
CAR
[ 1678 ]
CAR
Cartha<re. natives of the cities fubjecl to the Carthaginians fhould ed a powerful army in Sicily, an engagement foon Carthage
   be allowed to withdraw, if they pleafed, to Syracufe, enfued, in which Agathocles was defeated with the
or its dependencies, with their families and effe&s ; lofs of 7000 men. After this defeat he was obliged
and lailly, that Carthage ihould not, for the future, to Ihot himfelf up in Syracufe, which the Cartha-
give any alliitance to the remaining tyrants againft ginians immediately inverted, and molt of the Greek
32 Syracufe. Hates in the ifland fubmitted to them.
About 316 years before Chrift, we find the Car- Agathocles feeing himfelf rtripped of almoft all his
newed. th;lginians engaged in another bloody war with the dominions, and his capital itfelf in danger of falling
Sicilians, on the following occafion. Sofiftratus, who into the hands of the enemy, formed a defign which,
had ufurped the fupreme authority at Syracufe, ha- were it not attefted by writers of undoubted autho-
ving been forced by Agathocles to raife the liege of rity, would feem abfolutely incredible. This was no He invadi
Rhegium, returned with his lhattered troops to Si- lei's than to transfer the war into Africa, and lay fiege Afnta'
cily. But foon after this unfuccefsful expedition, he to the enemy’s capital, at a time when he himfelf
was obliged to abdicate the fovereignty and quit Sy- was befieged, and only one city left to him in all Si-
racufe. With him were expelled above 600 of the cily. Before he departed, however, he made all the
principal citizens, who were fufpeerted of having neceflary preparations for the defence of the place,
formed a defign to overturn the plan of government and appointed his brother Antandrus governor of it.
which then prevailed in the city. As Sofiftratus and He alfo gave permilfion to all who were not willing
the exiles thought themlelves ill-treated, they had to Hand the fatigues of a fiege, to retire out of the
recourfe to the Carthaginians, who readily efpoufed city. Many of the principal citizens, Juftin fays 1600,
their caufe. Hereupon the Syracufians having re- accepted of this offer; but they were no fooner got
called Agathocles, who had before been banilhed by out of the place, than they were cut off by parties
Sofiftratus, appointed him commander in chief of all ported on the road for that purpofe. Having feized
their forces, principally on account of the known a- upon their eftates, Agathocles railed a confiderable
verfion he bore that tyrant. The war, however, fum, which was intended in fome meafure to defray
did not then continue long; for Sofiftratus and the the expence of the expedition; however, he carried
exiles were quickly received again into the city, and with him only 59 talents to fupply his prefent wants,
peace was concluded with Carthage: the people of being well affured that he lliould find in the enemy’s
Syracufe, however, finding that Agathocles wanted couhtry whatever was neceflary for his fubfiftence.
to make himfelf abfolute, exacted an oath from him, As the Carthaginians had a much fuperior fleet, they
that he would do nothing to the prejudice of the de- for fome time kept the mouth of the harbour blocked
Agathocles mocracy. But, notwithrtanding this oath, Agathocles up : but at laft a fair opportunity offered ; and Aga-
raifes him- purfued his purpofe, and by a general maflacre of the thocles hoifting fail, by the activity of his rowers
felf to the principal citizens of Syracufe raifed himfelf to the foon got clear both of the port and city of Syracufe.
8 racufe0 t'irone> For fome time he was obliged to keep the The Carthaginians purfued him with all poflible ex-
3 ° ' peace he had concluded with Carthage; hut at laft pedition; but, notwithftanding their utmoft efforts,
finding his authority eftabliftied, and that his fubjefts Agathocles got his troops landed with very little op-
were ready to fecond his ambitious defigns, he paid polition.
no regard to his treaties, but immediately made war Soon after his forces were landed Agathocles burnt He burns’
on the neighbouring Hates, which he had exprefsly his fleet, probably that his foldiers might behave with ^eet-
agreed not to do, and then carried his arms into the the greater refolution, as they faw no poflibility of
very heart of the ifland. In thefe expeditions he was flying from their danger. He firft advanced to a
attended with fuch fuccefs, that in two years time he place called the Great City. This, after a feeble re¬
brought into fubjeiftion all the Greek part of Sicily, fiftance, he took and plundered. From hence he
This being accomplilhed, he committed great deva- marched to Tunis, which furrendered on the firft
ftations in the. Carthaginian territories, their gene- fummons; and Agathocles levelled both places with
ral Hamilcar not offering to give him the leaft the ground.
difturbance. This perfidious conduct greatly incen- The Carthaginians were at firft thrown into the
fed the people of thole diftrhfts againft Hamilcar, greateft confternation ; but foon recovering them-
whom they accufed before the fenate. He died, felves, the citizens took up arms with fo much ala-
however, in Sicily; and Hamilcar the fon of Gifco crity, that in a few days they had on foot an army
was appointed to fucceed him in the command of the of 40,000 foot and 1000 horfe, with 2000 armed 37 {
forces.—The laft place that held out againft Aga- chariots. The command of this army they entrufted Cartha^ini-
thocles was Meflana, whither all the Syraculian ex- to Hanno and Bomilcar, two Generals between ans defeat^
jles had retired. Pafiphilus, Agathocles’s general, whom there fubfifted a great animolity. This occa- ec^
found means to cajole the inhabitants into a treaty ; fioned the defeat of their whole army with the lofs of
which Agathocles, according to cuftom, paid no re- their camp, though all the forces of Agathocles did
gard to, but, as foon as he was in poffeflkm of the not exceed 14,000 in number. Among other rich
town, cut off all thole who had oppofed his govern- fpoils the conqueror found many chariots of curious
Defeated mfnr- For, as he intended to profecute the war workmanlhip, which carried 20,000 pair of fetters
by the Car-with the utmoft vigour againft Carthage, bethought and manacles that the enemy had provided for the
thaginians, it a point of good policy to deftroy as many of his Si- Sicilian prifoners. After this defeat, the Carthagi-
and befie- cilian enemies as polfible. nians, foppofing themfelves to have fallen under the
mufe? y’ The Carthaginians in the mean time having land- difpleafure of their deities on account of their ne-
gle&ing
36
CAR [ 1679 ] CAR
A ’arthage. glebing to facrifice children of noble families to them,
refolved to expiate this guilt. Accordingly 200 chil¬
dren of the firft rank were facrificed to their bloody
.gods, befides 300 other perfons who voluntarily of¬
fered themfelves to pacify the wrath of thefe dei¬
ties.
After thefe expiations, Hamilcar was recalled from
Sicily. When the mefTengers arrived, Hamflcar
commanded them not once to mention the victory of
Agathocles ; but, on the contrary, to give out among
the troops that he had been entirely defeated, his
forces all cut off, and his fleet deftroyed by the Car¬
thaginians. This threw the Syracufians into the ut-
molt defpair ; however, one Eurymnon, an Etolian}
prevailed upon Antandrus, not to confent to a capitu¬
lation, but to ftand a general aflault. Hamilcar being
informed of this, prepared his battering engines, and
made all the neceflary preparations to Itorm the town
without delay. But while matters remained in this
fituation, a gaily, which Agathocles had caufed to be
built immediately.after the battle, got into thb harbour
of Syracufe, and acquainted the inhabitants with the
certainty of Agathocles’s victory. Hamilcar obl'er-
vingthat the garrifon flocked down to the port on this
occafion, and expecting to find the walls unguarded,
ordered his foldiers to erecl fcaling-ladders, and begin
the intended aflault. The enemy having left the
ramparts quite expofed, the Carthaginians mounted
them without being difcerned, and had almoft poffef-
fed themfelves of an entire part lying between two
towers, when the patrol difcovered them. Upon this
a warm difpute enfued ; but at lafl: the Carthaginians
were repulfed with lofs. Hamilcar, therefore, find¬
ing it in vain to continue the fiege after fuch glad tid-
40 ings had reftored life and foul to the Syracufians, drew
i He raifes
1 the fiege.
I Is defeated,
I and taken
! prifoner
■ and put
i to death.
f§ .42
I .Agrigen-
tempt the
lovereignty
I: of Sicily.
Euccefs of
iftgathocles
*in Africa.
off his forces, and fept a detachment of 5000 men to
reinforce the troops in Africa. He (fill entertained
hopes, however, that he might oblige Agathocles to
quit Africa, and return to the defence of his own
dominions. He fpent fome time in making himfelf
mailer of fuch cities as fided with the Syracufians ;
and after having brought all their allies under fubjec-
tion, returned again to Syracufe, hoping to fnrprife it
by an attack in the night-time. But being attacked
while advancing through narrow pafles, where his
numerous army had not room to aft, he was defeated
with great daughter, and himfelf taken prifoner, car¬
ried into Syracufe, and put to death.
In the mean time the Agrigentines, finding that the
Carthaginians and Syracufians had greatly weakened
each other by this war, thought it a proper opportu¬
nity to attempt the fovereignty of the whole ifland.
They therefore commenced a war again!! both par¬
ties ; and profecnted it with fuch fuctefs, that in a
Ihort time they wrefted many places of note both
out of the hands of the Syracufians and Carthaginians.
In Africa the tyrant carried every thing before
him. He reduced moil of the places of any note in the
territory of Carthage ; and hearing that Elymas king
of Libya had declared againft him, he immediately
entered Libya Superior, and in a great battle over¬
threw that prince, putting to the fword a good part
of his troops, and the general who commanded them ;
after which he advanced againll the Carthaginians
with fuch expedition, that he furprifed and defeated Carthage,
them, with the lofs of 2000 killed, and a great num-
her taken prifoners. He next prepared for the fiege
of Carthage itfelf; and in order thereto advanced to
a poll within five miles of that city. On the other
hand, notwithflanding the great Ioffes they had al¬
ready fuflained, the Carthaginians, with a powerful
army, encamped between him and their capital. la¬
this fituation Agathocles received advice of the defeat
of the Carthaginian forces before Syracufe, and the
head of Hamilcar their general. Upon this he imme¬
diately rode up to the enemy’s camp, and fhewing
them the head, gave them an account of the total de-
flruftion of their army before Syracufe. This threw
them into fuch conflernation, that in all human proba¬
bility Agathocles would have made himfelf mailer of
Carthage, bad not an unexpefted mutiny arifen in
his camp, which gave the Carthaginians an opportu¬
nity of recovering from their terror. 44
The year following an engagement happened, in He makes
which neither party gained any great advantage : but ai} alliance
foon after, the tyrant, notwithllanding all his vifto- ^kOphel-
ries, found himfelf unable to carry on the war alone ; ’
and therefore endeavoured to gain over to his inte-
reft Ophelias, one of the captains of Alexander the
Great. In this he perfeftly fucceeded ; and, to fuc-
cour his new ally the more efleftually, Ophelias lent
to Athens for a body of troops. Having finifhed his
military preparations, Ophelias found bis army to-
confift of 10,000 foot, and 6©o horfe, all regular
troops, befides 100 chariots, and a body of 10,00a
men, attended by their wives and children, as though
he had been going to plant a new colony. At the
head of thefe forces he continued his march towards
Agathocles for 18 days; and then encamped at Auto-
molae, a city about 3000 lladia diflant from the capi¬
tal of his dominions. From thence he advanced thro’
the Regio Syrtica ; but found himfelf reduced to fuch
extremities, that his srmy was in danger of perifhing
for want of bread, water, and other provifious. They
were alio greatly annoyed by ferpents and wild
beafls, with which that defert region abounded. The
ferpents made the greatefl havock among the troops •,
for, being of the fame colour with the earth, and
extremely venomous, many folciiers, who trod upon
them without feeing them, were flung to death. At
lafl, after a very fatiguing march of two months-, he
approached Agathocles, and encamped at a fmall di-
flance from him, to the no fmall terror of the Cartha¬
ginians, who apprehended the molt fatal conlequcnces 45
from this junftion. Agathocles at firft careffed him. Whom he
and advifed him to take all poffible care of his troops treacher-
tbat had undergone fo many fatigues; but foon after mur*
cut him off by treachery, and then by fair words
and promifes perfuaded his troops to ferve under
himfelf.
Agathocles now finding himfelf at the head of a
numerous army, alfumed the title of King of Africa,
intending foon to complete his conquefts by the re¬
duction of Carthage. He began with the fiege of
Utica, which was taken by aflault. After this he
marched againft Hippo Diarrhytus, the Biferta of the
moderns, which was alfo taken by ftorm ; and after
this molt of the people bordering upon the fea-eoafts.
-Carthage.
46
Is obliged
to return
Succefs of
Archaga-
thus.
48
He is redu¬
ced to the
ftrefsf
CAR [ 1680 ] CAR
and even thofe who inhabited the inland parts of the
country, (ubmitted to him. But in the midllof this ca¬
reer of fuccefs, the Sicilians formed an affociation in
favour of liberty ; which obliged the tyrant to return
home, leaving his fon Archagathus to carry on the
war in Africa.
Archagathus, after his father’s departure, greatly
extended the African con quells. He fent Eumachus
at the head of a large detachment to invade fome of
the neighbouring provinces, while he himfelf, with
the greatell part of his army, obferved the motinns
of the Carthaginians. Eumachus falling into Numidia,
firfl: took the great city of Tocas, and conquered fe-
veral of the Numidian cantons. Afterwards he be-
fieged and took Phellina ; which was attended with
the fubmiflion of the Afphodelodians, a nation, accor¬
ding to Diodorus, as black as the Ethiopians. He
then reduced feveral cities; and being at laft elated
with fuch a run of good fortune, refolved to penetrate
into the more remote parts of Africa. Here he at
firll met with fuccefs; but hearing that the barbarous
nations were advancing in a formidable body to give
him battle, he abandoned his conquells, and retreated
with the btmoft precipitation towards the fea-coafts,
after having loll abundance of men.
This unfortunate expedition made a great altera¬
tion for the worfe in the affairs of Archagathus. The
Carthaginians being informed of Eumachus’s bad fuc¬
cefs, refolved to exert themfelves in an extraordinary
manner to repair their former lolfes. They divided
their forces into three bodies : one of thefe they fent
to the fea-coalls, to keep the towns there in awe ;
another they difpatched into the Mediterranean parts,
to preferve the allegiance of the inhabitants there ;
and the kill body they ordered to the Upper Africa,
to fupport their confederates in that country. Archa¬
gathus being apprifed of the motions of the Carthagi¬
nians, divided his forces likewife into three bodies.
One of thefe he fent to obferve the Carthaginian
troops on the fea-coafts, with orders to advance af¬
terwards into the Upper Africa ; another, under the
command of /Elchrion, one of his generals, he polled
at a proper diftance in the heart of the country, to
have an eye both on the enemy there and the barba¬
rous nations; and with the laft, which he led in per-
fon, he kept nearer Carthage, preferving a commu¬
nication with the other two, in order 'to fend them
fuccours, or recal them, as the exigency of affairs
Ihould require—The Carthaginian troops fent into the
heart of the country, were commanded by Hanno, a
general of great experience^ who being informed of
the approach of ASfchrion, laid an ambufcade for him,
into which he was drawn and cut off with 4000 foot
and 200 horfe. tlimilco, who commanded the Cartha¬
ginian forces in Upper Africa, having advice of Euma¬
chus’s march, immediately advanced again!! him. An
engagement enfued, in which the Greeks were almoft
totally cut oft', or perifhed with thirft after the battle,
out of 8000 foot only 30, and of 800 horfe only 40,
having the good/or tune to make their efcape.
Archagathus receiving the melancholy news of thefe
two defeats, immediately called in the detachments
he had fent out to harafs the enemy, which would
otherwife have been inftantly cut off. He was, how¬
ever, in a ftiort time hemmed in on all fides in fuch
a manner as to be reduced to the lafl extremity for
want of provifions, and ready every moment to be
(wallowed up by the numerous forces which furround-
ed him. In this deplorable fituation Agathocles re¬
ceived an exprefs from Archagathus, acquainting him
of the Ioffes he had fuftained and the fc-arcity of pro¬
vifions he laboured under. Upon this the tyrant,
leaving the care of the Sicilian war to one Leptines,
by a ftratagem got 18 Etrufcan (hips that came to his
affiftance out of the harbour ; and then engaging the
Carthaginian fquadron which lay in its neighbour¬
hood, took five of their fliips, and made all their men
prifoners. By this means he became mailer of the
port, and fecured a paffage into it for the merchants
of all nations, which foon reftored plenty to that city,
where the famine before had begun to make great
havock. Supplying himfelf, therefore, with a lufti-
cient quantity of neceffaries- for the voyage he was
going to undertake, he immediately fet fail for Africa.
Upon his arrival in this country, Agathocles re¬
viewed his forces, and found them to conlift of 6000
Greeks, as many Samnites, Celtes, and Etrufcans;
befides 10,000 Africans, and 1500 horfe. As he
found his.troops almoft in a date of defpair, he thought
this a proper time for offering the enemy battle. The
Carthaginians, however, did not think proper to ac¬
cept the challenge ; efpecially as by keeping clofe in
their camp, where they had plenty of every thing,
they could ftarve the Greeks to a furrender without
linking a ftroke. Upon this Agathocles attacked the
Carthaginian camp with great bravery, made a con-
fiderable impreffion upon it, and might perhaps have
carried it, had not his mercenaries deferred him al¬
moft at the firft onfet. By this piece of cowardice
he was forced to retire with precipitation to his
camp, whither the Carthaginians purlued him very
clofely, doing great execution in the purfuit.
The next night, the Carthaginians facrificed all the
prifoners of diltindlion as a grateful acknowledgment
to the gods for the victory they had gained. While
they were employed in this inhuman work, the wind,
fuddenly rifmg, carried the flames to the facred ta¬
bernacle near the altar, which was entirely confumed,
as well as the general’s tent, and thofe of the princi¬
pal officers adjoining to it. A dreadful alarm took
place through the whole camp, which was heightened
by the great progrefs the fire made. For the foldiers
tents confining of very combuftible materials, and the
wind blowing in a molt violent manner, the whole
camp was almoft entirely laid in alhes; and many of
the foldiers endeavouring to carry off their arms, and
the rich baggage of their officers, perilhed in the
flames. Some of thofe who made their efcape, met
with a fate equally unhappy. For, after Agathocles
had received the laft blow, the,Africans defected him,
and were at that inftant coming over in a body to the
Carthaginians. Thefe, the perfons who were Hying
from the flames took to be the whole Syracufian ar¬
my advancing in order of battle to attack their camp.
Upon this, a dreadful confulion enfued. Some took
to their heels ; others fell down in heaps one upon
another ; and others engaged their comrades, mil-
taking them for the enemy. Five thoufand men loft
flieir
49
Agathocl
arrives i
Africa. |
5°
Attacks 1
camp of
without 5
fuccels. 1
Difafterl
in the C
thaginiaij
CAR
[ 1681 ]
CAR
tjfcarthage.
Jhat of A-
i;athoc!cs.
I 53
5 He efcapes
f privately.
Caufes of
the firft
Punic War
their lives in this tumult, and the reft thought proper
to take refuge within the walls of Carthage; nor
could the appearance of day-light, for fome time, dif-
fipate their terrible apprehenfions. In the mean
time, the African deferters, -obferving the great con-
fufion the Carthaginians were in, and not knowing
the meaning of it, were fo terrified, that they thought
proper to return to the place from wdience they came.
The Syracufians feeing a body of troops advancing
towards them in good order, concluded that the ene¬
my were marching to attack them, and therefore im¬
mediately cried out “ To arms.” The flames afcen-
ding out of the Carthaginian camp into the air, and
the lamentable outcries proceeding from thence, con¬
firmed them in this opinion, and greatly heightened
their confufion. The confequence was much the
fame as in the Carthaginian camp ; for coming to
blows with one another inftead of the enemy, they
fcarce recovered their fenfes upon the return of light,
and the inteftine fray was fo bloody, that it co/t Aga-
thocles 4000 men.
This laft difafter fo diflieartened the tyrant, that he
immediately let about contriving means for making
his efcape privately ; and this he at laft, though with
great difficulty, effected. After his departure, his two
fons were immediately put to death by the foldiers,
who, chooling a leader from among themfelves, made
peace with the Carthaginians upon the following con¬
ditions : 1. That the Greeks fhould deliver up all the
places they held in Africa, receiving from them 300
talents.t 2. That fuch of them as were willing to
ferve in the Carthaginian army fhould be kindly treat¬
ed, and receive the ufual pay ; and, 3. That the reft
fhould be tranfported to Sicily, and have the city of
Selinus for their habitation.
From this time, to that of their firft war with the
Romans, we find nothing remarkable in the hiftory
of the Carthaginian*. The firft Punic war, as it is
commonly called, happened about 256 years before
Chrift. At that time, the Carthaginians were poffef-
fed of extenfive dominions in Africa ; they had made
confiderable progrefs in Spain ; were mailers of Sar¬
dinia, Corfica, and all the illands on the coaft of Italy;
ed to Rome, offering the poffeffion of the city to the
Romans, and in the moll moving terms imploring'
protection. This, after fome debate, was agreed to ;
and the conful Appitis Claudius received orders to at¬
tempt a paffage to Sicily, at the head of a powerful
army. Being obliged to flay fome time at Rome,
however, one Cams Claudius, a perfon of great intre¬
pidity and refolution, was difpatched with a few vef-
lels to Rhegium. On his arrival there, he obferved
the Carthaginian fquadron to be fo much fuperior to
his own, that he thought it would be little better than
madnefs to attempt at that time to tranfport forces to
Sicily. He crofted the ftraits, however, and had a
conference with the Mamertines, in which he pre¬
vailed upon them all to accept of the proteClion of
Rome ; and on this he made the neceffary-prepara-
tions for tranfporting his forces. The Carthaginians
being informed of the refolutions of the Romans,
lent a ftrong fquadron of gallies under the command
of Hanno, to intercept-the Roman fleet; and accord¬
ingly the Carthaginian admiral, coming up with them
near the coaft of Sicily, attacked them with great
fury. During the engagement, a violent ftorm arofe,
which dalhed many of the Roman veflels againft the
rocks, and did a vail deal of damage to their fquadron,
by which means Claudius was forced to retire to Rhe-
gtum, and this he accomplilhed with great difficulty.
Hanno reftored all the veflels he had taken ; but or¬
dered the deputies fent with them, to expoftulate with
the Roman general upon the infraction of the treaties
fubfifting between the two republics. This expoftu-
lation, however juft, produced an open rupture ; Clau¬
dius foon after pofleffing himfelf of Medina.
Such was the beginning of the firft Punic war,
which is faid to have lafted 24 years. The firft
year, the Carthaginians and Syraculians laid fiege to
Medina ; but, not aCting in concert as they ought to
have done, were overthrown, by the Conful Appius
Claudius; and this defeat fo much difgufted Hiero with
the Carthaginians, that he foon after concluded an
alliance with the Romans. After this treaty, haying
no enemy to contend with but the Carthaginians,Jthe
Romans made themfelves mailers of all the cities o
and had extended their conquefts to a great part of the weftern coaft of Sicily, and at the end of the
Sicily. The occafion of the firft rupture between the '•'■•"--n-.ft ~a   ...nu
two republics, was as follows. The Mamertines be¬
ing vanquilhed in battle, and reduced to great ftraits
by Hiero king of Syracufe, had refolved to deliver up
Meflina, the only city they now poflefled, to that
prince, with whofe mild government and ftridl pro¬
bity they were well acquainted. Accordingly, Hiero
Was advancing at the head of his troops to take pof-
fefiion of the city, when Hannibal, who at that time
commanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily, preven¬
ted him by a ftratagetn. He came to meet Hiero,
as it were to congratulate him on his vidlory ; and
amufed him, while fome of the Carthaginian troops
filed off towards Meflina. Hereupon the Mamer¬
tines, feeing their pity fupported by a new reinforce¬
ment, were divided into feveral opinions. Some
were for accepting the protection of Carthage; others
were for furrendering to the king of Syracufe ; but
the greater part were for calling in the Romans to
their aflillance. Deputies were accordingly difpatch-
Vot. III.
campaign carried back moft of their troops with
them to take up their winter-quarters in Italy.
The fecond year, Hanno the Carthaginian general
fixed his principal magazine at Agrigentum. This
place was very ftrong by nature, had been rendered
almoft impregnable by the new fortifications raifed by
the Carthaginians during the preceding winter, and
was defended by a numerous garrifon commanded by
one Hannibal a general of great experience in war.
For five months the Romans attempted to reduce the
place by famine, and had a&ually brought the inhabi¬
tants to great diftrefs, when a Carthaginian army of
50,000 foot, 6000 horfe, and 60 elephants, landed at
Lilybaeum, and from thence marched to Heraclea,
within 20 miles of Agrigentum. There the general
received a deputation from fome of the inhabitants of
Erbefla, where the Romans had their magazines, offer¬
ing to put the town into his hands. It was according¬
ly delivered; up and by this means the Romans became
fo much diftreifed, that they had certainly been obliged
10 D to
Carthage.
Hanno in¬
tercepts the
Roman
fleet.
56 . .
Carthagini¬
ans and Sy¬
racufians
defeated by
the Uo-
57
Agrijicn-
tum taken
by the Ro¬
mans.
Carthage.
They build
a fleet.
59
And defeat
the Cartha¬
ginians at
fea.
6°
Sicilians de¬
feated by
the Cartha¬
ginians.
CAR [ 1682 ] CAR
to abandon their enterprize, had not Hiero fupplied
them with pro vifions. But all the alfiftance he was able
to give could not long have fupported them, as their
army was fo much weakened by diforders occafioned
by famine, that, out of 100,000 men of whom it ori¬
ginally confided, fcarce a fourth part remained fit for
lervice, and could no longer fubfift on fuch parfimo-
nious fuppties. But in the mean time Hannibal ac¬
quainted Hanno that the city was reduced to the ut-
moft difirels ; upon which he refolved to venture an
engagement, which he had before declined. In this
the Romans were victorious, and the city lurrendered
at diicretion, though Hannibal with the greateft part
of the garrifon made their efcape. This ended the
campaign ; and the Carthaginians being greatly cha¬
grined at their bad fuccefs, fined Hanno of an im-
menfe firm of money, and deprived him of his com¬
mand, appointing Hamilcar to fucceed him in the
command of the land army, and Hannibal in that of
the fleet.
The third year, Hannibal received orders to ravage
the coafts of Italy; but the Romans had taken care to
pofl: detachments in fuch places as were moft proper
to prevent his landing, fo that the Carthaginian found
it impoflible to execute his orders. At the fame time,
the Romans, perceiving the advantages of being ma¬
ilers of the lea, let about building taogallies. While
this was doing, they made themfelves mailers of moft
of the inland cities, hut the Carthaginians reduced or
kept Heady in their interert moft of the maritime
ones; fo that both parties were equally fuccefsful du¬
ring this, campaign.
The fourth year, Hannibal by a ftratagem made
himfelf mailer of 17 Roman gallies; after which he
committed great ravages on the coall of Italy, whi¬
ther he had advanced to take a view of the Roman
fleet. But be was afterwards attacked in his turn,
loft the greateft part of his Ihips, and with great dif¬
ficulty made his own efcape. Soon after he was to¬
tally defeated by die conful Duiilius, with the lofs of
80 Ihips taken, thirteen funk, 7000 men killed, and as
many taken prifoners. After this victory Duillius
landed in Sicily, put himfelf at the head of the land
forces, relieved Segefta hefieged by Hamilcar, and
made himfelf mailer of Macella, though defended by
a numerous garrifon.
The fifth year, a difFerence arofe between the Ro¬
mans and their Sicilian allies, which came to fuch an
height, that they encamped feparately. Of this Ha¬
milcar availed himfelf, and, attacking the Sicilians in
their entrenchments, put 4000 of them to the fword.
He them drove the Romans from their polls, took fe-
veral cities from them, and over-ran the greateft part
of the country. In the mean time, Hannibal, after
his defeat, failed with the Ihattered remains of his
fleet to Carthage : but in order toTecure himfelf from
punifhment, he fent one of his friends with all fpeed,
before the event of the battle was known there, to ac¬
quaint the fenate, that the Romans had put to fea with
a good number of heavy ill-built velfels, each of them
carrying feme machine, the ufe of which the Cartha¬
ginians did not underftand ; and afked whether it was
the opinion of the fenate that Hannibal fhould attack
them. Thefe machines were the corvi, which were
then newly invented, and by means of which, chiefly, Cartbagq
Duillius had gained the viblory. The fenate were un-f
animous in their opinion, that the Romans fliould be
attacked ; upon which the melfenger acquainted them
with the unfortunate event of the battle. As the fe-
nators had already declared themfelves for the en¬
gagement, they fpared their general’s life, and, ac¬
cording to Polybius, even continued him in the com¬
mand of the fleet. In a fhort time, being reinforced
by a' good number of gallies, and attended by feme
officers of great merit, he failed for the coalt of Sar¬
dinia. He had not been long here, before he was
furprifed by the Romans, who carried off many of
his Ihips, and took great numbers of his men prifoners.
This fo incenfed the reft, that theyfeized their unfor¬
tunate admiral, and crucified him ; but who was his
immediate fuccelfor, does not appear. 61
The fixth year, the Piomans made themfelves ma- Corfica a
Hers of the iflands of Corfica and Sardinia. Hanno, jard\n!*
who commanded the Carthaginian forces in the latter, tj^eCR0.^;i
defended himfelf at a city called Olbia with incredible mans.
bravery; but being at lall killed in one of the at¬
tacks, the place was furrendered, and the Romans
foon became mailers of the whole ifland.
The feventh year, the Romans took the town of
Myteftratum, in Sicily, from whence they marched 6:
towards Camarina, but in their way were furrounded The Ro-
in a deep valley, and in the moft imminent danger of
danger
tremity, a legionary tribune, by name M. Calpurnius .
Flamrna, delired the general to give him 300 chofen Refa,ed
men; promifing, with this ftmll company, to find the bravo
the enemy fuch employment as Ihould oblige them to of a legici
leave a palfage open for the Roman army. He per- £2ry trHi
formed his promife with a bravery truly heroic ; for,
having feized, in fpite of all oppoiition, an eminence,
and entrenched himfelf on it, the Carthaginians, jea¬
lous of his defign, flocked from all quarters to drive
him from his poll. But the brave tribune kept their
whole army in play, till the conful, taking advantage
of the diverfion, drew his army out of the bad fitua-
tion in which he had imprudently brought it. The
legions were no fooner out of danger, than they haf-
tened to the relief of their brave companions: but all
they could do was to fave their bodies from the infults
of their enemies; for they found them all dead on the
fpot, except Calpurnius who lay under an heap of
dead bodies all covered with wounds, but Hill breath¬
ing. His wounds were immediately dreffed, and it
fortunately happened that none of them proved mor¬
tal ; and for this glorious enterprife he received a
crown of gramen.—After this the Romans reduced
feveral cities, and drove the enemy quite out of the
territory of the Agrigentines; but were repulfed with
great lofs before Lipara.
The eighth year. Regains, who commanded the
Roman fleet, obferving that of the Carthaginians ly- Carthagin
ing along the coaft in dilbrder, failed with a fquadron ans defeat
of ten gallies to obferve. their number and ftrength, ed a*fea ^
ordering the reft of the fleet to follow him with all manSt°~
expedition. But, as he drew too near the enemy, he
was furrounded by a great number of Carthaginian
gallies. The Romans fought with their ufual bravery.;
but, being overpowered with numbers, were obliged
64
CAR [ 1683 I CAR
m Carthage, to yield. The conful, however, found means to make
. < — efcape^ and join the reft of the fleet; and then had
his full revenge of the enemy, 18 of their fliips being
J 65 taken, and eight funk.
IgRegulusin- The ninth year, the Romans made preparations for
Hoi Afn" invac*ing Africa. Their fleet for this purpofe confift-
ed of 330 gallies, each of them having on board 120
foldiers and 300 rowers. The Carthaginian fleet
confifted of 360 fail, and was much better manned
than that of the Romahs. The two fleets met near
Ecnomus, a promontory in Sicily; where, after a bloody
engagement which lafted the greater part of the day,
the Carthaginians were entirely defeated, with the
lofs of 30 gallies funk, and 63 taken with all their
men. The Romans loft only 24 gallies, which were
all funk.—After this vitftory, the Romans having re-
. fitted their fleet, let fail for the coaft of Africa, with
all expedition. The firft land they got fight of was
Cape Hermea, where the fleet lay at anchor for fome
time waiting till the gallies and trahfports came up.
From thence they coafted along till they arrived be¬
fore Clupea, a city to the eaft of Carthage, where
I * * 66 they made thier firft defcent.
Carthagini- No words can exprefs the confternation of the Car-
| ans in great thaginians, on the arrival of the Romans in Africa.
1 tkm erna" inhabitants of Clupea were fo terrified, that, ac-
» ' cording to Zonaras, they abandoned the place, which
the Romans immediately took pofleffion of. Having
left there a ftrong garrifon to i’eeure their (hipping,
and keep the adjacent territory in awe, they moved
nearer Carthage, taking a great number of towns ;
they likewife plundered a prodigious number of vil¬
lages, laid vaft numbers of noblemens feats in alhes,
and took above 20,000 prifoners. In Ihort, having
plundered and ravaged the whole country, almoft to
the gates of Carthage, they returned to Clnpea loaden
with the immenfe booty they had acquired in the ex-
H pedition.
Svccefs of The tenth year, Regulus puflied on his conquefts
Regulus. with great rapidity. To oppofe his progrefs, Hamilr
car was.recalled from Sicily, and with him Boftar and
Afdrubal were joined in command. Hamilcar com¬
manded an army juft equal to that of Regulus. The
other two commanded feparate bodies, which were
to join him or add apart as occafion required. But,
before they were in a condition to take the field, Re¬
gulus, purfuing his conquefts, arrived on the banks of
1 68 the Bragada, a river which empties itfelf into the
He kills a fea at a fmall diftance from Carthage. Here he had
monftrous a monftrous ferpent to contend with, which, accor-
I rpent. ,]jng to the accounts of thofe days, infedded the waters
of the river, poifoned the air, and killed all other
animals-with its breath alone. When the Romans
went to draw water, this huge dragon attacked them ;
and, twilling itfelf round their bodies, either fqueezed
'them to death, or fwallowed them alive. As its hard
and thick fcales were proof againft their darts and
arrows, they were forced to have recourfe to the
Baliftas, which they made ufe of in lieges to throw
great ftones, and to beat down the walls of be-
lieged cities. With thefe they difeharged Ihowers of
huge ftones againft this new enemy, and had the
good luck, with one of them, to break his back-bone ;
I which difabled him from twilling and wunding his
immenfe body, and by that means gave the Romans Carthsge.
an opportunity of approaching and difpatching him 
with their darts. But his dead body corrupted the
air, and the water of the river ; and fpread fo great
an infection over the whole country, that the Romans
were obliged to decamp. We are told that Regulus
fent to Rome the Ikin of this monfter, which was 120
feet long ; and that it was hung up in a temple,
where it was preferved to the time of the Numantine
war. ' 69
Having palled this river, he belieged Adis, or Adda, Defeats^he
not far from Carthage, which the enemy attempted Cardiagim-
to relieve ; but as they lay encamped among hills and ans*
rocks, where their elephants, in which the main
llrength of their army confifted, could be of no ufe,
Regulus attacked them in their camp, killed 17,000
of them, and took jooo prilbners, and 18 elephants.
Upon the fame of this victory, deputations came from
all quarters, infomuch that the conqueror in a few
days became mallei- of 80 towns; among which were -jQ
the city and port of Utica, This tncrealed the alarm And redu.
at Carthage ; which was reduced to defpair, when Re- ces their, to
gulus laid liege to Tunis, a great city about nine miles the utmoft
from the capital. The place was taken in light of the de Par-
Carthaginians, who, from their walls, beheld all the
operations of the fiege, without making the leaft at¬
tempt to relieve k. And to complete their misfor¬
tunes, the Numidians, their neighbours, and impla¬
cable enemies, entered their territories, committing
every where the. molt dreadful devallations, which
foon occalioned a great fcarcity of provilions in the
city. The public magazines were loon exhaufted ;
and, as the city was full of felfilh merchants, who
took advantage of the public diftrefs, to fell provi-
fions at an exhorbitant price, a famine enfued, with
all the evils which attend it.
In this extremity Regulus advanced to the very His propo-
gates of Carthage ; and having encamped under the fals of
walls, fent deputies to treat of a peace with the fe- re*
nate. The deputies were received with inexprelfible
joy ; but the conditions they propofed were fuch that
the fenate could not hear them without the greatell
indignation. They were, 1. That the Carthaginians
Ihould relinquilh all claims to Sardinia, Corlica, and
Sicily. 2. That they Ihould reftore to the Romans all
the prifoners they had taken from them lince the be¬
ginning of the war. 3. That if they cared to re¬
deem any of their ovyn prifoners, they Ihould pay fo
much a head for them as Rome Ihould judge realbn-
able. 4. That they Ihould for ever pay the Romans
an annual tribute. 5. That for the future they Ihould
fit out but one man of war for their own ufe, and 50
triremes to ferve in the Roman fleet, at the expence
of Carthage, when required by any of the future con-
fuls. Thefe extravagant demands provoked the fe-
nators, who loudly and unanimdqfly rejected them ;
the Roman deputies, however, told them that Regu¬
lus* would not alter a Angle ■ letter of the propofals,
and that they mull either conquer the Romans or
obey them. 72
In this extreme diftrefs, fome mercenaries arrived Xamhippus
from Greece, among whom was a Lacedemonian by appointed
name Xanthippus, a man of great valour and experi- ..
ence in war. This man, having informed himfelf of Carthacini-
10 D 2 the an army.
CAR
[ 1684 ]
CAR
the circumftances of the late battle, declared publicly,
- that their overthrow was more owing to their own
mifcondubt than to the fuperiority of the enemy.
This difcourfe being fpread abroad, came at laft to
the knowledge of the fenate ; and by them, and even
by the defire of the Carthaginian generals themfelves,
Xanthippus was appointed commander in chief of their
forces. His firft care was to difcipline his troops in a
proper manner. He taught them how to march, en¬
camp, widen and ciofe their ranks, and rally after
the Lacedaemonian manner under their proper colours.
He then took the field with 12,000 foot, 4000 horfe,
and 100 elephants. The Romans were furprifed at
the Hidden alteration they obferved in the enemy’s
conduct ; but Regnlus, elated with his laft fuccels,
came and encamped at a fmall diftance from the Car¬
thaginian army in a vaft plain, where their elephants
and horfe had room to aid. The two armies were
parted by a river, which Reguius boldly palfed, by
onfet, with the lofs of 9000 men, and among them Canhagi
many of their chief lords.
Notwithilanding all their vi&ories, however, the Romans
Romans found themfelves now obliged, for want of obliged toi
provifions, to evacuate both Clupea and Utica, and abandon
abandon Africa altogether. Being defirous of ligna- Africa*
lizing the end of their confulate by fome important
conqueft on Sicily, the confuls fleered for that ifland,
contrary to the advice of their pilots, who reprefented
their danger, on account of the feafion being fo far ^ ^
advanced. Their obflinacy proved the deftruclion of Their fleet!
the whole fleet ; for a violent ftorm arifing, out of totally de-
3 70 veflels, only 80 efcaped fhipwreck, the reft being froyed by^
fwallowed up by the fea, or dalhed againft the rocks. a -*orm‘ j
This was by far the greateft lofs that Rome had ever
fuftained ; for befides the fliips that were caft away
with their crews, a numerous army was deftroyed,
with all the riches of Africa, which had been by Re¬
guius amafled and depolited in Clupea, and were now
73
The Ro¬
ly defeated,
and Regu-
1ns taken.
which means he left no room for a retreat in cafe of from thence tranfporting to Rome. The whole coaft
-He is cruel-
Carthagini-
ans defeat¬
ed by lea
and land.
any misfortune. The engagement began with great
fury ; but ended in the total defeat of the Romans,
who, except 2000 that efcaped to. Clupea, were all
killed, or taken prifoners ; and among the latter was
Reguius himfelf. The lofs of the Carthaginians fcarce
exceeded 800 men.
The Carthaginians remained on the field of battle
till they had ftripped the flain; and then entered their
metropolis, which was almoft the only place left them,
in great triumph. They treated all their prilbners
with great humanity, except Reguius ; but as for
him, he had fo infulted them in his profperity, that
they could not forbear fltewing the higheft marks
of their refentment. According to Zonaras and
others, he was thrown into a dungeon, where he
had only fuftenance allowed him barely fuflicient
to keep him alive. Nay, his cruel mafters, to
heighten his other torments, ordered an huge ele¬
phant, at the fight of which animal, it feems, he was
greatly terrified, to be conftantly placed near him ;
which prevented him from enjoying any tranquillity
or repofe.
The eleventh year of this war, the Carthaginians,
elated with their victory over Reguius, began to talk
in a very high ftrain, threatening Italy itfelf with an
invafion. To prevent this, the Romans took care to
from Pachinum to Camerina was covered with dead
bodies, and wrecks of fliips; fo that hiftory can fcarce
afford an example of fuch a dreadful diiafter.
The twelfth year, the Carthaginians hearing of
this misfortune of the Romans, renewed the war in
Sicily with frelh fury, hoping the whole ifland, which
was now' left defencelefs, would fall into their hands.
Carthalo, a Carthaginian commander, belieged and
took Agrigentum. The town he laid in allies and Agrigen-
demolilhed the walls, obliging the inhabitants to fly turn taken;
to Olyrnpium. Upon the news of this fuccefs, Af- and de- .
drubal was lent to Sicily with a large reinforcement frroyed ty1
of troops, and 150 elephants. They likewife fitted ^
out a fquadron, with which they retook the illand of 8
Cofyra, and marched a ftrong body of forces into
Mauritania and Numidia, to punilli the peopk* of
thofe countries for Ihewing a difpofitron to join the
Romans. In Sicily the Romans pofilffed themfelves
of Cephalodium and Panormus, but were obliged by
Carthalo to raife the iiege of Drepanum with great
lofs.
The 13th year, the Romans fent out a fleet of 260 The Ro-
gallies, which appeared off Lilybseum in Sicily ;
finding this place too ftrong, they fleered ]
thence to the eaftern coaft of Africa, where they
made feveral defcents, furprifed fome cities, and
IV fleers
garrifon all their maritime towns, and fitted out a new plundered feveral towns and' villages. They arrived
fleet. In the mean time, the Carthaginians befieged fafe at Panormus, and in a few days fet fail for Italy;
Clupea and Utica in vain, being obliged to abandon having a fair wind till they came off Cape Palinurus,
their enterprize, upon hearing that the Romans were where fo violent a ftorm overtook them, that 160 of Which is alii
 : : n. r 'T'l—: • •„ n- i , . . >
equipping a fleet of 350 fail. The Carthaginians ha¬
ving with incredible expc dition refitted their old vef-
fels, and built a good number of new ones, met the
Roman fleet off Cape Herrnea. An engagement enlix-
ed, in which the Carthaginians were utterly defeat¬
ed ; 104 of their Ihips being funk, 30 taken, and
15,000 of their foldiers and rowers killed in the ablion.
The Romans purfued their courfe to Clupea, where
they were no fooner landed, than they found them¬
felves attacked by the Carthaginian army, under the
two Hanno’s, father and fon. But, as the brave
Xanthippus no longer commanded their army, notwith-
ftanding the Lacedaemonian difcipline he had introdu¬
ced among them, they were routed at the very firft
their gallies and a great number of their tranfports gairi de-
were loft; upon which the Roman fenate made a de-
cree, that, for the future, no more than 50 veffels
Ihould be equipped ; and that thefe fliould be employ¬
ed only in guarding the coaft of Italy, and tranf¬
porting the troops into Sicily.
The 14th year, the Romans made themfelves ma¬
ilers of Himera and Ltpara in Sicily; and the Car¬
thaginians conceiving new hopq^ of conquering that
ifland, began to make frelh levies in Gaul and Spain,
and to equip a new fleet. But their treafures being
exhaufted, they applied to Ptolemy king of Egypt,
intreating him to lend them5 2000 talents : but he be¬
ing refolved to Hand neuter, refufed to comply with
their
CAR [ 1685 ] CAR
IjCarthagmi-
ians utterly
^defeated.
their reqneft ; telling them, that he could not with¬
out breach of fidelity affiit one friend againlt another.
However, the republic of Carthage making an effort,
equipped a fleet of 200 fail, and railed an army of
30,000 men, horfe and foot, and 140 elephants, ap¬
pointing Afdrubal commander in chief both of the
fleet and army. The Romans then finding the great
advantages of a fleet, refolved to equip one notwith-
ftanding all former difaffers; and while the veffels
were building, two con fills were chofen, men of va¬
lour and experience, to fnperfede the acting ones in
Sicily. Metellus, however, one of the former con-
fuls, being continued with the title of proconful, found
means to draw Afdrubal into a battle on diiadvan-
tageous terms near Panormus, and then faliying out
upon him, gave him a moft terrible overthrow.
Twenty thoufand of the enemy were killed, and
many elephants. An hundred and four elephants
were taken with their leaders, and fent to Rome,
„ where they were hunted and put to death in the
83 circus.
;| Lilybseum The 15th year, the Romans befieged Lilybseum ;
■I befieged by and the liege continued during the reft of the firft
| the Ro- punjc war, and was the only thing remarkable that
8|mans. happened during that time*. The Carthaginians,
I on the firft news of its being befieged, fent Regulus
with fome deputies to Rome to treat of a peace : but
inflead of forwarding the negociation, he hindered it;
and notwithftandirig he knew the torments prepared
for him at Carthage, could not be prevailed upon to
flay at Rome, but returning to his enemies country,
* 84 was put to a moft cruel death. During this fiege.
They are R.oinan fleet under Claudius Pulcher was utterly
fea b the1 ^efeate<-' by Adherbal the Carthaginian admiral.
Cartkigi- Ninety of the Roman gallies were loft in the aiflion,
Ilians. 8000 of tteir men either killed or drowned, and
20,000 taken and fent, prifoners to Carthage ; and
85 the Carthaginians gained this fignal victory without
A Roman the lofs of a fingle fhip, or even a (ingle man. Ano-
SSbfed7 ther R°man fieet met with a ftill feverer fate. It
bya'ftorm conlifted of 120 gallies, 800 tranfports, and was la¬
den with all forts of military ftores and provifions.
Every one of thefe veflels was loft by a ftorm, with
all they contained, not a fingle plank being faved that
could be ufed again ; fo that the Romans found them-
felves once more deprived of their whole naval
86 force.
Hamilcar In the mean time, the Carthaginian foldiery ha-
Barcas fent v;ng {hewn a difpofition to mutiny, the fenate fent
into Siu y. over pjarnjjcar BaI cas, father of the famous Hanni¬
bal, to Sicily. He received a charte blanche from
the fenate to atft as he thought proper ; and by his
excellent conduct and refolution, fhowed himfelf the
greateft general of his age. He defended Eryx, which
he had taken by furprife, with fuch vigour, that the Ro¬
mans would never have been able to make themfelves
mailers of it, had they hot fitted out a new fleet at
the expence of pri vate citizens, which, having .utterly
defeated that of the Carthaginians, Hamilcar, not-
withllanding all his valour, was obliged to yield up
87 the place which he had fb long and fo bravely de-
Peace with fended. The following articles of a peace were im-
man^0' mediately drawn up be tween the two commanders.
ans' I. The Carthaginians fhall evacuate all the places
which they have in Sicily, and entirely quit that Cartharre.
illand. 2. They fhall, in 20 years, pay the Romans,  
at equal payments every year, 2200 talents of filver,
that is, L. 437,250 Sterling. 3. They fhall reftore
the Roman captives and deferters without ranfoin,
and redeem their own prifoners with money. 4,
They fhall not make war upon Hiero king oE Syra-
cufe, or his allies. Thefe articles being agreed to,
Hamilcar furrendered Eryx upon condition that all
his foldiers fhould march out- with him upon his pay¬
ing for each of them 18 Roman denarii. Hoftages
were given on both fides, and deputies were lent to
Rome to procure a ratification of the treaty by the
fenate. After the fenators had thoroughly informed
themfelves of the ftate of affairs, two more articles
were added, viz. 1. That 1000 talents fhould be paid
immediately, and the 2200 in the fpace of 10 years
at equal payments. 2. That the Carthaginians fliould
quit all the little illands about Italy and Sicily, and
never more come near tl’iem with fhips of war, or
raife mercenaries in thofe places. Neceflity obliged
Hamilcar to conlent to thefe terms ; but he returned
to Carthage with an hatred to the Romans, which he
did not even fuffer to die with him, but tranfmitted
to his fon the great Hannibal. 88
The Carthaginians were no fooner got out of this Canfes of
bloody and expenfive war, than they found them- t'1.e war
felves engaged in another which was like to have Wlth 11 r
proved fatal to them. It is called by ancient hifto- r-ies
rians the Libya?! war, or the war with the inerce-
naries. The principal occafion of it was, that when
Hamilcar returned to Carthage, he found the repu¬
blic fo much impoverilhed, that, far from being able to
give thefe troops the largeffes and rewards promi-
fed them, it could not pay them their arrears. He
had committed the cafe of tranfporting them to one
Cifco, who, being an officer of great penetration, as
though he had forefeen what would happen, did not
fhip them off all at once, but in fmaii and feparate
parties, that thofe who came firft might be paid oft'
and fent home before the arrival of the reft. The
Carthaginians at home, however, did not aft with
the fame prudence. As the ftate was almoft en¬
tirely exhaufted by the laft war, and the iminenfe
fum of money, in confequence of the peace, paid to
the Romans, they judged it would be a laudable ac¬
tion to lave fomething to the public. They did
not therefore pay off the mercenaries in proportion
as they arrived, thinking it more proper to wait till
they all came together, with a view of obtaining
fome remilfion of their arrears. But being foon
made fenfible of their wrong condufl on this occa¬
fion, by the frequent di I orders thefe barbarians com¬
mitted in the city, they with fome difficulty prevailed
upon the officers to take up their quarters at Sicca,
and canton their troops in that neighbourhood. To
induce them to this, however, they gave them a fum
of money for their prefent fubfiftence, and promifed
to comply with their pretenfions when the remainder
of their troops arrived from Sicily. Here, being
wholly immerfod in idlenefs, to which they had long
been ftrangers, a negleft of difcipline enf’ued, and
. of courfe a petulant and licentious fpirit immediately
took place. They were now determined not to ac-
quiefce
CAR [ 1686 | CAR
Carthage, quiefce in receiving their bare pay, but to infift upon
  the rewards Hamilcar had promifed them, and even
to compel the ftate of Cartilage to comply with their
demands by force of arms. The fenate being in-
89 formed of the mutinous difpofition of the foldiery,
Imprudent difpatched Hanno, one of the fuffetes, to pacify them,
conduft of Upon his arrival at Sicca, he expatiated largely upon
anno’ the poverty of the ftate, and the heavy taxes with
which the citizens of Carthage were loaded ; and
therefore, inftead of ani'wering their high expecta¬
tions, he defired them to be iatisfied with receiving
part of their pay, and remit the remainder to ferve
the prefling exigencies of the republic. The merce¬
naries being highly provoked, that neither Hamilcar,
nor any other of the principal officers who com¬
manded them in Sicily, and were the beft judges of
their merit, made their appearance on this occafion,
but only Hanno, a perfon utterly unknown, and a-
bove all others utterly disagreeable to them, imme¬
diately had recourfe to arms. Aflembling therefore
in a body to the number of 20,000, they advanced
to Tunis, and immediately encamped before that
city.
The Carthaginians being greatly alarmed at the
approach of fo formidable a body to Tunis, made
large conceflxons to the mercenaries, in order to bring
them back to their duty : but, far from being foften-
ed, they grew more infolent upon thefe Conceflions,
taking them for the effects of fear; and therefore
were altogether averfe to thoughts of accommoda¬
tion. The Carthaginians, making a. virtue of ne-
ceflity, (hewed a difpofition to fatisfy them in all
points, and agreed to refer themfelves to the opinion
of fome general in Sicily, which they had all along
defired ; leaving the choice of fuch commander
entirely to them. Gifco was accordingly 'pitched
upon to mediate this affair, the mercenaries belie¬
ving Hamilcar to have been a principal caufe of the
ill treatment they met with, fince he never appear¬
ed among them, and, according to the general opi¬
nion, had voluntarily refigned his commiflion. Gifco
loon arrived at Tunis with money to pay the troops;
and, after conferring with the officers of the feveral
nations apart, he harangued them in fuch a manner
that a treaty was upon the point of being concluded,
when Spendius and Mathos, two of the principal
mutineers, occafioned a tumult in every part of the
camp. Spendius was by nation a Campanian, who
had been a Have at Rome, and had fled to the Car¬
thaginians. The apprehenfions he was under of be¬
ing delivered to his old mafter, by whom he was
fure to be hanged or crucified, prompted him to
break off the accommodation. Mathos was an A-
frican, and free born; but as he had been affive in
raifing the rebellion, and was well acquainted with
the implacable difpofition of the Carthaginians, he
knew that a peace muft infallibly prove his ruin.
He therefore joined with Spendius, and infinuated to
the Africans the danger of concluding a treaty at
that junifture, which could not but leave them fingly
expofed to the rage of the Carthaginians. This fo
incenfed the Africans, who were much more nume¬
rous than the troops of any other nation, that they
immediately affembled in a tumultuous manner. The
foreigners foon joined them, being infpired by Spen- Carthage,
dius with an equal degree of fury. Nothing was
now to be heard but the moft horrid oaths and im¬
precations again ft Gifco and the Carthaginians. Who¬
ever offered to make any remonftrante, or lend an
ear to temperate counfels, was ftoned to death by
the enraged multitude. Nay, many perfons loft their
lives barely for attempting to fpeak, before it could
be known whether they were in the intereft of Spen-
dus or the Carthaginians.
In the midrt of thefe commotions, Gifco behaved
with great firmnefs and intrepidity. He left no me¬
thods untried to foften the officers and calm the
minds of the foldiery; but the torrent of fedition was
now fo ftfong, that there was no poflibility of keeping
it within bounds. They therefore feized upon the
military cheft, dividing the money among themfelves
in part of their arrears, put the perfon of Gifco un¬
der an arreft, and treated him as well as his atten¬
dants with the utmoft indignity. Mathos and Spen¬
dius, to deftroy the remoteff hopes of an accommo¬
dation with Carthage, applauded the courage and re-
folution of their men, loaded the unhappy Gifco and
his followers with irons, and formally declared war Themerce-
againft the Carthaginians. All the cities of Africa, naries de.
to whom they had lent deputies to exhort them to clare war'
recover their liberty, foon came over to them, ex¬
cept Utica and Hippo Diarrhytus. By this means
their army being greatly increafed, they divided it
into two parts, with one of which they moved to¬
wards Utica, whilft the other marched to Hippo, in
order to befiege both places. The Carthaginians, in
the mean time, found themfelves ready to fink under
the preflure of their misfortunes. After they had
been harafled 24 years by a moft cruel and deftruc-
tive foreign war, they entertained fome hopes of en¬
joying repofe. The citizens of Carthage drew their
particular fubfiftence from the rents or revenues of -
their lands, and the public expences from the tribute
paid from Africa ; all which they were not only de¬
prived of at once, but, what was worfe, had it direct¬
ly turned againft them. They were deftitute of arms
. and forces either by fea or land ; had made no pre¬
parations for the fuftaining of a fiege, or the equip¬
ping of a fleet. They fuffered all the calamities in¬
cident to the moft ruinous civil war; and, to com¬
plete their mifery, had not the leaft profpeCt of re¬
ceiving afliftance from any foreign friend or ally.
Notwithftanding their deplorable fituation, however,
they did not defpond, but purified all the tneafures ne-
ceflary to put themlelves into a pofture of defence.
Hanno was appointed commander in chief of all their
forces; and the moft flxenuous efforts were made,
not only to repel all the attempts of the mutineers,
but even to reduce them by force of arms.
In the mean time Mathos and SpendiusTaid fiegO
to Utica and Hippacra at once ; but as they were
carried on by detachments drawn from the army for
that purpofe, they remained with the. main body of
their forces at Tunis, and thereby cut off all commu¬
nication betwixt Carthage and the continent of Africa.
By this means the capital was kept in a kind of
blockade. The Africans likewife harafled them by
perpetual alarms, advancing to the very walls of Car¬
thage
CAR
[ 1687 ]
CAR
91
They a
thage by day as well as by night, and treating with
” the utmofl cruelty every Carthaginan that fell into
their hands.
Hanno was difpatched to the relief of Utica with ;
defeated by g00(j body of forces, 100 elephants, and a large
recover from their defeat, but purfued them to the Carthage.
town near the bridge before-mentioned ; which he   ‘
entered without oppoiition, the mercenaries flying in
great confufion to Tunis; and upon this many towns
fubmitted of their own accord to the Carthaginians,
train of battering engines. Having taken a view of whilft others were reduced by force.
the enemy, he immediately attacked their entrench¬
ments, and, after an obftinate dii'pute, forced them.
The mercenaries loft a vaft number of men ; and con-
fequently the advantages gained by Hanno were fo
great, that they might have proved deciiive, had he
made a proper ule of them : But becoming fecure af-
Notwithltanding thefe difaiters, Mathos pulhed on
the liege of Hippo with great vigour, and appointed
Spendius and Autaritus, commanders of the Gauls, with
a ftrong body to obferve the motions of Hamilcar.
Thefe two commanders, therefore, at the head of a
choice detachment of 6000 men drawn out of the
92 ter his viclory, and his troops being every where off camp at Tunis, and 2000 Gallic horfe, attended the
n his their duty, the mercenaries, having rallied their forces,
turn defeat- fe]l Upon him, cut off many of his men, forced the reft
to fly into the town, retook and plundered the camp,
and leized all the provilions,military ftores, ire. brought
to the relief of the befieged. Nor was this the only
inftance of Hanno’s military incapacity. Notwith-
ftanding he lay encamped in the molt advantageous
manner near a town called Corza, at which place he
twice overthrew the enemy, and had it in his power to
have totally ruined them, he yet neglecfted to improve
Carthaginian general, approaching him as near as
they could with lafety, and keeping clofe to the fkirts
of the mountains. At laft Spendius, having received
a ftrong reinforcement of Africans and Numidians,
and pollefling himfelf of all the heights furrounding
the plain in which Hamilcar lay encamped, refolved
not to let flip fo favourable an opportunity of attack¬
ing him. Had a battle now enfued, Hamilcar and
his army mu ft in all probability have been cut off;
but by the defertion of one Naravafus, a young N11-
thofe advantages, and even fuffered the mercenaries midian nobleman, with 2000 men, he found himfelf
to poffefs themfelves of the ifthmus which joined the enabled to offer his enemies battle. The fight was Mercena-
peninfula on which Carthage ftood, to the continent obftinate and bloody; but at laft the mercenaries
93
Hamilcar
Barcas ap- once mor
pointed t
command
were entirely overthrown, with the lofs of 10,000 c
men killed, and 4000 taken prifpners. All the pri-
to place Hamilcar Barcas at the head of foners that w’ere willing to inlift in the Carthaginian
of Africa.
Thefe repeated miftakes induced the Carthaginians
their forces. He marched againft the enemy
10,000 men, horfe and foot; being all the troops the
Carthaginians could then afl’emble for their defence,.a
full proof of the low ftate to which they w ere at that
time reduced. As Mathos, after he had pofieffed
himfelf of the ifthmus, had polled proper detachments
in two paflfes on two hills facing the continent, and
guarded the bridge over the Bragada, which through
Hanno’s neglect he had taken, Hamilcar faw little
probability of engaging him upon equal terms,
fervice, Hamilcar received among his troops, {'apply¬
ing them with the arms of the foldiers who had fallen
in the engagement. To the reft he gave full liberty
to go where they pleafed; upon condition that they
fftould never for the future bear arms againft the Car¬
thaginians ; informing them at the fame time, how¬
ever, that as many violators of this agreement as fell
into his hands mull expeift to find no mercy. 96
Mathos and his aflbeiates, fearing that this affedled They put
t rv ™ ...... ,—, ... ... lenity of Hamilcar might occafion a defection among £° death alt
deed of coming at him. Obferving, however, that the troops, thought that the belt expedient would be t-e. ar*
on the blowing of certain winds the mouth of the ri- to put them upon fome a<5fion fo execrable in its na- f0ners.
ver was choaked up with fand, fo as to become paf- ture that no hopes of reconciliation might remain. By
fable, though with no fmall difficulty, as long as thefe their advice, therefore, Gifco and all the Carthagi-
winds continued; he halted for fome, time at the .nian prifoners were put to death ; and when Hamil-
river’s mouth, without communicating Ins delign to any car fent to demand the^reraains of Ins countrymen, he
perfon. As foon as, the wind favoured his intended received for anfwer, that whoever prefumed here-
projeft, he paffed the river privately, by night, and .after to come upon that errand fhould meet with
Gifco’s fate : after which they came to a refolution
to treat with the fame barbarity all loch Carthaginians
as flaould fall into their hands. la return for this enor¬
mity, Hamilcar threw all the prifoners that fell into his
hands to be devoured by wild beafts ; being convin¬
ced that compaflion ferved only to make his enemies
more fierce and untracftable.
The war was now parried on generally to the ad-
immediately after his paffage he drew up the troops
in order of battle, and advancing into the plain where
his elephants were capable of acting, moved towards
Mathos, who was pufted at the village near the
bridge. This daring action greatly forprifed and in¬
timidated the Africans. However, Spendius, receiv- .
ing intelligence of the enemy’s motions, drew a bo¬
dy of 10,000 men out of Mathos’s camp, with which
he attended Hamilcar on one fide, and ordered 15,000 vantage of the Carthaginians ; neverthelefs the male-
from Utica to obferve him on the other, thinking by
94 this means to furrouml the Carthaginians, and cut
He defeats them all off at one ftroke. By feigning a retreat,
Hamilcar found means to engage thenf at a difadyan-
tage ; and gave them a total overthrow, with the lofs
of 6000 killed, and 2000 taken prifoners. The reft
fled, forne to the town at the bridge, and others to
the camp at Utica. He did not give them time to
contents ftill found themfelves in a capacity to take
the field with an army of 50,000 men.. They watch¬
ed Hamilcar’s motions; but kept on the hills, care¬
fully avoiding to come down into the plains, on ac¬
count pf the Numidian horfe and Carthaginian ele¬
phants. Hamilcar, being much fuperior in Ikill to
any of their generals, at laft ffiut them up in a poft
fo lituated that it was impoffible to get out of it. Here
CAR [ 1688 ] CAR
Carthage, he kept them ftridtly befieged; and the mercenaries,
 not daring to venture a battle, began to fortify their
Thev are camp, and furround it with ditches and jntrench-
befieged by ments. They were foon prefled by famine lb forely,
Hamikar. that they were obliged to eat one another ; but they
were driven defperate by the confcioufnefs of their
guilt, and therefore did not delire any terms of ac¬
commodation. At lalt, being reduced to the utmoft
extremity of mifery, they inlilled that Spendius,
Autaritus, and Zarxas, their leaders, fhould in perfon
have a conference with Hainilcar, and make propo-
fals to him. Peace was accordingly concluded upon
the following terms, viz. That ten of the ringleaders
of the malecontents Ihould be left entirely to the
mercy of the Carthaginians ; and that the troops
fliould all be difarmed, every man retiring only in a
fmgle coat. The treaty was no fooner concluded,
than Hamilcar, by virtue of the firlt article, feized
upon the negociators themfelves; and the army being
informed that their chiefs were under arrelt, had
9$ immediately recourle to arms, as fufpebting they
40,000 of were betrayed ; but Hamilcar, drawing out his army
them de- jn order of battle, furrounded them, and either cut
flr°y€‘l- them to pieces, or trod them to death with his ele¬
phants. The number of wretches who perifhed on
this occafion, amounted to above 40,000.
After the dellruftion of this army, Hamilcar in-
veiled Tunis, whither Mathos had retired with all
his remaining forces. Hamilcar had another general,
named Hannibal, joined in the command with him.
Hannibal's quarter was on the road leading to Car¬
thage, and Hamilcar’s on the oppolite fide. The
army was no fooner encamped, than Hamilcar caufed
Spendius, and the reft of the prifoners, to be led out
in the view of the befieged, and crucified near the
walls. Mathos, however, obferving that Hannibal
did not keep fo good a guard as he ought to have
done, made a faliy, attacked his quarters, killed
99 many of his men, took feveral prifoners, among
Hannibal whom was Hannibal himfelf, and plundered his
taken and camp. Taking the body of Spendius from the crofs,
Mathos ^ Mathos immediately fubftituted Hannibal in its room ;
and 30 Carthaginian prifoners of diftincftion were cru¬
cified around him. Upon this difafter, Hamilcar im¬
mediately decamped, and polled himfelf along the
fea-coaft, near the mouth of the river Bagrada.
The fenate, though greatly terrified by this unex-
petfted blow, omitted no means neceffary for their
prefervation. They fent 30 fenators, with Hanno
at their head, to confult with Hamilcar about the
proper meafures for putting an end to this unnatural
war, conjuring, in the moft prefling manner, Hanno
to be reconciled to Hamilcar, and to facrifice his pri¬
vate refentment to the public benefit. This, with
ibme difficulty, was eftedled ; and the two generals
came to a full refolution to act in concert for the
good of the public. The fenate, at the fame time,
ordered all the youth capable of bearing arms to be
prefled into the fervice ; by which means a ftrong
reinforcement being fent to Hamilcar, he foon found
100 himfelf in a condition to adt offenfively. He now
tir^l10jeen‘ defeated the enemy in all rencounters, drew Mathos
frated and *I!t0 frequent ambufcades, and gave him one notable
taken pH- overthrow near Leptis. This reduced the rebels to
toner.,
the neceflity of hazarding a decifxve battle, which Carthage. ;
proved fatal to them. The mercenaries fled almoft   
at the firfl onfet moft of their army fell in the
field of battle, and in the purfuit. Mathos, with a
few, efcaped to a neighbouring town, where he was
taken alive, carried to Carthage, and executed ; and
then, by the redudtion of the revolted cities, an end
was put to this war, which, from the excefles of
cruelty committed in it, according to Polybius, went
among the Greeks by the name of the inexpiable
war.
During the Libyan war, the Romans, upon fome
abfurd pretences, wrefted the ifland of Sardinia from
the Carthaginians ; which the latter, not being able rox
to refill, were obliged to fubmit to. Hamilcar find- Hamilcat's
ing his country not in a condition to enter into an im- f< feme to ■
mediate war with Rome, formed a fcheme to put it ^,
on a level with that haughty republic. This was by RQ^e.V *
making an entire conquelt of Spain, by which means
the Carthaginians might have troops capable of cop¬
ing with the Romans. In order to facilitate the exe¬
cution of this fcheme, he infpired both his fon-in-law
Afdrubal, and his fon Hannibal, with an implacable
averfion to the Romans, as the great oppofers of his
country’s grandeur. Having completed all the ne-
cefl’ary preparations, Hamilcar, after having greatly
enlarged the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, enter¬
ed Spain, where he commanded nine years, during
which time he fubdued many warlike nations, and
amafled an immenfe quantity of treafure, which he dif-
tributed partly amongll his troops, and partly amongft
the great men at Carthage ; by which means he fnp-
ported his interefts with thefe two powerful bodies. I02
At laft, he was killed in a battle, and was fucceeded His death. J
by his fon-in-law Afdrubal. This general fully an-
fwered the expectations of his countrymen ; greatly
enlarged their dominions in Spain ; and built the city
of New Carthage, now Carthagena. He made fuch
progrefs in his conquefts, that the Romans began to
grow jealous. They did not, however, choofe at
prefent to come to an open rupture, on account of
the apprehenfions they were under of an invalion
from the Gauls. They judged it moft proper, there¬
fore, to have recourfe to milder methods; and pre- 103
vailed upon Afdrubal to conclude a new treaty with AfdrubaPs
them. The articles of it were, 1. That the Cartha- treaty whlv
ginians fhould not pafs the Iberus. 2. That the Sa- tIie Ro‘
guntines, a colony of Zacynthians, and a city lituated
between the Iberus and that part of Spain fubjeCt to
the Carthaginians, as well as the other Greek colonies
there, fhould enjoy their ancient rights and privileges. ,04
Afdrubal, after having governed the Carthaginian He is mur. ,
dominions in Spain for eight years, was treacheroufly dered.
murdered by a Gaul whole mafter he had nut to
death. Three years before this happened, he had
written to Carthage, to defire that young Hannibal,
then twenty-two years of age, might be lent to him.
This requeft was complied with, notwithftanding the
oppofition of Hanno ; and from the firft arrival of the
young man in the camp, he became the darling of the
whole army. The great refemblance he bore to Ha¬
milcar, rendered him extremely agreeable to the
troops. Every talent and qualification he feemed to
poflefs that can contribute towards forming a great
man.
Carthage.
105
Succeeded
hy Hatmi-
bal, who
makes vaft
conquefts
in Spain.
106
He attacks
Saguntum,
107
And takes
108
He fets out
for Italy.
CAR [ 1689 ] CAR
man. After the death of Afdrubal, he was fainted
general by the army with the higheft demonflrations
of joy. He immediately put himfelf in motion ; and,
in the firft campaign, conquered the Olcades, a nation
feated near the Iberus. The next year he fubdued
the Vaccaei, another nation in that neighbourhood.
Soon after, the Carpaetani, one of the molt powerful
nations in Spain, declared againft the Carthaginians.
Their army confifted of 100,000 men, with which
they propofed to attack Hannibal on his return from
the Vaccsei ; but by a ftratagem they were utterly
defeated, and the whole nation obliged to fubmit.
Nothing now remained to oppofe the progrefs of
the Carthaginian arms, but the city of Saguntum.
Hannibal, however, for fome time, did not think pro¬
per to come to a rupture with the Romans'by attack¬
ing that place. At laft he found means to embroil
fome of the neighbouring cantons, efpecially theTur-
detani, or, as Appian calls them, the TorboUtnc, with
the Saguntines, and thus furnilhed himfelf with a pre¬
tence to attack their city. Upon the commencement
of the fiege, the Roman fenate difpatched two am-
baffadors to Hannibal, with orders to proceed to Car¬
thage in cafe the general refufed to give them fatis-
faftion. They were fcarce landed, when Hannibal,
who was carrying on the fiege of Saguntum with
great vigour, lent them word that he had fomething
elfe to do than to give audience to ambaffadors. At
laft, however, he admitted them ; and, in anfwer to
their remonflrances, told them, that the Saguntines
had drawn their misfortunes upon themfelves, by
committing hoftilities again(l the allies of Carthage ;
and at the fame time defired the deputies, if they had
any complaints to make of him, to carry them to the
fenate of Carthage. On their arrival in that capital,
they demanded that Hannibal might be delivered up
to the Romans to be punifhed according to hisdeferts;
and this not being complied with, war was immedi¬
ately declared between the two nations.
The Sagnntines are faid to have defended them¬
felves for eight months with incredible bravery. At
laft, however, the city was taken, and the inhabitants
were treated with the utmoft cruelty. After this con-
queft, Hannibal put his African troops into winter-
quarters, at New Carthage; but in order to gain their
affeftion, he permitted the Spainards to retire to their
refpecftive homes.
The next campaign, having taken the neceffary
meafures for fecuring Africa and Spain, he palfed the
Iberus, liibdiied all the nations betwixt that river and
the Pyrenees, appointed Hanno commander of all the
new conquered diftricl, and immediately began his
march for Italy. Upon muftering his forces, after
they had been weakened by fieges, defection, morta¬
lity, and a detachment of 10,000 foot and 1000 horfe
left with Hanno to fupport him in his new pofty he
found them to amount to 50,000 foot and 9000 horfe,
all Veteran troops, and the beft in the world. As
they had left their heavy baggage with Hanno, and
were all light armed, Hannibaf eaiily crolfed the Py¬
renees; pafted by Rufcino, a frontier town of the
Gauls; and arrived on the banks of the Rhone with¬
out oppofition. This river he pafled, notwithftand-
ing of fome oppofition from the Gauls; and was for
Vol. III.
fome time in doubt whether he fhould advance to en- Carthage,
gage the Romans, who, under Scipio, were bending ‘
their march that way, or continue his march for Ita¬
ly. But, to the latter he was foon determined by
the arrival of Magilus prince of the Boii, who brought
rich prefents with him, and offered to conduct the
Carthaginian army over the Alps. Nothing could
have happened more favourable to Hannibal’s affairs
than the arrival of this prince, fince there was no
room to doubt the iincerity of his intentions. For
the Boii bore an implacable enmity to the Romans,
and had even come to an open rupture with them
upon the firft news that Italy was threatened with an
invafion from the Carthaginians. 109
It is not known with certainty where Hannibal He croiics
began to afcend the Alps. As foon as he began his the
march, the petty kings of the country aflembled their
forces in great numbers ; and taking poffeflion of the
eminences over which the Carthaginians mult ne-
celfarily pafs, they continued haraliing them, and
were no fooner driven from one eminence than they
feized on another, difputing every foot of land with
the enemy, and deftroying great numbers of them
by the advantage they had of the ground. Hanni¬
bal, however, having found means to pcffefs himlelf
of an advantageous poft, defeated and difperfed the
enemy ; and foon after took their capital city, where
he found the prifoners, horfes, ire. that had before
fallen into the hands of the enemy, andlikewife corn
fufficient to ferve the army for three days. At laft,
after a moft fatiguing march of nine days, he arrived
at the top of the mountains. Here he encamped, and
halted two days, to give his wearied troops fome repofe,
and to wait for the ftragglers. As the fnow was late¬
ly fallen in great plenty, and covered the ground, this
fight terrified the Africans and Spainards, who were
much affedled with the cold. In order therefore to
encourage them, the Carthaginian general led them
to the top of the higheft rock on the fide of Italy,
and thence gave them a view of the large and fruit¬
ful plains of Infubria, acquainting them that the Gauls,
whofe country they faw, were ready to join them^
He alfo pointed out to them the place whereabout
Rome ftood, telling them, that by climbing the Alps,
they had lealed the walls of that rich metropolis ;
and having thus animated his troops, he decamped,
and began to defeend the mountains'. The difficul¬
ties they met with in their defeent were much greater
than thofe they had met with while they afeended.
They had indeed no enemy to contend with, except
fome fcattered parties that came to fteal rather than
to fight; but the deep fnows, the mountains of ice,
craggy rocks, and frightful precipices, proved more
terrible than any enemy. After they had for fome
days marched through narrow, fteep, and ffippery
ways, they came at laft to a place which neither ele¬
phants, horfes, nor men could pafs. The way which
lay between two precipices was exceeding narrow ;
and the declivity, wdiich was very fteep, had become
more dangerous by the falling away of the earth-
Here the guides {topped ; and the whole army being
terrified, Hannibal propofed at firft to march round
about, and attempt fome other way : but all places
round him being covered with fnow, he found himi’elf
10 £ reduced
CAR
Carthage, reduced to the neceffity of cutting a way into the
*   rock itfelf, through which his men, horfes, and ele¬
phants might deicend. This work was accomplilhed
with incredible labour; and then Hannibal, having (pent
nine days in afeending, and fix in delcending the
[ 1690 ] CAR
Hannibal, after this adlion upon the Trebia, or- Carthage.
dered the Numidians, Celtiberians, and Lufitanians,
to make incurfions into the Roman territories, where
they committed great devaftations. During his ftate
of inaction, he endeavoured to win the anedVions of
Alps, gained at length Infubria, and, notwithftanding the Gauls, and likewife of the allies of the Romans;
all the difafters he had met with by the way, entered declaring to the Gallic and Italian prifoners, that he
the country with all.the boldnefs of a conqueror. had no intention of making war upon them, being
Hannibal, on his entry into Infubria, reviewed his determined to reitore them to their liberty, and pro¬
army, when he found that of the 50,000 foot with tedt them again!! the Romans: and to confirm them
whom he let out from New Carthage five months and in their good opinion of him, he dilmifi’ed them all
without ranfom.
15 days before, he had now but 20,000, and that his
9000 horfe were reduced to 6000. His firll care,
after he entered Italy, was to refrelli his troops; who
after fo long a march, and Inch inexprefiible hard-
Ihips, looked like as many fkeletons raifed from the
dead, or lavages born in a defert. He did not, how¬
ever, fuffer them to languilh long in idlenefs; but,
joining the Infubrians, who Were at war with the
Taurinians, laid fiege to Taurinum, the only city in
Next year, having croffed the Apennines, and pe- They are
netrated into Etruria, Hannibal received intelligence utterly de-
that the new conful Flaminius lay enc imped with ^t'^ear
the Roman army under the walls of Arretium. Ha- T^raafyme.
ving learned the true character of this general, that nHS>
he was of an haughty, fierce, and ralh difpofition, he
doubted not of being foon able to bring him to a
battle. Tojnflame the impetuous fpirit of Flami-
the country, and in three days time became mafter of nius, the Carthaginian general took the road to Rome,
it, putting all who refilled to the fword. This 1 truck
the neighbouring barbarians with fuch terror, that of
their own accord they fubmitted to the conqueror,
and fupplied his army with all forts of provifions.
Scipio, the Roman general, in the mean time, who
had gone in quell of Hannibal on the banks of the
Rhone, was 1'urprifed to find his antagonill had crof-
fed the Alps and entered Italy. He therefore return-
ed with tlie utmoft expedition. An engagement en-
The Ro- fued near the river Ticinus, in which the Romans
ftateVnear were defeated. The immediate confequence was,
the Ticinus. tl13* Scipio repalfed that river, and Hannibal continu¬
ed his march to the banks of the Po. Here he Raid
two days, before he could crofs that river overca
bridge of boats. He then fent Mago in purfuit of
the enemy, who having rallied their fcattered forces,
and repafled the Po, were encamped at Placentia.
and, leaving the Roman army behind him, deltroyed
all the country through which he palfed with fire and
fword ; and as that part of Italy abounded with all
the elegancies as well as neceflaries of life, the Ro¬
mans and their allies fuffered an incredible lofs on
this occafion. The ralh conful was inflamed with
the utmoll rage on feeing the ravages committed by
the Carthaginians; and therefore, immediately ap>-
proached them with great temerity, as if certain of
vhftory. Hannibal in the mean time kept on, liill
advancing towards Rome, having Cortona on the
left hand, and the lake Thrafymenus on the right;
and at lalt, having drawn Flaminius into an ambu-
fcade, entirely defeated him. The general himfelf,
with 15,000 of his men, fell on the field of battle.
A great number were likewife taken prifoners, and
body of 6000 men, who had fled to a town in E-
Afterwards having concluded a treaty with feveral of truria, furrendered to Maherbal the next day. Han-
They ai
the Gallic cantons, he joined his brother with the reft
of the army, and again offered battle to the Romans:
but this they thought proper to decline ; and at laft
the conful, being intimidated by the defection of a bo¬
dy of Gauls, abandoned his camp, palled the Trebia,
and polled himfelf on an eminence near that river.
Here he drew lines round his camp, and waked the
arrival of his colleague with the forces from Sicily.
Hannibal being apprifed of the conful’s departure,
fent out the Numidian horfe to harafs him on his
march; himfelf moving with the main body to fup-
pc.rt them in cafe of need. The Numidians arriving
before the rear of the Roman army had quite paf-
fed the Trebia, put to the fword or made prifoners
all the llragglers they found there. Soon after, Han¬
nibal coming up, encamped in fight of the Roman
army, on the oppolite bank. Here having learned
in defeat" ^ t^ara'-^er l'ie conful Sempronius lately arrived,
gam e e* fcon brought him to an engagement, and entirely
defeated him. Ten thoufand of the enemy retired
to Placentia ; but the reft were either killed or ta¬
ken prifoners. The Carthaginians purfued the fly¬
ing Romans as far as the Trebia, but did not think
proper to repafs that river on account of the excef-
five cold.
nibal loft only 1500 men on this occafion, molt of
whom were Gauls ; though great numbers, both of
his foldiers and of the Romans, died of their wounds.
Being foon after informed that the conful Servilius had A Roman
detached a body of 4000, or, according to Appian, detachment
8000 horfe from • Ariminum, to reinforce his colleague enttopieces
in Etruria, Hannibal fent out Maherbal, with all the or ta^eB’
cavalry, and feme of the infantry, to attack him.
The Roman detachment confifted of chofen men, and
was commanded by Centenius a Patrician. Maher¬
bal had the good fortune to meet with him, and after
a Ihort difpute entirely defeated him. Two thoufand
of the Romans were laid dead on the fpot; the
reft, retiring to a neighbouring eminence, v/ere
ferrounded by MaherbaTs forces, and obliged next
day to furrender at diferetion ; and this difaller,
happening within a few days after the defeat at the
lake Thrafymenus, almolt gave the finilhing ftroke
to the Roman affairs.
The Carthaginian army was now fo much troubled
with a fcorbutic diforrfer, owing to the unwholefome
encampments they had been obliged to make, and
the moraffes they had palfed through, that Hannibal
found it abfelutely neceffary to repofe them for feme
time in the territory of Adria, a molt pleafant and’
fertile
CAR [ 1691 ] CAR
Carthage, fertile country. In his various engagements with
the Romans, he had taken a great number of their
arms, with which he now armed his men after the
Roman manner. Being now likewife mafter of that
part of the country bordering on the fea, he found
means to fend an exprefs to Carthage with the news
of the glorious progrefs of his arms. The citizens
received this news with the moft joyful acclamations,
at the fame time coming to a refolution to reinforce
their armies both in Italy and Spain with a proper
115 number of troops.
Fabius Ma- 'The Romans being now in the utmoft confterna-
ed'didtator* t'on, namec* a dictator, as was their cuftom in times
of great danger. The perfon they chofe to this of¬
fice was Fabius Maximus, furnamed Verrucofus; a
man as cool and cautious as Sempronius and Fla-
minius were warm and impetuous. He fet out
with a defign not to engage Hannibal, but only to
watch his motions, and cut off his proviftons, which
he knew was the moft proper way to deftroy him in
a country fo far from his own. Accordingly he fol¬
lowed him through Umbria and Picenum, into the
territory of Adria, and then through the territories
of the Marrucini and Frentani into Apulia. When
the enemy marched, he followed them; when they
encamped, he did the fame ; but for the moft part
on eminences, and at fome diftance from their camp,
watching all their motions, cutting off their ftragglers,
and keeping them in a continual alarm. This cau¬
tious method of proceeding greatly diftreffed the Car¬
thaginians, but at the fame time raifed difcontents in
his own army. But neither thefe difcontents, nor
the ravages committed t>y Hannibal, could prevail
upon Fabius to alter his meafures. The former
therefore entered Campania, one of the fineft coun¬
tries of Italy. The ravages he committed there,
raifed fuch complaints in the Roman army, that the
dictator, for fear of irritating his foldiers, was obli¬
ged to pretend a defire of coming to an engagement.
Accordingly he followed Hannibal with more expe¬
dition than ufual; but at the fame time avoided, un¬
der various pretences, an engagement with more
care than the enemy fought it. Hannibal finding he
could not by any means bring the dictator to a battle,
refolved to quit Campania, which he found abound¬
ing more with fruit and wine than corn, and to re¬
turn into Samnium through the pals called JEribanus.
Fabius concluding from his march that this was his
defign, got there before him, and -encamped on
- Mount Callicula, which commanded the pafs, after
having placed feveral bodies in all the avenues lead-
* *c ing to it.
Hannibal was for fome time at a lofs what to do ;
but at laft contrived the following ftratagem, which
Fabius could not forefee nor guard againft. Being
encamped at the foot of Mount Callicula, he order¬
ed Afdrubal to pick out of the cattle taken in the
country, 2000 of the ftrongeft and nimbleft oxen, to
tie faggots to their horns, and to have them and
the herdfmen ready without the camp. After fupper,
when all was quiet, the cattle were brought in good
order to the hill, where Fabius had placed fome Ro¬
man parties in ambulh to ftop up the pafs. Upon a
digital given, the faggots on the horns of the oxen
He
were fet on fire ; and the herdfmen, fupported by Carthage,
fome battalions armed with fmall javelins, drove
them on quietly. The Romans feeing the light of
the fires, imagined that the Carthaginians were
marching by torch-light. However, Fabius kept
clofe in his camp, depending on the troops he had
placed in ambufcade ; but when the oxen, feeling
the fire on their heads, began to run. up and down
the hills, the Romans in ambufh thinking thernfelves
furrounded on all fides, and climbing the ways where
they faw leaft light, returned to their camp leaving
the pafs open to Hannibal. Fabius, though rallied
by his foldiers for being thus over-reached by the
Carthaginian, ftill continued to purfue the fame plan,
marched diredily after Hannibal, and encamped on
fome eminences near him.
Soon after this, the dictator was recalled to Rome ;
and as Hannibal, notwithftanding the terrible ra¬
vages he had committed, had all along fpared the
lands of Fabius, the latter was fufpedted of holding
a fecret correfpondence with the enemy. In his
abfence, Minucius, the general of the horfe, gained
fome advantages, which greatly tended to increafe
the difcontent with the didlatcT, infomuch that be¬
fore his return Minucius was put upon an equal foot¬
ing with himfelf. The general of the horfe propo-
fed that each fhould command his day ; but the dic¬
tator chofe rather to divide the army, hoping by that
means to fave at leaft a part of it. Hannibal foon II7
found means- to draw Minucius to an engagement, Minucius in
and, by his mafterly {kill in laying ambuflies, the Ro- giea dan-
man general was furrounded on every fide, and
would have been cut off with all his troops, had not paWus. ^
Fabius haftened to his afiiftance and relieved him.
Then the two armies uniting, advanced in good or¬
der to renew the fight: but Hannibal, not caring to
venture a fecond adtion, founded a retreat, and' re¬
tired to his camp ; and Minucius, being aftiamed of
his rafhnefs, religned the command of the army to
Fabius. jjg
The year following, the Romans augmented their The Ro-
army to 87,000 men, horfe and foot; and Hannibal mans utter-
being reduced to the greateft ftraits for want of pro- ^ Canaae^
vifions, refolved to leave Samnium, and penetrate a
into the heart of Apulia. Accordingly he decamped
in the night; and by leaving fires burning, and tents
Handing in his camp, made the Romans believe for
fome time that his retreat was only feigned. When
the truth was difcovered, ACmilius was againft pur¬
filing him : but Terentius, contrary to the opinion of
all the officers in the army, except the proconful
Servilius, was obftinately bent on following the ene¬
my ; and overtook them at Cannae, till this time an
obfcure village in Apulia *. A battle enfued in this * See Cra-
place, as memorable as any mentioned in hiftory ; in tix'
which the Romans, though aimoft double in number
to the Carthaginians, were put to flight with moft
terrible flaughter ; at leaft 45,000 of them being left
dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken pri-
foners in the adiion or purfuit. The night was fpent
in Hannibal's camp in feafting and rejoicings, and
next day in ftripping the dead bodies of the unhappy
Romans; after which the victorious general invefted
their two camps, where he found 4000 men.
10 E 2
The
CAR [ 1692 ] CAR
Carthage. The immediate confequence of this vi&ory, as
  — Hannibal had forefeen, was a diipolition of that part
Confequen- °* I13'/ called the Old province, Magna Grecia, Ta-
ces of this rfentnm, and part of the territory of Capua, to fubmit
victory. to him. The neighbouring provinces likewile difco-
vered an inclination to fhake off the Roman yoke, but
wanted firft to fee whether Hannibal was able to pro-
teel them. His firlt march was into Samnium, being
informed that the Hirpini and other neighbouring na¬
tions were difpofed to enter into-an alliance with the
Carthaginians. He advanced to Compfa, which opened
its gates to him. In this place he left his heavy bag¬
gage, as well as the immenfe plunder he had • ac¬
quired. After which he ordered his brother Mago
with a body of troops deltined for that purpofe to pof-
fefs himfelf of all the fortreffes in Campania, the moft
delicious province of Italy. The humanity Hannibal
had all along (hewn the Italian prifoners, as well as
the fame of the complete vidlory he had lately obtain¬
ed, wrought fo powerfully upon the Lucani, Brutii,
and Apulians, that they exprelffd an eager defire of
being taken under his protection. Nay, even the
Campanians themfelves, a nation more obliged to the
Romans than any in Italy, except the Latins, difco-
vered an inclination to abandon their natural friends.
120 Of this the Carthaginian general receiving imelli-
Capua fab- gence, he bent his march towards Capua, not doubt-
n.m to ing, but that, by means of the popular fait ion there,
I .aiuiibal. jie fhonld eafily make himfelf mailer of it; which ac¬
cordingly happened. Soon after this place had made
its fubmiflion, many cities of the Brutii opened their
gates to Hannibal, who ordered his brother Mago to
take polftfiion of them. Mago was then difpatched
121 to Carthage, with the important news of the victory
Ataga's ec- at Cannae, andahe conlequences attending it. Upon
count of his arrival there he acquainted the fenate, that Hanni-
Ibcceft02 * *iac^ defeated fix Roman generals, four of which
were confuls, one ditffator, and the other general of
horfe to the dictator : that he had engaged fix con-
lidar armies, killed two confuls, wounded one, and
driven another out of the field with fcarce 50 men to
attend him : that he had routed the general of the
horfe, who was of equal power with the confuls ; and
that the dictator was elteemed the only general fit to
command an army, merely becaufe he had not the
courage to engage him : and as a demonfixative
proof of what he advanced, he produced, according to
feme authors, three bulhels and an half of gold rings,
taken from knights and fenators who had been killed
122 in the various engagements.
Hannibal Hitherto we have feen Hannibal furprifingly vic-
iupenor to poriolls ; anc^ indeed, if we conlider what he bad al-
ceneral ^ reacty done, we fit all find bis exploits fuperior to thofe
mentioned °f any other general, either ancient or modern,
in hiftory. Other commanders have been celebrated for victories
gained over barbarous and uncivilized nations. Alex¬
ander the Great invaded and over-ran the empire of
Perfia ; but that kingdom was then funk in floth and
effeminacy, fo as to be an eafy conqueft : but had the
great commander turned his arms againft the weftern
nations who were of a more martial difpofition, it is
more than probable, he had not conquered fo eafily.
Hannibal, on the other hand, lived at a time when
the Romans were not only the moft powerful, but the
molt warlike nation in the whole world. That nation Carthage,
he attacked with an army of only 26,000 men, with-
out refources either for recruits, money, or provi-
fions, except what he could procure in the enemtes
country. With thefe he had for three years refilled
the Roman armies, which had been hitherto invinci¬
ble by all other nations. Their armies had been com¬
manded by generals of different tempers, difpofitions,
and abilities: the Ioffes they fuftained, are by the
Roman writers imputed to the faults of the generals
themfelves ; but experience had abundantly Ihewn,
that thefe commanders with all their faults were able
to conquer the moft warlike nations, when commanded
by another than Hannibal. In the battles fought with
the Romans he had deftroyed 200,000 of their men,
and taken Jo,oco prifoners; yet from the time of the I2^
battle of Cannae, the affairs of this great man totally Caufe of
declined. The reafon of this is, by the Roman hifto- tlle decline
rians, faid to be, that when he put his army into win- £a^ls a**
ter-quarters in Capua, he fo enervated himfelf and
his army by debaucheries in that place, that he be¬
came no longer capable of coping with the Roman
forces. But this feems by no means to have been
the cafe; for the Roman hiftorians themfelves own,
that, after the battle of Cannae, he gave their armies,
many and terrible defeats, and took a great number
of towns in their fight.
The true reafon of that reverfe of fortune, which
Hannibal now experienced, was his not having fuf-
ficient refources for recruiting his army. On the firft'
news, indeed, of his fuccefs at Carthage, a body of
4000 Numidian cavalry, 40 elephants, and xooo
talents of filver, were granted by the fenate. A
large detachment of Spanifli forces was allb appointed
to follow them; and that thefe laft might be ready in.
due time, Mago fet out immediately for Spain to raife
20,000 foot and 4000 horle there. Had this ample
fiipply been fent with proper expedition, it is by no
means probable that the Romans would have had any
occafion to refledl upon Hannibal’s condudf at Capua*
That general would undoubtedly have obliged the
haughty republic to fubmit to the fuperior force of his
arms the next campaign. But, notwkhllanding the
iufluence of the Barcinian faction at Carthage, Han no
and his' adherents found means not only to retard
the march of the fupplies intended, but even to di-
minilh their number. Mago, through the artifices of
that infatuated party, could obtain an order for only
l2,oco foot and 2500 horfe, and even with this in-
confiderable body of troops he was fent into Spain.
Hannibal being thus deferted by his country, found
hirnfelf obliged to act on the defenfive ; his army a-
mounting to no more how than 26,000 foot and 9000
horfe. But though obliged to act in this manner, he
was only hindered from ionquering ; the utmoft
efforts of the whole Roman power not being able
to drive this finall army out of Italy for more than 14
years. r24
The Romans, though greatly reduced, were not Meafures
yet exhaufted. They were able ftill to fend two con- taken by
fular armies into the field, fully recruited and in good tlie Ro*
order ; and as neither the Gauls nor Italians were na- ““s*
tural allies of the Carthaginians, they did not fail to
abandon them on the firlt reverfe of fortune. After
the
CAR [ 1693 ] CAR
Carthage, the Romans had recovered from the confternation in-
' ’ to which they were thrown by the defeat at Cannae,
they chofe a dictator, and recalled Marcellas, the con¬
queror of Syracufe, from Sicily. All the young Ro¬
mans, above 17 years of age, of what rank foever,
were obliged to inlift fhemfelves; as were alfo thofe
Who had already ferved their legal time. By this means
four legions and 10,000 horfe were foon raifed in the
city. The allies of Rome, the colonies, and the mu-
nicipia, furnifh'ed the contingents as ufual. To thefe
were added 8000 of the youngeft and ftrongeft Haves
in the city. The republic purchafed them of their
matters, but did not oblige them to ferve without
their own confent, which they gave, by anfwering.
Volo, “ I am willing whence they were called
voloties, to diftinguifh them from the other troops.
As the Romans, after the lofs of fo many battles, had
no fwords, darts, or bucklers, left in their magazines,
the volones were fupplied with the arms which had
been formerly taken from the enemy, and hung up in
the public temples and porticoes. The finances of
.Rome were no lefs exhaufted ; but this defeat was
fupplied by the liberality of her citizens. The fena-
tors fhewing the example, were followed firft by the
knights, and afterwards by all the tribes; who ftrip-
ping themfelves of all the gold they had, brought it to
the public treafury. The fenators only referved their
rings, and the bull# about their childrens necks. As.
for the filver coin, it was now, for the firft time, al¬
loyed with copper, and increafed in its value. Thus
the finances were put into a good condition, and a
competent army raifed.
This was plainly the laft effort the Romans could
make ; and could Hannibal have procured a fuffi-
cient fupply of men and money to enable him to
cope with this army, and to break it as he had
clone the others before, there could have been no
more refiftance made on their part. He began, how¬
ever, to be in want of money ; and to procure it,
gave the Roman prifbners leave to redeem them-
felv.es. Thefe unhappy men agreed to fend* ten of
their body to Rome to negot iate their redemption ;
125 and Hannibal required no other fecurity for their re-
Theyrefufe turn but their oath. Carthalo was fent at the head
to treat of of them to make propofak of peace; but upon the
peace. fij-fj- news of his arrival, the dictator fent a lidtor to
him, commanding him immediately to depart the Ro¬
man territory, and it was refolved not to redeem
tlie captives. Upon this Hannibal fent the moft con-
fiderable of them to Carthage ; and of the reft he
made gladiators, obliging them to fight with one an¬
other, even relations with relations, for the enter-
126 taimnent of his troops.
Afdmbal All this time Cneius and Publius Scipio had car-
defeated by r;eci on the war in Spain with great fuecefs againft
mans In t'ie Carthaginians. Afdrubal had been ordered to
Spain. enter Italy with his army to affift Hannibal; but be¬
ing defeated by the Romans, was prevented. The
dictator and fenate of Rome, encouraged by this news,
carried on the preparations for the next campaign
with the greateft vigour, udiilft Hannibal remained
inactive at Capua. This inatflion, however, feems
to have proceeded from his expetftation of fuccours
from Africa, which never came, and which delay
occafioned his ruin. The Roman dictator now re- Carthage,
leafed from prifon all criminals, and perfons confined “
for debt, who were willing to inlift themfelves. Of
thefe he formed a body of 6000 foot, armed with the
broad fwords and bucklers formerly taken from the
Gauls. Then the Roman army, to the number of
about 25,000 men, marched out of the city, under
the command of the delator; while Marcellus kept
the remains of Varro’s army, amounting to about
15,000 men, at Cafilinum, in readinefs to march
whenever there Ihould be occafion.
Thus the Roman forces wTere ftill fuperior to thofe
of Hannibal; and as they now faw the necefiity of
following the example of Fabius Maximus, no en¬
gagement of any confequence happened the firft year
after the battle of Cannae. Hannibal made a fruitlefs
attempt upon Nola, expecting it would be delivered I27
up to him ; but this was prevented by Marcellus who Marcellus
had entered that city, and fallying unexpectedly from gains an ad-
three gates, upon the Carthaginians, obliged them vanta"c T
to retire in great confufion, with the lofs of 5000
men. This was the firft advantage that had been
gained by the Romans where Hannibal had com¬
manded in perfon, and raifed the fpirits of the for¬
mer not a little. They were, however, greatly de-
jeCied, on hearing that the conful Pofthumius Albi-
nus, with his whole army, had been cut off by the
Boil, as he was crofting a foreft. Upon this it was
refolved to draw all the Roman forces out of Gaul
and other countries, and turn them againft Hannibal;
fo that the Carthaginian flood daily more and more
in need of thofe fupplies, which yet never arrived 12S
from Carthage. He reduced, however, the cities of HaniiibaF
Nuceria, Calilinum, Petelia, Confentia, Croton, Locri, take® fe' e~
and feveral others in Great Greece, before the Ro- ral tlties'
mans gained any advantage over him, except that
before Nola already menrioned. The Campanians,
Who had-efpoufed the Carthaginian intereft, railed
an army of 14.000 of their own nation in favour of
Hannibal, and put one Marius Alfius at the head of
it ; but he was furprifed by the conful Sempronius,
who defeated and killed him, with 2000 of his men.
It was now found, that Hannibal had concluded a
treaty of alliance, oftenfive and defenfive, with Phi¬
lip king of Macedon ; but to prevent any didurbance
from that quarter, a Roman army was lent to Mace- 72y
don. Soon after this Marcellus defeated Hannibal in He is de-
a pitched battle, having armed his men with long feated by-
pikes ufed generally at ft a, and chiefly in boarding cf Marcellus.
fliips; by which means the Carthaginians were pier¬
ced through, while they were totally unable to hurt
their adverfaries with the fhort javelins they carried.
Marcellus purfued them clofe ; and, before they got
to their camp, killed 5000, and took 600 prifoners ;
lofing hitnfelf about loco men, who were trod down
by the Numidian horfe, commanded by Hannibal in 130
perfon. After this defeat the Carthaginian general He is de-
found himfelf deferted by 1200 of his heft hoHerpart- fcrted by *
ly Spaniards, and partly Numidians, who had crofted °f
the Alps with him. This touched him fo fenfibly, that
he left Campania, and retired into Apulia.
The Romans ftill continued to increafe their forces;
and Hannibal, not having the fafne refources, found it
impofllble to a eft againft fo many armies at once.
Fablus
CAR
1694 ]
CAR
He is afrsi.
- defeated,
and begins
to lofe
ground.
Carthage. Fabius Maximus advanced into Campania, whither that he furprifed Appius in his camp, drove him out Carthage.-
— Hannibal was obliged to return in order to lave Ca- of it with the lofs of a great number of men, and  —
pua. He ordered Hanno, however, at the head of obliged him to entrench himfelf on fome eminences,
tar 17,000 foot and 1700 horfe, to feize Beneventum ; where he expected to be foon joined by his colleague
but he was utterly defeated, fcarce 2000 of his men B'ulvius. As Hannibal, ho.wever, now expeHed to
being left alive. Hannibal himfelf, in the mean have all the Roman forces upon him, he could do no¬
time, advanced to Nola, where he was again de- thing more for the relief of Capua, which was, of
feated by Marcellus. He now began to lofe ground ; coniequence, obliged to fubmit to the Romans,
the Romans retook Cafilinum, Accua in Apulia, Arpi, A little before the furrender of Capua, Hannibal
and Aternum ; but the city of Tarentum was deli- came up with a Roman army commanded by one
vered up to him by its inhabitants. The Romans M. Centenius Penula, who had fignalized himlelf on
then entered Campania, and ravaged the whole many occafions as a centurion. This rafh man, being
country, threatening Capua with a liege. The in- introduced to the fenate, had the aflurance to tell
habitants immediately acquainted Hannibal with their them, that if they would trull him with a body of
danger ; but he was lb intent upon reducing the cita- only 5000 men, he would give a good account of Han¬
del of Tarentum, that he could not be prevailed upon nibal. They gave him 8000, and his army was loon
to come to their affiftance. In the mean time Hanno increafed to double that number. He engaged the
was again utterly defeated by Fulvius, his camp Carthaginians on Hannibal’s firll offering him battle ;
taken, and he himlelf forced to fly into Brutium with a but after an engagement of two hours, was defeated,
fmall body of horfe. The confuls then advanced with himfelf and all his men being (lain, except about 1000.
a delign to befiege Capua in form. But in their way, Soon after, having found means to draw the prsctor
Sempronius Gracchus, a man of great bravery, and Cneius Fulvius into an ambufcade, Hannibal cut in
an excellent general, was betrayed by a Lucanian pieces almoll his whole army, confifting of 18,000
132 and killed, which proved a very great detriment to men. In the mean time Marcellas was making great
Capua be- the republic. Capua, however, wit* foon after in- progrefs in Samnium. The city of Salapia was be-
fieged by ve(led on all fides; and the befieged once more lent trayed to him ; but he took other two by affault. In
mans.0' to Hannibal, who now came to their affillance with the lall of thefe he found 3000 Carthaginians, whom
his horfe, his light armed infantry, and 33 elephants, he put to the fword ; and carried off 240,000 bulhels
Hannibal, He found means to inform the befieged of the time of wheat, and 110,000 of barley. This, however,
in vain, at- be deligned to attack the Romans, ordering them to was by no means a compenfation for the defeat which
tempts to make a vigorous lally at the fame time. The Ro- Hannibal foon after gave the proconful B'ulvius Cen-
reneve it. man generals, Appius and Fulvius, upon the firlt news tumalus, whom he furpriled and cut off, with 13,000
of the enemy’s approach, divided their troops, Appius of his men.
taking upon him to make head againft the garrifon. After this defeat, the great Marcellus 'advanced
and B'ulvius to defend the intrenchments againll Han- with his army to oppofe Hannibal. Various engage-
nibal. The former found no difficulty in repulfing ments happened without any thing decifive. In one
the garrtfon ; and would have entered the city with of them the Romans are laid to have been defeat-
them, had he not been wounded at the very gate, ed, and in another Hannibal; but, notwithllanding
which prevented him from purfuing his defign. Ful- thefe, it was neither in the power of Marcellus
vius found it more difficult to withftand Hannibal, nor any other Roman general, totally to defeat or
whole troops behaved themfelves with extraordinary difperfe the army commanded by Hannibal in perfon.
refolution. A body of Spainards and Numidians had Nay, in the eleventh year of the war, Hannibal found
even the boldnefs to pals the ditch, and, in fpite of means to decoy into an ambufcade, and cut off, the
all oppofition, climbing the ramparts, penetrated into great Marcellus himfelf; the confequence of which
the Roman camp ; but not being properly feconded was, that the Romans were obliged to raife the fiege
by the reft, they were all to a man cut in pieces, of Locri, with the lofs of all their military en-
The Carthaginian general was fo dilheartened at this, gines.
efpecially after the garrifon was repulfed, that he Hitherto the Carthaginians, though no longer the
134 founded a retreat, which was made in good order, favourites of fortune, had loft but little ground ; but
He marches His next attempt for the relief of Capua was to march now they met with a blow which totally ruined their
to Rome. t0 Rome> where he hoped his approach would ftrike affairs. This was the defeat of Afdrubal, Hannibal’s
fo much terror, that the armies Would be called from brother, who had left Spain, and was marching to his
before Capua ; and that the Capuans might not be aftiftance. He crofted the Pyrenees without any dif-
dilheartened by his fudden departure, he found means ficulty ; and, as the filver mines had fupplied him
to acquaint them with his defign. The news of his with a very confiderable quantity of treafure, he not
approach caufed great confternation in the metropo- only prevailed upon the Gauls to grant him a paffaoe
lis. Some of the fenators were for calling all the through their territories, but likewife to furniffi him
armies in Italy into the'neigh',r mrhood of Rome, as with a confiderable number of recruits. Meeting with
thinking nothing lefs was able to refill the terrible Car- many favourable circumftances to expedite his march
thaginian. But Fabius told them that Hannibal’s de- he arrived at Placentia fooner than the Romans or
lign was not to take Rome, but relieve Capua; upon even his brother Hannibal, expedled. Had he conti-
which Fulvius was recalled to Rome with 15,000 foot, nued to ufe the fame expedition with which he let
mid defeats and 1000 llorl'e ; and this ohllged Hannibal again to out, and haftened to join his brother, it would have
Appius. retire. He then returned before Capua lb luddenly, been utterly impoflible to have faved Rome; but, fit-
ting
136
Capua fub-
niits to the
Romans.
Centenius
Penula de¬
feated by
Hannibal,
l3S
As alfo the
. 139
And the
pro-conful
Fulvius
Centuma-
lus.
140
Marcellus
drawn into
an ambuf-
cade and
killed.
141
Carthagini¬
an affairs
totally ru¬
ined by the
defeat of
Afdrubai.
CAR [ 1695 ] CAR
Carthage, ting down before Placentia, be gave the Romans an
  — opportunity of aifembling all their forces to attack
him. At lalt he was obliged to raife the fiege, and
began his march for Umbria. He fent a letter to ac¬
quaint his brother of his intended motion : but the
meflenger was intercepted j and the two confuls, join¬
ed their armies, with united forces fell upon the
Carthaginians. As the latter were inferior both in
numbers and refolution, they were utterly defeated,
and Afdrubal was killed. About the fame time, Han¬
nibal himfelf is faid to have fuffered feveral defeats,
and was retired to Canulium : but, on the fatal new.s
of his brother’s defeat and death, he was filed with
delpair, and retired to the extremity of Brutium ;
where, alfembling all his forces, he remained for a
conliderable time in a Hate of inaction, the Romans
not daring to difturb him, fo formidable did they
efteem him alone, though every thing about him went
to wreck, and the Carthaginian atiairs feemed not
far from the verge of deftruetion. Livy tells us, that
it was difficult to determine whether his conduit was
more wonderful in prolperity or in adverlity. Not-
withlianding which, Brutium being but a linall pro¬
vince, and many of its inhabitants being either forced
into the lervice, or forming themlelves into parties
of banditti, fo that a great part of it remained uncul¬
tivated, he found it a difficult matter to fublift there,
efpecially as no manner of fupplies were fent him
from Carthage. The people there were as felicitous
about preferving their poffeffions in Spain, and as
little concerned about the fuuation of alfairs in Italy,
as if Hannibal had met with an uninterrupted courfe
of fuccefs, and no dilaiter befallen him iince he firft
142 entered that country.
The great All their folicitude, however, about the affairs of
Scl lo Afri Spahb was to no purpofe; their generals, one after a-
cauus°. U notber, were defeated by the Romans. They had in¬
deed cut off the two Scipios; but found a much more
formidable enemy in the young Scipio, afterwards fur-
named Jfiicanus. He overthrew them in conjunc¬
tion with Mafinilfa king of Numidia; and the latter,
thereafter, abandoned their intereft. Soon after,
Syphax, king of the Mafjei’yli, was like wile perfua-
ded to abandon their party. Scipio alfo gave the
Spaniffi Reguli a great overthrow ; and reduced the
cities of New Carthage, Gades, and many other im¬
portant places. At lait the Carthaginians began to
open their eyes when it was too late. Mago was or-
*43 dered to abandon Spain, and fail with all expedition
Mago lands to Italy. He landed on the cosift of Liguria with an
m Italy. army of 12,000 foot and 2000 horfe ; where he fur-
priled Genoa, and alfo feized upon the town and port
of Savo. A reinforcement was lent him to this place,
and new levies went on very brifkly in Liguria ; but
the opportunity was palled, and could not be recalled.
144 Scipio having carried all before him in Spain, palled
Scipio lands over into Africa, where he met with no enemy capa-
i« Africa. j,le of oppofing his progrefs. The Carthaginians
then, feeing tbemfelves on the brink of deltrusition,
were obliged to recal their armies from Italy, in or-
145 der to fave their city. Mago, who had entered Infu-
Mago and bi ia, was defeated by the Roman forces there; and ha-
Hannibal ving retreated into the maritime parts of Liguria,
reca ed. met a courier who brought him orders to return
diredlly to Carthage. At the fame time, Hannibal Carthage.
was likewife recalled. When the meflengers ac¬
quainted him with the fenate’s pleafure, he expreffed
the utmoft indignation and concern, groaning, gnalh-
ing his teeth, and fcarce refraining from tears. Ne¬
ver banilhed man, according to Livy, ffiewed fo much
regret in quitting his native country, as Hannibal did
at going out of that of the enemy. 146
The Carthaginian general was no fooner landed Hannibal's
in Africa, than he fent out parties to get provifions proceed-
foi the army, and buy horfes to remount the cavalry,
He entered into a league with the Regulus of the ;n AfnCa..
Areacidac, one of the Numidian tribes. Four thoufand
of Syphax’s horfe came over in a body to him ; but
as he did not think proper to repofe any ccnhdence
in them, he put them all to the fword, and dillri-
buted their horfes among bis troops. Vermina, one
of Syphax’s fons, and Mafetulus, another Nurnidian
prince, likewife joined him with a confiderable body
of horfe. Moll of the fortreffes in MaftnilTa’s king¬
dom either furrendered to him upon the firft lummons,
or were taken by force. Narce, k c ity of confider¬
able note there, he made himfelf mailer of by ftrata-
gem. Tychaeus, a Numidian Regulus, and faithful ally
of Syphax, whofe territories were famous for an ex¬
cellent breed of horfes, reinforcing him alfo with
2000 of his bell cavalry, Hannibal advanced to Zama,
a town about five days journey dift3nt from Carthage,
.where he encamped. He thence lent out fpies to
obferve the pollute of the Romans. Thefe being
brought to Scipio, he was To far from inflieftihg any
punilhment upon them, which he might have done by
the laws of war, that he commanded them to be led
about the camp, in order to take an exacfl furvey of 147
it, and then difmiffed them Hannibal, admiring the He has aa
noble affurance of his rival, fent a mellenger to de- uneisie-.v
lire an interview with him; which, by means 0f with Scipia.-
Mafinilia, lie obtained. The two generals, therefore,
efcorted by equal detachments of horl’e, met at Na-
dagara, where, by the affiilance of two interpreters,
they held a private conference. Hannibal flattered
Scipio in the moll refined and artful manner, and ex¬
patiated upon all thole topics which, he thought,
could influence that general to grant his nation a
peace upon tolerable terms; amongft other things,
that the Carthaginians would willingly confine them-
felves to Africa, fince fueh was the will of the gods,
in order to procure a lalting peace, whilft the Romans
would be at liberty to extend their eonquefts to the
remotell nations. Scipio anfwcred, that the Romans
were not prompted by ambition, or any finifter
views, to undertake either the former or prefent war
againll the Carthaginians; but by juftiee, and a,pro¬
per regard for their allies.. He alfo obferved, th;.t-
the Carthaginians had, before his arrival in Africa, not
only made him the lame propofals, but Hkewife a-
greed to pay the Romans jqco talents of filver, ra-
llore all the Roman prifoners without ranfom, and
deliver up all their gallies. He infilled on the
perfidious condutil of the Carthaginians, who had
broke a truce concluded with them ; and told him,,
that fo far from granting them more favourable
terms, they ought to expeft more rigorous ones ;
which if Hannibal would fubmit to, a peace would
enlue j.
i48
The battle
of Zama.
Hannibal
totally
routed.
CAR. [ 1696 ] CAR
After the conclufion of the peace, Hannibal ftill Carthage.
kept up liis credit among his countrymen. He was
intrufted with the command of an army againlt fome
neighbouring nations in Africa ; but this being difa- ,
greeable to the Romans, he was removed from it,
enfue ; if not, the decifion of the difpute mu If be left
to the fword.
This conference, betwixt two of the greateft gene¬
rals the world ever produced, ending without fuc-
cefs, they both retired to their refpecfive camps ;
where they informed their troops, that not only the and raifed to the dignity of praetor in Carthage. Here
fate of Rome and Carthage, but that of the whole he continued for fome time, reforming abufes, and
world, was to be determined by them the next day. putting the affairs of the republic in a better condi-
fl“ engagement enfued-*, in which, as Polybius
forms us, the furprifing military genius of Hannibal
difplayed itfelf in an extrarodinary manner. Scipio
likewife, according to Livy, paffed an high encomium
upon him, on account of his uncommon capacity in
taking advantages, the excellent arrangement of his
forces, and the manner in which he gave his orders
during the engagement. The Roman general in¬
deed, not only approved his condtuff, but openly de¬
clared that it was fuperior to his own. Neverthelefs,
being vallly inferior to the enemy in horfe, and the
Hate of Carthage obliging him to hazard a battle with
the Romans at no fmall difadvantage, Hannibal was
utterly routed, and his camp taken. He fled firft to
Thon, and afterwards to Adrumentum, from whence
he was 'recalled to Carthage ; where being arrived,
he advifed his countrymen to conclude a peace with
JScipio on whatever terms he thought proper to pre-
fcribe.
Thus was the ft con d war of the Carthaginians with
. the Romans concluded. The conditions of peace
were very humiliating to the Carthaginians. They
were obliged to deliver up all the Roman deferters,
fugitive flaves, prifoners of war, and all the Italians
whom Hannibal had obliged to follow him. They
alfo delivered up all their Ihips of war, except ten
triremes, all their tame elephants, and were to train out their confent. Their ambaffadors begged, that
tion ; but this likewife being difagreeable to the Ro- 152
mans, he was obliged to fly to Antiochus king of Sy- Hannibal
via. After his flight, the Romans began to look upon fl'es to Aao'
the Carthaginianfwith a fufpicious eye; though, to tlocllUS•
prevent every thing of this kind, the latter had or¬
dered two fliips to purfue Hannibal, had confifcated
his effedts, rafed his houfe, and by a public decree 153
declared him an exile. Soon after, difputes arifing Iniquitous
between the Carthaginians and Mafiniffa, the latter, pr°ceed-
notwithftanding the, manifeft iniquity of his proceed- an^“'
ings, was fupported by the Romans. That prince tjie r0.
grafping at further conqUefts endeavoured to embroil mans,
the Carthaginians with the Romans, by aflerting that
the former had received ambafladors from Perfeus
king of Macedon; that the fenate aflembled in the
temple of AEfculapius in the night-time, in order to
confer with them ; and that ambafladors had been
difpatched from Carthage to Perfeus, in order to con¬
clude an alliance with him. Not long after this, Ma-
finifla made an irruption into the province of Tyf-
ca, where Ire foon pofleflcd himfelf of 70, or, as Ap-
pian will have it, 50 towns and caftles. This obliged
the Carthaginians to apply with great importunity to
the Roman fenate for redrefs, their hands being fo
tied up by an article in the laft treaty, that they could
not repel force by force, in cafe of an invafton, with-
up no more of thefe animals for the fervice. They
were not to engage in any war without the confent
of the Romans. They engaged to pay to the Ro¬
mans, in fifty years, 10,000 Euboic talents, at equal
payments. They were to reftore to Mafmifla all
they had ufurped from him or his anceftors, and to
enter into an alliance with him. They were alfo to
affift the Romans both by fea and land, whenever
they were called upon fo to do, and never to make
any levies either in Gaul or Liguria. Thefe terms
appeared fo intolerable to the populace, that they
threatened to plunder and burn the houfes of the
the Roman fenate would fettle once for all what do¬
minions they were to have, that they might from
thenceforth know what they had to depend upon ;
or if their ftate had any way offended the Romans,
they begged that they would punilh them themfelves,
rather flian leave them expofed to the infults and
vexations of fo mercilefs a tyrant. Then proftrating
themfelves on the eai th, They burft out into tears.
But, notwithftanding the impreffion their fpeech made,
the matter was left undecided ; fo that Mafmifla had
liberty to purfue his rapines as much as he pleafed.
But whatever villainous defignsThe Romans might
nobility; but Hannibal having aflembled a body of have with regard to the repttblic of Carthage, they
6000 foot and 500 horfe at Marthama, prevented an affected to fhew a great regard to the principles of
infurre&ion, and by his influence completed the ac- juftice and honour. They therefore fent Cato, a man
commodation. famous for committing enormities under the fpecious
The peace between Carthage and Rome was fcarce pretence of public fpirit, into Africa, to accommodate
Carthagini-figned, when Mafmifla unjuflly made himfelf mafler all differences betwixt Mafinifla and the Carthagini-
*”? ]3pp5fr ot Part of t,ie Carthaginian dominions in Africa, un- ans. The latter Very well knew their fate, had the)
ltd r>y ivia- Afxy nrpff'nrp tho-t thpfp fArmprlv HpIrtrurpH tn liic fa- fn.kmtM-od t-/-» fi.v-l-. A     
cr\ k“vt ”* 1—~ — — ——to    7 — * ***- vv.ij wwix jvuvw nidi iaitj uau they
iuullk cler P1‘etence that thele formerly belonged to his fa- fubmitted to fuch a mediation; and therefore appealed
mily. The Carthaginians, through the villainous me- to the treaty concluded with Scipio, as the only rule
diation of the Romans, found themfelves under a by which their conduct and that of their adverfary
neceflity of ceding thefe countries to that ambitious ought to be examined. This unre a finable appeal fo
prince, and of entering into an alliance with him. .1  ^ - ■'
The good underftanding between the two powers
continued for many years afterwards;' but at laft
Mafinifla violated the treaties fubfifting betwixt him
and the Carthaginian republic, and not a little contri¬
buted to its fubverfion.
incenfed the righteous Cato, that he pronounced them
a devoted people, and from that time refclved up¬
on their deflruclion. For fome time he was oppofed
by Scipio Nafica.; but the people of Carthage, knowr-
ing the Romans to be their inveterate enemies, and
refleding upon the iniquitous treatment they had met
with
CAR [ 1697 ] CAR
Cnrthage. with from them ever fince the commencement of
"" their difputes with Mafinifla, were under great ap-
prehenfions of a vifit from them. To prevent a rup¬
ture as much as poffible, by a decree of the fenate,
they impeached Afdrubal general of the army, and
Carthalo commander of the auxiliary forces, together
with their accomplices, as guilty of high treafon, for
being the authors of the war againft the king of Nu-
midia. They lent a deputation to Rome, to difcover
what fentiments were entertained there of their late
conduct, and to know what fatisfa&ion the Romans
required. Thefe meflengers meeting with a cold re¬
ception, others were difpatched, who returned with
the fame fuccefs. This made the unhappy citizens of
Carthage believe that their deftru&ion was relblved
upon ; which threw them into the utmoft defpair.
And indeed they had but too juft grounds for fuch a
melancholy apprehenfion, the Roman fenate now dif-
covering an inclination to fall in with Cato’s mea-
fures. About the fame time, the city of Utica, be¬
ing the fecond in Africa, and famous for its immenfe
riches, as well as its equally commodious and capacious
port, fubmitted to the Romans. Upon the polfeliion
of fo important a fortrefs, which, by reafon of its
154 vicinity to Carthage, might ferve as a place of arms
War deck* in the attack of that city, the Romans declared war
Romans^6 aoa'n^ t^ie Carthaginians without the leaft hefitation.
gainft Car- con^e(iuence °f this declaration, the confuls M.
thage. Manlius Nepos, and L. Marcius Cenforinus, were dif-
patched with an army and fleet, to begin hoftilities
with the utmoft expedition. The land-forces confift-
ed of 80,000 foot, and 4000 chofen horfe ; and the
fleet of 50 quinqueremes, befides a vaft number of
tranfports. The confuls had fecret orders from the
fenate not to conclude the operations but by the de-
ftruction of Carthage, without which, it was pretend¬
ed, the republic could not but look upon all her pof-
felflons as infecure. Purfuant to the plan they had
formed, the troops were firft landed at Lilybasum in
Sicily, from whence, after receiving a proper re-
freflnnent, it was propofed to tranfport them to U-
155 tica.
Ambaffa- The anfwer brought by the laft ambafladors to
Rom^ent to Carthage, had not a little alarmed the inhabitants of
that city. But they were not yet acquainted with
the refolutions taken at Rome. They therefore fent
frelh ambafladors thither, whom they invefted with
full powers to act as they thought proper for the good
of the republic, and even to fubmit themfelves with¬
out referve to the pleafure of the Romans. But the
moft fenfible perfons among them did not expedl any
great fuccefs from this condelcenfion, fince the early
fubmiflion of the Uticans had rendered it infinitely
lefs meritorious than it would have been before.
However, the Romans feemed to be in home mea-
fure fatisfied with it, fince they promifed them their
liberty, the enjoyment of their laws, and in fhort
every thing that was dear and valuable to them.
This threw them into a tranfport of joy, and they
156 wanted words to extol the moderation of the Ro-
The Ro- mans. But the fenate immediately dalhed all their
mans de- hopes, by acquainting them, that this favour was
hoft ^0° grantefl up011 condition that they would fend 300
aseS> young Carthaginian noblemen of the firft diftin&ion
Vox.. III.
to the praetor Fabius at Lilybaeum, within the fpace Carthage.
of 30 days, and comply with all the orders of the  
confuls. Thefe hard terms filled the whole city with
inexpreflible grief: but the hoftages were delivered;
and as they arrived at Lilybaeum before the 30 days
were expired, the ambaffadors were not without
hopes of foftening their hard-hearted enemy. But
the confuls only told them, that upon their arrival at
Utica they fliould learn the farther orders of the re¬
public.
The minifters no fooner received intelligence of
the Roman fleet appearing off" Utica, than they re¬
paired thither, in order to know the fate of their
city. The confuls, however, did not judge it expe¬
dient to communicate all the commands of their re¬
public at once, left they fhould appear fo harfti and
fevere, that the Carthaginians would have refufed to
comply with them. They firft, therefore, demanded And all the
a fufficient fupply of corn for the fubfiftence of their Carthagini-
troops. Secondly, That they fliould deliver up into an ®rms>
their hands all the triremes they were then mailers Machines
of. Thirdly, That they fhould put them in polfef- &g< \
fion of all their military machines. And fourthly,
That they fhould immediately convey all their arms
into the Roman camp.
As care was taken that there fliould be a conve¬
nient interval of time betwixt every one of thefe de¬
mands, the Carthaginians found themfelves enfnared,
and could not reject any one of them, though they
fubmitted to the laft with the utmoft reluctance and rsg
concern. Cenforinus now imagining them incapa- Theycom-
ble of fuftaining a liege, commanded them to aban- mandthem
don their city, or, as Zonaras will have it, to de-
molifli it; permitting them to build another 80 ftadia
from the fea, but without walls or fortifications.
This terrible decree threw the fenate and every one
elfe into delpair ; and the, whole city became a fcene
of horror, madnefs, and confufion. The citizens
curfed their anceftors for not dying glorioufly in the
defence of their country, rather than concluding fuch
ignominious treaties of peace, that had been the
caufe of the deplorable condition to which their po-
fterity was then reduced. At length, when the firft:
commotion was a little abated, the fenators aflem-
bled and refolved to fuftain a flege. They were The Car-
ftripped of their arms and deftitute of provifions j thaginkns
but defpair raifed their courage, and made them find to
out expedients. They took care to Ihut the gates of ^ * a
the city; and gathered together on the ramparts
great heaps of Hones, to ferve them inftead of arms
in cafe of a furprife. They took the malefactors
out of prifon, gave the flaves their liberty, and in¬
corporated them in the militia. Afdrubal was recal¬
led, who had been fentenced to die only to pleafe
the Romans ; and he was invited to employ 20,000
men he had raifed againft his country, in defence of
it. Another Afdrubal was appointed to command in
Carthage; and all feemed refolute, either to fave ] 60
their city or perifli in its ruins. They wanted arms ; They make
but, by order of the fenate, the temples, porticoes, new arras,
and all public buildings, were turned into work-
houfes, where men and women were continually em¬
ployed in making arms. As they encouraged one
another in tlieir work, and loft no time in procuring
10 F to
CAR [ 1698 ] CAR
Carthage, to themfelves the neceffaries of life, which were
 brought to them at ftated hours, they every day
made 144 bucklers, 300 fwords, 1000 darts, and
500 lances and javelins. As to baliftae and catapultse,
they wanted proper materials for them ; but their
induftry fupplied that defeat. Where iron andTjrals
were wanting, they made ufe of filver and gold,
melting down the llatues, vales, and even the uten-
fils of private families ; for, on this occafion, even
the moft covetous became liberal. As tow and flax
were wanting to make cords for working the ma¬
chines, the women, even thofe of the firft rank, freely
cut off their hair and dedicated it to that ufe. With¬
out the walls, Afdrubal employed the troops in get-
ting together provilions, and conveying them lafe
into Carthage; fo that there was as great plenty
there as in the Roman camp.
In the mean time the confuls delayed drawing near
to Carthage, not doubting but the inhabitants, whom
they imagined deftitute of neceffaries to fuftain a
liege, would) upon cool reflection, fubmit; but at
length, finding themfelves deceived in their expec¬
tation, they came before the place and invefted it.
As they were ftill perfuaded that the Carthaginians
16 r had no arms, they flattered themfelves that they
The city at-fhould eafily carry the city by aflault. Accordingly
the^Ro^ they approached the walls in order to plant their
mans° vtho Scaling-ladders ; but to their great furprife they dif¬
are repul- covered a prodigious multitude of men on the ram-
Icd. parts, fliining in the armour they had newly made.
The legionaries were fo terrified at this unexpected
fight, that they drew back, and would have retired,
if the confnls had not led them on to the attack :
which, however, proved unfuccefsfiil; the Romans,
in fpite of their ntmoft efforts, being obliged to give
over the enterprize, and lay afide all thoughts of ta¬
king Carthage by aflault. In the mean time Afdru¬
bal, having collected from all places fubjedl to Car¬
thage a prodigious number of troops, came and en¬
camped within reach of the Romans, and foon re¬
duced them to great ftraits for want of provifions.
As Marcins, one of the Roman confuls, was polled
near a rnarlh, the exhalations of the ftagnating wa¬
ters, and the heat of the feafon, infedted the air,
and caufed a general fieknefs among his men. Marcius,
therefore, ordered his fleet to draw as near the Ihore as
poflible, in order to tranfport his troops to an heal¬
thier place. Afdrubal being informed of this motion,
ordered all the old barks in the harbour to be filled
162 with faggots, tow, fulphur, bitumen, and other com-
Psrt of the huftible materials; and then taking advantage of the
Roman fleet wind, which blew towards the enemy, let them
..ci.toyed, drive upon their Ihips, which were for the moft part
confumed. After this difafter, Marcius was called
home to prefide at the elections; and the Cartha¬
ginians, looking upon the ahlence of one of the con¬
fuls to be a good omen, made a brilk fally in the
night; and would have furprifed the confuks camp,
had not iEmilianm, with fome fquadrons, marched
out of the gate oppofite to the place where the at¬
tack was made, and, coming round, fell unexpec¬
tedly on their rear, and obliged them to return in
drforder to the city.
Afdrubal had polled himfelf under the walls of a
city named Nepheris, 24 miles diftant from Car- Carthage,
thage, and fituated on an high mountain, which feem- ————
ed inacceflible on all fides. From thence he made
incurfions into the neighbouring country, intercepted
the Roman convoys, fell upon their detachments fent
out to forage, and even ordered parties to infult the
confular army in their camp. Hereupon the conful
refolved to drive the Carthaginian from this advan¬
tageous poll, and let out for Nepheris. As he drew
near the hills, Afdrubal fuddenly appeared at the
head of his army in order of battle, and fell upon the
Romans with incredible fury. The confular army
fuftained the attack with great refolution; and Af¬
drubal retired in good order to his poll, hoping the
Romans would attack him there. But the eonful be¬
ing now con vinced of his danger, refolved to retire. 163
This Afdrubal no fooner perceived, than he ruffled Ti,e Ro-
down the hill, and falling upon the enemy’s rear, |Tlanarmyj
cut a great number of them in pieces. The whole dinger* is
Roman army was now faved by the bravery of Scipio faved by
jEmilianus. At the head of 300 horfe, he fuftained Scipio 4E-
the attack of all the forces commanded by Afdrubal, mil‘snus'
and covered the legions, while they palled a river in
their retreat before the enemy. Then he and his
companions threw themfelves into the ftream, and
fwam acrofs it. When the army had crofted the ri¬
ver, it was perceived that four manipuli were want¬
ing ; and foon after they were informed tliat they
had retired to an eminence, where they refolved to
fell their lives as dear as poflible. Upon this news
iEmilianus, taking with him a chofen body of horfe,
and provifions for two days, crofled the river, and
flew to the affiftance of his countrymen. He feized
an hill over againft that on which the four manipuli
were ported ; and, after fome hours repofe, marched
againft the Carthaginians who kept them invefted,
fell upon them at the head of his fquadron with the
boldnefs of a man determined to conquer or die,
and in fpite of all oppofition opened a way for his
fellow-foldiers to efcape. On his return to the ar¬
my, his companions, who had given him over for
loft, carried him to his quarters in a kind of triumph;
and the manipuli he had faved gave him a crown of
graintu. By thefe and fome other exploits, Aimi-
lianus gained fuch reputation, that Cato, who is laid
never to have commended any body before, could
not refufe him the praifes he deferved; and is faid to
have foretold that Carthage would never be reduced
till Scipio AEmilianus was employed in that expedi¬
tion.
The next year, the war in Africa fell by lot to the
conful L. Calpurnius Pilb; and he continued to em¬
ploy ACmilianus in feveral important enterprizes, in 164
which he was attended with uncommon fuccefs. He He gains
took feveral caftles ; and in one of his excurfiohs, over
found means to have a private conference with Pha- CarthagIni-
meas, general, under Afdrubal, of the Carthaginian of horfe?
cavalry, and brought him over, together with 2200
of his horfe, to the Roman intereft. Under the con¬
ful Calpurnius Pifo himfelf, however, the Roman
arms were unfuccefsful. He invefted Clupea; but
was obliged to abandon the enterprize, with the lofs
of a great number of men killed by the enemy in
their lallies. From this place he went to vent his
rage
CAR [ 1699 ] CAR
Carthage, rage on a city newly built, and thence called Nea-
  polis, which profefled a llrift neutrality, and had
even a fafeguard from the Romans. The conful,
however, plundered the place, and Itripped the in¬
habitants of all their efle&s. After this he laid fiege
to Hippagreta, which employed the Roman fleet and
army the whole fummer ; and, on the approach of
winter, the conful retired to Utica, without perform¬
ing a lingle action worth notice during the whole
t6s campaign.
He is cho- The next year Scipio AEmilianus was chofen con-
fen conful. fu]^ ancj orclered t0 pafs jnto Africa ; and upon his
arrival, the face of affairs was greatly changed. At
the time of his entering the port of Utica, 3500 Ro¬
mans were in great danger of being cut in pieces be¬
fore Carthage. Thefe had feized Megalia, one of
the fuburbs of the city : but as they had not furnifhed
themfelves with provifions to fubfiit there, and could
not retire, being clofely invefted on all Tides by the
enemy’s troops; the praetor Mancinus, who com¬
manded this detachment, feeing the danger into
which he had brought himfelf, cjilpatched a light boat
to Utica, to acquaint the Romans there with his fitu-
ation. Aimilianus received this letter a few hours
after his landing; and immediately flew to the relief
of the belieged Romans, obliged the Carthaginians to
retire within their walls, and fafely conveyed his
countrymen to Utica. Having then drawn together
all the troops, ACmilianus applied himfelf wholly to
the fiege of the capital.
His firfl: attack was upon Megalia; which he car-
t66 J'ied by aifault, the Carthaginian garrifon retiring in-
Monftrous to the citadel of Byrfa. Afdrubal, who had corn-
cruelties of uianded the Carthaginian forces in the field, and was
Afdrubal. now governor of the city, was fo enraged at the lofs
of Megalia, that he caufed all the Roman captives
taken in the two y6ars the war lafted, to be brought
upon the ramparts, and thrown headlong, in the
fight of the Roman army, from the top of the wall;
after having, with an excefs of cruelty, commanded
their hands and feet to be cut off, and their eyes and
tongues to be torn out. He was of a temper re¬
markably inhuman, and it is laid that he even took
pleafure in feeing fame of thefe unhappy men flayed
alive. ^Emilianus, in the mean time, was bufy in
drawing lines of circumvallation and contravallation
,6y crofs the neck of land which joined the ifthmus on
Carthage which Carthage flood to the continent. By this
blocked up means, all the avenues on the land-fide of Carthage
land^ 3n^ be'ng fhut up, the city could receive no provifions
311 ‘ that way. His next care was to raife a mole in the
fea, in order to block up the old port, the new one
being already fhut up by the Roman fleet; and this
great work he effected with immenfe labour. The
mole reached from the weftem neck of land, of which
the Romans were mailers, to the entrance of the
port ; and was 90 feet broad at the bottom, and 80
at the top. The befieged, when the Romans firfl
begRn this furprifing work, laughed at the attempt;
but were no lefs alarmed than furprifed, when they
beheld a vaft mole appearing above water, and by
The befiew- that means the port rendered inacceffible to fhips,
ed dig a ° and quite nfelefs. Prompted by defpair, however,
new bafon, the Carthaginians, with incredible and almoft mira¬
culous induftry, dug a new bafon, and cut a paflage Carthage,
into the fea, by which they could receive the pro- '
vifions that were fent them by their troops in the
field. With the fame diligence and expedition, they
fitted out a fleet of 50 triremes; which, to the great
furprife of the Romans, appeared fuddenly advan¬
cing into the .fea through this new canal, and even
ventured to give the eneitiy battle. The action
lafted the whole day, with little advantage on either
fide. The day after, the confid endeavoured to
make himfelf mailer of a terrace which covered the
city on the fide next the fea ; and on this occafion the They ti t
befieged fignalized themfelves in a moft remarkable fire to the
manner. Great numbers of them, naked and un- nu~
armed, went into the water in the dead of thecl;
night, with unlighted torches in their hands; and
having, partly by fwimming, partly by wading, got
within reach of the Roman engines, they ftruck fire,
lighted their torches, and threw them with fury a-
gainfl the machines. The fudden appearance of thefe
naked men, who looked like fo many monflers flart-
ed up out of the fea, fo terrified the Romans who
guarded the machines, that they began to retire in
the utmofl confufion. The conful, who commanded
the detachment in perfon, and had continued all
night at the foot of the terrace, endeavoured to flop
his men, and even ordered thofe who fled to be kil¬
led. But the Carthaginians, perceiving the confu¬
fion the Romans were in, threw themfelves upon
them like fo many wild beafls; and having put them
to flight only with their torches, they fet fire to the
machines, and entirely confumed them. This, how¬
ever, did not difeourage the conful; he renewed the
attack a few days after, carried ' the terrace by id-
fault, and lodged 4000 men upon it. As this was art
important poll, becaufe it pent in Carthage on the
fea-fide, iEmilianus took care to fortify and fecure it
againfl the Tallies of the enemy; and then, winter
approaching, he fufpended all further attacks upon
the place till the return of good weather. During
the winter-feafon, however, the conful was not in-
atflive. The Carthaginians had a very numerous
army under the command of one Diogenes, ftrongly
encamped near Nepheris, whence convoys of pro¬
vifions were fent by fea to the befieged, and brought
into the new bafon. To take Nepheris, therefore,
was to deprive Carthage of her chief magazine.
This ACmilianus undertook, and fucceeded in the at- 170
tempt. He firfl: forced the enemy’s entrenchments, Vaft flaugh*
put 70,000 of them to the fwotd, and made 10,000 tev oft!:c.
prifoners; all the inhabitants of the country, who CarthaSin1'
could not retire to Carthage, having taken refuge in
this camp. After this, he laid fiege to Nepheris,
which was reduced in 2 2 days. Afdrubal being dif-
heartened by the defeat of the army, and touched
with the mifery of the befieged nOw reduced to the '
utmoft extremity for want of provifions, offered to
fubinit to what conditions the Romans pleafed, pro¬
vided the city was fpared ; but this was abfolutely
refufed.
Early in the fpring, jEmilianus renewed the' fiege
of Carthage ; and in order to open himfelf a way ' 171
into the city, he ordered Ltelius to attempt the reduo Cotho ca¬
tion of Cotho, a fmall ifland which divided the two ken-
10 F 2 ports.
CAR [ l700 ] CAR
Carthage, ports. jEmilianus himfelf made a falfe attack on the
' citadel, in order to draw the enemy thither. This
Itratagem had the defired effect; for the citadel being
a place of the greatelt importance, moft of the Car¬
thaginians haftened thither, and made their utmoft
efforts to repulfe their aggreffors. But in the mean
time Laslius having, with incredible expedition, built
a wooden bridge over the channel which divided Co-
tho from the ifthmus, entered the ifland, fcaled the
walls of the fortrefs which the Carthaginians had
built there, and made himfelf mafter of that impor¬
tant poft. The proconful, who was engaged before
Byrfa, no fooner underftood, by the loud ihouts of the
troops of Laalius, that he had made himfelf mafter of
172 Cotho, than he abandoned the falfe attack, and unex-
Bomar.sen- peOtedly fell on the neighbouring gate of the city,
ter die city;, which he broke down, notwithftanding the fhowers
of darts that were inceffantly difcharged upon his
men from the ramparts. As night coming on pre¬
vented him from proceeding farther, he made a lodg¬
ment within the gate, and waited there for the re¬
turn of day, with a defign to advance through the
city to the citadel, and attack it on that fide which
was but indifferently fortified. Purfuant to this de¬
fign, at day-break he ordered 4000 frefli troops to
be fent from his camp, and, having folemnly devoted
to the infernal gods the unhappy Carthaginians, he be¬
gan to advance at the head of his men, through the
itreets of the city, in order to attack the citadel.
Having advanced to the market-place, he found that
the way to the citadel lay through three exceeding
fteep ftreets. The houfes on both fides were very
high, and filled with Carthaginians, who overwhelm¬
ed the Romans as they advanced, with darts and
ftones ; fo that they could not proceed till they had
cleared them. To this end j'Emilianus in perfon, at
the head of a detachment, attacked the firft houfe,
and made himfelf mafter of it fword in hand. His
example was followed by the officers and foldiefs,
who went on from houfe to houfe, putting all they
met with to the fword. As faft as the houfes were
cleared on both fides, the Romans advanced in order
of battle towards the citadel; but with a vigorous
refiftance from the Carthaginians, who on this occa-
lion behaved with uncommon refolution. From the
market-place to the citadel, two bodies of men fought
their way every ftep one above, on the roofs of the
houfes, the other below in the ftreets. The flaugh-
ter was inexpreffibly great and dreadful. The air
rung with fhrieks and lamentations. Some were cut
in pieces, others threw themfelves down from the
17a tops of the houfes ; fo that the ftreets were filled with
Which is dead and mangled bodies. But the deftruction was
lit on fire. yCt greater, when the proconful commanded fire to
be fet to that quarter of the town which lay next to
the citadel. Incfedible multitudes, who had efcaped
the fwords of the enemy, perifhed in the flames, or
by the fall of the houfes. After the fire, which lafted
fix days, had demolifhcd a fafficient number of houfes,
^Emilianus ordered the rubbifh to be removed, and a
large area to be made, where all his troops might
have room to aft. Then he appeared with his whole
army before Byrfa; which fo terrified the Carthagi¬
nians, who had fled thither for refuge, that firft of
all 25,000 women, and then 30,000 men, came ont Carthage,
of the gates in fuch a condition as moved pity. They *
threw themfelves proftrate before the Roman gene¬
ral, afking no favour but life. This was readily
granted, not only to them, but to all that were in
Byrfa, except the Roman deferters, whofe number
amounted to 900. Afdrubal’s wife earneftly intreat- cruelty and
ed her hufband to fuffer her to join the fuppliants, cowardice
and carry with her to the proconful her two fons, of Afdru-
who were as yet very young ; but the barba- a*‘
rian denied her requeft, and rejected her remon-
ftrances with menaces. The Roman deferters feeing
themfelves excluded from mercy, refolved to die
fword in hand, rather than deliver themfelves up to
the vengeance of their countrymen. Then Aidru-
bal, finding them all refolved to defend themfelves to
the laft breath, committed to their care his wife and
children; after which he, in a moft: cowardly and mean-
fpirited manner, came and privately threw himl'elf at
the conqueror’s feet. The Carthaginians in the cita¬
del no fooner underftood that their commander had
abandoned the place, than they threw open the gates,
and put the Romans in poffi ffion of Byrfa., They
had now no.enemy to contend with but the 900 de¬
ferters ; who, being reduced to defpair, retreated into
the temple of Adculapius, which was as a fecond
temple within the firft. There the proconfnl attack¬
ed them ; and thefe unhappy wretches, finding there
was no way to efcape, let fire to the temple. As
the flames fpread, they recreated from one part of
the building to another, till they got to the roof.
There Afdrubal’s wife appeared in her heft apparel, Afdrubal’s ,
and having uttered the moft bitter imprecations wife de-
againft her hulhand, whom Ihe law ftanding below j161”
with ASrailianus, “ Bafe coward, (faid Ihe), the mean
things thou haft dene to fave thy life Ihall not avail
thee ; thou fhalt die this inftant, at leaft in thy two
children.” Having thus fpoken, flie ftabbed both the
infants with a dagger; and while-they were yet
ftruggling for life, threw them both from the top of
the temple, and then leaped down after them into
the flames. I7g
Almilianus delivered up the city to be pkmdered; Carthage
but in the manner prefcribed by the Roman military plundered,
law. The foldiers were allowed to appropriate to
themfelves all the furniture, men fils, and brafs money,
they ftiould find in private houfes. But all the gold
and filver, the ftatues, piftures, ire. were referved
to be put into the hands of the quteftors. On this
occafion the cities of Sicily, which had been often
plundered by the Carthaginian armies, recovered a
number of ftatues, piftures, and other valuable mo¬
numents : among the reft, the famous brafen bull,
which Phalaris had ordered to be caft, and ufed as the
chief inftrument of his cruelty, was reftored to the
inhabitants of Agrigentum. As ACmilianus was great¬
ly inclined to fpare what remained of this ftately me¬
tropolis, he wrote to the fen ate on the fubjeft, from
whom he received the following orders : 1. The city
of Carthage, with Byrfa, and Megalia, Ihall be en¬
tirely deftroyed, and no traces of them left. 2. All
the cities that have lent Carthage any afliftance {hall
be difmantled. 3. The territories of thofe cities which
have declaredLfor the Romans, fhall be enlarged with
lands-
CAR [ 1701 1 CAR
Carthage, lands taken from the enemy. 4. All the lands be-
    tween Hippo and Carthage (hall be divided among
‘ the inhabitants of Utica. 5. All the Africans of the
Carthaginian ft ate, both men and women, (hall pay
an annual tribute to the Romans at fo much per head.
6. The whole country, which was fubjetft to the Car¬
thaginian ft^te, (hall be turned into a Roman province,
and be governed by a prattor, in the fame manner as
Sicily. Laftly, Rome ftiall fend commiffioners into
Africa, there to fettle jointly with the proconfu! the
ftate of the new province.—Before Av.niharms de-
ftroyed the city, he performed thofe religious cere-
177 monies which were required on fitch occalions : he
And utter- facrificed to the gods, and then caufed a plough
ly deftroy- to be drawn round the walls of the city. After this,
the towers, ramparts, walls, and aft the works which
the Carthaginians had raifed in the courfe of many
ages, and at a vaft expence, were levelled with the
ground ; and laftly, fire was fet to the edifices of this
proud metropolis, which conturned them all, not a
fingle houfe efeaping the flames. Though the fire
began in all quarters at the fame time, and burnt with
incredible fury, it continued for 17 days before all
the buildings were confumed.
Thus fell Carthage, about 146 years before the
birth of Chrift ; a city whofe deftruiftion ought to be
attributed more to the intrigues of an abandoned fac¬
tion, compofed of the moft profligate part of its citi¬
zens, than to the power of its rival. The treafure
‘ AEmilianus carried off, even after the city had been
delivered up to be plundered by the foldiers, was im-
menfe, Pliny making it to amount to 4,470,000 pounds
weight of filver. The Romans ordered Carthage
never to be inhabited again, denouncing dreadful im¬
precations againft thofe, who, contrary to this prohi-
I7g bition, fhould attempt to rebuild any part of it, efpe-
Rebuilt. dally Byrfa and Megalia. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, about 24 years after, C. Gracchus, tribune of
the people, in order to ingratiate himl'elf with them,
undertook to rebuild it; and, to that end, conducted
thither a colony of 6000 Roman citizens. The work¬
men, according to Plutarch, were terrified by many
unlucky omens at the time they were tracing the
limits and laying the foundations of the new city;
which the fenate being informed of, would have fuf-
pended the attempt. But the tribune, little affetfted
with fticb prefages, continued to carry on the work,
and finifhed it in a few days. From hence it is pro¬
bable that only a flight kind of huts were erected ;
but, whether Gracchus executed his delign, or the
work was entirely difeontinued, it is certain, that
Carthage was the firft Roman colony ever font out of
Italy. According to fome authors, Carthage was re¬
built by Julius Cad hr ; and Strabo, who flourifhed in
the reign of Tiberius, affirms it in his time to have
been equal if not fuperior to any other city in Africa,
k was looked upon as the capital of Africa for feveral
centuries after the commencement of the Chriftian
sera. Maxentins laid it in allies about the fixth or
feventh year of Conftantine’s reign. Genferic, king
Utterly de- of the Vandals, took it A. D. 439 ; but about a cen-
ftroyed by tury afterwards, it was re.-annexed to the Roman
the Sara- empire by the renowned Belifarius. At laft the Sa-
eens, racens, under Mohammed’s fucceffors, towards the
clofe of the feventh century, fb completely deftroyed Carthage.
it, that there are now fcarce any traces remaining.  
At the commencement of the third Punic war,
Carthage appears to have been one of the firft cities jg-,
in the world.—It was feated on a peninfula 360 Its ancient
ftadia or 45 miles in circumference, joined to the grandeur,
continent by an ifthmus 23 ftadia or three miles and
a furlong in breadth. On the weft fide there pro-
jeifted from it a long traeft of land half a ftadium
broad ; which fhooting out into the fea, feparated
it from a lake or morals, was ftrongly fortified on all
ftdes by rocks, and a Angle wall. In the middle of
the city flood the citadel of Byrfa, having on the top
of it a temple facred to Affculapius, feated upon rocks
on a very, high hill, to which the afeent was by 60
fteps. On the fouth fide the city was furrounded by
a triple wall, 30 cubits high; flanked all round by
parapets and rowers, placed at equal diftances of 480
feet. Every tower bad its foundation funk 32 feet
deep, and was four ftories high, though the walls
were but two : they were arched ; and, in the lower
part, correfponding in depth with the foundations a-
bove-mentioned, were flails large enough to hold 300
elephants with their fodder, ire. Over thefe were
flails and other conveniencies for 4000 horfes ; and
there was likewife room for lodging 20,000 foot, and
4000 cavalry, without in the kaft incommoding the
inhabitants. There were two harbours, fo difpof’ed as
to have a communication with one another. They
had one common entrance 70 feet broad, and flint up.
with chains. The firft was. appropriated to the mer¬
chants ; and included in it a vaft number of places of
refrefhment, and all kinds of accommodations for lea-
men. The fecond, as well as the ifland of Gothon,
in the midft of it, was lined with large keys, in which
were diftinbl receptacles for fecuring and fheltering
from the weather 220 fhips of war. Over thele were
magazines of all forts of naval flores. The entrance
into each of thefe receptacles was adorned with two
marble pillars of the Ionic ol der y fo that both the
harbour and ifland reprefented on each fide two mag¬
nificent galleries. Near this ifland was a temple of
Apollo, in which was a ftatne of the god all of inafly
gold ; and the inlide of the temple all lined with plates
of the fame metal, weighing 1000 talents. The city
was 23 miles in circumference, and at the time
we fpeak of contained 700,000 inhabitants. Of their
power we may have 1’ome idea, by the quantity of
arms they delivered up to-the Roman confuls. The
whole army was altoriifhed at the long train of carts
loaded with them, which were thought-fufficient to
have armed all Africa. At leaft it is certain, that on
this occafion were put into the hands of the Romans,
. 2000 catapults, 200,00.0 complete fuits of armour,,
with an innumerable quantity of fwords, darts, jave¬
lins, arrov/s, and beams armed with iron which were
thrown from the ramparts by the baliftar.
The char a cfler tranfmitted of'the Charthagirfians is-
extremely bad ; hut we have it only on the authority
of the Romans, who being their implacable enemies,
cannot be much relied upon. As to their religion,.man¬
ners, ire. being much the fame wijh the Phoenicians of
which they were a colony, the reader is referred for
an account of thefe things-to the article Phoenicia.
New-C ar¬
chage
Gartbagena
CAR [ 1702 ] CAR
TV^to-Carthage, a confiderable town of Mexico,
in the province of Coltarica. It is a very rich trading
place. W. Long. 86. 7. N. Lat. 9. 5.
CARTHAGENA, a province of South America,
and one of the tnoft con(lderable*in New Caftile, on
account of the great trade carried on by the capital;
for the country itfelf is neither fertile, rich, nor popu¬
lous. The capital city, called likewife Carthagena, is
fituated in W. Long. 77, N. Lat. 11, on a fandy
iiland, by inoR writers called a peninfula; which, for¬
ming an arrow paflage on the fouth-weft, opens a com¬
munication with that called Ticrra Bomba, as far as
Bocca Chica. The little iiland which now joins them,
was formerly the entrance of the bay ; but it having
been filled up by orders of the court, Bocca Chica became
the only entrance : this, however, has been filled up
fince the attempt of Vernon and Wentworth, and the
old pafiage again opened. On the north fide the land
is fo narrow, that, before the wall, was begun, the
diftance from fea to fea was only 35 toifes; but after¬
wards enlarging, it forms another ifland on this fide ;
fo that, excepting thefe two places, the whole city is
entirely furrounded by fait water. To the eaftward
it has a communication, by means of a wooden bridge,
with a large fuburb called Xeniani, built on another
ifland, which is alfo joined to the continent by a
bridge of the fame materials. The fortifications both
of the city and fuburbs, are built after the modern
manner, and lined with free-ftone; and, in time of
peace, the garrifon confifts of ten companies of 77
men each, beftdes militia. The city and luburbs are
well laid out, the ftreets ftraight, broad, uniform, arid
well paved. All the houfes are built of ftone or brick,
only one llory high, well contrived, neat, and furnifli-
ed, with balconies and lattices of wood, which is more
durable in that climate than iron, the latter being
foon corroded by the acrimonious quality of the at-
mofphere. The climate is exceedingly unhealthy.
The Europeans are particularly fubjeft to the terrible
difeafe called the black vomit, which fweeps off multi¬
tudes annually on the arrival of the galleons. It fel-
dom continues above three or four days ; in which
time the patient is either dead, or out of danger, and
if he recovers is never fubjedl to a return of the
fame diftemper.—This difeafe has hitherto foiled all the
art of the Spanifli phyficians ; as has alfo the le-
profy, which is very common here. At Carthagena,
likewife, that painful tumour in the legs, occalioned
by the entrance of the Dracunculus or Guinea-worm,
is vdry common and troublefome. Another diforder
peculiar to this country and to Peru, is occafioned by
a little infecl called Nigua, fo extremely minute, as
fcarce to be vifible to the naked eye. This infect
breeds in the duff, infmuates itfelf into the foies of tlie
feet and the legs, piercing the fkin with fuch fubtilty,
that there is no being aware of it, before it has made
its way to the flelh. If it is perceived in the begin¬
ning, it is extracted with little pain ; but having once
lodged its head, and pierced the fldn, the patient mull
undergo the pain of an incifion, without which a
nodus would be formed, and a multitude of infefts in-
gendered, which would foon overfpread the foot and
leg. One fpecies of the nigua is venomous; and
when it enters the toe, an inflammatory fwelling,
greatly refembling a venereal bubo, takes place in
the groin.
Carthagena, a fea-port town of Spain in the
kingdom of Murcia, and capital of a territory of. the
fame name; bulk by Afdrubal, a Carthaginian general,
and named after Carthage. It has the bell harbour
in all Spain, but nothing elfe very confiderable ; the
bifhop’s lee being transferred to Toledo. In 1706
it was taken by Sir John Leak ; but the Duke of
Berwick retook it afterwards. W. Long. o. 58. N.
Lat. 37. 36.
CARTHAMUS, Bastard-saffron, or Safflower,
a genus of the polygamia aequalis order belonging to
the fyngenefia clafs of plants. Of this genus there are
nine Ipecies ; but the only remarkable one is the
tindlorius, with a faffron-coloured flower. This is a
native of Egypt and fome of the warm parts of Alia.
It is at prelent cultivated in many parts of Europe,
and alfo in the Levant, from whence great quantities
of it are annually imported into Britain for the pur-
pofes of dyeing and painting. It is an annual plant;
and rifes with a ftiff ligneous ftalk, about two feet and
a half or three feet in height, dividing upwards into
many branches, garnilhed with oval pointed leaves
fitting clofe to the branches. The flowers grow An¬
gle at the extremity of each branch ; the heads of the
flowers are large, inclofed in a fcaly empalement;
each fcale is broad at the bafe, flat, and formed like
a leaf of the plant, terminating in a lharp fpine. The
lower part of the empalement Ipreads open ; but the
feales above clofely embrace the florets, which are of
a fine faffron colour, and are the part ufed for the
purpofes above-mentioned. The good quality of this
commodity is in the colour, which is of a bright faf¬
fron hue : and in this the Britilh carthamus very of¬
ten fails ; for if there happens much rain during the
time the plants are in flower, the flowers change to
a dark or dirty yellow, as they likewife do if the
flowers are gathered with any moifture remaining
upon them.—The plants are propagated by leeds,
which fliould be fown in drills, at two feet and a
half diflance from one another, in which the feeds
fliould be-fcattered fingly. The plants will appear in
lefs than a month ; and in three weeks or a month
after, it will be proper to hoe the ground ; at which
time the plants fliould be left fix inches diftant: after
this they will require a fecond hoeing; when they
muft be thinned to the diftance at which they are to
remain. If aftef this they are hoed a third time,
they will require no farther care till they come to
floiver; when, if the fafflower is intended for ufe, the
florets fliould be cut off from the flowers as they come
to perfection : but this muft be performed when they
are perfectly dry ; and then they fliould be dried in a
kiln with a moderate fire, in the fame manner as the
true faffron. But in thofe flowers which are propa¬
gated for feeds, the florets muft not be cut oft’, or the
feeds will prove abortive.—The feeds of carthamus
have been celebrated as a cathartic ; but they operate
very flowly, and for the raoft part diforder the
ftomach and bowels, efpecially when given in fub-
ftance : triturated with diftilled aromatic waters,
they form an emulfion lefs offenfive, yet inferior in
efficacy to the more common purgatives. They are
eaten
Carthagena
Carthamus,
Carthufians
Carton
Brit. Zool.
HI. 75-
CAR [ 1703 ] CAR
eaten by a fpecies of Egyptian parrot, which is very merly at Hampton-conrt, but now at the queen’s pa* Cartouche
fond of them ; to other birds or beads they would lace, are defigns of Raphael Urbin, intended for II
prove a mortal poifon. tape dry. Carv€r'
CAR FHUSIANS, a religious order founded in the CARTOUCHE, in archite<dure and fculpture, an
year 1080, by one Brudo. The Carthufians, fo called ornament repreienting a fcroll of paper. It is ufually
from the defert of Chartreux, the place of their indi- a flat member, with wavings, to reprefent fome in-
tution, are remarkable for the auderity of their rule, fcription, device, cipher, or ornament of armoury.
They ^ife not to go out of their cells, except to They are, in architecture, much the fame as modil-
church, without leave of their fuperior ; nor fpeak lions ; only thele are fet under the comice in wain-
to any perfon without leave. They mud not keep dotting, and thole under the cornice at the eaves of
any portion of their meat or drink till next day ; a houfe.
their beds are of draw, covered with a felt ; their Cartouche, in the military art, a cafe of wood,
cloathing two hair-cloaths, two cowls, two pair of about three inches thick at the bottom, girt with
hole, and a cloke, all coarfe. In the refectory, they marlin, holding about four hundred mniket-balls, be-
are to kept their eyes on the dilh, their hands on ddes lix or eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to
the table, their attention on the reader, and their be fired out of a hobit, for the defence of a pais, ire.
hearts fixed on God. Women are not allowed to A cartouche is fometimes made of a globular form,
come into their churches. It is computed that there and filled with a ball of a pound weight; and forne-
are 172 houfes of Carthufians ; whereof five are times it is made for the guns, being of a ball of half
of Nuns, who praftife the fame auderities as the or quarter a pound weight, according to the nature
Monks. They are divided into 16 provinces, each of the gun, tied in form of a bunch of grapes, on a
of which has two vifitors. There have been feveral tompion of wood, and coated over. Thefe were
canonized faints of this order, four cardinals, 70 arch- made in the room of partridge-lhot.
biihops and bilhops, and a great many very learned CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a cafe of pade-
writers. - board or parchment, holding the exact charge, of a
Carthus 1 htx-Powdet'j the fame with kermes-mi- fire-arm. Thofe for mulkets, carabines, and pidols,
neral. See Kermes. . hold both the powder and ball for the charge; and
CARTILAGE, in anatomy, a body approaching to thofe of cannon and mortars are ufually in cafes of
the nature of bones ; but lubricous, flexible, and ela- padeboard or tin, fometimes of wood, half a foot
die. See Anatomy, n° 3. long, adapted to the caliber of the piece.
CARTILAGINOUS, in ichthyology, a title given Cartridge-2?ox, a cafe of wood or turned iron,
to all filh whole mufcles are fupported by cartilages covered with leather, holding a dozen mufquet-cart-
inltead of bones ; and comprehends the dime genera ridges. It is wore upon a belt, and hangs a little
of filh to w'hich Linnaeus has given the name of am- lower than the right pocket-hole.
phibia nantes : but the word amphibia ought properly CARTWRIGHT ( William) an eminent divine and
to be confined to fuch animals as inhabit both ele- poet, born at Northway, near Tewkibury, in Glou-
ments ; and can live, without any inconvenience, for cederlhire, in September r6rr. He finifhed his edu-
a confiderable time, either on land or in water ; fuch cation at Oxford ; afterwards went into holy orders,
as tortoifes, frogs, and feveral fpecies of lizards; and, and became a mod florid preacher in the univerlity.
among the quadrupeds, hippopotami, ire. ire. In 16-42, he had the place of fuccentor in the church
Many of the cartilaginous filh are viviparous, being of Salilbury ; and, in 1643, W'as chofen junior prodtor
excluded from an egg, which is hatched within them, in the univerfity. He was alfo metaphyfical reader
The egg confids of a white and a yolk; and is lodged ' there. Wit, judgment, elocution, a graceful perfon
in a cafe formed of a thick tough fubdance, not unlike and behaviour, occalioned that encomium of him from
foftened horn; fuch are the eggs of the ray and Jhark dean Fell, “ That he was the utmod that man could
kinds. Some again differ in this refpedl, and are ovi- “ come to.” He W'as an expert linguid ; an excel-
parous ; fuch is the ft urge on, and others. lent orator ; and at the fame time was edeemed an
They breathe either through certain apertures be- admirable poet. There are extant of his, four plays,,
neath, as in the rays ; on their fides, as in the Jharks, and fome poems. He died in 1643, aged 33.
&c.; or on the top of the head, as in the plpe-fijh : CARVER, a cutter of figures, or other devices, in
for they have not covers to their gills like the bony wood. See Carving.
fifh. Carvers anfwer to what the Romans call fculptores,
CARTMEL, a town of Lancalhire in England, who were different from calatores or engravers, as
It is. feated among the hills called Carmel-fells, not far thefe lad wrought in metal.
from the fea, and near the river Kent ; adorned with Carver is alfo ufed for the perfon who cuts up the
a very handfome church, built in the form of a crofs meat at table; In the great families at Rome, the
like a cathedral. The market is well fupplied with carver was an officer of fome figure. There were
corn, flieep, and filh. W. Long. 2. 43. N. Lat. 54. 15. maders to teach the art regularly, by means of figures
CARTON, or Cartoon, in painting, a defign of animals cut in wood. The Greeks allb had their
drawn on drong paper, to be afterwards calked carvers, called utargot, q. d. diribiteres, or didributors.
through, and transferred on the frelh plader of a wall In the primitive times the mailer of the lead carved
to be painted in frefco. *for all Ins gueds. Thus, in Homer, when Agamcm-
Carton is alfo ufed for a defign coloured,, for non’s ambafladors were entertained at Achilles’s table, -
working in mofaic, tapedry, ire. The cartons for- the hero himfelf carved the meat. Of latter times,
* the
CAR [ 1704 ] CAR
Carui the fame office, on folemn occafions, was executed by
II the chief men of Sparta.
Caruncula- CARUI, or Carvx, in botany. See Carum.
CARVING, in a general fenfe, the art or aft of
cutting or falhioning a hard body, by means of fome
fliarp inftrument, efpecially a chilfel. In this fenfe
carving includes ftatuary and engraving, as well as
cutting in wood.
Carving, in a more particular fenfe, is the art
of engraving or cutting figures in wood. In this
fenfe carving, according to Pliny, is prior both to
Ilatuary and painting.
To carve a figure or defign, it mull be firft drawn
or parted on the wood ; which done, the reft of the
block, not covered by the lines of the defign, are to
be cut away with little narrow-pointed knives. The
wood fitteft for the ufe is that which is hard, tough,
and clofe, as beech, but efpecially box : to prepare
it for drawing the defign on, they wafit it over with
white-lead tempered in water ; which better enables
it either to bear ink or the crayon, or even to take
the impreflion by chalking. When the defign is to
be parted on the wood, this whitening is omitted,
and they content themfelves with feeing the wood
well planed. Then wiping over the printed fide of
the figure with gum tragacan'th dirtolved in water,
they clap it fmooth on the wood, and let it dry ;
which done, they wet it flightly over, and fret off
the furface of the paper gently, till all the ftrokes of
the figure appear diftinftly. This done, they fall to
cutting, or carving, as above.
CARUM, caraway ; a genus of the digymia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
Species, &c. 1. The caraway of the ihops grows
naturally in many places of Britain. It is a biennial
plant, which rifes from feeds one year, flowers the
next, and periflies foon after the feeds are ripe. It
hath a taper root like a parfnep, but much fmaller,
which runs deep into the ground, fending out many
fmall fibres, and hath a ftrong aromatic tafte. From
the root arifes one or two fmooth, folid, channelled
ftalks, about two feet high, garnifhed with winged
leaves, having long naked foot-rtalks. 2. The hif-
panicum is alfo a biennial, and is a native of Spain.
It rifes with a ftronger ftalk than the former, which
feldom grows more than a foot and half high ; but is
clofely garnifhed with fine narrow leaves like thofe of
dill. Both thefe plants are propagated by feeds,
which ought to be fown in autumn. Sheep, goats,
and fwine, eat this plant; cows and horfes are not
fond of it. Parkinfon fays, the young roots of cara¬
way are better eating than parfneps. The tender
leaves may be boiled with pot herbs. The feeds
have an aromatic fmell, and a warm pungent tafte.
They are ufed in cakes, incrufted with fugar, as
fweet-meats, and diftilled with fpirituous liquors,
for the fake of the flavour they afford. They are in
the number of the four greater hot feeds ; and fre¬
quently employed, as a ftomachic and carminative,
in flatulent colics and the like, See Materia Me-
dica, n°218.
CARUNCULA, or Caruncle, in anatomy, a term
denoting a little piece of flefli, and applied to feveral
parts of the human body. Thus,
Caruncula; Myrtifornies,m anatomy, flefhyknobs Caruncul*
about the fize of a myrtle-berry, which owe their ori- I
gin to the breaking of the hymen. See Anatomy, aiy'
n° 372, d.
Caruncles in the urethra, proceeding from a
gonorrhaea, or an ulceration of the urethra, may be
reduced by introducing the bougie.
CARUS, a fuddeii deprivation* of fenfe and mo¬
tion, affefting the whole body. See (the Index fub-
joined to) Medicine.
Carus (Marcus Aurelius), was raifed from a low
ftation, by his great merit, to be emperor of Rome
in 282. He fhewed himfelf worthy of the empire ;
fubdued its enemies; and gave the Romans a profpeft
of happy days, when he was unfortunately killed by
lightning in 284.
CAR WAR, a town of Afia, on the coaft of Mala¬
bar in the Eaft Indies, and where the Eaft India com¬
pany have a faftory, fortified with two baftions.
The valleys about it abound in corn and pepper,
which laft is the beft in the feaft Indies. The woods
on the mountains abound with quadrupeds, fuch as
tygers, wolves, monkeys, wild hogs, deer, elks, and
a lort of beeves of a prodigious fize. The religion
of the natives is Paganifm ; and they have a great
many ftrange and fuperftitious cuftoms. E. Long. 73.7.
N. Lat. 15. o.
CARYATES, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Diana fiirnamed Caryatis, held at Caryum, a city of
Laconia. The chief ceremony was a certain dance
faid to have been invented by Carter and Pollux, and
performed by the virgins of the place. During
Xerxes’s invafion, the Laconians not daring to ap¬
pear and celebrate the cuftomary folemnity, to pre¬
vent incurring the goddefs’s anger by. fuch an inter-
miffion, the neighbouring fwains are faid to have af-
fembled and lung pallorals or bucclifmi, which is faid
to have been the origin of bucolic poetry.
CARY (Lucius), Lord vifeount Falkland, was born
in Oxfordlhire, about the year 1610 ; a young noble¬
man of great abilities and accomplilhments. About
the time of his father’s death in 1633, he was made
gentleman of the privy chamber to king Charles I.
and afterward fecretary of ftate. Before the affem-
bling of the long parliament, he had devoted himfelf
to literature, and every pleafure which a fine genius,
a generous difpofition, and an opulent fortune, could
afford : when called into public life, he flood fore-
moft in all attacks on the high prerogatives of the
crown ; but when civil convulfions came to an ex¬
tremity, and it was neceffary to chufe a fide, he tem¬
pered his zeal, and defended the limited powers that
remained to monarchy. Still anxious however for
his country, he feems to have dreaded equally the pro<-
fperity of the royal party, or that of the parliament;
and, among his intimate friends, often fadly reiterated
the word peace? This excellent nobleman freely ex-
pofed his perfon for the king in all hazardous enter-
prifes, and was killed in the 34th year of his age at
the battle of Newbery. He wrote feveral things, both
poetical and political; and in fome of the king’s declara¬
tions, fuppofed to be penned by lord Falkland, we find
the firft regular definition of the Englilh conftitution
that occurs in any compofition publilhed by authority.
Cary
CAR [ 1705 ] CAS
Cary Cary (Robert), a learned Englifli chronotoger, born
I in Devonfhire about the year 1615. On the refto-
Caryophyl- rati0n, he was preferred to the archdeaconry of Exe-
- ter; but on fome pretext was ejected in 1664, and
fpent the reft of his days at his redtory of Portle-
niouth, where he died in 1688. He publifhed Palce-
Itgia Chronica, a chronology of ancient times, in
three parts, didadlical, apodeidtical, and canonical ;
and tranflated the hymns of the church into Latin
verfe.
CARYATIDES, or Caraites. See Architec¬
ture, n° 6r.
CARYL (Jofeph), a divine of the laft century, bred
at Oxford, and fome time preacher to the fociety of
Lincoln’s inn, an employment he filled with much
applaufe. He became a frequent preacher before
the long parliament, a licenfer of their books, one of
the aflembly of divines, and one of the triers for the
approbation of minifters ; in all which capacities he
Ihewed himfelf a man of confiderable parts and lear¬
ning, but with great zeal againft the king’s perfon
and caufe. On the reftoration of Charles II. he was
filenced by the adt of uniformity, and lived privately
in London, where, befide other works, he diftinguilh-
ed himfelf by a laborious Expofition of the Book of
Job ; and died in 1672.
CARYOPHYLLEI,in botany, the name of a very
numerous family, or order, in Linnaeus’s fragments of
a natural method ; containing, befides the clafs of the
fame name in Tournefort, many other plants, which
from their general appearance feem pretty nearly al¬
lied to it. The following are the genera, viz. Agro-
ftema, Cucubalus, Dianthus, Drypis, Gypfophila,
Lychnis, Saponaria, Silene, Velazia, Alfine, Arenaria,
Bufonia, Ceraftium, Cherleria, Glinus, Holofteum,
Loeflingia, Moehringia, Polycarpon, Sagina,Spergula,
Stellaria, Minuartia, Mollugo, Ortegia, Pharnaceum,
Queria. To this order, fome have alfo annexed,
though fomewhat improperly, the Polypremum and
Scleranthus. All the plants of this order are herba¬
ceous, and moftly annual. Some of the creeping
kinds do not rife an inch, and the talleft exceed not
feven or eight feet. See Botany, fedt. vi. 22.
CARYOPHYLLUS, the pink, in botany. See Di¬
anthus.
Caryophyllus, the clove-tree, a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants. Of this there is but one fpecies, viz. the
aromaticus, which is a native of the Molucca iflands,
particularly of Amboyna, where it is principally cul¬
tivated. The clove-tree refembles, in its bark, the
olive ; and is about the height of the laurel, which it
alfo refembles in its leaves. No verdure is ever feen
under it. It has a great number of branches, at the
extremities of which are produced vaft quantities of
flowers, that are firft white, then green, and at laft
pretty red and hard. When they arrive at this de¬
gree of maturity, they are, properly fpeaking, cloves.
As they dry, they afl'ume a dark yellowifti call:; and,
when gathered, become of a deep brown. The
feafon for gathering the cloves is from Odlober to
February. The boughs of the trees are then ftrong-
ly lhaken, or the cloves beat down with long reeds.
Large cloths are fpread to receive them, and they are
Vol. III.
afterwards either dried in the fun, or in the fmoke of Caryophyl-
the bamboo-cane. The cloves which efcape the no- lus
tice of thofe who gather them, or are purpofely left
upon the tree, continue to grow till they are about a a'
an inch in thicknefs ; and thefe falling off, produce
new plants, which do not bear in lefs than eight or
nine years. Thefe, which are called mother-cloves,
are inferior to the common fort; but are preferved
in fugar by the Dutch ; and, in long voyages, eat after
their meals, to promote digeftion.
The clove, to be in perfection, muft be full fized,
heavy, oily, and eafily broken ; of a fine fmell, and
of a hot aromatic tafte, fo as almoft to burn the throat.
It fliould make the fingers fmart when handled, and
leave an oily moifture upon them when prefled. In
the Eaft Indies, and in fome parts of Europe, it is fo
much admired as to be thought an indifpenfible ingre¬
dient in almoft every difh. It is put into their food,
liquors, wines, and enters likewife the compofition of
their perfumes. Confidered as medicines, cloves are
very hot, ftimulating, aromatics ; and poflefs in an
eminent degree the general virtues of fubftances of
this clafs*. Their pungency refides in their refin ; * SeeMete¬
or rather in a combination of refm with eflential oil f : r/„ Medice,
for the fpirituous extract is very pungent; but if the ” ^p, f
oil and the refin contained in this extraeft are fepa-
rated from each other by diftillation, the oil will be n» 530.
very mild ; and any pungency which it does retain,
proceeds from fome finall portion of adhering refin,
and the remaining refm will be iniipid. No plant, or
part of any plant, contains fuch a quantity of oil as
cloves do. From 16 ounces Newman obtained by
diftillation two ounces and two dfams, and Hoffman
obtained an ounce and an half of oil from two ounces
of the fpice. The oil is fpecifically heavier than wa¬
ter. Cloves acquire weight by imbibing water ; and
this they will do at fome confiderable diftance. The
Dutch, who trade in cloves, make a confiderable ad¬
vantage by knowing this fecret. They fell them al¬
ways by weight; and when a bag of cloves is order¬
ed, they hang it, for fcveral hours before it is lent in,
over a veflel of water, at about two feet diftance
from the furface. This will add many pounds to the
weight, which the unwary purchafer pays for on the
fpot. This is fometimes pradtifed in Europe, as well
as in the fpice illands : but the degree of moifture
muft be more carefully watched in the latter ; for
there a bag of cloves will, in one night’s time, attract
fo much water, that it may be prefled out of them by
fqueezing them with the hand.
The clove-tree is never cultivated in Europe. At
Amboyna the company have allotted the inhabitants
4000 parcels of land, on each of which they were at
firft allowed, and about the year 1720 compelled, to
plant about 125: trees, amounting in all to 500,000.
Each of thefe trees produces annually on an average
more than two pounds of cloves ; and confequently
the colleftive produce muft weigh more than a mil¬
lion. The cultivator is paid with the fpecie that is
conftantly returned to the company, and receives
fome unbleached cottons which are brought from Co¬
romandel.
CASAL, a ftrong town of Italy in Mountferrat,
with a citadel and a biftiop’s lee. It was taken by
'10 G the
Cafal
I!
Cafati.
* See the
article
Mexico.
CAS [ 1706 ] CAS
the French from the Spaniards in 1640 ; and the duke
of Mantua fold it to the French in 1681. In 1695 it
was taken by the allies, who deniolifhed the fortifi¬
cations ; but the French retook it, and fortified it
again. The king of Sardinia became mafter of it in
1 706, from whom the French took it in 174S ; how¬
ever, the king of Sardinia got pofl’eflion again in 1746.
It is feated on the river Po, in £. Long. 8.37. N. Lat
54- 7.
C a s a l - Maggiorc, a fmall ftrong town of Italy, in
the duchy of Milan, feated on the river Po. E. Long.
11. 5. Isf. Lat. 45. 6.
CASA-NOVA (Marc Antony), a Latin poet, born
at Rome, fucceeded particularly in epigrams. The
poems, he compofed in honour of the illuftrious
men of Rome are alio much efteerned. He died
in 1527.
CASAN, a confiderable town of Afia, and capital
of a kingdom of the fame name in the Ruffian em¬
pire, with a ftrong caftle, a citadel, and an archbi-
fhop’s fee. The country about it is very fertile in all
forts of fruits, corn, and pulfe. It carries on a great
trade in furs, and furniflies wood for the building of
fhips. The kingdom of Calan is bounded on the north
by Permia, on the eaft by Siberia, on the fouth by the
river Wolga, and on the weft by the province of Mof-
cow. E. Long. 53. 25. N. Lat. 55. 38.
CASAS (Bartholomew de las) bifhop of Chiapa,
diftinguifhed for his humanity and zeal for the conver-
fion of the Indians, was born at Seville in 1474 ; and
went with his father, who failed to America with
Chriftopher Columbus in 1493. At his return to
Spain he embraced the ftate of an ecelefiaftic, and ob¬
tained a curacy in the ifland of Cuba ; but fome time
after quitted his-cure in order to procure liberty for
the Indians, whom he faw treated by the Spaniards
in the moft cruel and barbarous manner, which natu¬
rally gave them an unconquerable averfion to Chrifti-
anity. Bartholomew exerted himfelf with extraor¬
dinary zeal, for 50 years together, in his endeavours
to perfuade the Spainards that they ought to treat the
Indians with equity and mildnefs; for which he fuf-
fered a number of perfecutions from his countrymen.
At laft the court, moved by his continual remon-
ftrances, made laws in favour of the Indians, and gave
orders to the governors to obferve them, and fee
them executed #. He died at Madrid in 1566, aged
92. He wrote feveral works, which breathe no¬
thing but humanity and virtue. The principal of
them are, 1. An acdount of the deftrudlion of the In¬
dies. 2. Several treatifes in favour of the Indians,
againft Dr Sepulveda, who wrote a book to juftify the
inhuman barbarities committed by the Spainards. 3. A
very curious, and now fcarce, work in Latin, on
this queftion, “ Whether kings or princft can, confif-
tently with confcience, or in virtue of any right or
title, alienate their fubje&s and place them under the
dominion of another fovereign ?”
CASATI (Paul), a learned Jefuit, born at Placentia
in 16x7, entered early among the Jefuits; and, after
having taught mathematics and divinity at Rome, was
fent into Sweden to qi.eeri Chriftina, whom he pre¬
vailed on to embrace the popiffi religion. He wrote, .
1. Vacuum profcriptum. 2. Terra machinis rnota.
)
3. Maehanicorutn, libri olio. 4. De Jgne Dijferta-
tiones s which is mhch efteemed. 5. Dc A'lgelis D 'tf-
putatio Theolog. 6. Hydrojlaticce Dijfertatioues. "J. Op¬
tica Difputatiofies: It is remarkable that he wrote
this treatife on optics at 88 years of age, and after he
was blind. He alfo wrote feveral books in Italian.
CASAUBON (Ifaac), was born at Geneva in 1559 ;
and Henry IV. appointed him his library keeper in
1603. After this prince’s death, he went into Eng¬
land with Sir Henry Wotton, ambaffiidor from King
James I. where he was kindly received, and engaged
in writing againft Baronius’s annals : he died not long
after this, in 1614; and was interred in Weftminfter-
abbey, where a monument was erected to him. He
was greatly fkilled in the Greek, and in criticifm ;
publifhed feyeral valuable commentaries ; and receiv¬
ed the higheft elogiums from all his cotemporaries.
Casaubon (Meric), fon of the preceding, was
born at Geneva in 1599. He was bred at Oxford,
and took the degree of mafter of arts in 1621. The
fame year he publifhed a book in defence of his fa¬
ther againft the calumnies of certain Roman-catho¬
lics; which gained him the favour of King James I.
and a confiderable reputation abroad. He was made
prebendary of Canterbury by archbilhop Laud. In
the beginning of the civil war he loft all his fpiritual
promotions, but ftill continued to publifh excellent
works. Oliver Cromwell, then lieutenant-general of
the parliament’s forces, would have employed his pen
in writing the hiftory of the late war ; but he de¬
clined it, owning, that his fubject wonld oblige him to
make fuch reflections as would be ungrateful, if not
injurious, to his lordfhip. Notwithftanding this an-
fwer, Cromwell, fenfible of his worth, ordered fhree
or four hundred pounds to be paid him by a book-
feller in London whofe name was Cromwell, on de¬
mand, without requiring from him any acknowledge¬
ment of his benefactor. But this offer he rejefted,
though his circumftances were then mean. At the
fame time it was propofed by his friend Mr Greaves,
who belonged to the library at St James’s, that, if
Cafaubon would gratify Cromwell in the requeft
above-mentioned, all his father’s books which were
then in the royal library, having been purchafed by
King James, fhould be reftored to him, and a pen-
fion of 300/. a-year paid to the family as long as
the youngeft fon of Dr Cafaubon fhould live.;, but
this alfo was refufed. He likewife refufed hand-
fome offers from Chriftina queen of Sweden, being
determined to fpend the remainder of his life in Eng¬
land. At the reftoration he recovered all his prefer¬
ments, and continued writing to his death in 1671.
He was the author of an Engliih tranflation of Mar¬
cus Aurelius Antoninus’s meditations, and of Lucius
Florus; editions of feveral of the daffies, with notes;
a treatife of ufe and cuftom ; a treatife of enthu-
fiafm ; with many other works ; and he left a num¬
ber of MSS. to the univerfity of Oxford.
CASCADE, a fteep fall of water from a higher in¬
to a lower place.
They are either natural, as that at Tivoli, ire. or
artificial, as thofe of Verfailles, ire. and either fal¬
ling with gentle defeent, as thofe of Sceaux ; or in
form of a buffet, as at Trianon; or down fteps, in
form
Cafaubon
II
Cafcade.
CAS [ 1707 ] CAS
Cafcais form of a perron, as at St Clou ; or from balbn to
II bafon, ire.
Cafh-book. CASCAIS, a town of Eftremadura in Portugal,
fituated at the mouth of the river Tagus, 17 miles
eart of Lilbon. W. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 38. 40.
CASE, among grammarians, implies the different
inflexions or terminations of nouns, ferving to ex-
prefs the different relations they bear to each other,
and to the things they reprefent. SeeGRAMMAR,n° 17.
Case alfo denotes a receptacle for various articles;
as a cafe of knives, of lancets, of piftols, ire.
Case, in printing, a large flat oblong frame pla¬
ced aflope, divided into feveral compartments, or
little fquare cells ; in each of which are lodged a
number of types, or letters, of the lame kind, whence
the compofitor takes them out, each as he needs it,
to compofe his matter. See Printing.
Case is alfo ufed for a certain numerous quantity
of divers things. Thus a cafe of crown-glafs contains
ufually 24 tables, each table being nearly circular,
and about three feet fix inches diameter; of New-
caftle glafs, 35 tables; of Normandy glafs, 25.
C a s ^-Hardening of Iron, is a fuperficial converfion
of that metal into fteel, by the ordinary method of
converfion, namely by cementation with vegetable or
animal coals. This operation is generally praXifed
upon fmall pieces of iron wrought into tools and in-
ftruments to which a fuperficial converfion is fuf-
ficient; and it may be performed conveniently by
putting the pieces of iron to be cafe-hardened, toge¬
ther with the cement, in an iron box, which is to be
clofely Ihut and expofed to a red heat during fome
hours. By this cementation a certain thicknels from
the furface of the iron will be converted into fteel,
and a proper hardnefs may be afterwards given by
fudden extinXion of the heated pieces of converted
iron in a cold.fluid. See Steel.
Case-shot, in the military art, mnlket-balls,
ftones, old iron, ire, put into cafes, and fliot out of
great guns.
CASEMENT, or Casemate, in archtteXure, a
hollow moulding, which fome architeXs- make one-
fixth of a circle, and others one-fourth.
Casement is alfo ufed in building, for a little
moveable window, ufually within a larger, being
made to open or turn on hinges.
CASERN, in fortification, lodgings built in garri-
fon-towns, generally near the rampart, or in the
wafte places of the town, for lodging foldiers of the
garrifon. There are ufually two beds in each cafern
for fix foldiers to lie, who mount the guard alter¬
nately ; the third part being always on duty.
CASERTA, an epifcopal town of Italy in the king¬
dom of Naples, and in the Terra-di-Lavoro, with
the title of a duchy, feated at the foot of a moun¬
tain of the fame name, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 41. 5.
CASES (Peter-James), of Paris, the moft emi¬
nent painter of the French fchool; the churches of
Paris and of Verfailles abound with his works. He
died in I7S4> agecl 79•
CASH, in a commercial ftyle, fignifies the ftock of
money which a merchant, trader, or banker, has at
his difpofal in order to trade.
CKsn-Book. See Book-keeping, p. 1269.
CASHEL, or Cashil, a town of Ireland in the Caftel
county of Tipperary, and province oTMunfter, with U
an archbifhop’s fee. W. Long. 7. 36. N. Lat. 52. 16. Caflt'
CASHEW-nut : See Anacardium. This nut
grows on the end of the fruit of the Anapardium
tree, and is quite bare, of the exaX figure of a
hare’s or fheep’s kidney; it is about an inch long,
containing within it a large white kernel of a fine
tafte, which is roafted and eaten. The fruit is ge¬
nerally of a yellow colour, as large as an orange ; is
very ftringy ; and full of rough, aftringent, but pleafant
juice, which in America is frequently ufed, like that of
lemons with us, in making punch. The outer fhell of
the nut is of an alh colour, and very fmooth; under
this outer rind, is another which covers the kernel;
between them is a thick black inflammable oil which
is very cauftic. When the Weft India young ladies
fancy themfelves too much tanned by the fixrching
rays of the fun, they gently (crape off" the thin out-
fide of the ftone, and then rub their faces all over
with the ftone. Their faces immediately fwell and
grow black ; and the Ikin being poifoned by the
cauftic oil above mentioned, will, in the fpace of five
or fix days, come entirely off in large flakes, fo that
they cannot appear in public in lefs than a fortnight;
by which time the new (kin looks as fair as that of
a new-born child. The negroes in Brazil cure them¬
felves eft’eXually of diforders in the ftomach, by eat¬
ing of the yellow 'fruit of this tree, the juice of
which, being acid, cuts the thick tough humours which
obftruXed the free circulation of the blood, and thus
removes the complaint. This cure, however, is not
voluntary : for their mafters, the Portuguefe, deny
them any other fuftenance ; and, letting them loofe
to the woods, where the cafliew-nuts grow in great
abundance, leave it in their option to perilh by fa¬
mine, or fuftain themfelves with tins fruit.
CASIMIR, the name of feveral kings of Poland.
See (Hijlory of) Poland.
Casimir (Matthias Sorbiewlki), a Polifli Jefuit,
born in 1597. He was a moft excellent poet ; and
is, fays M. Baillet, an exception to the general rule
of Ariftotle and the other ancients, which teaches us
to expeX nothing ingenious and delicate from nor¬
thern climates. His odes, epodes, and epigrams,
have been thought not inferior to thofe of the fineft
wits of Greece and Rome. Dr Watts has tranflated
one or two of his fmall pieces, which are added to
his Lyric Poems. He died.at Warfaw in 1640, aged
43. There have been many editions of his poems,
the beft of which is that of Paris 1 759.
CASING Timber-work, among builders, is
the plaftering the houfe all over the outfide with
mortar, and then ftriking it while wet by a ruler,
with the corner of a trowel, to make it refemble the
joints of free-ftone. Some direX it to be done upon
heart-laths, becaufe the mortar would, in a little
time, decay the fap-laths; and to lay on the mortar
in two thickneftes, viz. a fecond before the firft is dry.
CASK, a piece of defenfive armour wherewith to
cover the head and neck; Notherwife called the head¬
piece and helmet *. The word is French, cafqne, from * Sec IL /-
caficum or cajjicus, a diminutive of caffis a helmet, met.
Le Gendre obferves, that anciently, in France, the
io,G 2 gens
CAS [ 1708 ] CAS
Cafk gens d’arms all wore cajks. The king wore a
II gilt; the dukes and counts filvered; gentlemen of
Caffandra. extra(fi;ion poliflied Iteel; and the reft plain iron.
The calk is frequently feen on ancient medals,
where we may obferve great varieties in the form
and falhion thereof; as the Greek fafliion, the Ro¬
man falhion^ ire. F. Joubert makes it the moft an¬
cient of all the coverings of the head, as well as the
moft univerfal. Kings, emperors, and even gods
themfelves are feen therewith. That which covers
the head of Rome, has ufually two wings like thofe
of Mercury : and that of 1'ome kings is furnilhed with
horns like thofe of Jupiter Ammon ; and fometimes
barely bulls or rams horns, to exprefs uncommon force.
Cask, in heraldry, the fame with helmet. See
Heraldry, n° 45.
Cask, a vefl'el of capacity, for preferving liquors
of divers kinds; and fometimes alfo dry goods, as fu-
gar, almonds, ire.—A calk of fugar is a barrel of
that commodity, containing from eight to eleven
hundred weight.
CASKET, in a general fenfe, a little coffer, or
cabinet. See Cabinet.
Caskets, in the fea-language, are fmall ropes
made of finnet, and faftened to gromets, or little
rings upon the yards; their ufe is to make fall the
fail to the yard when it is to be furled.
CASPIAN sea, a large lake of fait water in Afia,
bounded by the province of Aftracan on the north,
and by part of Perfia on the fouth, eaft, and weft.
It is upwards of 400 miles long from fouth to north,
and 500 broad from eaft to welt.
CASSANDER, king of Macedon after Alexander
the Great, was the fon of Antipater. He made fe-
veral conquefts in Greece, abolilhed democracy at
Athens, and gave the government of that ftate to
the orator Demetrius. Olympias, the mother of
Alexander, having caufed Aridaeus and his wife Eu-
ridyce, with others of Callander’s party, to be put to
death ; he befieged Pydne, whither the queen had
retired, took it by a ftratagem, and caufed her to
be put to death. He married Theffalonica the filler
of Alexander the Great ; and killed Roxana and A-
lexander, the wife and fon of that conqueror. At
length he entered into an alliance with Seleucus and
Lyfimachus, again!! Antigonus and Demetrius ; over
whom he obtained a great victory near Ipfus in Phry¬
gia, 301 years before the Chriftian aera, and died
three years after in the 19th year of his reign.
CASSANDRA, in fabulous hiftory, the daughter
of Priam and Hecuba, was beloved of Apollo, who
promifed to bellow on her the fpirit of prophecy,
provided Ihe would confent to his love. Caffandra
feemed to accept the propofal; but had no fooner ob¬
tained that gift, than Hie laughed at the tempter, and
broke her word. Apollo, being enraged, revenged
himfelf by caufing no credit be given to her predic¬
tions ; hence Hie in vain prophefied the ruin of Troy.
Ajax, the fon of Oileus, having raviihed her in the
temple of Minerva, he was llruck with thunder. She
fell into the hands of Agamemnon, who loved her to
diftradlion; but in vain did Ihe predict that he would
be alfaflinated in his own country. He was killed,
with her, by the intrigues of Clytemnellra ; but
their death was avenged by Oreftes. CalTano
CASSANO, a town of Italy in the duchy of Milan,
rendered remarkable by an obftinate battle fought a ia*
there between the Germans and French in 1705. It
is fubject to the Houfe of Aultria, and is feated on
the river Adda, in E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat. 45. 20.
CASSANO, a town of Italy in Calabria citerior, in
the kingdom of Naples, with a bilhop’s fee. E. Long.
16. 50. N. Lat. 39. 55.
CASSAVI, or Cassada. See Jatropha.
CASSEL, a town of French Flanders, and capital
of a chatellany of the fame name : It is leated on a
mountain, where the terrace of the caftle is Hill to
be feen ; and from whence there is one of the lineft
profpects in the world ; for one may fee no lefs than
32 towns, with a great extent of the fea, from whence
it is dirtant 15 miles. E. Long. 2. 27. N. Lat. yo. 48.
Cassel, the capital city of the landgravate of
Elefle-calTel, in the circle of the Upper Rhine in Ger¬
many, is divided into the Old, New, and High
Towns. The New Town is belt built, the houl'es
being of Hone, and the ftreets broad. The houfes of
the Old Town, which is within the walls, are moftly
of timber ; but the ftreets are broad, and the mar¬
ket-places fpacious. The place is ftrongly fortified,
but the fortifications are not regular. The inhabi¬
tants are moftly French proteflants, and carry on a
woollen manufadlory. It is feated on the declivity
of a hill near the river Fulva, in E. Long. 9. 20.
N. Lat. 51. 20.
CASSIA, wild senna ; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria dafs of plants.
There are 30 fpecies, all of them natives of warm
climates. The moft remarkable is the fiftula, or pur¬
ging caffia of Alexandria. It is a native of Egypt and
both Indies, where it rifes to the height of 40 or
50 feet, with a large trunk, dividing into many
branches, garniftied with winged leaves, compofed of
five pair of fpear-lhaped lobes, which are fmooth, ha¬
ving many tranfverfe nerves from the midrib to the
border. The flowers are produced in long fpikes at
the end of the branches, each Handing upon a pretty
long foot-ftalk; thefe are compofed, like the for¬
mer, of five yellow concave petals, which are fuc-
ceeded by cylindrical pods from one to two feet long,
with a dark brown woody fhell, having a longitudi¬
nal feam on one fide, divided into many cells by
tranfverfe partitions, each containing one or two oval,
fmooth, compreffed feeds, lodged in a blackifh pulp,
which is ufed in medicine. Among the fpecies of
caffia, Linnseus mentions the common Senna of the
fhops ; which fee. With regard to the culture of
ail the fpecies, they are propagated by feeds which
mull be fown upon a hot-bed, and the plants treated
in the fame manner with other tender exotics. The
fiftula mull have very little water in winter; for
the plants grow naturally in dry fandy ground, and
moiftiire is a great enemy to them.
The pulp of the cafiia fiftula is a gentle laxative,
and frequently given in coftive habits, in the dofe of
fome drams. Geoffrpy fays it does excellent fervice
in the painful tenlion of the belly which fometimes
follows the imprudent ufe of antimonials; and that it
may be advantageouily acuated by the more acrid
purgatives.
Caffia
II .
Caffimire.
CAS [ 1709 ] CAS
purgatives, or antimonial emetics, or employed to a-
bate their force. Vallifnier relates, that the purga¬
tive virtue of this medicine is remarkably promoted
by manna ; that a mixture of four drams of caffia,
and two of manna, purges as much as 12 drams of
caffia alone, or 32 of manna alone. Sennertus ob-
ferves, that the urine is apt to be turned of a green
colour, by the ufe of caffia; and fometimes, where a
large quantity has been taken, blackifh. See Materia
Medica, n° 223.
Cassia-L/^w^. See Cinnamomum.
CASSIDA, in botany. See Scutellaria.
Cassida, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging
to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are like
threads, but thicker on the outfide ; the elytra are
marginated ; and the head is hid under the thorax.
There are 31 fpecies of this infedl, diftinguflhed prin¬
cipally by differences in their colour.
CASS1MIRE, or Cashmire, a province of the
Mogul’s dominions, in Alia, fnppofed to have been
formerly a lake. It is feated at the extremity of In-
doflan, to the north of Labor ; and is furrounded by
the mountains of Caucafus, between Great Thibet,
Little Thibet, Bukharia, Cabelftan, and Lahor. The
mountains that are neareft the plain* are of a mode¬
rate height ; are covered with trees or pa (lure
land ; and are full of cattle of leveral forts, as cows,
fheep, goats, and horfes, as well as the mulk-goat.
There are likewil’6 various kinds of game, as part¬
ridges, hares, gazels, &e. Beyond thefe mountains
there are others, which rife very high, and have
their tops,-always covered with fnow. From thefe
mountains there riles a great number of fprings and
rivulets, which the inhabitants conduct to their rice-
fields. AH thefe dreams unite into one large enough
to carry boats, which, after feveral turnings and
windings, runs through the middle of the capital city.
This province, or kingdom, is about 90 miles in
length, and 30 in breadth ; and is full of towns and
villages. Thefe are intermixed with canals, fmall
lakes, and rivulets. There are here all forts of Eu¬
ropean trees and plants, fuch as apple, pear, plum,
apricot, ire.
The capital city, which has the fame name as the
kingdom, is about two miles in length, and ope and a
half in breadth. It is feated in a flat country, fix
miles from the mountains ; andon the banks of a lake
of frelh water, which is about twelve miles in com-
pafs. The river has two wooden bridges built over
it, to maintain a communication between both parts
of the city. The houfes are generally of wood, and
well built; and there is a great number of idol tem¬
ples, which were are all of free-ftone, but now in
ruins. The houfes near the river have their, gardens
next the water, which make a very fine appear¬
ance, efpecially in fummer.
The lake is full of iflands, on which they have made
pleafnre gardens, and planted fruit-trees. Thefe are
generally furrounded with tall palms. The inhabi¬
tants are very ingenious and induflrious, making
paiankins, and all forts of cabinets and boxes, in a
very curious manner, which are difperfed all over the
Indies. They alfo make a vaft number of lhauls,
which are pieces of fluff about an ell and a half long,
and one broad, curioufly embroidered. They are ex¬
tremely fine and foft, and fell at a great price. The
Indians, both men and women, wear them over their
heads in the winter. The people have a clear com¬
plexion, and are well made. The women are very
handfome ; though only the common fort are gene¬
rally feen abroad or in the fhops.
It has been by feme fufpefted, that the ten tribes
of Ifrael were carried away captive to this country :
but this does not feem probable ; for there are no
traces of Judaifm remaining, all the inhabitants being
either Gentoos or Mahometans. E. Long. 75. 25.
N. Lat. 34. 30.
CASSINE, the Cassioberry-bush or South-fea
Tea ; a genus of the trigynia order, belonging to the
pentandria dafs of plants. There are three fpecies, all
of them natives of warm climates. Of thefe'the meft
remarkable is theyapon, which is a native of the mari¬
time parts of Virginia and Carolina. It rifes to the
height of ten or twelve feet, fending out branches
from the ground upward, garnilhed with fpear-
Ihaptd leaves placed alternately, which continues
green through the year. The flowers are produced
in clofe whorls round the branches, at the footftalks
of the leaves; they are white, and divided into five
parts, almoft to the bottom. The berries are of a
beautiful red colour, and as they continue moft part
of the winter upon the plants without being touch¬
ed by the birds, we may reafonably conclude that
they are poffeffed of a poifonous quality ; as few
of the wholefome innocent fruits efcape their de¬
predations. The Indians, however, have a great
veneration for this plant, and at certain feafons of
the year come in great numbers to fetch away
the leaves. On fuch occafions their ufuai cuftom,
fays Miller, is to make a fire upon the ground, and, put¬
ting on it a great kettle full of water, they throw in a
large quantity of yapon leaves; and when the water
has boiled fuificiently, they drink large draughts of
the decodtion out of the kettle ; which feldom fails to
vomit them very feverely. In this manner, how¬
ever, they continue drinking and vomiting for three
days together, until they imagine themfelves fuffici-
ently cleanfed ; they then gather every one a bundle of
the fhrub, and carry it home with them.—In the ope¬
ration of thefe leaves by vomiting, thole who have
tafted of them fay, that there is no uneafy fenfation
or pain. The matter difeharged comes away in a
full ftream by the mouth, without any violence, or fo
much as'difpoling the patient to reach, or decline his
head. The Spaniards who live near the gold mines
of Peru, are frequently obliged to drink an infufion
of this herb in order to moillen their breads; without
which they are liable to a fort of fuffocation, from the
ftrong metallic exhalations that are continually pro¬
ceeding from the mines. In Paraguay, the Jefuits
make a great revenue by importing the leaves of this
plant into many countries under the name of Para¬
guay or South-fea tea, which is there drank in the
fame manner as that of China or Japan is with us. It
is with difficulty preferved in England.
CASSINI (Johannes Dominicus), a moft excellent
aftronomer, born at Piedmont in 1635. His early
proficiency in aftronomy procured him an invitation
to
Caffimire
CAS [17
Caffini to be mathematical profefTor at Bologna when he was
II no more than 15 years of age ; and a comet appear-
Ca(rius~ ing in 1652, he difcovered that comets were not ac¬
cidental meteors, but of the fame nature, and proba-
bly governed by the fame laws, as the planets. In
the lame year he folved a problem given up by Kep¬
ler and Bullialdus as infolvable, which was, to deter¬
mine geometrically the apogee and eccentricity of a
planet from its true and mean place. In 1663, he
was appointed infpe&or-general of the fortifications
of the cable of Urbino, and had afterward the care of
all the rivers in the ecclefiaftical bate : he bill how¬
ever profecuted his aftronomical bodies, by difcover-
ing the revolution of Mars round his own axis; and, in
1666, publilhed his theory of Jupiter’s fatellites. Caf¬
fini was invhed into France by Lewis XIV. in 1669,
where he fettled as the firb profeffor in the royal ob-
fervatory. In 1677 he demonbrated the line of Ju¬
piter’s diurnal rotation ; and in 1684 difcovered four
more fatellites belonging to Saturn, Huygens having
found one before. He inhabited the royal obferva-
tory at Paris more than forty years ; and when he died
in 1 7t2, was fucceeded by his only fon James Caflini.
CASSIODORUS (Marcus Aurelius), fecretary of
bate to Theodric king of .the Goths, was born
at Squillace, in the kingdom of Naples, about the year
470. He was conful in 514, and was in great credit
under the reigns of Athalaric and Vitiges ; but at fe-
venty years of age retired into a monabery in Cala¬
bria, where he amufed himfelf in making fun-dials,
water hour-glabes, and perpetual lamps. He alfo
formed a library ; and compofed feveral works, the
beb edition of which is that of father Caret, printed
at Rouen in 1679. Thofe mob ebeemed are his
Divine Inbitutions, and his treatife on the Soul. He
died about the year 562.
CASSIOPEIA, in fabulous hibory, wife to Cepheus
king of Ethiopia, and mother of Andromeda. She
thought herfelf more beautiful than the Nereides, who
defired Neptune to revenge the affront ; fo that he
fent a fea-monber into the country, which did much
harm. To appeafe the god, her daughter Andromeda
was expofed to the monber, but was refcued by Per-
feus ; who obtained of Jupiter, that Caffiopeia might
be placed after his death among the bars : hence the
conbellation of that name, in the northern hemifphere,
fituated oppofite to the Great Bear, on the other fide
of the pole.
CASSITERIA, in the hibory of foffils, a genus of
crybals, the figures of which are influenced by an ad¬
mixture of fome particles of tin.
The calfiteria are of two kinds; the whitilh pellu¬
cid cafliterion, and the brown cafliterion. The firb is
a tolerably bright and pellucid crybal, and feldom fub-
jedt to the common blemifhes of crybal: it is of a
perfect and regular form, in the figure of a quadrila¬
teral pyramid ; and is found in Devonlhire and Corn¬
wall principally. The brown cafliterion is like the
former in figure : it is of a very fmooth and gloffy fur-
face, and is alfo found in great plenty in Devonfhire
and Cornwall.
CASSIUS (Spurius), a renowned Roman general
and cbnful, whofe enemies accufing him of afpiring to
royalty, he was thrown down from the Tarpeian rock,
10 ] CAS
485 years before Chrib ; after having thrice enjoyed Caflius
the confular dignity, been once general of the horfe II
under the firb dictator that was created at Rome,
and twice received the honour of a triumph.
Cassius (Longinus), a celebrated Roman lawyer,
flourifhed 113 years before Chrib. He was fo in¬
flexible a judge, that his tribunal was called the Rock
of the Impeached. It is from the judicial feverity of
this Caffius, that very fevere judges have been called
Caffiant.
Cassius (Cains), one of the murderers of Julius
Ctefar : after his defeat by Mark Anthony at the bat¬
tle of Philippi, he ordered one of his freed- men to put
him to death with his own fword, 41 years before
Chrib.
CASSQCK, or Cassula, a kind of robe or gown,
wore over the reft of the habit, particularly by the
clergy. The word caffock comes from the French
cajaque, an horfeman’s coat.
CASSOWARY, in ornithology. See Struth 1 o.
CASSUMBA7.AR, a town of India, in Alia, fitua¬
ted on the river Ganges, in the province of Bengal:
E. Long. 37. and N. Lat. 24.
CASSUMUAR, in the Materia Medica, a root ap¬
proaching to that of zedoaiy. ’
It is cardiac and fudorific, and famous in nervous
cafes : it is alfo an ingredient in many compofitions,
and is prefcribed in powders, bolufes, and infufions.
Its dole is from five to fifteen grains.
CAST is peculiarly ufed to denote a figure or Imall
ftatue of bronze. See Bronze.
Cast, among founders, is applied to tubes of wax
fitted in divers parts of a mould of the lame matter,
by means of which, when the wax of the mould is
removed, the melted metal is conveyed into all the
parts which the wax before poffeffed.
Cast alfo denotes a cylindrical piece of brafs or
copper, flit in two, lengthwife, ufed by the founders
in fand, to form a canal or conduit in their moulds,
whereby the metal may be conveyed to the different
pieces intended fo be cab.
Cast, among plumbers, denotes a little brazen
funnel at one end of a mould, for cafting pipes without
foldering, by means of which the melted metal is
poured into the mould.
Cast, or Caste, in fpeaking of the eaftern affairs,
denotes a tribe, or number of families, of the fame
rank and profeflion. The divifion of a nation into
cabs chiefly obtains in the dominions of the Great
Mogul, kingdom of Bengal, ifland of Ceylon, and the
great peninfula oppofite thereto. In each of thefe
there are, according to father Martin, four principal
cabs, viz. the cab of the bramhis, which is the firft
and mob noble ; the cab of the rajas, or princes,
who pretend to be defcended from divers royal fami¬
lies ; the call of the choutres, which comprehends all
the artificers; and that of the parias, the loweb and
mob contemptible of all: though Henry Lord, it mub
be obferved, divides the Indians about Surat in four
cafls, fomewhat differently‘from Martin, viz. into
hramins, or pricbs ; cuttery, or foldiers ; fhwldery,
which we call banians, or merchants ; and vsyfe, the
mechanics or artificers. Every art and trade is con¬
fined to its proper cajl} nor is allowed to be exercifed
by
CAS l 17
. Cafhlio by any but thofe whole fathers profefled the fame. So
| that a tayloi ’s fon can never rife to be a painter, nor
Ca e 1 a painter’s fon fall to be a taylor ; though there are
fome employments that are proper to all the cafts,
t. g. every body may be a foldier, or a merchant.
There are alfo divers cafts which are allowed to Aill
the ground, but not all. The caft of parias is held
infamous, infomuch that it is a difgrace to have any
dealings or converfation with them ; and there are
fome trades in the caft of choutres, which debafe their
profeflbrs almoft to the fame rank. Thus fhoe-
makers, and all artificers in leather, as alfo fiftier-
men, and even Ihepherds, are reputed no better
than parias.
CAST ALIO (Sebaftian), was born at Chetillon, on
the Rhone, in the year 1515. Calvin conceived liich
an efteem and friendfhip for him, during the ftay he
made at Strafburg in 1540 and 1541, that he.lodged
him fome days at his houfe, and procured him a re¬
gent’s place in the college of Geneva. Caftalio, after
continuing in this office near three years, was forced
to quit it in the year 1544, on account of fome par¬
ticular opinions which he held concerning Solomon’s
fong, and Chrift’s defcent into hell. He retired to
Balil, where he was made Greek profeflbr, and died
in that place 10,1564, aged 48. He incurred the
high difpleafure of Calvin and Theodore Beza, for
dift'ering with them concerning predeftination and the
puniffiment of heretics. His works*are very confide-
rable, both on account of their quality arid number.
In 1545, he printed at Bafil four books of dialogues,
containing the principal hiftories of the bible in ele¬
gant Latin ; fo that youth might thereby make a pro¬
ficiency in piety and in the Latin tongue at the fame
time. But his principal work is a Latin and French
tranflation of the fcriptures. He began the Latin
tranllation at Geneva in 1542, and finilhed it at Bafil
in 1550. It was printed at Bafil in 1551, and dedi¬
cated by the author to Edward VI. king of England.
The French verfion was dedicated to Henry II. of
France, and printed at Bafil in 1555. The fault
which has been moft generally condemned in his Latin
tranflation, is the affedlation of ufing only claffical
terms.
CASTANEA, in botany. See Fag us.
CASTANOVITZ, a town of Ooatia, fituated on
the river Unna, which divides Chriftendom from
Turkey. E. Long. 1 7. 20. N. Lat. 45. 40. It is
fubjedl to the houfe of Auftria.
CASTEL (Lewis Betrand), a learned Jefuit, was
born at Montpellier in 168S, and entered among the
Jefuits in 1703. He ftudied polite literature in his
youth ; and at length applied himfelf entirely to the
ftudy of mathematics and natural philofophy. He
diftinguiffied himfelf by writing on gravity ; the ma¬
thematics ; and on the mufic of colours, a very whim-
fical idea, which he took great pains to reduce to
practice. His piece on gravity, entitled Trait? ds la
Penfateur univerfetle, was printed at Paris, in 1724.
He afterwards publifhed his Mathematiquc univerfelle;
which occafioned his being unanimoufly chofen a fel¬
low of the Royal Society of London, without the
leaft folicitation. He was alfo a member of the aca¬
demies of Bourdeaux and Rouen : but his Clavecin
ii ] CAS
oculaire made the moft: noife ; and he fpent much Caftclamar*
time and expence in making an harpfichord for the 1
eye, but without fuccels. He alfo wrote for and Ca^c *
againit Sir Ifaac Newton, and publifhed feveral other
works ; the principal of which are, Le Plan du Ma-
thematique abregde, and a treatife entitled Optique des
Colours. He led a very exemplary life, and died in
I757-
CASTELAMARA, a town of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples, and in the hither Principato, with a
bilhop’s fee, and a good harbour. E. Long. 14. 25.
N. Lat. 41. 40.
CASTEL-aragpnese, a ftrong town of Italy,
in the ifland of Sardinia, with a bifliop’s fee, and a
good harbour. It is feated on the N. W. coaft of the
ifland, in E. Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 40. 56.
CASTEL-i?r<z«ce, a town of Portugal, and capi¬
tal of the province of Beirai feated on the river Lyra,
35 miles N. W. of Alcantara. W. Long. 8. o. N. Lat.
39- 35-
CASTEL-Fr^t/co, a very fmall, but well fortified
frontier town of the Bolognefe, in Italy, belonging
to the Pope.
Castex.-dc-Vide, a fmall ftrong town of Alentejo.
It was taken by Philip V. W. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat.
39- IS-
Castel-FcAV, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feat¬
ed’on an inacceffible eminence, between Gironne and
Campredon, about 15 miles from each, and near the
river Fulva.
ChsTS.s.-Candolpho, a town of Italy, in the terri¬
tory of the church, with a caftle, to which the Pope
retires in the fummer feafon ; 10 miles S. by E. of
Rome. E. Long. £2. 46. N. Lat. 41. 44.
CASTEL-JVcr’O, a ftrong town of Dalmatia, fubjeft
to the Venetians j feated on the guiph of Cataio, in
E. Long. 18. 45. N. Lat. 42. 25.
Caster.-Fodrigo, a town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Tra-los-Montes, in W. Long. 7. 1. N. 41.0.
ChSTE'L-Novo-de-Carfagtsaiia, a town of Italy, in
the Modenefe, with a ftrong fortrefs. It is the capi¬
tal of the valley of Carfagnana ; and feated on the
river Serchio, 17 miles above Lucca.
Castel del Ovo, a fmall ifland in the Tufcan Sea,
in the guiph of Naples, near a town of that name, to
which it is joined by a ftone bridge. The fortrels is
called Caftel del Ovo, in which there is always a good
gar ri fon.
CASTELBAR, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Mayo, and province of Connaught, 35 miles N. of
Galway. W. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 52. 45.
CASTELL (Edmund) D. D. a learned Engliffi di¬
vine of the 17th century, diftinguiflied by his Ikill in
the eaftern languages. He was educated at Cam¬
bridge ; where he was mafter of Catherine hall, and
Arabic profeflbr; and was at length canon of Canter¬
bury. He had the greateft lhare in the Polyglott bihle
of London ; and wrote the Heptaglotlon pro fs.ptcm
Orientalibus, ire. On this excellent work, which
occupied a great part of his life, he beftowed incre¬
dible pains and expence, even to the breaking of his-
conftitution, and exhaufting of his fortune, having
expended no lefs than 12,000/. upon that work. At
length, when it was printed, the copies remained nri-
CAS t 17
Caftella fold upon his hands. He died in 1685 ; and lies bu¬
ll ried in the church-yard of Higham Gobyon in Bed-
Caftigliom. fbrdihire, of which he was rector. It appears from
the infcription on his monument, which he eredled
in his lifetime, that he was chaplain to Charles II.
He bequeathed all his oriental manufcripts to the nni-
verlity of Cambridge, on condition that his name
Ihould be written on every copy in the collection.
CASTELLA, a town of the Mantuan, in Italy,
about five miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua. E.
Long. 11. 15. N. Lat. 45. 30.
CASTELLAN, the name of a dignity or charge
in Poland : The caftellans are fenators of the king¬
dom, but fenators only of the lower clafs, who, in
diets, fit on low feats, behind the palatines, or great
fenators. They are a kind of lieutenants of provin¬
ces, and command a part of the palatinate under the
palatine.
CASTELLANY, the territory belonging to any
city or town, chiefly ufed in France and Flanders :
Thus we fay, the caftellany of Lille, Ypres, ire.
CASTELLI (Bernard), an Italian painter, was
born at Genoa in 1557; and excelled in colouring
and in portraits. He was the intimate friend of Taflb,
and took upon himfelf the talk of defigning and etch¬
ing the figures of his Jerufalein Delivered. He died
at Genoa in 1629.
Valerio Caftelli, one of his fons, was born at
Genoa in 1625, and furpaffed his father. He parti¬
cularly excelled in painting battles; and died in 1659.
CASTELVETRO (Lewis), a native of Modena,
of the 16th century, famous for his Comment on Ari-
fiotlc's Poetics. He was profecuted by the inquifition
for a certain book of Melanfthon, which he had tranf-
lated into Italian. He retired to Bafil, where he
died.
CASTIGATION, among the Romans, the punilh-
ment of an offender by blows, or beating, with a
wand or fwitch. Cafiigation was chiefly a military
punilhment; the power of inflicting which on the fol-
diery was given to the tribunes. Some make it of
two kinds; one ufith a flick or cane, called fujliga-
tio ; the other with rods, called flagellatio : the latter
was the moft dilhonourable.
CASTIGLIONI (Balthazar,) an eminent Italian
nobleman, defeended from an illuftrious and ancient
family, and born at his own villa at Cafalico in the
duchy of Milan in 1478. He ftudied painting, fculp-
ture, and architeefure, as appears from a book he
wrote in favour of thefe arts; and excelled fo much
in them, that Raphael Urbino, and Buonaroti, though
incomparable artifts, never thought their works com¬
plete without the approbation of Count Caftiglioni.
When he was 26 years of age, Guido Ubaldo, Duke
of Urbino, fent him ambalfador to Pope Julius II.
He was fent upon a fecond embafly to Lewis XII. of
France, and upon a third-to Henry VII. of England.
Alter he had difpatched his bufinefs here, he return¬
ed, and began his celebrated work infilled the Cour¬
tier; which he completed in Rome in 1516. This
work is full of moral and political inftruction ; and if
we feek for the Italian tongue in perfection, it is laid
to be nowhere better found than in this performance.
A verfion of this work, together with the original I-
12 ] CAS
talian, was publilhed at London in 1727, by A. P. Caftigatorjp
Cafliglioni, a gentleman of the fame family, who re- I
fided there under the patronage of Dr Gibfon biihop t'a in^‘
of London. Count Cafliglioni was fent by Clement
VII. to the court of the Emperor Charles V. in. qua¬
lity of legate ; and died at Toledo in 1529.
CASTlGATOPcY/or Scolds. A woman indic¬
ted for being a common fcold, if convicfled, lhall be
placed in a certain engine of correcfion, called the Jacob's
trebucket, caJHgatory, or cucking-flool; which, in the Law Dtef.
Saxon language, fignifies the fcolding-ftool; though
now it is frequently corrupted into the duc'king-ftool:
becaufe the refidue of the judgment is, that, when
flie is placed therein, flie lhall be plunged in water for
her punilhmenr.
CASTIGLIONE, a fmall, but ftrong town of Ita¬
ly, in Mantua, with a caftle. It was taken by the
Germans in 1701, and the French defeated the Im-
perialifls near it in 1 706. E. Long. 10. 29. N. Lat.
43- 23.
CASTILE, New. See Toledo.
CASTILLAN, or Castillane, a gold-coin, cur¬
rent in Spain, and worth fourteen rials and fixteen
deniers.
Castillan is alfo a weight ufed in Spain for vt'eigh-
ing gold. It is the hundredth part of a pound Spanilh
weight. What they commonly call a weight of gold
in Spain, is always underflood of the caftillan.
CASTILLARA, a town of the Mantuan in Italy,
fifuated fix miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua:
E. Long. u. 25. N. Lar. 45. 20.
CASTILLON, a town of Perigort, in the province
of Guienne in France, fnuated on the river Dordon-
ne, fixteen miles eaft of Bourdeaux : W. Long. 2. 40.
N. Lat. 44. 50.
CASTING, in foundery, the running a metal into
a mould, prepared for that purpofe.
Casting of Metals, of Letters, Bells, ire. See
the article Foundery.
Casting hi Sand or Earth is the running of metals
between two frames, or molds, filled with fand or
earth, wherein the figure that the metal is to take has
been imprelfed en creux, by means of the pattern.
Casting, among fculptors, implies the taking of
cafts and impreffions of figures, bufts, medals, leaves,
ire.
The method of taking of cafts of figures and bulls
is moft generally by the ufe of plafter of Paris, i. e.
alabafter calcined by a gentle heat. The advantage
of ufing this fubftance preferably to others, is, that
notwithftanding a flight calcination reduces it to a pul-
verine ftate, it becomes again a tenacious and cohering
body, by being moiftened with water, and afterwards
fuffered to dry; by which means either a concave or
a convex figure may be given by a proper mold or
model to it when wet, and retained by the hardnefs
it acquires when dry : and from thefe qualities, it is
fitted for the double purpofe of making both cafts,
and molds for forming thofe cafts. The particular
manner of making cafts depends on the form of the
fubjedt to be taken. Where there are no projecting
parts, it is very fimple and eafy ; as likewife where
there are fuch as form only a right or any greater
angle with the principal furface of the body : but
where
CAS [ 1713 ] CAS
.Cafting. where parts project in lefler angles, or form a curve
*-   inclined towards the principal furface of the body, the
work is more difficult.
The firft ftep to be taken is the forming the mold.
In order to this, if the original or model be a bal's re¬
lief, or any other piece of a flat form, having its fur-
face firfl: well grealed, it mull be placet! on a proper
table, and furrounded by a frame, the fides of which
mull; be at Inch a diflance from it as will allow a
proper thicknefs for the fides of the mold. As much
plafler as will be fuflicient to cover and rife to fuch a
thicknefs as may give fufficient iirength to the mold,
as alfo to fill the hollow betwixt the frame and the
model, muft be moiftened with water, till it be juft
of fuch confiftence as will allow it to be poured upon
the model. This muft be done as foon as pofiible ;
or the plafter wpuld concrete or fet, fo as to become
more troublefome in the working, or unfit to be uf-
ed. The whole muft then be fuffered to remain in
this condition, till the plafter has attained its hard-
nefs ; and then the frame being taken away, the
preparatory caft or mold thus formed may be taken
off from the fubject entire.
Where the model or original fubjedt is of a round
or erect form, a different method muft be purfued ;
and the mold muft be divided into feveral pieces : or
if the fubjecft confifts of detached and projecting
parts, it is frequently moft expedient to caft fuch
parts feparately, and afterwards join them together.
Where the original fubjedi or mold forms a round,
or fpheroid, or any part of fuch round or fpheroid,
more than one half the plafter ihuft be ufed without
any frame to keep it round the model; and muft be
tempered with water to fuch a confiftence, that it may
be wrought with the hand like very foft pafte : but
though it muft not be fo fluid as when prepared for flat
figured models, it muft yet be as moift as is compa¬
tible with its cohering fuffieiently to hold together :
and being thus prepared, it muft be put upon the mo¬
del, and compreffed with the hand, or any flat in-
ftrument, that the parts of it may adapt themfelves,
in the ntoft perfedl manner, to thofe of the fubjeift, as
well as be compact with refpecLto themfelves. When
the model is fo covered to a convenient thicknefs,
the whole muft be left at reft till the plafter be fet
and firm, fo as to bear dividing without falling to
pieces, or being liable to be put out of its form by
flight violence ; and it muft then be divided into
pieces, in order to its being taken off from the mo¬
del, by cutting it with a knife with a very thin blade;
and being divided, muft be cautioufly taken oft', and
kept till dry : but it muft be always carefully obferved,
before the feparation of the parts be made, to notch
them crofs the joints, or lines of the divifion, at proper
diftances, that they may with eafe and certainty be
properly conjoined, again ; which would be much
more precarious and troublefome without fuch direc¬
tive marks. The art of properly dividing the molds,
in' order to make them feparate from the model, re¬
quires more dexterity and (kill than any other thing
in the art of cafting ; and does not admit of rules for
the moft advantageous conduct of it in every cafe.
Where the fubjedl is of a round or fpheroidal form,
it is beft to divide the mold into three parts, which will
VOL. III.
then eafily come off from the model: and the fame Caft
will hold good of a cylinder or any regular curve
figure.
The mold being thus formed, and dry, and the
parts put together, it mnft be firft greafed, and pla¬
ced in fuch a pofirion that the hollow may lie upwards,
and then filled with plafter mixed with water, in the
fame proportion and manner as was diretfted for the
cafting the mold : and when the caft is periedily let
and dry, it muft be taken out of the mold and repair¬
ed, where it is necelfary ; which finilhes the whole
operation.
This is all that is required with refpetft to fubje&s
where the furfaces have the regularity above-menti¬
oned : but where they form curves which interfedl
each other, the conduct of the operation muft be va¬
ried wuth refpedt to the manner of taking the caft of
the mold from off the fubjedi or model; and where
there are long projecting parts, fuch as legs or arms,
they Ihould be wrought in feparate calls. The ope¬
rator may eafily judge from the original fubjeeb,
what parts will come off together, and what require
to be feparated : the principle of the whole conlilts
only in this, that where under-workings, as they are
called, occur; that is, wherever a ftraight line drawn
from the balls or infertion of any projection, would
be cut or croffed by any part of fueh projection, fuch
part cannot be taken off without a divifion ; which
muft be made either in the place where the projedlien
would crofs the ftraight line ; or, as that is frequent¬
ly difficult, the whole projection muft be feparated
from the main body, and divided alfo lengthwife in¬
to two parts: and where there are no projections
from the principal'furfaces, but the body is fo formed
as to render the furface a compofition of fuch curves,
that a ftraight line being drawn parallel to the fur¬
face of one part would be cut by the out-line, in one
or more places, of another part, a divifion of the
whole fliould be made, fo as to reduce the parts of
it into regular curves, which muft then be treated as
Tuch.
In larger malfes, where there would otherwife be
a great thicknefs of the plafter, a corps or body may
be put within the mold, in order to produce a hol¬
low in the caft; which both faves the expence of the
plafter, and renders the caft lighter.
This corps may be of wood, where the forming a
hollow of a ftraight figure, or a conical one with the
bafts outward, will anfwer the end : hut if the cavity
require to be round, ojr of any curve figure, the corps
cannot be then drawn while entire ; and confequent-
ly ftiould be of fuch matter as may be taken out piece¬
meal. In this cafe, the corps is beft formed of clay;
which muft be worked upon wires to give it tenacity,
and fufpended in the hollow of the mold, by crofs
wires lying over the mouth : and when the plafter is
fufficiently fet to bear handling, the clay muft be
picked out by a proper inftrument.
Where it is delired to render the plafter harder,
the water with which it is tempered fliould be mixed,
with parchment fize properly prepared, which will
make it very firm and tenacious.
In the fame manner, figures, bulls, ire. may be
caft of lead, or any other metal, in the molds of pla-
10 H fter :
CAS [ 1714 ] CAS
Cafting. fter : only the expence of plafter, and the tedioufnefs
— of its becoming fufficiently dry, when in a very large
mafs, to bear the heat of melted metal, render the
ufe of clay, compounded with feme other proper
materials, preferable where large fubjedts are in quef-
tion. The clay, in this cafe, Ihould be waflied over
till it be perfectly free from gravel or ftones; and
then mixed with a third or more of fine fand to pre¬
vent its cracking ; or, inftead of fand, coal-afhes lift¬
ed fine may be ufed. Whether plader or clay be
employed for the cafting in metal, it is extremely
necefi'ary to have the mold perfectly dry ; otherwife
the moifture, being rarified, will make an explofion
that will blow the metal out of the mold, and endan¬
ger the operator, or at leaft crack the mold in Inch a
manner as to fruftrate the operation. Where the
parts of a mold are larger, or project much, and con-
fequently require a greater tenacity of the matter they
are formed of to keep them together, flocks of cloth,
prepared like thofe defigned for paper-hangings, or
fine cotton plucked or cut till it is very Ihort, Ihould
be mixed with the allies or fand before they are ad¬
ded to the clay to make the compofition for the mold.
The proportion Ihould be according to the degree of
cohefion required : but a fmall quantity will anfwer
the end, if the other ingredients of the compofition
be good, and the parts of the mold properly linked
together by means of the wires above’directed.
There is a method of taking cafts in metals from
final! animals, and the parts of vegetables, which
may be prahlifed for fome purpofes with advantage ;
particularly for the decorating grottoes or rock-work,
where nature is imitated. The proper kinds of ani¬
mals are lizards, fnakes, frogs, birds, or infeffs ; the
tails of which, if properly coloured) will be exabt
reprefentations of the originals.
This is to be performed by the following method.
A coffin or proper cheft for forming the mold being
prepared of clay, or four pieces of boards fixed toge¬
ther, the animal or parts of vegetables mull be fufpend-
ed in it by a firing; and the leaves, tendrils, or other
' detached parts of the vegetables, or the legs, wings,
ire. of the animals, properly feparated and adjulted
in their 1 ight pofition by a fmall pair of pincers : a due
quantity of plaller of Paris and calcined talc, in equal
quantities, with fome alumen plumofum, mull then
be tempered with water to the proper confiftence for
cafting; and the fubjeift from whence the call is to
be taken, as alfo the fides of the coffin, moiftened
with fpirit of wine. The coffin or cheft mull then be
filled with the tempered compofition of the plafter
and talc, putting at the fame time a piece of ftraight
flick or wood to the principal part of the body of the
fubjeift, and pieces of thick wire to the extremities of
the other parts, in order that they may form, when
drawn out after the matter of the mold is properly
let and firm, a channel for pouring in the melted me¬
tal, and vents for the air; which otherwife, by- the
rarefaction it would undergo from the heat of the me¬
tal, would blow it out or burft the mold. In a ihort
time the plafter and talc will fet and become hard,
when the flick and wires may be drawn opt, and the
frame or coffin in which the mold was call taken a-
way : and the mold mult then be put firlt into a mode¬
rate heat, and afterwards, when it is as dry as can be Calling,
rendered by that degree, removed into a greater ;
which may be gradually increafed till the whole be
red-hot. The animal, or part of any vegetable,
which was included in the mold, will then be burnt
to a coal; and may be totally calcined to alhes, by
blowing for fome time gently into the channel and
palfages made for pouring in the metal, and giving
vent to the air, which will, at the fame time that it
deftroys the remainder of the animal or vegetable
matter, blow out the alhes. The mold mull then be
fuftered to cool gently ; and will be perfect; the de-
ftruclion of the liibrtance of the animal or vegetable
having produced a hollow of a figure correfpondent to
it: but it may be neverthelefs proper to ffiake the
mold, and turn it upfide down, as alfo to blow with
the bellows into each of the air-vents, in order to free
it wholly from any remainder of the alhes; or, where
there may be an opportunity of filling the hollow
with quicklilver without expence, it will be found a
very effectual method of clearing the cavity, as all
dull, alhes, or linall detached bodies will neceflarily
rife to the furface of the quickfilver, and be poured
out with it. The mold being thus prepared, it mull
be heated very hot when' ufed, if the call be made
with copper or brafs : but a lefs degree will ferve for
lead or tin ; and the matter being poured in, the
mold mull be gently ftruck : and then fuftered to reft:
till it be cold : at which time it mull be carefully ta¬
ken from the call, but without the leall force ; for
fuch parts of the matter as appear to adhere more
ftrongly, mull be foftened by foaking in water, till
they be entirely loofened, that none of the more de¬
licate parts of the call may be broken off or bent.
Where the alumen plumofum, or talc, cannot eafi-
lybe procured, the plafter may be ufed alone; but
it is apt to be calcined by the heat ufed in burning the
animal or vegetable from whence the call is taken,
and to become of too incohering and crumbly a tex¬
ture : or, for cheapnefs, Sturbridge or any other good
clay, waflied over till it be perfectly fine, and mixed
with an equal part of fand, and fome flocks cut fmall,
may be employed. Pounded pumice-ftone and pla¬
ller of Paris, taken in equal quantities, and mixed
with walhed clay in the fame proportion, is faid to
make excellent molds for this and parallel ufes.
Cafts of medals, or fuch fmall pieces as are of a li-
milar form, may be made in plafter by the method
direcled for bafs relievos.
Indeed there is nothing more required than to form
a mold by laying them on a proper board; and ha¬
ving furrounded them by a rim made of a piece of a
card, or any other pafteboard, to fill the rim with
foft tempered plaller of Paris : which mold, when
dry, will ferve for feveral calls. It is neverthelefs a
belter method to form the mold of melted fulphur ;
which will produce a lharper impreffion in the call,
and be more durable than thofe made of plafter.
The cafts are likewife frequently made of ful¬
phur, which (jieing melted mull be treated exadlly
in the fame manner as the plafter.
For taking cafts from medals, Dr Lewis recom- pbilofoph.
mends a mixture of flowers of brimeftone, and red Commerce
lead: equal parts of thefe are to be put over the fire «/
in
CAS [ 1715 ] CAS
Cafting. in a laddie, till they foften to the confiftence of pap;
—   then they are kindled with a piece of paper, and ftir-
red for fome time. The veffel being afterwards co¬
vered clofe, and continued on the fire, the mixture
grows fluid in a few minutes. It is then to be poured
on the medal, previoufly oiled and wiped clean.
The calls are very neat; their colour fometimes a
pretty deep black, fometimes a dark grey : they are
very durable; and when foiled, may be wafhed clean
in Ipirits of wine.
Naturalijl’s Dr Letfiom recommends tin-foil for taking off calls
Companion, from medals. The thinneft kind is to be ufed. It
Ihould be laid over the fubject from which the impref-
fion is to be taken, &nd then rubbed with a brulh, the
point of a fkewer, or a pin, till it has perfectly re¬
ceived the impreflion. The tin-foil fliould now be
pared clofe to the edge of the medal, till it is brought
to the fame circumference : the medal mull then be
reverfed, and the tin-foil will drop oil’into a chip-box
or mold placed ready to receive it. Thus the con¬
cave fide of the foil will be uppermoft, and upon this
plafter of Paris prepared in the ufual manner, may
be poured. When dry, the whole is to be taken
out, and the tin-foil flicking on the plafter, will give
a perfect reprefentation of the medal, almoft' equal
in beauty to filver. If the box or mold is a little
larger than the medal, the plafter running round the
tin-foil, will give the appearance of a white frame or
circular border ; whence the new made medal will
appear more neat and beautiful.
Cafts may be made likewife with iron, prepared
in the following manner : “ Take any iron-bar,
or piece of a fimilar form; and having heated it
red-hot, hold it over a veflel containing water,
and touch it very flightly with a roll of fulphur,
which will immediately diffolve it, and make it
fall in drops into the water. As much iron as may
be wanted being thus diflblved, pour the water out
of the veflel; and pick out the drops formed by
the melted iron from thofe of the fulphur, which
contain little or no iron, and will be diftinguifh-
able from the other by their colour and weight.”
The iron will, by this means, be rendered fo fu-
fible, that it will run with lefs heat than is required to
melt lead ; and may be employed for making cafts of
medals, and, many other fuch purpofes, with great
convenience and advantage.
Impreflions of medals, having the fame effeCl as
cafts, may be made alfo of ifinglafs glue, by the fol¬
lowing means. Melt the ifinglafs, beaten, as when
commonly ufed, in an earthen pipkin, with the ad¬
dition of as much water as will cover it, ftirring it
gently till the whole is diflblved : then with a brulh
of Camels hair, cover the medal, which Ihould be
previoully well cleanfed and warmed, and then laid
horizontal on a board or table, greafed in the part a-
round the medal. Let them reft afterwards till the
glue be properly hardened; and then, with a pin,
raife the edge of it; and feparate it carefully from
the medal: the call will be thus formed by the glue
as hard as horn; and fo light, that a thoufand will
fcarcely weigh an ounce. In order to render the re¬
lief of the medal more apparent, a fmall quantity of
carmine may be mixed with the melted ifinglafs ; or
the medal may be previoufly coated with leaf-gold by Catling.'
breathing on it, and then laying*it on the leaf, which   
will by that means adhere to it: but the ufe of leaf-gold
is apt to impair a little the Jharpnefs of the impreflion.
Impreflions of medals may be likewife taken in
putty ; but it fliould be the true kind made of calx of
tin, and drying oil. Thefe may- be formed in the
molds, previoufly taken in plafter or fulphur; or molds
may be made in its own fubftance, in the manner di¬
rected for thofe of the plafter. Thefe impreflions
will be very fliarp and hard ; but the greatell difad-
vantage that attends them, is their drying very flow -
ly, and being liable in the mean time to be damaged.
Impreflions of prints, or other engravings, may be
taken from copper-plates, by cleanfing them tho¬
roughly, and pouring plafter upon them : but the ef¬
fect, in this way, is not ftrong enough for the eye ;
and therefore the following method is preferable,
where fuch impreflions on plafter are defired.
Take vermilion, or any other coloured pigment,
finely powdered, and rub it over the plate : then pafs
a folded piece of paper, or the flat part of the hand,
over the plate, to take off the colour from the lights or
parts where there is no engraving : the proceeding
muft then be the fame as where no colour is ufed.
This lafl method is alfo applicable to the making of
impreflions of copper-plates on paper with dry co¬
lours : for the plate being prepared as here direCled,
and laid on the paper properly moiftened, and either
pafled under the rolling-prefs, or any other way
ftrongly forced down on the paper, an impreflion of
the engraving will be obtained.
Impreflions may be likewife taken from copper¬
plates, either on plafter or paper, by means of the
fmoke of a candle or lamp; if, inftead of rubbing
them with any colour, the plate be held over the
candle or lamp till the whole furface become black,
and then wiped off by the flat of the hand, or paper.
Thefe methods are not, however, of great ule in
the cafe of copper-plates, except where impreflions
may be defired on occafions where printing-ink can¬
not be procured : but as they may be applied likewife
to the taking impreflions from Ihuff-boxes, or other
engraved fubjeCts, by which means defigns may be
inftantly borrowed by artifts or curious perfons, they
may in fuch inftances be very ufeful.
The expedient of taking impreflions' by the fmoke
of a candle or lamp may be employed alfo for bota¬
nical purpofes in the cafe of leaves, as a perfect and
durable reprefentation of not only the general figure,
but the contexture and difpolition of the larger fibres,
may be extemporaneoufly obtained at any time. The
fame may be neverthelefs done in a more perfect
manner, by the ufe of linfeed oil, either alone, or
mixed with a fmall proportion of colour, where the
oil can be conveniently procured : but the other me¬
thod is valuable on account of its being pra&icable
at almoft all feafons, and in all places, within the time
that the leaves will keep frefli and plump. In taking
thefe impreflions, it is proper to bruifethe leaves, fo as
to take off the projections of the large ribs, which might
prevent the other parts from plying to the paper.
Leaves, as alfo the petals, or flower-leaves, of
plants, may themfelves be preferved on paper, with
10 H 2 their
CAS F 1716 I CAS
Cafting their original appearance, for a confiderable length
ji of time, by the following means.—Take a piece of
1Cl paper, and rub it over with the ifinglafs glue treated
as above direded for taking imprefiions from medals;
and then lay the leaves in a proper pofition on the
paper. The glue laid on the paper being fet, brufli
over the leaves with more of the fame ; and that be-
ing dry likewife, the operation will be finiflied, and
the leaves lb fecured from the air and moifture, that
they will retain their figure and colour much longer
than by any other treatment.
Butterflies, or other fmall animals of a flat figure,
may alfo be preferved in the fame manner.
Casting is alfo fometimes ufed for the quitting,
laying, or throwing alide any thing; thus deer call
their horns, fnakes their Heins, lobfters their fliells,
hawks their feathers, ire. annually.
Cajiing of feathers is more properly called moulting
or mewing.
A horfe cafls his hair, or coat, at leaf! once a-year,
viz. in the fpring when he calls his winter coat; and
fometimes, at the ciofe of autumn, he calls his fummer
coat, in cafe he has been ill kept. Horles alfo fome-
tjmes caji their hoofs, which happens frequently to
coach-horfes brought from Holland : thefe, being bred
in a moill marlhy country, have their hoofs too flab¬
by ; fo that coming into a drier foil, and lefs juicy
provender, their hoofs fall off, and others that are
firmer fucceed.
Casting a Colt, Aenot.es a mare’s proving abortive.
Casting-A7!?/, a fort of filhing-net ifo called, be-
caufe it is to be caji, or thrown out; which when ex¬
actly done, nothing efcapes it, but weeds and every
thing within its extent are brought away.
CASTLE, afortrefs, or place rendered defenceable
either by nature or art. It frequently fignifies with'
us the principal manfion of noblemen. In the time
of Henry II, there were no lefs than 1115 callles in
England, each of which contained a manor.
Castle, in ancient writers, denotes a town or vil¬
lage furrounded with a ditch and wall, furniflied with
towers at intervals, and guarded by a body of troops.
The word is originally Latin, cajiellum, a diminutive
from caflrum. Cajiellum originaily feems to have
fignified a fmaller fort for a little garrifon : though
Suetonius ufe's the word where the fortification was
Luge enough to contain a cohort. The cajlella, ac¬
cording to Vegetius, were often like, towns, built
on the borders of. the empire, and where there were
conflant guards and.fences againft the enemy. Hor-
I'ey takes them for much the fame with what were
otheVwife denominated flations.
Castle, or Cafile-Jleed, is alfo an appellation given
by the country-people in the north to the Roman caj-
■ t-'lla, as diflinguilhed from the cajtra ftativa which
they ufually call chejiers. Horfley reprefents this as
an ufelul criterion, whereby to difeover or diftinguilh
a Roman camp or llation. There are feveral of
ihefe caflella on Severus’s wall : they are generally
60 feet fquare ; their north fide is formed by the
wall irfelf which falls in with them; the intervals
between them are from fix furlongs and an half to
feven ; they feem to have flood clofeft where the Ra¬
tions are widefl. The neighbouring people call them
caflles or cajile-jieeds, by which it feems probable that Caftle
their ancient Latin name had been cajiellum. Some
modern writers call them mile-caflles, or milliary caf- a or'
tell# : Horfley fometimes exploratory cajiles. In
thefe cajlella the areans had their flations, who were
an order of men whole bufmefs was to make incur-
fions into the enemies country, and give intelligence
of their motions.
Castle, in the feadanguage, is a part of the fhip, of
which there are two : the fbrecaftle, being the ele¬
vation at the prow, or the uppermoft deck, towards
the tnizen, the place where the kitchens are. Hind-
caflle is the elevation which reigns on the Hern, over
the Lift.deck, where the officers cabins and places of
affembly are.
Castle (Edmund). See Castel.
Castle-C^/j, a remarkable Roman Ration about
four miles weR from Falkirk on the borders of Stir-
lingfhire in Scotland. It comprehends feveral acres
of ground, is of a fquare form, and is furrounded
with a wall of Rone and mortar : all the fpace within
the walls has been occupied by buildings, the ruins of
which have raifed the earth eight or ten feet above
its natural furface ; fo that the fort now feems like an
hill-top furrounded with a funk fence. In 17 70, fome
workmen employed in fearching for Rones for the
great canal which pafles very near it, difeovered fe¬
veral apartments of Rone; arid in one of them a great
number of Rones about two feet in length, and Rand-
ing erecl, with marks of fire upon them, as if they
had been employed in lupporting fome veflel under
which fire was put. In a hollow of the rock near
this place, in 1771, a confiderable quantity of wheat
quite black with age was found, with fome wedges
and hammers fuppofed to be Roman.
Castle - Rijing, a borough-town of Norfolk in Eng¬
land, which fends two members to parliament. E.
Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 46.
Castle-JTork, fervice or labour done by inferior
tenants, for the building and upholding caflles of de¬
fence, toward which fome gave their perfonal affiR-
ance, and others paid their contributions. This was
one of the three neceflary charges to which the Anglo-
Saxons were expfefsly fubjebl.
CASTLETOWN, the capital of the ifle of Man,
feated on the fouth-weR part of the ifland. It has a
Rrong caflle ; but of no great importance, on account
of its diRance from the rocky and fhallow harbour..
W. Long. 4. 39. N. Lat. 53. 30.
CASTOR, or Beaver, in zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order of glires. The
foreteeth of the upper jaw are truncated, and hollow¬
ed in a tranfverfe angular direction. The tops of
the foreteeth of the lower jaw lie in a tranfverfe
direblion ; and the tail is depreifed. There are three
fpecies of caRor, viz. 1. The fiber, with a plain
ovated tail, is found on the banks of the rivers in
Europe, Afia, and America. It has fhort ears hid
in the fur ; a blunt nofe ; the forefeet fmall, the hin¬
der large : its length from nofe to tail about three
feet, tail about one foot. It is from the inguinal
glands of this animal that the eaflor is obtained ; it
is contained in cods or pouches refembling a dog’s te-
Aicles. Nothing equals the art with Which thele ani¬
mals
CAS [ 1717 ] CAS
Caftor. mals conftruft their dwellings. They chufe a level
 — piece of ground, with a fmall rivulet running through
it. This they form into a pond, by making a dam
acrofs j firft by driving into the ground flakes of five
or fix feet in length, placed in rows, wattling each
row with pliant twigs, and filling the interllices with
clay, ramming it down clofe. The fide next the wa¬
ter is Hoped, the other perpendicular ; the bottom is
from ten to twelve feet thick ; but the thicknefs gra¬
dually diminifties to the top, which is about two or
three : the length of thefe dams is fometimes not lei’s
than 100 feet.
Their houfes are made in the water colledled by
means of the dam, and are placed near the edge of
the fhore. They are built on piles ; are either round
or oval ; but their tops are vaulted, fo that their inlide
refembles an oven, the top a dome. The walls are
two feet thick, made of earth, (tones, and flicks, molt
artificially laid together ; and the walls within as
neatly plaflered as if with a trowel. In each houfe
are two openings, the one into the water, the other
towards the land. The height of thefe houfes above
the water is eight feet. They often make two or
three (lories in each dwelling, tor the convenience of
change in cafe of floods. E ach houfe contains from 20
to 30 beavers; and the number of houfes in each pond
is from 10 to 25. Each beaver forms its bed of mofs;
and each family forms its magazine of winter provi-
fions, which confift of bark and boughs of trees.
Thofe they lodge under water, and fetch into their
apartments as occalion requires. Lawfon fays, they
are fondefl of the faffafras, afh, and fweet gum.
Their fummer food is leaves, fruits, and fometimes
crabs and craw fifh; but they are not fond of
fifh.
To effedl thefe works, a community of two or
three hundred alfembles ; each bears his fhare in the
labour ; fome fall to gnawing with their teeth trees
of great lize, to form beams or piles ; others roll the
pieces along to the water ; others dive, and with
their feet (crape holes in order to place them in;
while others exert their efforts to rear them in their
proper places : another party is employed in collec¬
ting twigs to wattle the piles with ; a third in collec¬
ting earth, ftones, and clay ; a fourth is bufied in beat¬
ing and tempering the mortar; others in carrying it
on their broad tails to proper places, and with the fame
inflmment ram it between the piles, or plafter the in-
fide of their houfes. A certain number of fmart
ftrokes given with their tails, is a fignal made by the
overfeer for repairing to fuch and Inch places, either
for mending any defects, or at the approach of an
enemy ; and the whole fociety attend to it with the
utmoft aflhluity. Their time of building is early in
fummer; for in winter they never ftir but to their
magazines of provifions, and during that feafon are
very fat. They breed once a-year, and bring forth
at the latter end of the winter two or three young
at a birth.
Befides thefe affociated beavers, is another fort
called terriers, which either want induflry or faga-
city to form houfes like the others. They burrow in
the banks of rivers, making their holes beneath the
freezing depth of the water, and work up for a great
number of feet. Thefe alfo form their winter flock Caftor.
of provifion.  
Beavers vary in their colours; the finefl are black,
but the general colour is a chefnut brown, more or
lei's dark : fome have been found, but very rarely,
white. The fkins are a prodigious article of trade,
being the foundation of the hat-trfenufadtory. In
1763 were fold, in a fingle fale of the Hudlbn’s-bay
company, 54,670 fkins. They are dillinguiflied by
different names. Coat-beaver is what has been worn
as coverlets by the Indians: Parchment-beaver, be-
caule the lower fide relembles it: Stage-beaver is the
worfl, and is that which the Indians kill out of fea¬
fon, on their Ilages or journeys.
In hunting the beavers, the favages fometimes
fhoot them, always getting on the contrary fide of
the wind ; for they are very fhy, quick in herffing,
and of a keen feent. This is generally done when
the beavers are at work, or on Ihore feeding on po¬
plar bark. If they hear any noife when at work,
they immediately jump into the water, and continue
there fome time ; and when -they rife, it is at a di-
Itance from the place where they went in.
They fometimes are taken with traps: thefe are
nothing but poplar flicks laid in a path near the wa¬
ter ; which when the beaver begins to. feed upon,
they caufe a large log of wood to fall upon their necks,
which is put in motion by their moving of the flicks,
and confequently requires an ingenious contrivance.
The favages generally prefer this way of taking them,
becaufe it does not damage their fkins.
In the winter-time they break the ice in two pla¬
ces at a diflance from the houfe, the one behind the
other. Then they take away the broken ice with a
kind of racket, the better to fee where to place their
flakes. They fallen their nets to thefe, which have
large mefhes, and fomerimes are eighteen or twenty
yards in length. When thefe are fixed, they pro¬
ceed to demolilh the houfe, and turn a dog therein ;
which terrifying the beaver, he immediately leaves
it, and takes to the water ; after which, lie is foon
entangled by the net.
2. The mofehatus, with a long, compreffed, lan-
ceolated tail, and palmated feet. It has a long (len¬
der nofe like that of a fhrew-monfe ; no external
ears, and very fmall eyes. Length from nofe to
tail, feven inches; of the tail, eight. It is the water-
rat of Clnfius; and inhabits Lapland, Ruffia, the banks
of the rivers Wolga, and the Yaick. It never wanders
far from the (ides; is very flow in its pace ; makes
holes in the cliffs, with the entrance far beneath the
lowed fall of the water ; works upwards, but never
to the fiirface, only high enough to be beyond the
highefl flow of the river; feeds on filh ; is devoured
by the pikes and filuri, and gives thofe fifh fo drong
a flavour of mufk as to render them not eatable ; has
the fame feent as the former, efpecially about the
tail, out of which is expreffed a fort of mufk very
much refembling the genuine kind. The Heins are
put into chefts among clothes, to drive away moths. x
At Orenburg the fkins and tails fell for 15 or 20 to¬
pees per hundred. They are fo common near Niz-
ney Novogorod, that the peafants bring 500 a-piece
to market, where they are fold for one ruble per
hundred.
Caftor
Caftoreuin.
CAS [17
hundred. The German name for thefe animals is
bicfemratze ; the Ruffian, wj cbozhol.
3. The zibethicus or mufk-rat, with a long, com-
prelfed, lanceolated tail, and the toes of the feet fepa-
rated from each other. Length from nofe to tail,
ooe foot; of the tail, nine inches. This fpecies in¬
habits North America, breeds three or four times in
a year, and brings from three to iix young ones at a
time : during fummer the male and female confort
together : at the approach of winter they unite in
families, and retire into fmall round edifices covered
with a dome, formed of herbs and reeds cemented
with clay: at the bottom arfe feveral pipes through
which they pafs in fearch of food ; for they do not
form magazines like the beavers: during winter their
habitations are covered many feet deep with fnow
and ice ; but they creep out and feed on the roots
beneath: they quit their old habitations annually, and
form new ones : the fur is foft and much efteemed :
the whole animal, during fummer, has a mod exqui-
fite fmell of mufk, which it lofes in winter : perhaps
the fcent is derived from the calamus aromaticus, a
favourite food of this animal'. Lefcarbot fays they
are very good to eat.
CASTOR and Pollux, in Pagan mythology. Ju¬
piter having an amour with Leda, the wife of Tyn-
darus king of Sparta, in the form of a fwan, fhe
brought forth two eggs, each containing twins. From
that impregnated by Jupiter proceeded Pollux and
Helena, who were both immortal; from the other
Caftor and Clytemneftra, who being begot by Tyn-
darus were both mortal. They were all, however,
called by the common name of Tyndaridee. Thefe
two brothers entered into an inviolable friendfhip :
they went with the other noble youths of Greece in
the expedition to Colchis, and, on feveral occafions,
lignalized themfelves by their courage ; but Caftor
being at length killed, Pollux obtained leave to lhare
his own immortality with him ; fo that they are faid
to live and die alternately every day : for, being
tranflated into the (kies, they form the conftellation
of gemini, one of which ftars riles as the other
fets.
A martial dance, called the Pyrrhic or Caflorian
dance, was invented in honour of thefe deities, whom
the Cephelenfes placed among the Dii Magni, and of¬
fered to them white lambs. The Romans alfo paid
them particular honours on account of the affiftance
they are faid to have given them in an engagement
againft the Latins,; in which, appearing mounted on
white horfes, they turned the fcale of victory in their
favour, for which a temple was erected to them in
the forum.
Castor and Pollux, two meteors, which, in a
ftorm at fea, appear (ticking to Come part of the
fhip, in the (hape of fire-balls: when only one is
feen, it is more properly called Helena. The two
together are adjudged to portend the ceflation of the
ftorm ; but one alone portends ill, and that the (eve-
reft part of the tempeft is yet to come : both thefe
balls are by fome called Tyndaridcs.
CASTOREUM, in the Materia Medica, castor ;
the inguinal glands of the beaver *. The ancients
had a notion that it was lodged in the tefticles ; and
18 ] CAS
that the animals, when hard prefled, would bite them
off, and leave them to its purfuers, as if confcious of
what they wanted to deftrpy him for. The beft
fort of caftor is what comes from Ruffia. So much
is Ruflian caftor fuperior to the American, that two
guineas per pound is paid for the former, and only
8 s. 6 d. for the latter. The Ruffian caftor is in large
hard round cods, which appear, when cut, full of a
brittle, red, liver-coloured fubftance, interfperfed with
membranes and fibres exquifitely interwoven. An
inferior fort is brought from Dantzic, and is gene¬
rally fat and moift. The American caftor, which is
the worft of all, is in longiffi thin cods. Ruffia caftor
has a ftrong difiagreeable fmell ; and an acrid, bit-
terifli, and naufeous tafte. Water extra6ls the nau-
feous part, with little of the finer bitter ; rectified
fpirit extracts this laft without much of the naufeous ;
proof fpirit both : water elevates the whole of its
flavour in diftillation ; rectified fpirit brings over no¬
thing. Caftor is looked upon as one of the capital
nervine and antihyfteric medicines : fome celebrated
practitioners, neverthelefs, have doubted its virtues ;
and Newman and Stahl declare it infignificant. Ex¬
perience, however, has (hewn that the virtues of ca¬
ftor are confiderable, though lefs than they have been
generally fuppofed. See Materia Medica, n° 224.
CASTRATION, in furgery, the operation of
gelding. It was prohibited by a decree of the fenate
of Rome under Hadrian ; and the Cornelian law fub-
jecled the perfon who performed the operation, to
the fame penalties as the perfon on whom it was per¬
formed, although it was done with his confent.
Caftration is much in ufe in Aiia and Turkey,
where it is pracftifed upon the (laves, to prevent any
commerce with their women. In Italy, caftration is
frequent from another motive, namely, to preferve
the voice for finging*.
Caftration is fometimes found neceflary in chirur-
gical cafes, as in a farcocele and cancer of the te-
fticle?.
Castration, among botanifts, a term derived
from the fancied analogy betwixt plants and animals.
The caftration of plants confifts in cutting off the an¬
ther#, or tops of the (lamina, before they have at¬
tained maturity, and difperfed the pollen or fine dull
contained within their fubftance. This operation has
been frequently practifed by the moderns, with a
view to eftabiilh or confute the dodlrine of the (exes
of plants; the antherae or tops being confidered by
the fexualifts as the male organs of generation. The
experiment of caftration fucceeds principally on plants
which, like the melon, have their male flowers de¬
tached from the female. In fuch as have both male
and female flowers contained within the fame covers,
this operation cannot be eafily performed without en¬
dangering the neighbouring organs. The refult of
experiments on this fubjedt by Linnseus, Alfton, and
other eminent botanifts, may be feen under the ar¬
ticle Botany, feift. iii.
CASTREL, a kind of hawk refembling the lanner
in fliape, but the hobby in (ize. The caftrel is alfo
called kejirel, and is of a (low and cowardly kind ;
her game is the grous, though (lie will kill a par¬
tridge.
Caftoreum
II
CaftraJ.
* See Eu¬
nuch.
CASTRES,
CAS [ i7i9 ] CAS
Caftres CASTRES, a city of Languedoc in France, about
„ M . thirty-five miles eaft of Thouloufe. E. Long. 2. and
Caitruccio. -v-i • » •
  N. Lat. 43. 40. It is a bilhop s lee.
CASTRO, the capital of the ifland of Chiloe, on
the coaR of Chili in South America. W. Long. 82.
S. Lat. 43*
Castro is alfo the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the Pope’s territories in Italy, fituated on the
confines ofTufcany. E. Long. 12. 3$. N. Lat. 42. 30.
CASTRUCCIO (Caifracani), a celebrated Italian
general, was bora (nobody knows of whom) at Luc¬
ca in Florence in 1284, and left in a vineyard cover¬
ed with leaves, where he was found by Dianora a
widow lady, the After of Antonio, a canon of St
Michael in Lucca, who was del’cended from the illu-
ftrious family of the Caftrahani. The lady having no
children, they refolved to bring him up, and edu¬
cated him as carefully as he had been their own.
They intended him for a prieft ; but he was fcarcely
14 years old when he began to devote himfelf to mi¬
litary fports, and thofe violent exercifes which 1'uited
his great ftrength of body. The fatftums named the
Guelfs and Gibeline! then lhared all Italy between
them; divided the Popes and the Emperors; and
engaged in their different interefts not only the mem¬
bers of the fame town, but even thofe of the Tune
family. Francifco, a coniiderable perfon on the fide
of the Gibelihes, obferving Caftruccio’s uncommon
fpirit and great qualities, prevailed with Antonio to
let him turn foldier ; on which Caftruccio foon be¬
came acquainted with every thing belonging to that
profeffion, and was made a lieutenant of a company
of foot by Francifco Guinigi. In his firft campaign
he gave liich proofs of his courage and conduift as
fpread his fame all over Lombardy ; and Guinigi,
dying foon after, committed to him the care of his
fon and the management of his eftate. Still di-
ftinguilhing himfelf by his exploits, he filled his com¬
mander in chief with fuch jealoufy and envy, that he
was imprifoned by ftratagem in order to be put to
death. But the people of Lucca foon releafed him,
and afterwards chofe him for their fovereign prince.
The Gibelines confidered him as the chief of their
party ; and thofe who had been banilhed from their
country fled to him for protection, and unanimoufly
promifed, that if he could reftore them to their e-
ftates, they would ferve him fo effectually that the
fovereignty of their country Ihould be his reward :
Flattered by thefe promifes, he entered into a league
with the prince of Milan. He kept his army con-
ftantly on foot, employing it as beft fuited his own de-
figns. For fervices he bad done the Pope, he was
made fenator of Rome with more than ordinary ce¬
remony ; but, while there, received news which obli¬
ged him to haften back to Lucca. The Florentines
entered into a war with him, but Caftruccio fought
his way through them ; and the fupreme authority
of Tufcany was ready to fall into his hands, when a
period was put to his life. In May 1328, he gained
a complete viCiory over his enemies, who amounted
to 30,000 foot, and 10,000 horfe ; in which 22,000
of them were flain, with the lofs of not quite 16,000
of his own men : but as he was returning from the
field of battle, tired with the aCtion, and covered
with fweat, he halted a little, in order to thank and Caftrnccio
carefs his foldiers as they palfed ; when, the north 1
wind blowing upon-him, he was immediately ft-ized ual-lfS'
with an ague, which he at firrt negleCied, but it car- v
t ied him off in a few days, in the 44th year of liis
age.
Machiavel, who has written the lift of Caftruccio,
fays, that he was not only an extraordinary man in
his own age, but would have been fo in .any other.
He was of a noble afpeft, and of the moft winning
addrefs. He had all the qualities that make a man
great; was grateful to his friends, juft to his fubjeCls,
terrible to his enemies. No man was more forward
to encounter dangers; no man more careful to efcape
them. He had an uncommon prefence of mind, and
often made rapartees with great fmartnefs. Some of
them are recorded, which dil'cover a Angular turn of
humour ; and, for a fpecimen, we ftiall mention three
or four of them.—Palfing one day through a ftreet
where there was a houfe of bad fame, he lurprifed a
young man, who was juft coming out, and who, upon
feeing him, was all over blulhes and confufion :
u Friend, you fhould not be alhamed when yon come
out, but when you go in.” —One alking a favour of him
with a thoufand impertinent and fuperfluous words :
“ Hark you, friend ; when you would have any thing
with -me for the future, fend another man to afk it.”
—Another great talker having tired him with a te¬
dious difcourfe, excufed himfelf. at laft, by faying, he
was afraid he had been troublefome. “ No indeed,
(replied he), for I did not mind one word you faid.”
—He was forced to put a citizen of Lucca to death,
who had formerly been a great inftrument of his ad¬
vancement ; and being reproached by fbmebody for
having dealt fo feverely with an old friend, replied,
“ No, you are miftaken, it was with a new foe.”—
One of his courtiers defirous to regale him, macie
a ball and invited him to it. Caftruccio came, en¬
tertained himfelf among the ladies, danced, and did
other things which did not feem to comport with the
dignity of his rank. One of his friends intimating:
that fuch freedoms might diminilh the reverence that
ought to be paid him : “ I thank you for your cau¬
tion ; but he who is reckoned wife all the day, will
never be reckoned a fool at night.”
CASU-consimili, in law, a writ of entry granted
where a tenant, by courtefy or for life, aliens either
in fee, in tail, or for the term of another’s life. It is
brought by him in reverfion againft the perfon to
whom fuch tenant does fo alien to the prejudice of
the reverfioner in the tenant’s life-time.
CpiSV-Provifo, in law, a writ of entry founded
on the ftatute of Glouceftcr, where a tenant in
dotver aliens the lands flie fo holds in fee, or for
life ; and Hes for the party in reverfion againft the
alienee.
CAUSAL, fomething that happens fortuitoufly,
without any defign, or any meafures taken to bring it
to pafs.
Ckv$M.-Revenues, are Thofe which arife from for¬
feitures, confifeations, deaths, attainders, ire.
Ck%xsb-L-Thmlogy, a denomination given to what
is more frequently called Casuistry.
. CASUALTIES of Superiority, in Scots law,
tliofe
CAS [ 1720 1 CAS
Cafualty tliofe duties and emoluments which a fuperior has a
II right to demand out of his vaifal’s eltate, over and
Cat' bdides the conftant yearly duties efktblifhed by the
reddendo of his charter upon certain cafual events.
CASUALTY, in a general fenfe, denotes an acci¬
dent, or a thing happening by chance, not defign. It
is particulary uled for an accident producing unnatural
death.
Casualty, in Metallurgy. See Causalty.
CASUIST, a perfon who propofes to relolve cafes
of conlcience. Efcobar has made a colledion oLthe
opinions of all the cafuifls before him. M. Le Feore,
preceptor of Lewis XIII. called the books of the
cafuifts the art of quibbling with God ; which does
not feem far from truth, by reafon of the multitude
of diftinctions and fubtleties they abound withal.
Mayer has publilhed a bibliotheca of cafuifts, contain¬
ing an account of all the writers on cafes of con-
fcience, ranged under three heads, the firft compre¬
hending the Lutheran, the fecond the Calvinift, and
the third the Romilh, cafuifts.
CASUISTRY, the doctrine and fcience of confcience
and its cafes, with the rules and principles of reiol-
ving the fame ; drawn partly from natural reafon or
equity ; partly from authority of Icripture, the canon
law, councils, fathers, be. To cafuiftry belongs the
decifion of all difficulties arifing about what a man
may lawfully do or not do ; what is (in or not fin ;
what things a man is obliged to do in order to dif-
charge his duty, and what he may let alone without
breach of it.
CASIUS amissionis, in Scots law, in aftions
„ proving the tenor of obligations inextinguifhable by
the debtors retiring or cancelling them, it is necei-
fary for the purfuer, before he is allowed a proof of
the tenor, to condelcend upon fuch a cafus arniffionis,
or accident, by which the writing was deftroyed, as
Ihews it was loft while in the writer’s polfeffion.
CAT, in zoology. See Felis. >
Cat, in fea-aifairs, a ffiip employed in the coal-
trade, formed from the Norwegian model. It is dif-
tinguilhed by a narrow ftern, projecting quarters, a
deep waijle, and by having ornamental figures on the
prow. Thefe velfels are generally built remarkably
ftrong, and carry from four to fix hundred tons, or,
in the language of their own mariners, from 20 to
JO keels of coals.
Cat, is alfo a fort of ftrong tackle, or combination
of pullies, to hook and draw the anchor perpendicu¬
larly up to the cat-head. The ufe of this machine is
reprefented, Plate LXXXII. fig. 4.
CAT-FiJh, in ichthyology. See Squalus.
Cat-Cut, a denomination given to fimall firings for
fiddles, and other inftruments, made of the inteftines
of flieep or lambs, dried and twilled together, either
fingly, or feveral together. Thefe are fometimes
coloured red, fometimes blue, but are commonly left
wbitilh or brownilh, the natural colour of the gut.
They are alfo tiled by watch-makers, cutlers, turners,
and other artificers. Great quantities are imported
into England, and other northern countries from
Lyons and Italy.
CAT-Harftngs, a purchafe of ropes employed to
brace in the Ihrowds of the lower mafts behind then-
yards for the double purpofe of making the fhroods Cat
more tight, and of affording room to draw in the II
yards more obliquely, to trim the fails for a fide-wind, Cataconab.
when they are laid to be clofe hauled.
CAT-Heads, two ftrong fhort beams of timber, PlateIxxxii.
which projeCl almoft horizontally over the fhip’s bows fig. 4.
on each fide of the bow-fprit; being like two radii
which extend from a center taken in the direction of
the bow-fprit. That part of the cat-head which refts
upon the foreeaftle, is fecurely bolted to the beams:
the other part projeCts like a crane as above defcri-
bed, and carries in its extremity two or three fmall
wheels or Jheaves of brafs or ftrong wood, about
which a rope called the cat-fall paffes, and communi¬
cates with the cat-block, which alfo contains three
fheaves. The machine formed by this combination of
pullies is called the Cat, which ferves to pull the an¬
chor up to the cat-head, without tearing the fhip’s
fides with its flukes. The cat-head alfo ferves to fuf-
pend the anchor clear of the bow, when it is necef-
fary to let it go: it is jupported by a fort of knee,
which is generally ornamented with fculpture.
The cat-block is filled with a large and ftrong hook,
which catches the ring of the anchor when it is to be
drawn up.
Cat of the Mountain. See Felis.
Cat-Mint. See Mentha.
CAT-Salt, a name given by our falt-workers to a
very beautifully granulated kind of common fait. It
is formed out of the bittern, or leach-brine, which runs
from the fait when taken out of the pan. When they
draw out the common fait from the boiling pans, they
put it into long wooden troughs, w ith holes bored at
the bottom for the brine to drain out ; under thefe
troughs are placed veflels to receive this brine, and
acrois them fmall flicks to which the cat-falt affixes
itfelf in very large and beautiful cryftals. This fait
contains feme portion of the bitter purging fait, is
very fharp and pungent, and is white when powder¬
ed, though pellucid in the mafs. It is ufed by feme
for the table, but the greateft part of what is made
of it is ufed by the makers of hard-foap.
Cat-Silver. See Mica.
CATACAUSTIC curves, in the higher geometry,
that fpecies of cauftic curves which are formed by re¬
flection. See Fluxions.
CATACHRESIS, in rhetoric, a trope which bor¬
rows the name of one thing to exprefs another. Thus
Milton, deferibing Raphael’s defeent from the empy¬
real heaven to paradife, fays,
<( Down thither prone in flight,
“ He fpeeds, 'and through the vaft etherial fky
“ Sails between worlds and worlds.”
CATACOMB, a grotto, or fubterraneous place for
the burial of the dead.
Some derive the word catacomb from the place
where fhips are laid up, which the modern Latins and
Greeks call cumbae. Others fay, that cata was ufed
for ad, and catacumbas for adtumbas : accordingly,
Dadin fays, they anciently wrote catatumbas. Others
fetch the word from the Greek x«ra, and xt)x£©-, a
hollow, cavity, or the like.
Anciently the word catacomb was only underftood
of the tombs of St Peter and St Paul; and M. Chafte-
lain
CAT [ 1721 ] CAT
Catacombs. Iain obferves, that, among the more knowing of the
people of Rome, the Word catacomb is never applied
to the fubterraneous burying-places hereafter men¬
tioned, but only to a chapel in St Sebaltian, one of the
feven ftational churches ; where the ancient Roman
calendars fay the body of St Peter was depofited,
under the confulate of Tufcus and Baflias, in 258.
Catacombs of Italy ; a vaft aflemblage of fubter¬
raneous fepulchres about Rome, chiefly at about three
miles from -that city in the Via Appia ; fuppofed to
be the lepulchres of the martyrs ; and which are vi-
fited accordingly out of devotion, and relics thence
taken and difperfed throughout the catholic countries
after having been firll baptized by the Pope under
thfe name of feme faint. Thefe catacombs are faid
by many to be caves or cells wherein the primitive
Chriltians hid and aflembled themfelves together, and
where they interred fuch among them as were mar¬
tyred. Each catacomb is three feet broad, and eight
or ten high; running in form of an alley or gallery, and
communicating with others : in many places they ex¬
tend within a league of Rome. There is no malbnry
or vaulting therein, but each fupports itfelf: the two
fides, which we may look on as the parietes or walls,
were the places where the dead were depofited ;
which were laid lengthwife, three or four rows over
one another, in the fame catacomb, parallel to the
alley. They were commonly clofed with large thick
tyles, and fometimes pieces of marble, cemented in a
manner inimitable by the moderns. Sometimes, tho’
very rarely, the name of the deceafed is found on the
tyle : frequently a palm is feen, painted or engraven,
or the cipher Xp, which is commonly read pro
Cbriflo. The opinion held by many Protellant authors
is, that the catacombs are heathen fepulchres, and
the fame with the puticuli mentioned by Fellus Pom-
peius; maintaining, that whereas it was the practice
of the ancient Romans to burn their dead, the cultom
was, to avoid expence, to throw the bodies of their
flaves to rot in holes of the ground ; and that the
Roman Chriftians, obferving, at length, the great
veneration paid to relics, refolved to have a Itock
of their own : entering, therefore, the catacombs,
they added what ciphers and infcriptions they plea-
fed ; and then Ihut them up again, to be opened on a
favourable occafion. Thofe in the fecret, add they,
dying or removing, the contrivance was forgot, till
chance opened them at laft. But this opinion has
even lefs of probability than the former. Mr Monro,
in the Philofophical TranfaBions, fuppofes the cata¬
combs to have been origninally the common fepulchres
of the firft Romans, and dug in confecpience of thefe
two opinions, viz. Thatfhades hate thenght; and that
they love to hover about the places where the bodies
are laid.
Though the catacombs of Rome have made the
greatell noife of any in the world, there are fuch
belonging to many other cities. Thofe of Naples,
according to bilhop Burnet, are much more noble
and fpacious than the catacombs of Rome. Cata¬
combs have alfo been difcovered at Syracufe, and
Catanea in Sicily, and in the ifland of Malta. The
Roman catacombs take particular names from the
churches in their neighbourhood, and feem to divide
VOL. III.
the circumference of the city without the walls be- Catacombs,
tween them, extending their galleries every where
under, and a vaft way from it; lb that all the ground
under Rome, and for many miles about it, feme lay
20, is hollow. The largeft, and thofe commonly
Ihewn to ftrangers, are the catacombs of San Sebafti-
ano, thofe of Saint Agnefe, and the others in the fields
a little off Saint Agnefe. Women are only allowed
to go into the catacombs in the church-yard of the
Vatican on Whitfun-Monday, under pain of excom¬
munication. There are men kept conftantly at work
in the catacombs. As foon as thefe labourers difcover
a grave with any of the fujjpofed marks of a faint
upon it, intimation is given to the cardinal Comer-
lingo, who immediately fends men of reputation to
the place, where finding the palm, the monogram,
the coloured glafs, ire. the remains of the body are
taken up with great refpeift, and tranflated to Rome.
After the labourers have examined a gallery, they
Hop up the entry that leads to it; fo that moft of
them remain thus clofed up ; only a few being left
open, to keep up the trade of fliewing them to itran-
gers. This they fay is done to prevent people from
lofing themfelves in thefe fubterraneous labyrinths,
which indeed has often happened ; but more pro¬
bably to deprive the public of the means of knowing
whither and how far the catacombs are carried.
The method of preferving the dead in catacombs
feems to have been common to a number of the
ancient nations. The catacombs of Egypt are ftiil
extant, about nine leagues from the city of Grand
Cairo, and two miles from the city of Zaccara. They
extend from thence to tfie pyramids of Pharaoh,
which are about eight miles diftant. They lie in a
field covered with a fine running fand, of a ytllowilh
colour. The country is dry and hilly ; the entrance
of the tomb is choaked up with fand ; there are many
open, but more that are ftili concealed.
The bodies found in catacombs, efpecially thofe of
Egypt, are called mummies ; atjd as their flelh was
formerly reckoned an efficacious medicine, they were
much fought after. In this work the labourers were
often obliged to clear away the land for weeks toge¬
ther, without finding what they wanted. Upon
coming to a little fquare opening of about 18 feet in
depth, they defeend into it by holes for the feet,
placed at proper intervals; and there they are fure of
finding a mummy. Thefe caves, or use Us, as they
call them there, are hollowed out of a white free-
ftone, which is found in all this country a few feet
below the covering of fand. When one gets to the
bottom of thele, which are fometimes 40 feet below
the furface, there are feveral fquare openings on each
fide, into palfages of 10 or 15 feet wide ; and thefe
lead to chambers of 15 or 20 feet fquare. Thefe are
all hewn out into the rock ; and in each of the cata¬
combs are. to be found feveral of thefe apartments
communicating with one another. They extend a
great way under ground, fo as to be under the city
of Memphis, and in a manner to undermine its in-
virons. In feme of the chambers the walls are a-
dorned with figures and hieroglyphics ; in others the
mummies are found in tombs, round the apartment
hollowed out in the rock.
10 I
The
CAT [ 1722 ] CAT
Catalepfis The Egyptians feem to have excelled in the art of
! . embalming and preferving their dead bodies ; as the
ata oma. founci hi the Egyptian catacombs are in a
better Hate than the bodies found either in the Italian
catacombs, or thole of any other part of the world.
See Embalming and Mummy.
Laying up the bodies in caves, is certainly the ori¬
ginal way of difpofing of the dead ; and appears to
have been propagated by the Phoenicians throughout
the countries to which they lent colonies : the inter¬
ring as we now do, in the open air, or in temples,
was firft introduced by the Chriltians. When an an¬
cient hero died or was killed in a foreign expedition,
as his body was liable to corruption, and for that
reafon unfit to be tranfported entire, they fell on the
expedient of burning, in order to bring home the
alhes, to oblige the manes to follow ; that fo his
country might not be deflitute of the benefit of his
tutelage. It was thus burning feems to have had its
original ; and by degrees it became common to all
who could bear the expences of it, and took place of
the ancient burying : thus catacombs became difufed
among the Romans, after they had borrowed the
manner of burning from the Greeks, and then none
but Haves were laid in the ground. See Burial, ire.
CATALEPSIS, KaTraAtnJ/i?, or Catalepsy, in me¬
dicine, a kind of apoplexy ; or a drowfy difeale,
wherein the patient is taken fpeechlefs, fenlelefs, and
fixed in the lame pofture wherein the difeafe firft
feized him ; his eyes open, without feeing or under-
ftanding. See (//.v/cx fubjoined to) Medicine.
CATALOGUE, a lift or enumeration of the names
of feveral books, men, or other things, according to
a certain order.
CATALONIA, a province of Spain, bounded on.
the north by the Pyrenean mountains, which divide
it from France ; by the kingdom of Arragon and Va¬
lencia -on the weft ; and by the Mediterranean fea on
the fouth and eaft. It is 155 miles in length, and
100 in breadth. It is watered by a great number of
rivers; the principal of which are the Lobregat, the
Ter, the Tet, and the Segra. The air is temperate
and healthy ; but the land is mountainous, except in
a few places. It produces, however, corn, wine, oil,
pulfe, flax, and hemp, fufficient for the inhabitants.
The mountains are covered with large forefts of tall
trees, fuch as the oak, the ever-green oak, the beech,
the pine, the fir, the chefnut, and many others; with
cork-trees, fhrubs, and medicinal plants. There are
feveral quarries of marble of all colours, cryftal, ala-
bafter, amethyfts, and lapis lazuli. Gold duft has
been found among the fands of one or two of the
rivers; and there are mines of tin, iron, lead, alum,
vitriol, and fait. They likewife filh for coral on the
eaftern coaft. The inhabitants are hardy, courage¬
ous, aftive, vigorous, and good foldiers, but apt to
be difeontented. The miquelets are a fort of foldiers
which guard the palfes over the mountains, and ought
to protedi travellers ; but if they are not paid to their
minds, they feldom fail to pay themfelves. The river
Lobregat divides Catalonia into two parts, the eaft:
and weft, according to their fituation. This province
comprehends 17 vigueries or territories ; two of
which are in Roufillon, and belong to the French.
The reft are fubjedl to the Spaniards. The principal Catamenia
towns are Barcelona the capital, Tarragona, Tor- II
tofa, Lerida, Solfonia, Cardona Vich, Girona, Seu CatapLfma.
d’Urgel, Pui Cerda, and Cervera.
CATAMENIA, in medicine. See Menses.
CATAMITE, a boy kept for fodomitical prac¬
tices.
CATANANCHE, Candia lions-foot; a genus of
the polygamia sequalis order, belonging to the fynge-
nefia clals of plants. There are three fpecies, of which
the cerulea is the moft remarkable. This fends out
many long, narrow, hairy leaves, which are jagged
on their edges like thofe of the bucklhorn plantain,
but broader ; the jags are deeper, and at greater di-
ftances ; thefe lie flat on the ground, turning their
points upwards. Between the leaves come out the
flower-ftalks, which are in number proportionable to
the fize of the plants ; for, from an old thriving root,
there are frequently eight or ten, while young plants
do not fend out above two or three. Thefe ftalks
rife near two feet high, dividing into many fmall
branches upward, garniflied with leaves like thofe be¬
low, but fmaller, and without jags on their edges:
each of thefe fmaller branches are terminated by
fiugle heads of flowers, of a fine blue colour. This is
a perennial plant, and may be propagated by feeds or
flips. The feeds may be fown, in the fpring, on a
bed of common earth; and, in the autumn following,
the plants may be removed to the places where they
are to remain. The feeds ripen in Auguft. This
plant is a pretty ornament in gardens, and is eafily
kept within bounds.
CATANEA, a city of Sicily, feated on a gulph of
the fame name, near the foot of Mount Etna or Gibel.
It fuffered greatly by earthquakes in 1669 and 1693.
This laft overturned the city in a moment. Eighteen
thoufand of the inhabitants periihed in the ruins, and
yet the fertility of the foil has caufed it to be re¬
peopled. E. Long. 15. 19. N. Lat. 37. 30.
CATANZARO, a city in the kingdom of Naples,
the capital of Calabria Ulterior, with a bilhop’s fee.
It is the ufual refidence of the governor of the pro¬
vince, and is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 18.20.
N. Lat. 38. 58.
CATAPHONICS, the fcience which confiders the
properties of reflected founds: See Acoustics.
CATAPHORA, in medicine, the fame as Coma.
CATAPHRACTA, in antiquity, a kind of coat of
mail, which, covered the foldier from head to foot.
Hence cataphradli were horfemen armed with the
cataphradla ; whofe horfes, as Salluft fays, were co¬
vered with linen full of iron plates difpol'ed like fea¬
thers.
CATAPLASMA, a poultice; from y.oClwmXaco-o},
illino, to fpread like a plafter. Cataplafms take their
name fometimes from the part to which they are ap¬
plied or effetfts they produce ; fo are called anacol-
lema, frontale, epicarpium, epifpafticum, veficatorium;
and, when muftard is an ingredient, they are called
finapifms. ~
Thefe kind of applications are fofter, and more
eafy, than plafters or ointments. They are formed
of fome vegetable fubftances, and applied oF luch a
confiftence as neither to adhere nor run : they are
alfo
CAT [ 1723 ] CAT
Cataplafma alfo more ufefi!! when the intention is eiFecled by the
II perpetuity of the heat or cold which they contain, for
atapu ta' they retain them longer than any other kind of com-
poiidon.
When defigned to relax, or to promote fuppura-
tion, they fliould be applied warm. Their warmth,
moifture, and the obftruction they give to perfpi-
ration, is the method of their anfwering that end.
ThS proper heat, when applied warm, is no more
than to promote a kindly pleafant fenfation ; for
great heat presents the delign for which they are
ufed. They Ihould be renewed as often as they cool.
For relaxing and fuppurating, none excel the white-
bread poultice, made with the crumb of an old
loaf, a fufficient quantity of milk to boil the bread in
until it is foft, and a little oil ; which laft ingre¬
dient, befides preventing the poultice from drying
and flicking to the Ikin, alfo retains the heat longer
than the bread and milk alone would do. To pre-
ferve the heat longer, the poultice, when applied,
may be covered with a ftrong ox’s bladder.
When defigned to repel, they fhould be applied
cold, and ought to be renewed as oft as they be¬
come warm. A proper compofition for this end, is
a mixture.of oat-meal and vinegar.
CATAPULTA, in antiquity, a military engine con¬
trived for the throwing of arrows, darts, and ftones
upon the enemy.—Some of thefe engines were of
fuch force that they would throw ftones of an hun¬
dred weight. Jofephus takes notice of the furpri-
fing effects of thefe engines, and fays, that the ftones
thrown out of them beat down the battlements,
knocked off the angles of the towers, and .would
level a whole file of men from one end to the other,
was the phalanx ever fo deep. This was called the
Battering Catapulta, and is reprefented on Plate
LXXII, fig. 1. This catapulta is fuppofed to carry
a ftone, ire. of an hundred weight, and therefore
a defeription off it will be fufficient-to explain the
doctrine of all the reft; for fuch as threw ftones of
twelve-hundred and upwards were conftrufted on
the fame principles.
The bafe is compofed of two large beams 2, 3.
The length of thofe beams is fifteen diameters of the
bore of the capitals 9. At the two extremities of
each beam, two double mortifes are cut to receive
the eight tenons of two crofs beams, each of them
four of the diameters in length. In the centre of
each of the beams of the bafe, and near two thirds
of their length, a hole, perfectly round, and 16 inches
in diameter, ffiould be bored: thefe holes muft be ex-
aftly oppofite to each other, and Ihould increafe gra¬
dually to the inlide of the beams, fo that each of
them, being 16 inches on the outfide towards the
the capitals 9, ffiould be 17f at the opening on the
infide, and the edges carefully rounded off. The
capitals 9 are, in a manner, the foul of the machine,
and ferve to twift and ftrain the cordage, which form
its principle or power of motion.
The capitals are either of caftbrafs, or iron; each con-
fifting of a wheel with teeth, C 10, of inches thick.
The hollow or bore of thefe wheels ffiould be nf
inches in diameter, perfectly round, and the edges
fmoothed down. As the friction would be too great.
if the capitals rubbed againft the beams by the ex- Catapulta.
treme ftraining of the cordage, which draws them to-
wards thefe beams, that inconvenience is remedied by
the means of eight fridtion-wheels, or cylinders of
brafs, about the x 3th of an inch in diameter, and an inch
and one fixth in length, placed circularly, and turning
upon axes, as reprefented atD 13, and B 12. One of
thefe friction-wheels at large with its ferew, by which
it is faftened into the beam, is reprefented at A.
Upon this number of cylindrical Wheels the capitals
9 muft be placed in the beams 2, 3, fo that the cylin¬
ders do not extend to the teeth of the wheels, which
miift receiVe a ftrong pinion 14. By the means of
this pinion the wheel of the capital is made to turn
for ftraining the cordage with the key 15. The capi¬
tal wheel has a ftrong catch 16, and another of the
fame kind may be added to prevent any thing from
giving way through the extreme and violent force of
the ftrained cordage.
The capital-piece of the machine is a nut or crofs-
pin of iron, 17, feen at C, and hammered cold into
its form. It divides the bore of the capitals exadlly
in two equal parts, and fixed in grooves about an inch
deep. This piece, or nut, ought to be about two
inches and one third thick at the top 18, as repre¬
fented in the fedtion at B; and rounded off and poliffi-
ed as much as poffible, that the cords folded over it
may not be hurt or cut by the roughnefs or edges of
the iron. Its height ought to be eight inches, de-
creafing gradually in thicknefs to the bottom, where
it ought to be only one inch. It muft be very exadl-
ly inferred in the capitals.
After placing the two capitals in the holes of the
two beams in a right line with each other, and fixing
the two crofs diametrical nuts or pieces over which
the cordage is to wind, one end of the cord is reeved
through a hole in one of the capitals in the bafe, and
made faft to a nail within-fide of the beam. The o-
ther fide of the cord is then carried through the hole
in the oppofite beam and capital, and fo wound over
the crofs-pieces of iron in the centre of the two capi¬
tals, till they are full, the cordage forming a large
ikain. The tenfion or ftraining of the cordage ought
to be exa&ly equal, that is, the feveral foldings of the
cord over the capital-pieces ffiould be equally ftrained,
and fo near each other as not to leave the leaft fpace
between them. As foon as the firft folding or ikain of
cord has filled up one whole fpace or breadth of the
capital-pieces, another muft be carried over it; and
fo on, always equally ftraining the end till no more
will pafs through the capitals, and the Ikain of cordage
entirely fills them, obferving to rub it from time to
time with foap.
At three or four inches behind the cordage, thus
wound over the capital pieces, two very ftrong up¬
right beams 2 X are raifed : thefe are ports of oak 14
inches thick, croffed over at top by another of the
fame folidity. The height of the upright beams is 71-
diameters ; each fupported behind with very ftrong
props 2J, fixed at bottom in the extremities of the
bafe 2, 3. The crofs-beam 24 is fupported in the
fame manner by a prop in the centre.
The tree, arm, or ftylus 22, ffiould be of found
affi. Its length is from 1 s’ to 16 diameters of the bore
. 10 I 2 of
CAT [ 1724 ] CAT
Catapulta of the capitals. The end at the bottom, or that fixed
II in the middle of the ikain, is 10 inches thick, and 14
Catar0, broad. To llrengthen the arm or tree, it fhould be
wrapped round with a cloth dipped in Itrong glue,
like the tree of a faddle, and bound very hard with
waxed thread of the lixth of an inch in diameter from
the large end at bottom, almoft to the top, as repre-
fented in the figure.
At the top of the arm, jufi: under the iron-hand or
receiver 27, a ftrong cord is faftened, with two loops
twilled one within another, for the greater<flrength.
Into thefe two loops the hook of a brafs pulley 23 is
pur. The cord 29 is then reeved through the pulley,
and faftened to the roll 30. The cock- or trigger 31,
which ferves as a ftay, is then brought to it, and
made fall by its hook to the extremity of the hand
27, in which the body to be difcharged is placed.
The pulley at the neck of the arm is then unhooked;
and when the trigger is to let it off, a ftroke mull be
given upon it with an iron-bar or crow of about an
inchin diameter; on which the arm flies up with a
force almoft equal to that of a modern mortar. The
culhion or ftomacher 23, placed exaiftly in the middle
of the crofs-beam 24, (hould be covered with tanned
ox-hide, and ftuffed with hair, the arm linking againft
it with inconceivable force. It is to be obferved,
that the tree or arm 22 defcribes an angle of 90 de¬
grees, beginning at the cock, and ending at the fto¬
macher or culhion.
Catapulta Jbr Arrows, Spears or Darts. Some
of the fpears, ire. thrown by thefe engines, are faid to
have been 18 feet long, and to have been thrown
with fuch velocity as to take fire in their courfe.
Plate Ixxit. A B C D is the frame that holds the darts or
fig. 2. arrows, which may be of different numbers, and
placed in different directions. E F is a large and
ftrong iron fpring, which is bent by a rope that goes
over three pullies, I, K, L; and is drawn by one or
feveral men ; this rope may be fastened to a pin at
M. The rope, therefore, being fet at liberty, the
fpring mull llrike the darts with great violence, and
fend them, with furprifmg velocity, to a great dif-
tance. This inftrument differs in ibrne ^particulars
from the defeription we have of that of the ancients ;
principally in the throwing of feveral darts at the fame
time, one only being thrown by theirs.
CATARACT, in hydrography, a precipice in the
channel of a river, caufed by rocks, or other ob-
ftacles, Hopping the courfe of the ftream, from
whence the water falls with a greater nolle and im-
petuofity ; Such are the cataraCls of the Isile, the Da¬
nube, Rhine, and the famous one of Niagara in A-
merica.
Cataract, in medicine and furgery, a difor-
der of the humours of the eye, by which the pupilla,
that ought to appear tranfparent and black, looks
opaque, blue, grey, brown, &c. by which vifion is
varioully impeded, or totally deftroyed. See Sur¬
gery.
CATARO, a town of Dalmatia, and capital of the
territory of the fame name, with a ftrong caftle, and
a bilhop’s fee. It is fubjeCl to Venice, and feated on
a gulph of the fame name. E. Long. 19. 19. N. Lat.
42. 25.
CATARACTES, in ornithology, the trivial name Cataraftes
of a fpecies of Larus. |
CA L ARRH, in medicine, a diftillation or defluxi-
on from the head upon the mouth and afpera arteria,
and through them upon the lungs. See (the Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
CATASTASIS, in poetry, the third part of the
ancient drama ; being that wherein the intrigue, or
aClion, fet forth in the epitafis, is fupported, carried
on, and heightened, till it be ripe for the unravelling
in the catallrophe. Scaliger defines it, the full growth
of the fable, while things are at a Hand in that confu-
lion to which the poet has brought them.
CATASTROPHE, in dramatic poetry, the fourth
and lall part in. the ancient drama, or, that immedi¬
ately fucceeding the catallalis: or according to o-
thers, the tlfird only; the whole drama being divided
into protafis, epitafts,. and catallrophe; or, in the
terms of Ariftotle, prologue, epilogue, and exode.
The cataftrophe clears up every thing, and is no¬
thing el fe but the difeovery or winding up of the plot.
It has its peculiar place : for it ought entirely to be*
contained, not only in the laft a<5t, but in the very
conclufion of it; and when the plot is finifhed, the
play Ihould be fo alfo. The cataftrophe ought to turn
upon a Angle point, or ftart up on a fudden.
The great art in the cataftrophe is, that the clear¬
ing up of all difficulties may appear wonderful, and
yet eafy, fimple, and natural.
It is a very prepofterous artifice of fome writers to
{hew the cataftrophe in the very title of the play.
Mr Dryden thinks that a cataftrophe refulting from a
- mere change in the fentiments and refolutions of a per-
fon, without any other machinery, may be fo ma¬
naged as to be exceeding beautiful.
It is a difpute among the critics, whether the fcata-
ftrophe ffiould always fall out favourably on the fide
of virtue or not. The reafons on the negative fide
feem the ftrongeft. Ariftotle prefers a {hocking ca¬
taftrophe to a happy one.—The cataftrophe is either
fimple or complex. The firft is that in which there is
no change in the ftate of the principal perfons, nor
any difeovery or unravelling, the plot being only a
mere paffage out of agitation into quiet repofe. In
the fecond, the principal perfons undergo a change of
fortune, in the manner already defined. *
CATCH, in the mufical fenfe of the word, a fugue
in the unifon, wherein, to humour fome conceit in
the words, the melody is broken, and the fenfe in¬
terrupted in one part, and caught again or fupported
by another ; as in the catch in Shakefpeare’s play of
the twelfth-night, where there is a catch lung by three
perfons, in which the humour is, that each who lings,
calls and is called knave in turn.
Catch-F/v, in botany. See Lychnis.
Catch-To/?, (quafi one that catches by the pole,) a
term ufed, by way of reproach, for the bailiff’s fol¬
lower or affiftant.
ChTCH-Word, among printers, that placed at the
bottom of each page, being always the firft word of
the following page.
CATECHESIS, in a general fenfe, denotes an in-
ftruclion given any perfon in the firft rudiments of an
art or fcience ; but more particularly of the Chriftian
religion
CAT [ 1725 ] CAT
Catachetlc religion. In the ancient church, eatechefis was an
|| initrudlion given viva voce, either to children, or a-
Catechu- dull heathens, preparatory to their receiving of bap-
men‘ tifm. In this fenle, catechefis ftands contra-diftin-
gui/hed from myjlagogica, which were a higher part
of inftrucHon given to thole already initiated, and
containing the myfteries of faith. Thofe who give
fuch infti uftions are called catechifts ; and thofe who
receive them, catechumens.
CATECHETIC, or Catechetical, fomething
that relates to oral infttuftion in the rudiments of
Cht iftianity.—CathechetiC fchools were buildings ap¬
pointed for the office of the catechift, adjoining to
the church, and called catechurnena : iuch was that in
which Origen and many other famous men read cate¬
chetical lectures at Alexandria. See Catechumen.
CATECHISM, in its primary feni'e, an inftrudti-
on, or inliitution, , in the principles of the Chriftian
religion, delivered viva voce, and lb as to require
frequent repetitions, from the difciple or hearer, of
what has been faid. The word is formed from xa-
a compound of x«ra and q. d. circum
fono, alluding to the noil'e or din made in this fort of
exercile, or to the zeal and earneftnefs wherewith
things are to be inculcated over and over on the learn¬
ers.—Anciently the candidates for baptifm were only
to be inftru£ted in the fecrets of their religion by tra¬
dition viva voce, without writing; as had alfo Teen
the cafe among the Egyptian priefts, and the Britiffi
and Gaulilh druids, who only communicated the myf¬
teries of their theology by word of mouth.
Catechism is more frequently ufed in modern
times for an elementary book, wherein the principal
articles of religion are fummarily delivered in the
way of queftion and anfwer.
CATECHIST, xaTFXifJjf, catecheta, he that cate-
chifes, i. e. he that inltructs novices in the principles
of religion.
Catechist more particularly denotes a perfon
appointed by the church to inftruH thofe intended for
baptifm, by word of mouth, in the fundamental ar¬
ticles of the Chrillian faith.—The catechifts of churches
were minifters ufually diftinft from the biffiops and
prelbyters, and. had their auditories or catechumena
apart. Their bufinefs was to inftruft the catechu¬
mens, and prepare them for the reception of baptifm.
But the catechifts did not conftitute any diftimft or¬
der of the clergy, but were chofen out of any other
order. The bilhop himfelf fometimes performed the
office; at other times prelbyters, or even readers or
deacons, were the catechifts. Origen feems to have
had no higher degree in the church than reader, when
he was made catechift at Alexandria, being only
18 years of age, and confequently incapable of the
deaconftip.
CATECHU, in the materia medica, the name of a
troche confifting of Japan earth and gum arabic, each
two ounces, and of fugar. of rofes fixteen ounces,
beat together with a little water. It is recommend¬
ed as a mild reftringent, ire.
CATECHUMEN, a candidate for baptifm, or one
who prepares himfelf for the receiving thereof.
The catechumens, in church-hiftory, were the low-
eft order of Chriftians in the primitive church. They
had fome title to the common name of Chriftian, being Catechu-
a degree above pagans and heretics, though not con- Ir,®n-
fummated by baptifm. They were admitted to the Catenaria.
ftate of catechumens by the impofition of hands, and — 1
the fign of the crofs. The children of believing pa¬
rents "were admitted catechumens, as foon as ever
they were capable of inftrueftion ; but at- what age
thofe of heathen parents might be admitted, is not lb
clear. As to the time of their continuance in this
ftate, there were no general rules fixed about it;
but the practice varied according to the difference of
times and places, and the readinefs and proficiency
of the catechumens themfelves.
There were four orders or degrees of catechu¬
mens ; the firft were thofe inftrutfted privately with¬
out the church, and-kept at a diftance for fome time
from the privilege of entering the church, to make
them the more eager and defirous of it. The next
degree were the audientes, fo called from their being
admitted to hear fermons, and the fcrjptures read in
the church, but were not allowed to partake of the
prayers. The third fort of catechumens were the
genu-fleflentes, fo called becaufe they received im¬
pofition of hands kneeling. The fourth order was
the competentes iff eletti, denoting the immediate can¬
didates for baptifm, or fuch as were appointed to be
baptized the next approaching feftival; befo?e which,
ftridt examination was made into their proficiency
under the feveral ftages of catechetical exercifes.
After examination, they were exercifed for twen¬
ty days together, and were obliged to falling and
confelfion : fome days before baptifm they went veil¬
ed ; and it was cuftpmary to touch their ears, fay¬
ing, Ephatha, i. e. Be opened; as alfo to anoint their
eyes with clay; both ceremories being in imitation of
our Saviour’s practice, and intended to ffiadow out t6
the catechumens their condition both before and after
their admiffion into the Chriftian church.
CATEGORICAL, in a general fenfe, is applied to
thofe things ranged under a Category.
Categorical alfo imports a thing to be abfolute,
and not relative ; in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to
hypothetical. We fay, a categorical propofition, a ca¬
tegorical fyllogifm, ire.
A categorical anfwer denotes an exprefs and per¬
tinent anfwer made to any queftion or objection pro-
pofed.
CATEGORY, in logic, a feries or order of all the
predicates or attributes contained under any genus.
The fchool-philofophers diftribute all the objedis of
our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or clafles,
not fo much, fay they, to learn what they do not
know, as to communicate a diftindl notion of what
they do know ; and thefe clafles the Greeks called
categories, and the Latins predicaments.
Ariftotle made ten categories, viz. quantity, qua¬
lity, relation, adtion, paffion, time, place, fituation,
and habit, which are ufually expreffed by the follow¬
ing technical diftich :
Arbor, fex, fervos, dr dor e, refrigerat, ujlos,
Rnri eras Jlabo, nee tunicatus ero.
CATEK. See Bengal, n° 4.
CATENARIA, in the higher geometry, the name
of a curve-line formed by a rope hanging freely from
two
CAT [ 1726 ] CAT
Caterpillar two points of fufpenfion, whether the points be hori-
II zontal or not. See Fluxions.
CaSirllar' CATERPILLAR, in zoology, the name of all wing-
 1_ ed infefts when in their reptile or worm-ftate. See
Eruca.
Method of Defraying Caterpillars on Trtxs.—
Take a chafing difh with lighted charcoal, and pla¬
cing it under the branches that are loaded with ca¬
terpillars, throw fome pinches of brimltone upon the
coals. The vapour of the fulphur, which is mortal
to thefe infeds, will not only deftroy all that are on
the tree, but prevent it from being infefted with
them afterwards. A pound of fulphur will clear as
many trees as grow on feveral acres. This method
has been fuccefsfully tried in France. In the Journal
Oeconomique, the following is faid to be infallible a-
gainft the caterpillars feeding on cabbage, and per¬
haps may be equally ferviceable againft thofe that in-
feft other vegetables. Sow with hemp all the bor¬
ders of the ground where you mean to plant your
cabbage ; and, although the neighbourhood is infefted
with caterpillars, the fpace inclofed by the hemp will
be perfectly free, not one of the vermin will approach
it.
Caterpillar-^I^tj, a name given by fome au¬
thors to a fpecies of worms bred in the body of the
caterpillar, and which eat its flelh: thefe are owing
to a certain kind of fly that lodges her eggs in the
body of this animal, and they, after their proper
changes, become flies like their parents.
Mr Reaumur has given us, in his hiftory of infedts,
fome very curious particulars in regard to thefe little
worms. Every one of them, he obferves, fpins itfelf
a very beautiful cafe of a cylindric figure, made of a
very ftrong fort of filk : thefe are the cafes in which
this animal fpends its ftate of chryfalis; and they have
a mark by which they may be known from all other
. animal productions of this kind, which is, that they
have always a broad ftripe or band furrounding their
middle, which is black when the reft of the cafe is
white, and white when that is black. Mr Reamur
has had the pains and patience to find out the reafon
of this Angularity, which is this: the whole Ihell is
fpun of a filk produced out of the creature’s body;
this at firft runs all white, and towards the end of
the fpinning turns black. The outfide of the cafe
muft necelfarily be formed firft, as the creature works
from within : confequently this is truly white all over,
but it is tranfparent, and fliows the laft fpun or black
iilk through it. It might be fuppofed that the whole
infide of the ftiell ftioutd be black; but this is not the
cafe : the whole is falhioned before this black filk
comes ; and this is employed by the creature, not to
line the whole, but to fortify certain parts only; and
therefore is all applied either to the middle, or to the
two ends omitting the middle ; and fo gives either a
black band in the middle, or a blacknefs at both ends,
leaving the white in the middle to appear. It is not
unfrequent to find a fort of fmall- cafes, lying about
garden-walks, which move of themfelves; when thefe
are opened, they are found to contain a fmall living
worm. This is one of the fpecies of thefe caterpiflar-
eaters; which, as foon as it comes out of the body of
that animal, fpins itfelf a cafe for its transformation
long before that happens, and lives in it without food Catefbaea
till that change comes on ; and it becomes a fly like II .
that to which it owed its birth. at erine
CATESBdEA, the lily-thorn ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants. There is only one fpecies, viz. the fpinofa,
which was dilcovered in the ifland of Providence by
Mr Catelby, who gathered the feeds, and brought
them to England. It rifes to the height of ten or
twelve feet, and is covered with a pale ruflet bark;
the branches come out alternately, and are garniflied
with fmall leaves refembling thofe of the box-tree,
coming out in clufters all round the branches at cer¬
tain diftances ; the flowers hang downward, and
come out from the fide of j,he branches : they are tu-
bulous, and near fix inches long, very narrow at their
bafe, but widening upwards towards the top, where
it is divided into four parts which fpread open, and
are reflexed backward. They are of a dull yellow
colour. This plant is propagated by feeds which muft:
be procured from the country where it grows. The
feeds muft be fown on a hot-bed, and are to be treat¬
ed in the fame manner as other tender exotics.
CATH/ERET1CS, in pharmacy, medicines of a
cauftic nature, ferving to eat off proud flelh.
CATHARTICS, in medicine, remedies which pro¬
mote evacuation by ftool. See Materia Medica,
n° 54,
CATHECU, in botany. See Areca.
CATHEDRA, in a general lenfe, a chair.—The
word is more particularly ufed for a profeffor’s chair,
and a preacher’s pulpit.
Cathedra is alfo ufed for the bilhop’s fee, or
throne, in a church.
CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a bilhop’s fee
or feat: See Church, and Bishop. The word
comes from the Greek *a0t^a, “chair,” df
fedeo, “ I fit.” The denomination cathedral feems to
have taken its rife from the manner of fitting in the
ancient churches, or affemblies of primitive Chriftians:
in thefe, the council, i. e. the elders and priefts, was
called Prejbyterium; at their head was the bilhop, who
held the place of chairman, Cathedralis, or Cathe-
draticus; and the prelbyters, who fat on either fide,
were alfo called by the ancient fathers, Jf'ejfores E-
pifeoporum. The epifcopal authority did not refide
in the bilhop alone ; but in all the prelbyters, where¬
of the bilhop was prefident. A cathedral therefore,
originally, was different from what it is now; the
Chriftians, till the time of Conftantine, having no li¬
berty to build any temple : by their churches they
only meant their affemblies; and by cathedrals, no¬
thing more than confiftories.
CATHERINE Parr, daughter of Sir Thomas Parr,
and widow of Nevil Lord Latimer, became afterward
the 6th wife of Henry VIII. whom Ihe had the great
good fortune to furvive, after having been in no fmall
danger on account of her inclination to the reformed
doctrines. Upon Henry’s death, Ihe married Lord
Seymour, brother to the Duke of Somerfet, and died
in child-bed in 1548. This queen publillied Prayers,
or Meditations, &c. iztno, 1545 ; and among her pa¬
pers after her death, there was found a contrite me¬
ditation on the years Ihe had palfed in popery, in-
titled,
CAT [ 1727 1 CAT
Catherine titled, Queen Catharine^Parr’s Lamentation of a Sin-
|| ner, bewailing the ignwance of her blind life. This
Cathetus. was publifhed, with a preface by the great Lord
' Burleigh, 8vo, 1548, and 1563.
Catherine I. Emprefs of Rujfia, was raifed to
that dignity, from the low condition of a menial fer-
vant, by the difcerning Peter the Great, who mar¬
ried her in 1711. She attended the Emperor in all
his expeditions; and when he was furrounded by the
Turks on the banks of the Pruth, his army was fa¬
yed by her prudent advice. Peter, afterwards, ne¬
ver refolved on any affair of confequence without
firft confulting her ; fuccefs attended him in every
thing, and the court of Peteriburgh appeared in a
new light. He inftituted the order of St Katherine
in her honour, which he gave her power to beftow
on fuch of her fex as Ihe judged proper ; and, finally,
appointed her his fucceffor. On the death of her
hufband, fhe took all proper means to fecure the
quiet, advance the civilization, and promote the ge¬
neral welfare, of her kingdom ; and it is more than
probable, that the reigning illuftrious Emprefs Ca¬
therine II. has confidered her as a bright example :
for Catherine I. eftablifhed the academy of fciences at
Peterfburgh, now brought to fuch perfection. She
likewife increafed the naval force of Ruffia ; and fet
on foot a defign for difcovering the north-eaft paf-
fage to China. “ The lenity of this princefs, (fays
Voltaire, in his Life of Peter the Great,) was car¬
ried to a degree nnparallelled in the hiltory of any na¬
tion. She promifed, that, during her reign, nobody
fhould be put to death ; and fixe kept her word : fixe
was the firft fovereign that ever fhewed this refpedt
to the human fpecies. Malefa<5tors were condemned
to work in the mines, and other public works; a re¬
gulation not lefs prudent than humane, fxnce their pu-
niftiment was rendered of fome advantage to the
(late.” She died on the 17th of May 1727; leaving
iffue, Anne who married Frederic Duke of Holftein,
and Elizabeth the late Emprefs of Ruflia.
CATHERLOUGH, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Catherlough, and province of Leinfter ; feated •
on the river Bax-row, 16 miles N. E. of Kilkenny.
W. Long. 7. 1. N. Lat. 52. 45.
Catherlough, a county of Ireland, about 28
miles in length, and 8 in breadth; bounded on the eafl
by Wicklow and Wexford, on the weft by Queen’s-
county, on the north by Kildare, and on the fouth and
fouth-weft by Wexford. It contains 5600 houfes, 42
parifhes, five baronies, or boroughs, and fends fix mem¬
bers to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for
Catherlough, and two for Old Leighlen.
CATHETER, in furgery, a fiftulous inftrument,
ufually made of fxlver, to be introduced into the
bladder, in order to fearch for the ftone, or difcharge
the urine when fupprefTed.
CATHETUS, in geometry, a line or radius falling
perpendicularly on another line or furface ; thus the
catheti of a right-angled triangle, are the two fides
that include the right angle.
Cathetus of Incidence, in catoptrics, a right line
drawn from a point of the object, perpendicular to
the reflecting line.
Cathetus of Reflexion, or of the Eye, a right line
drawn from the eye perpendicular to the reflecting Cathetus
plane. II
Cathetus of Obliquation, a right line drawn per- at0'
pendicular to the fpeculum, in the point of incidence
or reflection.
Cathetus, in architecture, a perpendicular line,
fuppofed to pafs through the middle of a cylindrical
body, as a ballufter, column, ire.
CATHNESS. See Caithness.
CATHOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
that is univerfal or general.
Catholic Church. The rife of herefies induced
the primitive Chriftian church to affume to itfelf the
appellation of catholic, being a charaCteriftic to di-
ftinguiflx itfelf from all feCts, who, though they had
party names, fometimes fheltered themfelves under
the name of Chriftians.
The Romifh church diftinguifhes itfelf now by the
name of catholic, in oppofition to all thofe who have
feparated from her communion, and whom fhe con-
fxders as heretics and fchifmatics, and herfelf only
as the true and Chriftian church. In the ftriCt fenfe
of the word, there is no catholic church in being,
that is, no xxniverfal Chriftian communion.
Catholic King, a title which hath been here¬
ditary to the kings of Spain, ever fince Alphonfus,
who, having gained feveral vidtories over tfie Sara¬
cens, and re-eftablifhed the Chriftian faith in Spain,
was honoured with the title of Catholic. Some fay
it was in the time of Ferdinand and Ifabella.
CATHOLICON, in pharmacy, a kind of foft pur¬
gative eledtuary, fo called, as being fuppofed an uni¬
verfal purger of all humours.
CATILINE (Lucius), a Roman of a noble family,
who having fpent his whole fortune in debauchery,
formed the defign of opprefling his country, deftroy-
ing the- fenate, feizing the public treafury, fetting
Rome on fire, and ufurping a fovereign power over
his fellow-citizens. In order to fucceed in this de¬
fign, he drew fome young noblemen into his plot;
whom he prevailed upon, it is laid, to drink human
blood as a pledge of their union. His confpiracy,
however, was difeovered by the vigilance of Cicero,
who was then conful. Upon which, retiring from
Rome, he put himfelf at the head of an army, with
feveral of the confpirators, and fought with incredi¬
ble valour againft Petreius, lieutenant to Anthony,
who was colleague with Cicero in the confulftiip; but
was defeated and killed in battle.—Salluft has given
an excellextrhiftoj-y of this confpiracy.
CATO (Marcus Portius), the Cenfor,,one of the
greateft men among the ancients, was botn at Tuf-
culum in the year of Rome 519, about the 232d be¬
fore Chrift. He began to bear arms at 17; and, on
all occafxons, fliewed extraordinary courage. He
was a man of great fobriety, and reckoned no bodily
exercife unworthy of him. He had but one horfe
for himfelf and his baggage and he looked after and
dreffed it himfelf. At his return, from his cam¬
paigns, he betook himfelf to plough his ground ; not
that he was without flaves to do it, but it was his in¬
clination. He dreffed alfo like his flaves, fat down at
the fame table with them, and partook of the fame
fare. He did not in the mean while negledl to cul¬
tivate
GAT [ 1728 ] CAT
Cato. tivate his mind, efpecially in regard to the art of
 fpeaking; and he employed his talents, which were
Very great, in generoufly pleading caufes in the neigh¬
bouring cities, without fee or reward. Valerius
Flaccus, who had a country-feat near Cato, concei¬
ving an efteem for him, perfuaded him to come to
Rome ; where Cato, by his own merit, and the in¬
fluence of fo powerful a patron, was fopn taken no¬
tice of, and promoted. He was flrft of all elected
tribune of the foldiers for the province of Sicily. He
was next made queftor in Africa under Scipio. Ha¬
ving in this laft office reproved him for his profui'e-
nefs to his foldiers, the general anfwered, that “ he
did not want fo exaft a queftor, but would make
war at what expence he pleafed; nor was he to give
an account to the Roman people of the money he
fpent, but of his enterprifes, and the execution of
them.” Cato, provoked at this anfwer, left Sicily,
and returned to Rome. .
Afterwards Cato was made praetor, when he ful¬
filled the duties of his office with the ftridleft juftice.
He conquered Sardinia, governed with admirable mo¬
deration, and was created conful. Being tribune in
the war of Syria, he gave diftinguilhed proofs of his
valour againft Antiochus the Great; and at his re¬
turn flood candidate for the office of cenfor. But
the nobles, who not only envied him as a new man,
but dreaded his feverity, fet up againft him feven
powerful competitors. Valerius Flaccus, who had
introduced him into public life, and had been his col¬
league in the confulfhip, was a ninth candidate, and
thefe two united their interefts. On this occafion
Cato, far from employing foft words to the people, or
giving hopes of gentlenefs or complaifance in the exe¬
cution of his office, loudly declared from the roftra,
with a threatening look and voice, “ That the times
required firm and vigorous magiftrates, to put a flop
to that growing luxury which menaced the republic
with ruin ; cenfors who would cut up the evil by the
roots, and reftore the rigour of ancient difcipline.”
It is to the honour of the people of Rome, that, not-
withftanding thefe terrible intimations, they prefer¬
red him to all his competitors, who courted them by
promifes of a mild and eafy adminillration : the co-
mitiaalfo appointed his friend Valerius to be his col¬
league, without whom he had declared that he could
not hope to compafs the reformations he had in view.
Cato’s merit, upon the whole, was fuperior to that of
any of the great men who flood againft him. He
was temperate, brave, and indefatigable ; frugal of
the public money, and not to be corrupted. There is
fcarce any talent requifite for public or private life
which he had not received from nature, or acquired
by induftry. He was a great foldier, an able flatef-
man, an eloquent orator, a learned hiftorian, and ve¬
ry knowing in rural affairs. Yet, with all thefe ac-
compliihments, he had very great faults. His ambi¬
tion being poifoned with envy, difturbed both his own
peace and that of the whole city as long as he lived.
Though he Would not take bribes, he was unmerciful
and unconfcionable in amaffingwealth by allfuch means
as the law did not punifh.
The firft adl of Cato in his new office, was naming
his colleague to be prince of the fenate : after which
the cenfors ftruck out of the lift of the fenators the Cato,
names of feven perfons ; among whom was Lucius
the brother of T. Flammius. Lucius, when conful,
and commanding in Gaul, had with his own hand mur¬
dered a Boiaq of diftindlion, a deferter to the Romans;
and he had committed this murder purely to gratify
the curiofity of his pathip, a young Carthaginian, who,
longing to fee fome body die a violent death, had re¬
proached the general for bringing him away from
Rome juft when there was going to be a fight of
gladiators. Titus Flaminius, full of indignation at
the difhonour done to his brother, brought the affair
before the people ; and infilled upon Cato’s giving the
reafon of his proceeding. The cenfor related the
ftory ; and when Lucius denied the fadl, put him to
his oath. The accufed, refufing to fwear, was deem¬
ed guilty^ and Cato’s cenfure was approved. But no
part of the cenfor’s condudl feemed fo cruel to the
nobles dhd their wives, as the taxes he laid upon luxu¬
ry in all its branches; drefs, houfhold-furniture, wo¬
mens toilets, chariots, flaves, and equipage. Thefe
articles were all taxed at three per cent, of the real
value. The people, however, in general, were plea-
fed with his regulations ; infomuch that they ordered
a ftatue to be eredled to his honour in the temple of
Health, with an infcription that mentioned nothing of.
his viclories or triumph, but imported only that by his
wife ordinances in his cenforfhip he had reformed the
manners of the republic Plutarch relates, that be¬
fore this, upon fome of Cato’s friends exprefling their
furprife, that while many perfons without merit or
reputation had ftatues, he had none ; he anfwered,
“ I had much rather it fhould be afked why the people
have not erected a ftatue to Cato, than why they
have.” Cato was the occafion of the third Punic war.
Being difpatched to Africa to terminate a difference
between the Carthaginians and the king of Numidia,
on his return to Rome he reported, that Carthage was
grown exceflively rich and populous, an‘d he warmly
exhorted the fenate to deftroy a city and republic, dur¬
ing the exiftence of which, Rome could never be fafe. N
Having brought from Africa fome very large figs, he
fhewed them to the confcript fathers in one of the
lappets of his gown. “ The country, (fays he),
where this fine fruit grows, is but a three days voyage
from Rome.” We are told, that from this time he
never fpoke in the fenate upon any fubjeft, without
concluding with thefe words, “ I am alfo of opinion,
that Carthage ought to be deftroyed.” He judged,
that, for a people debauched by profperity, nothing
was more to be feared than a rival ftate, always
powerful, and now from its misfortunes grown wife
and circumfpedl. He held it neceffary to remove all
dangers that could be apprehended from without,
when the republic had within fo many diftempers
threatening her deftrudtion.
From the cenfor dignified and fevere, the reader
will not perhaps be dilpleafed to turn his view upon
Cato fociable and relaxed. For we'lhouid have a falfe
notion of him, if we imagined that nothing but a fad
aufterity prevailed in his fpeech and behaviour. On
the contrary, he was extremely free ; and often with
his friends at table intermixed the converfation with
lively difcourfes and witty fayings. Of thefe Plutarch
has
CAT [ ,729 ] CAT
Cato. has colle&ed a pretty large number; we fliall relate
* but one, and make ufe of Balzac’s paraphrafe, and the
Oeuvres preface with which he introduces' it. “ The very
diverfes, cenlbrs, though 1'adnefs feemed to be one of the func-
P' 49- tions of their office, did not altogether lay afide rail¬
lery. They were not always bent upon feverity; and
the firft Cato, that tfoublelbme and intolerable honeft
man, ceafed fometimes to be troublefome and intole¬
rable. He had fome glimpfes of mirth, and fome in¬
tervals of good humour. He dropped now and then
fome words that were not unpleafant, and you may
judge of the reft by this. He had married a very
handfome wife ; and hiftory tells us that fhe was ex¬
tremely afraid of the thunder, and loved her hufband
well. Thefe two paffions prompted her to the fame
thing; fhe always pitched upon her hufband as a fanc-
tuary againft thunder, and threw herfelf into his arms
at the firft noife fhe fancied fhe heard in the fky. Cato,
who was well pleafed with the ftorm, and very wil¬
ling to be careffed, could not conceal his joy. He re¬
vealed that domeftic fecret to his friends; and told
them one day, fpeakingof his wife, “that fhe had found
out a way to make him love bad weather; and that
he never was fo happy as when Jupiter was angry.”
It is worth obferving, that this was during his cenfor-
fhip ; when he degraded the fenator Manlius, who
would probably have been conful the year after, only
for giving a kifs to his wife in the day-time, and in
the prefence of his daughter.
Cato died in the year of Rome 604, aged 85. He
wrote feveral works. I. A Roman hiftory. 2. Con¬
cerning the art of war. 3. Of rhetoric. 4. A trea-
tife of hufbandry. Of thefe, the laft only is extant.
Cato (Marcus Fortius), commonly called Cato mi¬
nor, or Cato of Utica, was great grandfon of Cato
the cenfor. It is fad, that from his infancy he difco-
vered, by his fpeech, by his countenance, and even
his childifh fports and recreations, an inflexibility of
mind ; for he would force himfelf to go through with
whatever he had undertaken, though the talk was ill-
fuited to his ftrength. He was rough towards thofe
that flattered him, and quite untrabfable when threat¬
ened ; was rarely feen to laugh, or even to fmile ;
was not eafily provoked to anger ; but if once incen-
fed, hard to be pacified. Sylla having had a friendfhip
for the father of Cato, fent often for him and his bro¬
ther, and talked familiarly with them. Cato, who
was then about 14 years of age, feeing the heads of
great men brought there, and obferving the fighs of
thofe that were prefent, afked his preceptor, “ Why
does no body kill this man !” Becanfe, laid the other,
he is more feared than he is hated. The boy replied,
Why then did you not give me a fword when you
brought me hither, tliat I might have ftabbed him,
and freed my country from this flavery ?
He learned the principles of the Stoic philofophy,
which fo well fuited his character, under Antipater of
Tyre, and applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of
it. Eloquence he likewife ftudied, as a neceffary
means to defend the cattle of juftice, and he made a
very confiderable proficiency in that fcience. To in-
creafe his bodily ftrength, he inured himfelf to fuffer
the extremes of heat and cold ; and ufed to make
journeys on foot, and bare-headed in all feafons. When
Vox.. III.
he was fick, patience and abftinence were his only Cat®,
remedies : he fhut himfelf up, and would fee no body
till he was well. Though remarkably fober in the
beginning of his life, making it a rule to drink but
once after fupper, and then retire, he infenfibly con-
tradled a habit of drinking more freely, and of fit¬
ting at table till'morning. His friends endeavour¬
ed to excufe this, by faying that the affairs of the
public engroffed his attention all the day ; and that,
being ambitious of knowledge, he paffed the night in
the converfation of philofophers. Ccefar wrote that
Cato was once found dead drunk at the corner of a
flreet, early in the morning, by a great number of
people who were going to the levee of fome great
man; and that when, by uncovering his face, they
perceived who it was, they blufhed for fhame : “ You
would have thought, (added Caefar), that Cato had
found them drunk, not they him.” Pliny obferves,
that by this reflexion Caefar praifes his enemy at the
fame time that he blames him. And Seneca, his ex¬
travagant panegyrift, ventures to afl’ert, that it is eafi-
er to prove drunkennefs to be a virtue, than Cato to
be vicious. He affedled Angularity, and, in things
indifferent, to acft directly contrary to the tafte and
fafhions x>f the age. Magnanimity and conftancy are
generally afcribed to him ; and Seneca would fain
make that haughtinefs and contempt for others, which
in Cato accompanied thofe virtues, a matter of praife.
Cato, fays Seneca, having received a blow in the
face, neither took revenge nor was angry ; he did
not even pardon the affront, but denied that he had re¬
ceived it. His virtue raifed him fo high, that injury
could not reach him. He is reputed to have been
chafte in his youth. His firft love was Lepida ; but
when the marriage was upon the point of being con¬
cluded, Metellus Scipio, to whom fhe had been pro-
mifed, interfered, and the preference was given to
him. This affront extremely ^xafperated our Stoic.
He was for going to law with Scipio ; and when his
friends had diverted him from that defign, byfhew-
ing him the ridicule of it, he revenged himfelf by
making verfes upon his rival. When this firft flame
fubfided, he married Attilia the daughter of Serranus,
had two children by her, and afterwards divorced her
for her very indifereet conduct.
He ferved as a volunteer under Gallius in the war
of Spartacus; and when military rewards were of¬
fered him by the commander, he refufed them, be-
caufe he thought he had no right to them. . Some
years after, he went a legionary tribune into Mace¬
donia under the praetor Rubrius : in which ftation he
appeared, in his drefs, and during a march, more like
a private foldier than an offleer : but the dignity of
his manners, the elevation of his fentiments, and the
fuperiority of his views, fet him far above thofe who
bore the titles of generals and proconfuls. It is faid,
that Cato’s defign in all his behaviour was to engage
the foldiers to the love of virtue ; whole affections he
engaged thereby to himfelf, without his having that
in his intention. “ For the fmcere love of virtue,
(adds Plutarch), implies an affection for the virtuous.
Thofe who praife the worthy without loving them,
pay homage to their glory ; but are neither admirers,
nor imitators of their virtues.” When the time of
10 K his
CAT [ 1730 ] CAT
Cato. his fervice expired, and he was leaving the army, the
foldiers were all in tears ; fo efFe&ually had he gained
their hearts by his condefcending manners, and (har¬
ing in their labours. After his return home, he was
cltofen to the queftorlhip ; and had fcarce entered on
his charge, when he made a great reformation in the
queftor’s office, and particularly with regard to the re-
gifters. Thefe reguters, whofe places were for life,
and through whofe hands pafled inceffantly all the pu¬
blic accounts, being to adt under young magiftrates
unexperienced in bufinefs, affumed an air of impor¬
tance; and, inftead of afeing orders from the quef-
tors, pretended to diredl and govern as if they them-
felves were the quellors. Cato reduced them to their
proper fphere.
One thing by which Cato extremely pleafed the
people, was his making the alfaffins to whom Sylla had
given confulerable rewards out of the treafury, for
murdering the profcribed, difgorge their gains. Plu¬
tarch tells us, that Cato was fo exadt in difcharging
the duties of a fenator, as to be always the firit who
came to the houfe, and the laft who left it ; and that
he never quitted Rome during thofe days when the
fenate was to (it. Nor did he fail to be prefent at
every affembly of the people, that he might awe thole
who, by an ill-judged facility, bellowed the public mo¬
ney in largefles, and frequently, through mere favour,
granted rerniffion of debts due to the (late. At fir(t
his aufterity and lliffnefs difpleafed his colleagues ;
but afterwards they were glad to have his name to
oppofe to all the unjufl: foiicitatipns, againft which
they would have found it difficult to defend them-
felves. Cato very readily took upon him the talk of
refufmg.
Cato, to keep out a very bad man, put in for the
tribunate. He fided with Cicero againft Catiline,
and oppofed Ccefar on that occalion. His enemies
fent him to recover Cyprus, which Ptolemy had for¬
feited, thinking to hurt his reputation by fo difficult
an undertaking ; yet none could find fault with his
eondu<ft.
Cato laboured to bring about an agreement be¬
tween Csziar and Pompey ; but feeing it in vain, he
fided with the latter. When Pompey was (lain, he
fled to Utica ; and being purfued by Casfar, advifed
his friends to be gone, and throw themfelves on Cte-
far’s clemency. His fon, however, remained with
him ; and Statilius, a young man, remarkable for his
hatred to Caefar.
The evening before the execution of the purpofe
he had formed with regard to himfelf, after bathing,
he flipped with his friends, and the magiftrates of tlie
city. They fat late at table, and the converfation
was lively. The difcourfe falling upon this maxim
®f the Stoics, that “ the wife man alone is free,
u and that the vicious are (laves,” Demetrius, who
was a Peripatetic, undertook to confute it from the
maxims of his fchool. Cato, in anfwer, treated the
matter very amply ; and with fo much earneftnefs
and vehemence of voice, that he betrayed himfelf,
and confirmed the fufpicions of his friends, that he
deligned to kill himfelf. When he had done fpeaking,
a melancholy filence enfued ; and Cato perceiving it,
turned the difcourfe to the prefent fituatkm. of affairs,
exprefiing his concern for thofe who had been obli- Cato,
ged to put to fea, as well as for thofe who had deter- ———
mined to make their efcape by land, had a dry and
Candy defart to pafs. After (upper, the company
being difmifled, he walked for fome time with a few
friends, and gave his orders to the officers of the
guard : and going into his chamber, he embraced his
fon and his friends with more than ufual tendernefs,
which farther confirmed the lufpicions of the refolu-
tion he had taken. Then laying himfelf down on his
bed, he took up Plato’s Dialogue on the Immortality
of the Soul. Having read for fome time, he looked
up, and miffing his fword, which his fon had removed
while he was at fupper, he called a (lave, and alked
who bad taken it away ; and receiving no pertinent
anfwer, he refumed his reading. Some time after,
he aiked again for his fword ; and, without (hewing
any impatience, ordered it to be brought to him :
but, having read out the book, and finding nobody had
brought him his fword, he called for all his fervants,
fell into a rage, and (truck one of them qn the mouth
with fo much violence, that he very much hurt his
own hand, crying out in a paflionate manner, “ What!
do my own fon and family confpire to betray me, and
deliver me up naked and unarmed to the enemy ?”
Immediately his fon and friends ruffied into the room;
and began to lament, and to befeech him to change his
refolution. Cato raifing himfelf, and looking fiercely
at them, “ How long is.it, faid he, fince 1 have loft
my fenfes, and my fon is become my keeper ? Brave
and generous (bn, why do you not bind your father’s
hands, that when Caefar comes, he may find me un¬
able to defend inyfelf ? Do you imagine that without
a fword I cannot end my life ? Cannot 1 deftroy my-
felf by holding my breath for fome moments, or by
ftriking my head againft the wall ?” His fon anfwer-
ed with his tears, and retired. Apollonides and De-
men ius remained with him, and to them he addrefled
himfelf in the following words : “ Is it to watch over
me that you fit (ilent here ? Do you pretend to force
a man of. my years to Jive ? or can you bring any
reafon to prove, that it is not bale and unworthy of
Cato to beg his fafety of an enemy ? or why do you
not perfuade me to unlearn what I have been taught,
that, rejecting all the opinions I have hitherto de¬
fended, I may now, by Crefar’s means, grow wifer,
and be yet more obliged to him than for life alone ?
Not that I have determined any thing concerning my-
felf; but I would have it in my power to perform
what I (hall think fit to refolve upon : and I (hall not
fail to a(k your counfel, when I have occafion to a61
up to the principles which your philofophy teaches.
Go tell my fon, that he (hould not compel his father
to what he cannot perfuade him.” They withdrew,
and the fword was brought by a young (lave. Cato
drew it, and finding the point to be (harp ; <e Now,
(faid he,) I am my own mafter And, laying it
down, he took up his book again, which, it is re¬
ported, he read twice over. After this he dept fo
foundly that he was heard to fnore by thofe who were
near him. About midnight he called two of his freed-
men, Cleanthes his phyfician, and Butas whom he
chiefly employed in the management of his affairs.
The laft he fent to the port, to fee whether all the
Romans
C A T O P
Romans were gone ; to the phyfician he gave his
hand to be drelTed, which was i'welled by the blow
he had given his Have. This being an intimation that
he intended to live, gave great joy to his family.
Butas loon returned, and brought word that they were
all gone except CrafTus, who had Itaid upon foine bu-
fmei's, but was jult ready to depart. He added, tliat
the wind was high, and the Tea rough. Thefe words
drew a figh from Cato. He fent Butas again to the
port to know, whether there might not be fome one,
who, in the hurry of embarkation, had forgot fome
neceflary provifions, and had been obliged to put back
to Utica. It was now break of day, and Cato llept
yet a little more, till Butas returned to tell him, that
all was perfectly quiet. He then ordered him to llmt
his door ; and he flung himfelf upon his bed, as if he
meant to finilh his night’s reft; but immediately he
took his fword, and {tabbed himfelf a little below his
chelt ; yet not being able to ufe his hand fo well by
reafon of the fwelling, the blow did not kill him. It
threw him into a convulfion, in which he fell from his
TRIGS.
bed, and overturned a table near it. The noife gave
the alarm ; and his fon, and the reft of the family,
entering the room, found him weltering in his blood,
and his bowels half cut of his body. The furgeon,
upon examination, found that his bowels were not cut;
and was preparing to replace them, and bind up the
wound, when Cato, recovering his fenfes, thruft the
furgeon from him, and, tearing out his bowels, im¬
mediately expired, in the 48th year of his age.
By this rafh aft, independent of all moral or reli¬
gious confiderations, he carried his patriotifm to the
higheft degree of political frenzy : for Cato, dead,
could be of no ufe to his country ; but, had he pre-
ferved his life, his counfel might have moderated Cae-
far’s ambition, and (as Montefquieu obferves) have
given a different turn to public affairs.
CATOCHE, orC.ATOCHUS, a difeafe, by which
the patient is rendered in an inftant as immoveable as
a ftatue, without either fenfe or motion, and continues
in the fame pofture he was in at the moment of his be¬
ing feized. See (the hidcx lubjoined to) Medicine.
I731
C A T O P
CAtoptrics is that part of optics which explains
the properties of reflefted light, and particularly
that which is reflefted from mirrors.
As this and the other brandies of Optics are fully
treated under the colleftive word, we fhall, in the
prefent article, ift, Juft give a fummary of the prin¬
ciples of the branch, in a few plain aphorifms, with
fome preliminary definitions; and, idly, Infert a fet
of entertaining experiments founded upon them.
Sect. I. Definitions.
Definitions. I. Every polilhed body that reflefts the rays of
light is called a mirror, whether its furface be plane,
fpherical, conical, cylindric, or of any other form
whatever.
PlateIxxii. 2. Of mirrors there are three principally ufed in
optical experiments, which are, the plane mirror,
GHI, (fig. 3.) the fpherical convex mirror, GHI,
(fig. 4. ) and the fpherical concave mirror, GHI,
(%• S-)
3. The point K, (fig. 4, 5.) round which the re-
flefting furface of a fpherical mirror is defcribed, is
called its centre. The line KH, drawn from its
center perpendicular to its two furfaces, is the axis of
the mirror, and the point H, to which that line is
drawn, is its vortex.
4. The diftance between the lines AG and BG,
(fig. 3.) is called the angle of incidence, and the di¬
ftance between BG and CG is the angle of refleftion.
Sect. II. jdpborifms.
2
I. Inaplain I. The image DF, (fig. 3.) will appear as far be.-
niirror. hind the mirror, as the objeft AC is before it.
. 2. The image will appear of the fame fize, and in
the fame pofition as the objeft.
3. Every fuch mirror will refleft the image of an
objeft of tw'ice its own length and breadth.
TRIGS.
4. If the objeft be an opaque body, and its rays
fall on the mirror nearly in direft lines, there will
be only one image vifible, which will be reflefted by
the inner furface of the glafs. But
5. If the objeft be a luminous body, and its rays
fall very obliquely on the mirror, there will appear,
to an eye placed in a proper pofition, feveral images;
the firft of which, reflefted from the outer furface of
the glafs, will not be fo bright as the lecond, reflec¬
ted from the inner furface. The following images,
that are produced by the repeated refleftions of the
rays between the two furfaces of the glafs, will he
in proportion lefs vivid, to the eighth or tenth, which
will be fcarce vifible.
1. The image D F, (fig. 4.) will always appear IT a
behind it. fpherical
2. The image will be in the fame pofition as the convex
objeft. minor.
3. It will be lefs than the objeft.
4. It will be curved, but not, as the mirror, fphe¬
rical.
5. Parallel rays falling on this mirror will have the
focus or image at half the diftance of the center K,
from the mirror.
6. In converging rays, 'the diftance of the objeft
muft be equal to half the diftance of the center, to
make the image appear behind the mirror.
7. Diverging rays will have their image at lefs than
half the diftance of the center. If the objeft be placed
in the center of the mirror, its image will appear at
one-eighth of that diftance behind it. 4
1. That point where the image appears of the fame m. ]n a
dimenfions as the objeft, is the center of that mirror, fpherical
2. Parallel rays will have their focus at one half tlje c°ycave
diftance of the center. mirror.
3. Converging rays will form an image before the
mirror.
4. In diverging rays, if the objeft be at lefs than
one half the diltance of the center, the image will be
10 K 2 behind
1732 C A T O P
behind the mirror, eredt, curved, and magnified, as
DEF, (fig. 5.) but if the difiance of the objedt be
greater, the image will be before the mirror, invertr
ed and divninifhed, as DEF, (fig. 6.)
5. The fun’s rays falling on a concave mirror, and
being parallel, will be colledfed in a focus at half the
difiance of its center, where their heat will be aug¬
mented in proportion of the furface of the mirror to
that of the focal fpot.
6. If a luminous body be placed in the focus of a
concave mirror, its rays being refledled in parallel
lines, will ftrongly enlighten a fpace of the fame di-
menlion with the mirror, at a great diftance. If the
luminous objedl be placed nearer than the focus, its
rays will diverge, and confequently enlighten a lar¬
ger fpace. It is on this principle, that reverberators
are confirudled.
IV. In all plane and fpherical mirrors the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of refiedtion.
Sect. III. Entertaining Experiments.
I. Catrop- I. Of all our fenfes the fight is certainly fubjedt to
tical illufi- the greateft illufion. The various writers on optics
ons' have defcribed a great number of inftances in which
it deceives us, and have conftantly endeavoured to
inveftigate the caufes, to explain their erfedls, and to
reconcile appearance with reality. We every day
difcover new phenomena, and doubtlefs many more
are referved for pofterity. It frequently happens,
moreover, that a difcovery which at firft feemed of
little confequence, has led to matters of the higheft
importance.
Plate Ixxiii. Take a glafs bottle A, (fig. 4.) and fill it with wa¬
ter to the point B; leave the upper part BC empty,
and cork it in the common manner. Place this bottle
oppofite a concave mirror, and beyond its focus, that
it may appear reverfed, and before the mirror (fee
feci. ii. aphor. 4. of afpher. concave mirror,) place
yourfelf ftill further diftant than the bottle, and it will
appear to you in the fituation a, b, c, (fig. 5.)
Now it is remarkable in this apparent bottle, that
the water, which, according to all the laws of catop¬
trics, and all the experiments made on other objedt*,
fiiould appear at a b, appears on the contrary at b c,
and confequently the part a b appears empty.
If the bottle be inverted and placed before the mir¬
ror, (as in fig. 6.) its image will appear in its natu¬
ral, eredt pofition; and the water, which is in reali¬
ty at BC, will appear at a b.
If while the bottle is inverted it be uncorked, and the
water run gently out, it will appear that while the part
BC is emptying, that of <2 £ in the image is filling; and
what is likewife very remarkable, as foon as the bot¬
tle is empty the illufion ceafes, the image alfo ap¬
pearing entirely empty. If the bottle likewife be
quite full there is no iliufion.
If while the bottle is held inverted, and partly emp¬
ty, fome drops of water fall from the bottom A to¬
wards BC, it feems in the image as if there were
formed at the bottom of the part a b, bubbles of air
that rofe from a to b; which is the part that feems
full of water. All thefe phenomena conftantly ap¬
pear.
TRIGS.
The remarkable circumftances in this experiment,
are, firft, not only to fee an objedt where it is not,
but alfo where its image is not; and fecondly, that of
two objedls which are really in the lame place, as the
furface of the bottle and the water it contains, the one
is feen at one place, and the other at another; and
to lee the bottle in the place of its image, and the wa¬
ter where neither it, nor its image, are. 6
II. Conllrudl a box AB, of about a foot long, eight H, Appear^
inches wide, and fix high; or what other dimen- fnce^?
fion you lhall think fit, provided it does not greatly e s
vary from thefe proportions. piate’ |vv;;.
On the inlide of this box, and againft each of its fig. 7.
oppofite ends A and B, place a mirror of the fame
fize. Take off the quickfilver from the mirror that
you place at B, for about an inch and an half, at the
part C, where you are to make a hole in the box of
the lame fize, by which you may eafily view its in-
fide. Cover the top of the box with a frame, in
which mull be placed a tranfparent glafs, covered
with gauze, on the fide next the inner part of the
box. Let there be two grooves at the parts E and
F to receive the two painted feenes hereafter men¬
tioned. On two pieces of cut pafteboard let there be
Ikilfully painted on both fides (fee fig. 8. and 9.) any
fubjedt you think proper; as woods, gardens, bowers,
colonades, toe. and on two other pafteboards, the
fame fubjedts on one fide only ; obferving that there
ought to be on one of them fome objedt relative to
the lubjedt placed at A, that the mirror placed at D
may not refledt the hole at C on the oppofite fide.
Place the two boards painted on both fides in the
grooves E and F; and thofe that are painted on one
fide only, againft the oppofite mirrors C and D ; and
then cover the box with its tranfparent top. This
box Ihould be placed in a ftrong light to have a good
effedt.
When the eye is placed at C, and views the objedls
on the inlide of the box, of which fome, as we have
faid, are painted on both fides, they are fucceffively
refledled from one mirror to the other ; and if, for
example, the painting confifts of trees, they will ap¬
pear like a very long villa, of which the eye cannot
difeern the end : for each of the mirrors repeating
the objedls, continually more faintly, contribute great¬
ly to augment the illufion. ^
III. Take a fquare box ABCD, of about fix inches III. of a
long, and twelve high; cover the infide of it with fortification
four plane mirrors, which muft be placed perpendicu- immenfc
lar to the bottom of the box CHFD. fi^To
Place certain objedls in relief on the bottom of this I0'
box ; fuppofe, for example, a piece of fortification,
(as fig. 11.) with tents, foldiers, toe. or any other
fubjedl that you judge will produce an agreeable effedl
by its difpofition when repeatedly relledled by the
mirrors.
On the top of this box place a frame of glafs, in
form of the bottom part of a pyramid, whofe bafe
AGEB is equal to the fize of the box : its top ILN,
mull form a fquare of fix inches, and Ihould not be
more than four or five inches higher than the box.
Cover the four fides of this frame with a gauze, that
the infide may not be vifible but at the top ILN,
which fliould be covered with a tranlparent glafs.
When
733
CATOPTRICS. i
When you look into this box through the glafs ftions, you will fee an entire citadel, with its fix ba-
ILN, the mirrors that are diametrically oppolite ftions. Or if you place part of a ball-room, ornamen-
each other, mutually reflecting the figures inclofed, the ted with chandeliers and figures in enamel, all thofe
eye beholds a boundlefs extent, completely covered objeCts being here multiplied, will afford a very plea-
with theie objeCts; and if they are properly difpoied, fmg profpeCt. 9
the illufion will occafion no fmall furprize, and afford V. Within the cafe ABCD, place four mirrors, v. Opaque
great entertainment. O, P, Q, R, fo difpofed that they may each of them bodies
Note, The nearer the opening ILN is -to the make an angle of forty-five degrees, that is, that they feemingly
top of the box, the greater will be the apparent ex- may be half way inclined from the perpendicular, as rentl^rc<i
tent of the fubject. The fame will happen if the four in the figure. In each of the two extremities AB, pf”
mirrors placed on the fides of the box be more eleva- make a circular overture, in one of which fix the tube fig. j.
ted. The objects, by either of thefe difpofitions, GL, in the other the tube MF, and obferve that in
will appear to be repeated nine, twenty-five, forty- each of theie is to be inferted another tube, as H
nine times, ire. by taking always the fquare of the and If.
odd numbers of the arithmetical progreffion 3, y, 7, 9, Furnilh the firft of thefe tubes with an objeCI-glafs
&c. as is very eafy to conceive, if we remember at G, and a concave eye-glafs at F. You are to ob-
that the liibjeCt enclofed in the box is always in the lerve, that in regulating the focus of thefe glaffes,
centre of a fquare, compol’ed of ieveral others, equal with regard to the length of the tube, you are to fup-
to that which forms the bottom of the box. pole it equal to the line G, or vii'ual pointed ray, which
Other pieces of the fame kind (that is viewed from entering at the overture G, is reflected by the four
above) may be contrived, in which mirrors may be mirrors, and goes out at the other overture F, where
placed perpendicular on a triangular, pentagon, or the ocular glafs is placed. Put any glafs you will into
hexagon, (that is, a three, five, or fix-(ided) plane, the two ends of the moveable tubes Hand I; and
All thefe different difpofitions, properly directed, as laltly place the machine on a Hand E, moveable at the
well with regard to the choice as pofition of the ob- point S, that it may be elevated or depreffed at plea-
jeCts, will conftantly produce very remarkable and lure.
pleafing illufions. When the eye is placed at F, and you look through
If inltead of placing the mirrors perpendicular, the tube, the rays of light that proceed from the objeCt
A they were to incline equally, fo as to form part of T, pafling through the glafs G, are fucceffively reflec-
a reverfed pyramid, the iubjeCt placed in the box ted by the mirrors, C), P, and R, to the eye at F,
' would then have the appearance of a very extenfive and there paint the objeCl T, in its proper fituation,
g globular or many-fided figure. and theie rays appear to proceed direCtly from that
IV. Surpri- IV. On the hexagonal or fix-fided plane ABCDEF objeCt.
fing mult;, draw fix femi-diameters GA, GB, GC, GD, GE, The two moveable tubes H and I, at the extremi-
plication of GF ; and on each of thefe place perpendicularly, two ties of each of which a glafs is placed, ferve only the
objeAs, plane mirrors, which muff join exactly at the center more to difguife the illufion, for they have no commu-
% 12. G*. Decorate the exterior boundary of this piece nication with the interior part of the machine. This
(which is at the extremity of the angles of the hexa- inftrument being moveable on the ffand E, may he
gon) with fix columns, that at the fame time ferve direcled to any objedt; and if furnilhed with proper
to fupport the mirrors, by grooves formed on their glaffes will anfwer the purpofe of a common perfpec-
inner fides. (See the profile H) Add to thefe columns five.
their entablatures, and cover the edifice in fitch man- The two moveable tubes H and I being brought to¬
ner as you fhall think proper. gether, the machine is directed toward any objedf.
In each one of thefe fix triangular fpaces, contain- and deliring a perfon to look in at the end F, you a(k
ed between two mirrors, place little figures of pafle- him if he fee diltindily that objedt. You then fepa-
board, in relief, repreienting fuch objedts as when rate the two moveable tubes, and leaving a fpace be-
feen in an hexagonal form will produce an agreeable tween them fufficient to place your hand, or any o-
effedi. To thefe add fmall figures of enamel ; and ther folid body, you tell him that the machine has the
take particular care to conceal, by fome objedi that power of making objedts vifible through the moft
has relation to the fubjedt, the place where the mir- opaque body ; and as a proof you defire him then to
rors join, which, as we have faid before, all meet in look at the fame objedt, when, to his great furprize,
the common center G. he will fee it as dhiindt as when there was no folid
When you look into any one of the fix openings of body placed between the tubes,
this palace, the objedts there contained being repeated Note, This experiment is the more extraordina-
fix times, will feem entirely to fill up the whole of ry, as it is very difficult to conceive how the efledt is
the building. This illufion will appear very remark- produced. The two arms of the cafe appearing
able ; efpecially if the objedts made choice of are pro- to be made to fupport the perfpedtive glafs; and to
perly adapted to the effect that is to be produced by whatever objedt it is directed, the effedt is fiill the
the mirrors. fame. I0
Note, if you place between two of thefe mirrors VI. In the partition AB, make two overtures, CD, VT.VIT.Tfie
part of a fortification, as a curtain and two demiba- and EF, of a foot high, and ten inches wide, and “fgkiaids
. . about fig.T"’
* Thefe mirrors, placed back to back, muft be as thin as poffible.
f Thefe four tubes muft terminate in the fubftance of the cafe, and not enter the inlide, that they may not hinder the effefk
of the mirrors.
*734
Fig. 3.
CATOPTRICS.
about a foot diftant from each other. Let them be at
the common height of a man’s head ; and in each of
them place a tranfparent glafs, furrounded with a
frame, like a common mirror.
Behind this partition place two mirrors H and I,
inclined to it in an angle of forty-five degrees* : let
them be both 18 inches fquare: let all the fpace be¬
tween them be inclofed by boards or pafteboard, paint-,
ed black, and well clofed, that no light may enter: let
there be allb two curtains to cover them, which may
be drawn alide at pleafure.
When a perfon looks into one of thefe fuppofed
mirrors, inftead of feeing his own face, he will per¬
ceive the objetil that is in front of the other ; lb that
if two perfons prefent themfelves at the fame time
before thefe mirrors, inftead of each one feeing himfelf,
they will reciprocally fee each other.
Note, There fhould be-a fconce with a candle placed
on each fide of the two glalles in the wainfcot, to en¬
lighten the faces of the perfons who look in them,
otherwife this experiment will have no remarkable
effedt.
This experiment may be confiderably improved by
placing the two glafies in the partition, in adjoining
rooms, and a number of perfons being previoufly
placed in one room, when a ftranger enters the other,
you may tell him his face is dirty, and defire him to
look in the glafs, which he will naturally do ; and on
feeing a ftrange face he will draw back : but return¬
ing to it, and leeing another,'another, and another,
like the phantom kings in Macbeth, what his furprize
will b<e is more eafy to conceive than exprefs. After
this, a real mirror may be privately let down on the
back of the glafs; and if he can be prevailed to look in
it once more, he will then, to his further aftonifhment,
fee his own face ; and may be told, perhaps perfuad-
ed, that all he thought he faw before was mere imagi¬
nation.
How many tricks, lefs artful than this, have pafled
in former times for forcery ; and pafs at this time, in
fome countries, for apparitions ?
Note, When a man looks in a mirror that is pla¬
ced perpendicular to another, his face will appear
entirely deformed. If the mirror be a little inclined,
fo as to make an angle of e ighty degrees (that is, one-
ninth part from the perpendicular) he will- then fee
all the parts of his face, except the nofe and forehead.
If it be inclined to fixty degrees (that is, one-third
part) he will appear with three nofes and fix eyes:
in Ihort, the apparent deformity will vary at each
degree of inclination ; and when the glafs comes to
forty-five degrees, (that is, half way down) the face
will vanifh. If, infiead of placing the two mirrors
in this fituation, they are fo difpofed that their junc¬
tion may be vertical, their different inclinations will
produce other effe&s; as the fituation of the objeft
relative to thefe mirrors is quite different. The ef¬
fects of thefe mirrors, though remarkable enough, oc-
cafions but little furprife, as there is no method of
concealing the caufe by which they are produced.
VII. Make a box of wood, of a cubical figure,
ACBD, of about fifteen inches every way. Let it be
fixed on the pedeftal P, at the ufual height of a man’s
head. In each fide of this box let there be an open¬
ing of an oval form, of ten inches high, and feven
wide.
In this box place two mirrors A, D, with their
backs againit each other ; let them crofs the box in a
diagonal line, and in a vertical pofition. Decorate
the openings in the fides of this box with four oval
frames and tranfparent glaffes, and cover each of them
with a curtain, fo contrived that they may all draw
up together.
Place four perfons in front of the four fides, and at
equal difiances from the box, and then draw up the
curtains that they may fee themfelves in the mirrors ;
when each of them, inftead of his own figure, will
fee that of the perfon who is next him, and who, at
the fame time, will fcem to him to be placed on the
oppofite fide. Their confufion will be the greater, as
it will be very difficult for them to difcover the mir¬
rors concealed in the box. The reafon of this phx-
nomenon is evident ; for though the rays of light may
be turned afide by a mirror, yet, as we have before
find, they always appear to proceed in right lines. j2
VIII. Provide a box ABCD of about two feet long, VIII The]
fifteen inches wide, and twelve inches high. At the P«rfpe£tive
end AC place a concave mirror, the focus of whofe "11rr°r»
parallel rays is at eighteen inches from the refledling S'
furface. At IL place a pafteboard blacked, in which
a hole is cut fufficiently large to fee on the mirror H,
the objedt placed at BEFD.
Cover the top of the box, from A to I, clofe, that
the mirror H may be entirely darkened. The other
part IB, muft be covered with a glafs, under which
is placed a gauze.
Make an aperture at G, near the top of the fide
E B ; beneath which, on the infide, place, in fuccelfi-
on, paintings of different fubjefts, as villas, landfcapes,
ire. fo that they may be in front of the mirror H. Let
the box be fo placed that the object may be ftrongly
illumined be the fun, or by wax lights placed under
the enclofed part of the box AI.
By this fimple conftrudtion the objects placed at GD
will be thrown into their natural perfpedlive ; and if
the fubjedls be properly chofen, the appearance will
be altogether as pleafing as in optical machines of a
much more complicated form.
Note, A glafs mirror ffiould be always here ufed,
as thofe of metal do not reprefent the objedls with
equal vivacity, and are befide fubjeft to tarniffi. It is
alfo neceffary that the box be fufficiently large, that
you may not be obliged to ufe a mirror whofe focus
is too Ihort; for in that cafe, the right lines near the
border of the picture will appear bent in the mirror,
which will have a difagreeable effect, and cannot be
avoided.
IX. The rays of a luminous body placed in the fo- IX. To fet
cus of a concave mirror being reflected in parallel fire to ?
lines, if a fecond mirror be placed diametrically op-
pofite the fir ft, it will, by collecting thofe rays in its refliftionof
focus, fet fire to a combuftible body. two concave
Place two concave mirrors, A and B (fig. 8.) at a- mirrors,
bout twelve or fifteen feet diftance from each other,
and let the axis of each of them be in the fame line.
In the focus C, of one of them, place a live coal, and
That is, half-way between a line drawn perpendicular
the ground and its furface.
i?35
C A T O P
in the focus D of the other,‘Tome gun-powder. With
a pair of double bellows, which make a continual hlafi,
keep conftantly blowing the coal, and notwithftanfl-
ing the diftance between them the powder will pre-
fently take fire.
It is not neceffiry that tbefe mirrors be of metal
or brafs, thole made of wood or palleboard, gild¬
ed, will produce the explofion, which has fometimes
taken effect at the diftance of fifty feet, when mir¬
rors of eighteen inches, or two feet diameter, have
been ufed.
This experiment fucceeds with more difficulty at
great diltances ; which may proceed from the moi-
fture in a large quantity of air. It would doubtlefs
take effect more readijy, if a tin tube, of an equal dia¬
meter with the mirrors, were to be placed between
,4 them.
The real ap- X. Behind the partition AB, place, in a poiition
parition, fomething oblique, the concave mirror EF, which,
fiS- 9- mull: be at lead: ten inches in diameter, and its diltance
from the partition equal to three-fourths of the di¬
ftance of its center.
In the partition make an opening of feven or eight
inches, either fquare or circular : it muft face the mir¬
ror, and be of the fame height with it. Behind this
partition place a ftrong light, fo difpofed that it may
not be feen at the opening, and may illumine an ob¬
ject placed at C, w'ithout throwing any light on the
mirror. '
Beneath the aperture in the partition place the ob¬
ject C, that you intend lhall appear on the outfide of
the partition, in an inverted poiition ; and which we
will fnppofe to be a flower. Before the partition,
and beneath the aperture, place a little flower-pot D,
the top of which - Ihould be even with the bottom of
■ the aperture, that the eye, placed at G, may fee the
flower in the fame poiition as if its ftalk came out of
the pot.
Take care to paint the fpace between the back part
of the partition and the mirror black, to prevent anv
CAT
CATOPTROMANCY, K.a.roTiTpu.ai'Teiv-, a kind of
divination among the ancients; fo called, becaufe con¬
fiding in the application of a mirror. The word is
formed from Katanlfct,./}>ecu/um, “ mirror,” and /xoo-
reioi, divinatio, “ divination.” Paufanias fays, it was
in .ufe among the Achaians ; where thofe who were
lick, and in danger of death, let down a mirror, or
looking-glais, fadened by a thread, into a fountain be¬
fore the temple of Ceres ; then, looking in the glafs,
if they faw a ghadly disfigured face, they took it as a
lure fign of death : on the contrary, if the flefli ap¬
peared frefh and healthy, it was a token of recovery.
Sometimes glalfes were ufed without water, and the
images of things future reprefented in them. See
Gastrom ANCY.
CATROU (Francis), a famous Jefuit born at Paris
in 1659. He was engaged for twelve years in the
Journal di Trevoux, and applied himfelf at the fame
time to other works, which didinguilhed him among
the learned. He wrote a general Hidory of the
Mogul empire, and a Roman hidory, in which he was
TRIGS.
reflections of light from being thrown on the mirror;
in a word, fo difpofe the whole that it may be as little
enlightened as poffible.
When a perfon is placed at the point G, he will
perceive the flower that is behind the partition, at the
top of the pot at D, but on putting out his hand to
pluck it, he will find that he attempts to grafp a fha-
dow.
The phenomena that may be produced by means Olftrvatiim
of concave mirrors are highly curious and afionifhing.
By their aid, fpeCtres of various kinds may be exhi¬
bited. Suppofe, for example, you were to tell any,
one, that at Inch an hour, and in fuch a place, he Ihould
fee the apparition of an abfent or deceafed friend (of
whofe portrait you are in pofl'eflion). In order to
produce this phantom, indead of the hole in the par¬
tition AB, in the lad figure, there mud be a dooiy
which opens into an apartment to which tliere is a
confiderable defeent. Under that door you are to
place the portrait, which mud be inverted and drongly
illuminated, that it may be lively reflected by the mir¬
ror, which mud be large and well polilhed. Then ha¬
ving introduced the incredulous IpeCIator at another
door, and placed him in the proper point of view,
you fuddenly throw open the door at A B, when, to
his great adonifliment, he will immediately fee the.
apparition of his friend.
It will be objeCled, perhaps, that this is not a per-
feCl apparition, becaufe it is only viflble at one point
' of view, and by one perfon. But it Ihould be remem¬
bered, that it was an edablilhed maxim in the lad cen¬
turies, that a fpeCtre might be vilible to one perfon
and not to others. So Shakefpeare makes both Ham¬
let and Macbeth fee apparitions that were not vifible
to others, prefent at the fame time. It is not un¬
likely, moreover, that this maxim took its rife from
, certain apparitions of this kind that were raifed by
the monks, to ferve fome purpofes they called religi¬
ons; as they alone were in pofleffion of what little
learning there then was in the world..
CAT
affided by Father Rouille a brother Jefuit. Catron
died in 1727 ; and this lad hidory was continued by
Rouille, who died in 1 740.
CA FTI, a people of Germany, very widely fpread;
on the ead reaching to the river Sala, on the north to
Wedphalia; occupying, befides, Heffe, the Werterau,
and part of the traift on the Rhine, and on the banks
of the river Loline, The Hercynian fored. began and
ended in their country.
CATTLE, a collective word, which fignifies the
fourfooted animals, which ferve either for rilling the
ground, or for food to men. They are didinguifhed
into large, or black cattle ; and into final] cattle : of
the former are borfes, hulls,, oxen, cows, and even
calves and heifers; amongft the latter are rams, ewes,
Iheep, lambs, goats, kids, &c. Cattle are the chief
dock of a farm : they who deal in cattle are dyled
graziers..
CATTERTHUN, a remarkable Caledonian pod,
a few miles north of the town of Brechin in the county
of Angus in Scotland. Mr Pennant deferibes it as of
uncommon.
Catullus
II
Catz.
CAT [ 1736 ] CAT
uncommon ftrength. “ It is (fays he) of an oval
form, made of a itupendous dike of loofe white (tones,
_ whole convexity, from the bale within to that with¬
out, is t22 feet. On the outfide a hollow, made by
the difpofition of the {tones, furrounds the whole.
Round the bafe is a deep ditch, and below that about
100 yards, are veltiges of another, that went round
the hill. The area within the {tony mound is flat;
the axis, or length of the oval, is 436 feet, the tranf-
verfe diameter 200. Near the ealt fide is the foun¬
dation of a rectangular building; and on moft parts
are the foundations of others fmall and circular : all
which had once their (uperdruCtnres, the {belter of the
pofleflbrs of the port: there is alfo a hollow, now al-
moit filled with (tones, the well of the place.” There
is another fortification, but of inferior (trength, in the
neighbourhood. It is called the Brown Catterthun,
from the colour of the ramparts which are compofed
only of earth. It is of a circular form, and confifts of
various concentric dikes. On one fide of this rifes a
fmall rill, which, running down the hill, has formed a
deep gully. From the fide of the fortrefs is another
rampart, which extends parallel to the rill, and then
reverts, forming an additional poft or retreat. The
meaning of the word Cattsr~thun is Camp-town ; and
Mr Pennant thinks thefe might probably be the ports
occupied by the Caledonians before their engagement
at the foot of the Grampian Mountains with the cele¬
brated Agricola. See (Hijlory of) Scotland.
CATULLUS (Caius Valerius), a Latin poet, born
at Verona, in the year of Rome 666. The harmo¬
ny of his numbers acquired him the erteem andfriend-
(hip of Cicero, and other great men of his time. Ma¬
ny of his poems, however, abound with grofs obfce-
nities. He wrote fatirical verfes againft Caefiir, un¬
der the name of Marmoro. He fpent his whole life
in a date of poverty; and died in the flower of his
age, and the height of his reputation. Jofeph Scali-
ger, Paflerat, Muret, and Ifaac Voflius, have written
learned notes on this poet.
CATZ (James), a great civilian, politician, and
Dutch poet, was born at Browerlhaven, in Zealand,
in the year 1577. After having made feveral voy¬
ages, he fixed at Middleburg; and acquired by his
pleadings fuch reputation, that the city of Dort chofe
him for its penfionary ; as did alfo, fome time after,
that of Middleburg. In 1634, he was nominated penfi¬
onary of Holland and Weft Friefland ; and in 1648, he
was elected keeper of the feal of the fame (late, and
ftadtholder of the fiefs: but fome time after, ' he re-
figned thefe employments, to enjoy the repofe which
his advanced age demanded. As the port of grand
penfionary had been fatal to almoft all thole who had
enjoyed it, from the beginning of the republic till that
time, Catz delivered up his charge on his knees, be¬
fore the whole aflembly of the dates, weeping for
joy, and thanking God for having preferred hinrfrom
the inconveniencies that feemed attached to the duties
of that office. But though he was refolved to fpend the
reft of his days in repofe, the love of his country en¬
gaged him to comply with the defires of the date,
who importuned him to go on an embafly to England,
in the delicate conjuncture in which the republic found
itfelf during the pro tt dor ate of Cromwell. At his
return, he retired to his fine country feat at Sorgvliet,
where he lived in tranquillity till the year 1660, in
which he died. Fie wrote a great number of poems
in Dutch ; mod of which are on moral fubjeds, and,
fo efteemed, that they have been often printed in all
the different fizes; and next to the Bible, there is no
work (b highly valued by the Dutch.
CATZENELLIBOGEN, a town of Germany, in
the lower part of the upper circle of the Rhine, with
a ftrong caftle. It is capital of a county of the fame
name. E. Long. 7. 38. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CAVA, a conliderable and populous town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Princi-
pato, with a biffiop’s fee. It is fituated at the foot of
Mount Metelian, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 40. 40.
CAVAILLAN, a town of France in Comtal Ve-
naiflin, with a biffiop’s fee. It is fituated on the river
Durance, in a fertile and pleafant country. E. Long.
4. 17. N. Lat. 43. $2.
CAVALCANTE (Guido), a nobleman of Florence
in the 13th century, who having followed the party
of the Guelfes, experienced the changeablenefs of
fortune. He (hewed great ftrength of mind in his
misfortunes, and never negleded to improve his ta¬
lents. He wrote a treatife in Italian concerning ftyle,
and fome verfes which are efteemed. His poem on
the love of this World, has been commented on by
feveral learned men.
CAVALIER, a horfeman, or perfon mounted on
horfeback; efpecially if he be armed withal, and have
a military appearance.
Anciently, the word was reftrained to a knight, or
miles. The French ftill ufe Chevalier in the fame fenfe.
Cavalier, confidered as a faction. See Britain,
n° 109.
Cavalier, in fortificatipn, an elevation of earth of
different fliapes, fituated ordinarily in the gorge of a
baftion, bordered with a parapet, and cut into more
or lefs embrafures, according to the capacity of the
cavalier. Cavaliers are a double defence for the faces
of the oppofite baftion : they defend the ditch, break
the befiegers galleries, command the traverfes in dry
moats, fcour the faliant angle of the counterfcarp,
where the befiegers have their counter-batteries, and
enfilade the enemies trenches, or oblige them to mul¬
tiply their parallels: they are likewife very fervice-
able in defending the breach and the retrenchments
of the belieged, and can very much incommode the en¬
trenchments which the enemy make, being lodged in
the baftion. & &
Cavalier, in the menage, one that underftands
horfes, and is pradlifed in the art of riding them.
CAVALIERI (Bpnaventure), an eminent mathe¬
matician in the 17th century, a native of Milan, and
a friar of the order of the Jefuati of St Jerome, was
profelfor of mathematics at Bologna, where he pnb-
lifhed feveral mathematical books, particularly the
Method of Indivifbles. He was a fcholar of Galileo.
His Direttorium generate Uranometricum contains
great variety of moft ufieful practices in trigonometry
and aftronomy. His trigonometrical tables in that
work are excellent.
CAVALRY, a body of foldiers that charge on
horfeback. The word comes from the French, ca-
valerij,
Catzenelli-
bogen
Cavalry.
-
C A U [ 1737 ] C A V
Cavan valerie, and that from the corrupt Latin, caballus, a
II horfe.
:aucafus. The Roman cavalry confifted wholly of thofe cal¬
led equites, or knights, who were a diilincl order in
the distribution of citizens.—The Grecian cavalry were
divided into cataphralLe and non cataphraChe, i. e. in¬
to heavy and light armed.—Of all the Greeks, the
ThefTalians excelled molt in cavalry. The Lacede¬
monians, inhabiting a mountainous country, were but
meanly furnilhed with cavalry, till, carrying their
arms into other countries, they found great occafion
for horfes to fupport and cover their foot. The A-
thenian cavalry, for a confiderable time, confilled on¬
ly of 96 horfemen: after expelling the Perfians out
Greece, they increafed the number to 300; and af¬
terwards to 1200, which was the higheft pitch of the
Athenian cavalry. The Turkifh cavalry confilts
partly of Spahis, and partly of horfemen railed and
maintained by the Zaims and Timariots.
The chief ufe of the cavalry is to make frequent
excurfions to difturb the enemy, intercept his con¬
voys, and deltroy the country : in battle to fupport
and cover the foot, and to break through and difor-
der the enemy ; alfo to fecure the retreat of the foot.
Formerly, the manner of the fighting of the cavalry
was, after firing their piftols or carabines, to wheel
off, to give opportunity for loading again. Guftavus
Adolphus is laid to have firft taught the cavalry to
charge through, to march ftraight up to the enemy,
with the fword drawn in the bridlehand, and each
man having fired his piece, at the proper diftance, to
betake himfelf to his fword, and charge the enemy as
was found moft advantageous.
CAVAN, a town of Ireland, and capital of a coun¬
ty of the fame name, in the province of Uliter, litua-
ted in W. Long. 7. 32. N. Lat. 5. 04.
Cavan, a county of Ireland, 47 miles in length,
and 23 in breadth; is bounded on the call by Mo--
naghan, and on the fouth by Longford, Weit-iyieath,
and Eaft-meath. It has but two towns of any note,
viz. Cavan and Kilmore. It fends five members to
parliament; two for the county, two for Cavan, and
one for Kilmore. It contains upwards of 8000 houfes,
3 7 parilhes, feven baronies, and two boroughs.
CAUCASUS, the name of a very high mountain of
Alia, being one of that great ridge which runs between
the Black and Cafpian leas. Sir John Chardin de-
fcribes this as the higheft mountain, and the moft dif¬
ficult to pafs, of any he had feen. It has frightful
precipices, and in many places the roads are cut out
of the folid rock. At the time he parted it, the moun¬
tain was entirely covered with fnovv ; fo that, in many
places, his guides behoved to clear the way with Iho-
vels. The mountain is 36 leagues over, and the fummit
of it eight leagues in breadth. The top is perpetually
covered with fnow; and our traveller relates, that the
two laft days he feemed to be in the clouds, and was
not able to fee 20 paces before him. Excepting the
very top, however, all the parts of Mount Caucafus
are extremely fruitful; abounding in honey, corn,
fruits, hogs, and large cattle. The vines twine a-
bout the trees, and rife fo high, that the inhabitants
cannot gather the fruit from the uppermoft branches.
There are many ftreams of excellent water, and a
Vox.. III.
vart number of villages. The inhabitants are for the Cauci
moft part Chriftians of the Georgian Church. They I
have fine complexions, and the women are very CaYf'
beautiful.—In the winter they wear fiiow-lhoes in
the form of rackets, which prevent their finking in
the fnow, and enable them to run upon it with great
fwiftnefs.
CAUCI. See Chauci.
CAUDEBEC, a rich, populous, and trading town in
Normandy, and capital of the territory of Caux. It
is feated at the foot of a mountain near the river
Seine, in E. Long. o. 46. N. Lac. 40. 30.
CAUDEX, by Malphigi and other botanifts, isufed
to fignify the Item or trunk of a tree: by Linnae¬
us, the itock or body of the root, part of which a-
fcends, part defcends. The afcending part raifes it-
felf gradually above ground, ferving frequently for a
trunk, and correfponds in fome mealure to the caudex
of former writers : the defcending part ftrikes gradu¬
ally downward into the ground, and puts forth ra¬
dicles or fmall fibres, which are the principal and ef-
fential part of every root *. The defending caudex * See RrJi-
therefore correfponds to the radix of other botanifts. cula.
Agreeably to this idea, Linnaeus confiders trees and *
flirubs as roots above ground; an opinion which is
confirmed by a well known facft, that trees when in¬
verted, put forth leaves from the defceftding caudex,
and radicles or roots from the afcending. For the va¬
rieties in the defcending caudex, fee the article Ra¬
dix.
CAVE, any large fubterraneons hollow. Thefe were
undoubtedly the primitive habitations, before men be¬
gan to build edifices above ground. The primitive
method of burial was alfo to repofite the bodies in
caves, which feems to. have been the origin of cata¬
combs *. They long continued the proper habitati- * See Col¬
ons of Ihepherds. Among the Romans, caves, (an-comb,
tra), ufed to be confecrated to nymphs, who were
worlhipped in caves, as other gods were in temples.
The Perfians alfo worfhipped their god Mithras in a
natural cave confecrated for the purpofe by Zoroaf-
ter. The cave of the nymph Egeria is ftill Ihewn
at Rome. Kircher, after GafFarellns, enumerates di¬
vers fpecies of caves; as divine, natural, ire.—Of na¬
tural caves fome are poflerted of a medicinal virtue, as
the Grotto de Serpente ; others are poifonous or me-,
phitical; fome are replete with metalline exhalations,
and others with waters. Divine caves were thofe
faid to affetft the human mind and paflions in various
ways, and ever to infpire with a knowledge of future
events. Such were the facred caverns at Delphi which
infpired the Pythia; the Sibyl’s cave at Cumse, ftill
Ihewn near the lake Avernus; the cave of Tropho-
nius, ire..
Cave (Dr William), a learned Englifli divine,
born in 1637, educated in St John’s college Cam¬
bridge ; and fucceflively minifter of Hafely in Oxford-
Ihire, Allhallows the Great in London, and of Ifling-
ton. He became chaplain to Charles II. and in 1684
was inftalled a canon of Windfor. He compiled the
Lives oj the Primitive Fathers in the three firji centuries
of the church, which is efteemed a very ufeful work;
and Hiftoria Literaria, &c. in which he gives an ex-
aft account of all who had writ for or againft Chrifti-
10 L anity,
C A V [ 1738 ] C A V
Caveare anity, from the time of Chrift to the 14th century:
|| which works produced a warm controverfy between
Cavendifh. Dr Cave and M. Le Clerc, who was then writing
his Bibliothequ! Univcrftlle in Holland, and who charg¬
ed the dodtor with partiality. Dr Cave died in
I7I3-
CAVEARE, Caveer, or Caviary, a kind of food
lately introduced into Britain. It is made of the hard
* Sec Acci- roes of Burgeon *, formed into fmall cakes, about an
pcnfcr. inch thick and three or four inches broad. The me¬
thod of making it, is by taking out of the fpawn a}l the
nerves or Brings, then walhiug it in white-wine or vi¬
negar, and fpreading it on a table. It is then faked and
prefled in a fine bag ;«after which it is cafed up in a
veflel with a hole at the bottom, that if any moiflure
is left it may run out. This kind of food is in great
requefl among the Mofcovites, on account of their
three lents, which they keep with a fuperflitious ex-
adtnefs; wherefore the Italians fettled at Mofcow
drive a very great trade in this commodity through¬
out that empire, there being a prodigious quantity of
Burgeon taken at the mouth of the Wolga and other
rivers which fall into the Cafpiah fea. A pretty large
* quantity of the commodity is alfo confumed in Italy
■and France. They get the caveare from Archangel,
but commonly buy it at fecond hand of the Englilh and
Dutch.—According to Savary, the beB caveare brought
fromMufcovy is prepared from the belluga, a fill] eight
. or ten feet long, caught in the Cafpian fea, which is
much preferable tp that made of the fpawn of Burge¬
on. A kind of caveare, or rather faufage, is alfo
made from the fpawn of fome other fillies; particu¬
larly a fort of mullet caught in the Mediterranean.
See Mugij., and Botargo.
CAVEAT, in law, a kind of procefs in the fpiri-
tual courts, to Bop the proving of a will, the grant¬
ing tithes of adminiflration, ire. to the prejudice of
another. It is alfo ufed to Bop the inBitution of a
clerk to a benefice.
CAVEATING, in fencing, is the Ihifting the fword
from one fide of that of your adverfary to the other.
CAVEDO, in commerce,' a Portuguefe long mea-
fure, equal to 2 Englilh inches.
CAVENDISH (Thomas), of Suffolk, the fecond En-
glilhman that failed round the globe, was defeended
from a noble family in Devonlliire. Having difllpated
his fortune, he refolved to repair it at the expenfe of
the Spaniards. He failed from Plymouth with two
fmall Ihips in July 1586 ; pafled through the Braits of
Magellan ; took many rich prizes along the coaBs of
Chili and Peru ; and near California poflefled himlelf
of the St Ann, an Acapulco Ihip, with a cargo of im-
menfe value. . He completed the circumnavigation of
the globe, by returning home round the Cape of Good
Hope, and reached Plymouth again in September
1588. On his arrival, it is faid, that his foldiers and
failors were clothed in filk, his fails were damalk,
and his topmaB was covered with cloth of gold. His
acquired riches did not laB long : he reduced himfelf,
in 1S91, to the expedient of another voyage ; which
was far from being fo fuccefsful as the former; he
went no farther than the Braits of Magellan, where
the weather obliging him to return, he died of grief
on the coaR of Brazil.
Cavendish (Sir William), defeended of an anci-Cavendi!h»
ent and honourable family, was born about the year
1505, the fecond fon of Thomas Cavendifli, of Caven-
difh in Suffolk, clerk of the pipe in the reign of Henry
VIII. Having had a liberal education, he was taken
into the family of the great cardinal Woolley, whom
he ferved in the capacity of gentleman-ufher of the
chamber, when that fuperb prelate maintained the dig¬
nity of a prince. In 1527 he attended his maffer on
his fplendid embafly to France, returned with him to
England, and was one of the few who continued
faithful to him in his difgrace. Mr Cavendifli was
with him when he died, and delayed going to court
till he had performed the lafl duty of a faithful fer-
vant by feeing his body decently interred. The king
was fo far from difapproving of his conduct, that he
immediately took him into his houfehokl, made him
treafurer of his chamber, a privy counfellor, and af¬
terwards conferred on him the order of knighthood.
He was alfo appointed one of the commiflioners for
taking the furrender of religious houfes. In 1540 he
was nominated one of the auditors of the court of
augmentations, and foon after obtained a grant of fe-
veral confiderable lordfhips in Hertfordfhire. In the
reign of Edward VI. his effates were much increafed
by royal grants in feven different counties; and he ap¬
pears to have continued in high favour at court during
the rdgn of queen Mary. He died in the year 1557.
He was the founder of Chatfworth, and anceffor of
the dukes of Devonfliire. He wrote “ The life and
death of cardinal Woolfey printed, at London 1667 ;
reprinted in 1706, under the title of “ Memoirs of
the great favourite cardinal Woolfey.”
Cavendish (William), duke of NewcaBle,grand-
fon of Sir William Cavendifh, was born in 1S92. In
1610, he was made knight of the bath; in 1620,
raifed to the dignity of a peer, by the title of baron
Ogle, and vifconnt Mansfield ; and in the third year
of king Charles I. created earl of NewcaBle upon
Tyne, and baron Cavendifli of Bolefover. He was
after this made governor to the prince of Wales, af¬
terwards Charles II. When the firR troubles broke
out in Scotland, and the king’s treafur.y was but indif¬
ferently provided, he contributed ten thoufand pounds j
and alfo raifed a troop of horfe, confiBing of about
two hundred knights and gentlemen, who ferved at
their own charge, were commanded by the earl, and
honoured with the title of “ the prince’s troop.” He
had after this the command of the northern counties;
and was conRituted general and commander in chief
of all the forces that might be raifed north of Trent,
and of feveral counties fouth of that river. He af¬
terwards raifed an army of eight thoufand horfe, foot,
and dragoons ; with which he took fome towns, and
gained feveral important victories. On this, he was
advanced to the dignity of marquis of NewcaBle :
but his majeRy’s affairs being totally ruined by the
raflmefs of prince Rupert, he, with a few of the prin¬
cipal officers of the army, went abroad, and Raid for
fome time at Paris; where, notwithRanding the vafl
eBate he had when the civil war broke out, his cir-
cumflances were now fo bad, that himfelf and wife
were reduced to the neceffity of pawning their cloaths
for a dinner. He afterwards removed to Antwerp,
that
C A V [ 1739 1 C A U
Cavendifh. that he might be nearer his own country; and
——— there, though under great difficulties, refided for le-
veral years: but, notwithftanding his diflrefles, he
was treated, during an exile of eighteen years, with
extraordinary marks of diftindlion. On his return
to England at the reftoration, he was advanced to the
dignity of earl of Ogle and duke of JNewcaftle. He
fpent his time in a country retirement, and was the
patron of men of merit. His grace died in 16 79,
aged 84. He wrote a treatife on horfemanfhip, which
is efleemed ; and fome comedies, which are not.
Mr Granger obferves, that he was mafter of many
accomplilhments, and was much better qualified for a
court than a camp : that he underllood horfemanlhi'p,
mufic, and poetry; but was a better horfeman than
mufician, and a better mufician than poet.
Cavendish (Margaret), duchefs of Newcaflle,fa¬
mous for her voluminous productions, was born about
the latter end of the reign of James I. and was the
youngeft filter of Lord Lucas of Colcheller. She
married the duke of iSIewcallle abroad in 1645 ; and
on their return after the reiteration, fpent the re¬
mainder of her life in writing plays, poems, with the
life of her hulband, to the amount of about a dozen
of folios. “ What gives the belt idea of her un¬
bounded palfion for fcribbling, (fays Mr Walpole),
was her feldom revifing the copies of her works, lelt,
as Ihe faid, it Ihonld dilturb her following conceptions.”
She died in 1673.
Cavendish (William), the firlt duke of Devon-
Ihire, and one of the molt diltinguilhed patriots in
the Britilh annals, was born in 1640. In 1677, being
then member for Derby, he vigoroufly oppofed the
venal meafures of the court; and, the following year,
was one of the committee appointed to draw up
articles of impeachment againlt the lord treafurer
Danby. In 1679, being re-elected to ferve for Der¬
by in a new parliament, Charles II. thought fit to
make him a privy counfellor ; but he foon withdrew
from the board, with his friend lord Ruflel, when he
found that popilh interell prevailed. He carried up
the articles of impeachment to the houfe of lords,
againll lord chief jultice Scroggs, for his arbitrary
and illegal proceedings in the court of king’s bench ;
and when the king declared his refolution not to fign
the bill for excluding-the Duke of York (afterwards
James II.), he moved the houfe of commons, that a bill
might be brought in for the alfociation of all his maje-
fly’s protelfant fubjefts. He alfo openly named the
king’s evil counfellors, and voted for an addrefs to re¬
move them from his prefence and councils for ever.
He nobly appeared at lord Ruflel’s trial, in defence of
that great man, at a time when it was fcarce more cri¬
minal to be an accomplice than a witnefs for him. The
fame fortitude, a<5livity, and love of his country, ani¬
mated this illultrious patriot to opppfe the arbitrary
proceedings of James II. ; and when he faw there
was no other method of faving the nation from im¬
pending flavery,he was the foremoft in the affociation
for inviting over the prince of Orange, and the firft
nobleman who appeared in arms to receive him at
his landing. His laft public fervice, was in the union
with Scotland, for concluding of which he was ap¬
pointed a commiflioner by queen Aune. He died in
1707, and ordered the following infcription to be put Cavetto
on his monument. II
Willielmus Dux Devon, Cau1'
Bonorujn Principum Fidelis Subditas,
Inimicus et Invifus Tyrannis.
William Duke of DevojjJhii e,
Of good Princes the faithful'Subject,
The Enemy and Averfion of Tyrants.
Befides being thus eftimable for public virtues, his
grace was diftinguiflied by his literary accomplilh¬
ments. He had a poetical genius,-which fliewed itfelf
particularly in two pieces, written with equal fph it,
dignity, and delicacy : thefe are, an ode on the death
of queen Mary ; and an allufion to the archbilhop of
Cambray’sfupplement to Homer. He had great know¬
ledge in the languages, was a true judge in hiftory, and
a critic in poetry ; he had a fine hand in mufic, an ele¬
gant tafte in painting, and in architefture had a Ikiil
equal to any perfon of the age in which he lived.
CAVETTO, in architedlure, a hollow member, or
round concave moulding, containing a quadrant of a
circle, and having a quite contrary effect to that of a
quarter round : it is ufed as an ornament in cornices.
CAVEZON, in the menage, a fort of nofe-band,
either of iron, leather, or wood, fometimes flat, and
at other times hollow or twifted, clapt upon the nofe
of a horfe to wring it, and fo forward the fuppling
and breaking of the horfe.
CAVIARE. See Caveare.
CAUK, or Cawk, a white, very denfe fubftance,
refembling fpar, but not foluhle in acids, though fufible
by fire. It is generally found in or near lead mines.
It hath a lingular effedt upon antimony in fulion. See
Chemistry, n°453.
CAUKING, or Caulking, of a Ship, is driving
a quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwifted and
drawn al'under, into the feams of the planks, or into
the intervals where the planks are joined together in
the fhip’s decks or fides, in order to prevent the en¬
trance of water. After the oakum is driven very
hard into thefe feams, it is covered with hot melted
pitch or rofin, to keep the water from rotting it.
Among the ancients, the fr It who made ufe of pitch
in caulking, were the inhabitants of Phoeacia, after¬
wards called Corfica. Wax and rofin appear to have
been commonly ufed previous to that period ; and the
Poles at this time ufe a fort of un&uous clay for the
fame purpofe, on their navigable rivers.
CaulkinG-Irons, are iron chilfels for that pur¬
pofe. Some of thefe irons are broad, fome round, and
others grooved. After the feams are flopped with
oakum, it is done over with a mixture of tallow, pitch,
and tar, as low as the fliip draws water.
CAUL, in anatomy, a membrane in the abdomen,
covering the greatefl part of the guts; called, from
its ftrufture, Reticulum, but molt frequently Omentum.
See Anatomy, n° 351.
Caul is likewife a little membrane, found on fome
children, encompalfing the head when born.
Drelincourt takes the caul to be only a fragment of
the membranes of the foetus; which ordinarily break
at the birth of the child. Lampridius tells us, that the
midwives fold this caul at a good price to the advo¬
cates and pleaders of his time ; it being an opinion,
10 L 2 that
C A U [ 1740 ] C A U
Cauliflowers that while they had this about them, they ftiould carry
I! with them a force of perfuafion which no judge could
v-ithftand : the canons forbid the ufe of it; becaufe
fome witches and Ibrcerers, it feemsr had abufed it.
CAULIFLOWERS, in gardening, a much efteem-
ed fpecies of caMjage. See Brassica.
CAURSINE^f [Caurfmi), were Italians that came
into England about the year 1235, terming themfelves
the Pope’s merchants, but driving no other trade than
letting out money ; and having great banks in England,
they differed little from Jews, lave (as hiftory fays)
they were rather more mercilefs to their debtors.
Some will have them called Courfmes, quaff Caufa
Urjini, bearilh and cruel in their cattles; others Caorfnu
or Corfmi, as coming from the ifle of Corfiea: but
Cowel fays, they have their name from Caorfimn,
Caorfi, a town in Lombardy, where they firft prae-
tifed their arts of ulury and extortion; from whence,
fpreading themfelves, they carried their infamous
trade through moft parts of Europe, and were a com¬
mon plague to every nation where they came. The
then bilbop of London excommunicated them; and
king Henry III. banilhed them from this kingdom
in the year 1240. But, being the Pope’s folicitors
and money-changers, they were permitted to return
in the year 1250 ; though in a very fhort time they
were again driven out of the kingdom on account of
. their intolerable exactions.
CAUSA matrimonii PRJELOcuTijincommonlaw,
a writ that lies where a woman gives land to a man in
fee to the intent he lhall marry her, and he refufes to
do it in a reafonable time, being thereunto required
by the woman : and in fuch cafe, for not performing
the condition, the entry of the woman into the lands
again has been adjudged lawful.
The hufband and wife may fue this writ againft a-
nother who ought to have married her.
CAUSALITY, among metaphyficians, the adiion or
power of a caufe in producing its effedL
CAUSALTY, among miners, denotes the lighter,
fulphureous, earthy parts of ores, carried off in the o-
peration of walking. This, in the mines, they throw
in heaps upon banks, which in fix or feven years they
find it worth their while to work over again.
CAUSE, that from whence any thing proceeds, or
by virtue of which any thing is done : it Hands oppo-
fed to effebt. We get the ideas of caufe and effedl
from our obiervation of the viciflitude of things, while
we perceive fome qualities or fubftances begin to exift,
and that they receive their exiftance from the due ap¬
plication and operation of other beings. That which
produces, is the caufe ; and that which is produced, the
effedt : thus, fluidity in wax is the effedl of a certain
degree of heat, which we obferve to be conftantly
produced by the application of fuch heat.
Firji Cause, that which adts of itfelf, and of its
own proper power or virtue : God is the only firrt
caufe in this fenfe.
Second Causes are thofe which derive the power
and faculty of adiion from a firft caufe.
Efficient Causes are the agents employed in the
production of any thing.
Material Causes, the fubjedts whereon the agents
work; or the materials whereof the thing is produced.
Final Causes are the motives inducing an agent Caufts
to act, or the defign and purpofe for which the thing If
was done. Caufeway-
Fhyfical Cause, that which produces a fenfible
corporeal effedt; as the fun is the phyfical caufe of
light.
Moral Cause, that which produces a real effect,
but in things immaterial; as repentance is the caufe
of forgivenefs. A moral caufe is alfo defined, That
which determines us, though not neceflarily, to do, or
not to do, any thing; as advice, intreaties, commands^
menaces, tec.
It is to be obferved, that, in this fenfe, a moral
caufe is only applicable to a free intelligent agent: it
is alfo obfervable, that the latter notion of a phyfical
as wrell as a moral caul'e is the moft juft, clear, and
diftindL
Ga use, among civilians, the fame with adtion. See
Action.
Cause, among phyficians. The caufe of a difeafe
is defined by Galen to be that during the prefence of
which we are ill, and which being removed the dif-
order immediately ceafes. The dodtrine of the caufes
ofdifeafes is called ^Etiology.
Phyficians divide caufes into proeatardlicj antece¬
dent, and continent.
ProcataiFlic Cause, atria wp&Kara^xTtxi}, called allb
primitive and incipient caufe, is either an occafion
which of its own nature does not beget a difeafe, but,
happening on a body inclined to difeafes, breeds a
fever, gout, tec. (fuch as are watching, fafting, and
the like); or an evident and manifeft caufe, which
immediately produces the difeafe, as being fufficient
thereto, fuch as is a Iword in refpedl of a wound.
Antecedent Cause, ama 7rpot)yawf»>), a latent difpo-
fition of the body, from whence fome difeafe may
arife ; fuch as a plethora in refpedt of a fever, a ca-
cochymia in refpedt of a feurvy.
Continent, Conjunlf, or Proximate Cause, that
principle in the body, which immediately adheres
to the difeafe, and which being prefent, the dif¬
eafe is alfo prefent; or, which being removed, the
difeafe is taken away : fuch is the ftone in a nephritic
patient.
CAUSEWAY, or Causey, a maflive ccnftrutftion
of ftone, ftakes, and fafeines ; or an elevation of far,
vifeous earth, well beaten ; ferving either as a road"
in wet marfliy places, or as a mole to retain the waters
of a pond, or prevent a river from overflowing the
lower grounds. See Road. The word comes from
the French Chauffiee, anciently wrote Chaulfee ; and
that from the Latin Calceata, or Calcata ; according-
to Somner and Spelman, d calcando. Bergier rather
takes the word to have had its rile d peditum calceis-,
guibus teruntur. Some derive it from the Latin calx,
or French chaux, as fuppofing it primarily to denote
a way paved with chalk-ftones.
Causeway, calcetum, or calcea, more ufually de¬
notes a common hard raifed way, maintained and re¬
paired with ftones and rubbifli.
Devil’s Causeway, a famous work of this kind,
which ranges through the county of Northumberland,
commonly fuppofed to be Roman, though Mr Horfley
fufpeifts it to be of later times.
Giant’s
C A U [ 1741 ] C A X
Caufeway Giant's Causeway, is a denomination given to a
II. . huge pile of ftony columns in the dilh icl of Coleraine
Caufticity. jn ireianj. See Giant’s Caufcvsay.
CAUSSIN (Nicholas), furnamed the Juft, a French
Jefuit, was born at Troyes in Champagne, in the
year 1580 ; and entered into the Jefuits order when
he was 26 years of age. He taught rhetoric in feve-
ral of their colleges, and afterwards began to preach,
by which he gained very^great reputation. He in-
creafed this reputation by publifhing books, and in
time was preferred to be cohfeffor to the king. But
he did not difcharge this office to the fatisfa&ion of
Cardinal Richelieu, though he difcharged it to the fa-
. tisfa&ion of every honeft man ; and therefore, it is
not to be wondered at, that he came at length to be
removed. He died in the Jefuits convent at Paris in
1651. None of his works did him more honour than
that which he entitled La Cour Sainte. It has been
printed a great many times; and tranflated into Latin,
Italian, Spaniffi, Portugnefe, German, and Engliffi.
He publillied feveral other books both in Latin and
French.
CAUSTICITY, a quality belonging to feveral fub-
ftances, by the acrimony of which the parts of living
animals may be corroded and deftroyed. Bodies which
have this quality, when taken internally, are true poi-
fons. The caufticity of fome of thefe, as of arfenic,
is fo deadly, that even their external ufe is profcribed
by prudent phyficians. Several others, as nitrous acid,
lapis infernalis or lunar cauftic, common cauftic, butter
of antimony, are daily and fuccefsfully ufed to con-
fume fungous flelh, to open iffiies, ire. They fucceed
very well when properly employed, and fkilfully ma¬
naged.
The caufticity of bodies depends entirely on the
ftate of the faline, and chiefly of the acid, matters they
contain. When thefe acids happen to be at the fame
time much concentrated, and flightly attached to the
matters with which they are combined, they are then
capable of adling, and are corrofive or cauftic. Thus
fixed and volatile alcalies, although they are them-
felves cauftic, become much more fo by being treated
with quick-lime ; becaufe this fubftance deprives them
of much fat and inflammable matter, which binds and
reftrains the adtion of their faline principle. By this
treatment, then, the faline principle is more difenga-
ged, and rendered more capable of aiftion. Alfo all
combinations of metallic matters with acids form falts
more or lels corrofive, becaufe thefe acids are de¬
prived of all their fuperabundant water, and are be-
fides but imperfeiftly faturated with the metallic piat-
ters. Neverthelefs, fome other circumftance is ne-
eeflary to eonftitute the caufticity of thefe faline me¬
talline matters. For the fame quantity of marine acid,
which, when pure and diluted with a certain quantity
of water, would be produHive of no harm, ffiall, how¬
ever, produce all the effedis of a corrofive poifon,
when it is united with mercury in corrofive fublimate,
although the fublimate fhall be diffolved in fo much
water that its caufticity cannot be attributed to the
concentration of its acid. This effe<ft is, by fome che-
Tnifts,. attributed to the great weight of the metallic
matters with which the acid is united : and this opinion
is very probable, feeing its caufticity is nothing but its
diflfolving power, or its difpofition to combine with Cauftic*
other bodies ; and this difpofition is nothing elfe than II
attraction, which is one and the fame thing as weight Caxtorir
or gravitation.
CAUSTICS, in phyfic, an appellation given to me¬
dicines-of fo hot and fiery a iiature| that, being ap¬
plied, confume, and as it were bum, the texture of
the parts, like hot iron.
Cauftics are generally divided into four forts; the
common ftronger cauftic, the common milder cauftic,
the antimonial cauftic, and the lunar cauftic. See
Pharmacy,. n° 649. 791 ; and Chemistry, n° 196.
Caustic Curve, in the higher geometry, a curve
formed by the concourfe or coincidence of the rays of
light reflected from Ibme other curve.
CAUSUS', or Burning Fever, a fpecies of con¬
tinual fever, accompanied with a remarkable inflam¬
mation of the blood.
CAUTERIZATION, the aCt of burning or fearing
fome morbid part, by the -application of fire either
aCtual or potential. In fome places they cauterize
with burning tow, in others with cotton or moxa, in
others with live coals ; fome ufe Spaniffi wax, others
pyramidal pieces of linen, others gold or filver ; Se¬
verinus recommends flame blown through a pipe ; biit
what is ufually preferred among us is a hot iron.
Cauterizing irons are of various figures; fome flat,
others round, fome curved, ire. of all wliich we find
draughts in Albucafis, Scultetus, Ferrara, and others.
Sometimes a cautery is applied through a capfula, to
prevent any terror from the fight of it. This method
was invented by Placentinus, and is deferibed by Scul¬
tetus. In the ufe of all cauteries, care is to be taken
to defend the neighbouring parts, either by a lamina,
defenlive plaifter, or lint moiftened in oxyerate.
Sometimes the hot iron is tranfmitted through a cop¬
per cannula, for the greater fafety of the adjoining
parts. The degrees and manners of cauterizing are
varied according to the nature of the difeale, and the
part affeCted.
CAUTERY, in furgery, a medicine for burning,
eating, or corroding any folid part of the body.
Cauteries are diftihguiffied into two clalfes; aCtual
and potential: by actual cauteries are nnderftood red
hot inftraments, ufually of iron ; and by potential
cauteries are underflood certain kinds of corroding
medicines. See Pharmacy, n° 648.
CAUTION, in the civil and Scots law, denotes
much the fame With what, in the law of England, is
called Bail.
CAUTIONER, in Scots law, that perfon who be¬
comes bound for another to the performance of any
deed or obligation. As to the different kinds and ef¬
fects of cautionry, fee Law, Part III. N" clxxv. 19.
CAWK. See Cauk.
CAXA, a little coin made of lead mixed with fome
fcoria of copper, {truck in China, but current chiefly
at Bantam in the ifland of Java, and fome of the neigh¬
bouring i(lands. See (the Table fubjoined to) Money.
CAXAMALCA, the name of a town and diftriCt of
Peru in South America, where there was a moft fump-
tuous palace belonging to the Incas, and a magnificent
temple dedicated to the fun.
CAXTON (William,) a mercer of London, emi¬
nent
CAY [ . 1742 ] CAY
nent by the works he publiflied, and for being reputed
the firit who introduced and pradtifed the art of print¬
ing in England: as to which, fee {theHifioryof)?Ki^T-
ING.
CAYENNE, a rich town and ifland of South Ame¬
rica, and capital of the French fettlements there, is
bounded on the north by the Dutch colonies of Suri¬
nam, and fituated in W. Long. 53- I0- N* Lat. 50.
This iettlement was begun in 1635. A report had
prevailed for fome time before, that, in the interior
parts of Guiana, there was a country known by the
name of del Dorado, which contained immenfe riches
in gold and precious ftones ; more than ever Cortez
and Pizarro had found in Mexico and Peru ; and this
fable had fired the imagination of every nation in Eu¬
rope. It is fuppofed that this was the country in queft
of which Sir Walter Raleigh went on his laft voyage;
and, as the French were not behind their neighbours
in their endeavours to find out fo definable a country,
fome attempts, for this purpofe, were likewife made
by that nation much about the fame time ; which at
laft coming to nothing, the adventurers took up their
refidence on the ifland of Cayenne. In 1643, fome
merchants of Rouen united their ftock, with a defign
to fupport the new colony ; but, committing their af¬
fairs to one Poncet'de Bretigny, a man of a feroci¬
ous difpofition, he declared war both againft the co-
lonifts and favages, in confequence of which he was
foon maffacred. This cataftrophe entirely extinguifti-
ed the ardour of thefe affociates ; and in 1651 a new
company was eftabliflied. This promifed to be much
more confiderable than the former ; and they fet out
with fuch a capital as enabled them to collect 700 or
800 colonifts in the city of Paris itfelf. Thele em¬
barked on the Seine, in order to fail down to Havre
de Grace; but unfortunately, the Abbe de Marivault,
a man of great virtue, and the principal promoter of
the undertaking, was drowned as he was flopping into
his boat. Another gentleman, who was to have aefted
as general, was affaflinated on his paffage; and 12 of.
the principal adventurers, who had promifed to put
the colony into a flourilhing fituation, not only were
the principal perpetrators of this fa<ft, but uniformly
behaved in the fame atrocious manner. At laft they
hanged one of their own number ; two died ; three
were banifhed to a defart ifland ; and the reft aban¬
doned themfelves to every kind of excefs. The com¬
mandant of the citadel deferred to the Dutch with
part of his garrifon. The favages, roufed by num-
berlefs provocations, fell upon the remainder^ fo that
the few who were left thought themfelves happy in
efcaping to the Leeward Iflands in a boat and two
canoes, abandoning the fort, ammunition, arms, and
merchandife, fifteen months after they had landed on
the ifland.
In 1663, a new company was formed, whqfe ca¬
pital amounted only to L. 8750. By the affiftance of
the miniftry they expelled the Dutch, who had taken
poffeffion of the ifland, and fettled themfelves much
more comfortably than their predeceffors. In 1667
the ifland was taken by the Englilh, and in 1676 by
the Dutch ; but afterwards reftored to the French -,
and fince that time it has never been attacked.
Soon after fome pirates, laden with the fpoils they
had gathered in the South Seas, came and fixed Cayenne
their refidence at Cayenne ; refolving to employ the II
treafures they had acquired in the cultivation of the us‘
lands. In 1&88, Ducaffe, an able feaman, arrived
with fome Ihips from France, and propofed to them
the plundering of Surinam. This propofal exciting
their natural turn for plunder, the pirates betook them¬
felves to their old trade, and almoft all the reft fol¬
lowed their example. The expedition, however,
proved unfortunate. Many of the aftTailants were
killed, and all the reft taken prifoners and fent to
the Caribbee Iflands. This lofs the colony has never
yet recovered.
The ifland of Cayenne is about 16 leagues in cir¬
cumference, and is only parted from the continent
by two rivers. By a particular formation/uncommon
in iflands, the land is higheft near the water fide, and
low in the middle. Hence the land is fo full of mo-
rafles, that all communication between the different
parts of it is impoflible, without taking a great circuit.
There are fome fmall trafls of an excellent Ibil to be
found here and there ; but the generality is dry, fandy,
and foon exhaufted. The only town in the colony is
defended by a covert way, a large ditch, a very good
mud rampart, and five baftions. In the middle of the
town is a pretty confiderable eminence, of which a
redoubt has been made that is called the fort. The
entrance into the harbour is through a narrow' chan¬
nel ; and fliips can only get in at high water through
the rocks and reefs that are fcattered about this pafs.
The firft produce of Cayenne was the arnotto;
from the produce of which, the colonifts proceeded to
that of cotton, indigo, and laftly fugar. It was the
firft of all the French colonies that attempted to cul¬
tivate coffee. The coffee-tree was brought from Su¬
rinam in 1721, by fome deferters from Cayenne, who
purchafed their pardon by fo doing. Ten or twelve
years after, they planted cotoa. In the year 1752,
there were exported from Cayenne, 260,541 pounds
of arnotto, 80,363 pounds of fugar, 17,919 pounds of
cotton, 26,881 pounds of coffee, 91,916 pounds of co¬
coa, 618. trees for timber, and 104 planks.
CAYLUS (Count de),‘Marquis de Sternay, Baron
de Branfac, was born at Paris in 1692. He was the
eldeft of the two fons of John Count de Caylus, lieu¬
tenant-general of the armies of the king of France,
and of the Marchionefs de Villete. The count and
countefs, his father and mother, were very careful
of the education of their fon. The former inftruc-
ted him in the profeffion of arms, and in bodily ex-
ercifes : the latter watched over and foftered the
virtues of his mind ; and this delicate talk flie dif-
charged with lingular fuccefs. The countefs was the
niece of Madam de Maintenon, and was remarkable
both for the folidity of her underftanding and the
charms of her wit. She was the author of that agree¬
able book intitled, “ The Recoiled!ions of Madam de
Caylus,” of which Voltaire lately publilhed an elegant
edition. The amiable qualities of the mother appear¬
ed in the fon; but they appeared with a bold and mi¬
litary air. In his natural temper he was gay and
fprightly, had a tafte for pleafure, a ftrong paflion for
independence, and an invincible averfion to the fervi-
tude of a court. Such were the inftrudiors of the
Count
CAY [ 1743 ] CAY
Caylus. Count de Caylus. He was only twelve years of age
   when his father died at Brulfels in 1704. After fi-
niihing his exercifes, he entered into the corps of the
Moufquttaires ; and in his firft campaign in the year
1709, he diftinguifhed himfelf by his valour in fuch a
manner, that Lewis XIV. commended him before all
the court, and rewarded him with an enligncy in the
Cendarnlerie. In 1711 he commanded a regiment of
dragoons, which was called by his own name; and he
fignalized himfelf at the head of it in Catalonia. In
1713, he was at the liege of F'ribourg, where he was
expofed to imminent danger in the bloody attack of
the covered way. The peace of Raftade having left
him in a date of inactivity ill-fuited to his natural tem¬
per, his vivacity foon carried him to travel into Italy;
and his curiofity was greatly excited by the wonders
of that ^country, where antiquity is dill fruitful, and
produces fo many objeCts to improve taftte and to ex¬
cite admiration. The eyes of the count were not yet
learned; but he was ftruck with the fight of fo many
beauties, and foon became acquainted with them. Af¬
ter a year’s abfence, he returned to Paris with fo
ftrong a paflion for travelling, and for antiquities, as
induced him to quit the army.
He had no fooner quitted the fervice of Lewis, than
he fought for an opportunity to fet out for the Levant.
When he arrived at Smyrna, he vifited the ruins of
Ephefus. ■♦’rom the Levant he was recalled in Fe¬
bruary 1717 by the tendernd’s of his mother. From
that time he left not France, but to make two excur-
^ lions to London. The academy of painting and fculp-
ture adopted him as an honorary member in the year
1731 ; and the count, who loved to realize titles, fpa-
red neither his labour, nor his credit, nor his fortune,
to inftruift, affift, and animate the artifts. He wrote
the lives of the molt celebrated painters and engra¬
vers that have done honour to this illuftrious acade¬
my ; and, in order to extend the limits of the art,
which feemed to him to move in too narrow a circle,
he collected, in three different works, new fubjeCts
for the painter, which he had met with in the works
of the ancients.
Such was his paffion for aptiquity, that he wilhed
to have had it in his power to bring the whole of it
to life again. He faw with regret, that the works
of the ancient painters, which have been difcovered
in our times, are effaced and deftroyed almoft as foon
as they are drawn from the fubterraneous manfions
where they were buried. A fortunate accident fur-
nilhed him with the means of Ihewing us the compo-
fition and the colouring of the pictures of ancient
Rome. The coloured drawings which the famous
Pietro Sante Bartoli had taken there from antique pic¬
tures, fell into his hands. He had them engraved ;
and, before he enriched the king of France’s cabinet
with them, he gave an edition of them at his own ex¬
pence. It is perhaps the molt extraordinary book of
antiquities that ever will appear. The whole is paint¬
ed with a purity and a precifion that are inimitable :
we fee the livelinefs and the frefhnefs of the colour¬
ing that charmed the Csefars. There were only 30
copies publifhed ; and there is no reafon to expeCt
that there will hereafter be any more.
Count de Caylus was engaged at the fame time in
an enterprize ftill more favourable to Roman gran- Cayhis.
deur, and more interefting to the French nation. 
Colbert had framed the defign of engraving the Ro¬
man antiquities that are ftill to be feen in the fouthern
provinces of France. By his orders Mignard the ar¬
chitect had made drawings of them, which Count de
Caylus had the good fortune to recover. He refolved
to finilh the work begun by Colbert, and to dedicate
it to that great minifter ; . and fo much had he this
enterprife at heart, that he was employed in it during
his laft illnefs, and warmly recommended it to M. Ma-
riette.
In 1743, Count Caylus was admitted honorary
member of the academy of belles lettres; and then it
was that he feemed to have found the place for which
nature defigned him. The ftudy of literature now
became his ruling paffion ; he confecrated to it his
time and his fortune; he even renounced his plea-
fures to give himfelf wholly up to that of making fome
difeovery in the field of antiquity. But amidft the
fruits of his refearch and invention, nothing feemed
more flattering to him than his difeovery of encauftic
painting. A defeription of Pliny’s, but too concife a
one to give him a clear view of the matter, fuggefted
the idea of it. He availed himfelf of the friendlhip
and Ikill of M. Magault, a phyfician in Paris, and an
excellent chemift; and by repeated experiments found
out the fecret of incorporating wax with divers tints
and colours, and of making it obedient to the pencil.
Pliny has'made mention of two kinds of encauftic
painting praCtifed by the ancients ; one of which was
performed with wax, and the other upon ivory, with
hot punches of iron. It was the former that Count
Caylus had the merit of reviving ; and M. Muntz af¬
terwards made many experiments to carrv it to per-
feeftion.
In the hands of Count Caylus, literature and the
arts’lent each other a mutual aid. But it would be
endlefs to give an account of all his works. He pu-
bliflied above 40 differtations in the memoirs of the
academy of belles lettres. The artifts he was parti¬
cularly attentive to ; and to prevent their falling into
miftakes from an ignorance of coftume, which the
ableft of them have fometimes done, he founded a
prize of joo livres, the object of which is to explain,
by means of authors and monuments, the ufages of an¬
cient nations. In order that he might enjoy with the
whole world the treafures he had colletfted, he caufed
them to be engraved, and gave a learned defeription
of them in a work which he embellifhed with 800 cop¬
perplates.
The ftrength of his conftitution feemed to give him
hopes of a long life : but a humour fettling in one of
his legs, which entirely deftroyed his health, he expi¬
red on the 5,h of September 1765, and by his death
his family is extineft. The tomb eredted to the ho¬
nour of Count Caylus is to be feen in the chapel of
St Germain-l’Anxerrois, and deferves to be remark¬
ed. It is perfedlly the tomb of an antiquary. This
monument was an ancient fepulchral antique, of the
moft beautiful porphyry, with ornaments in the Er
gyptian tafte. From the moment he procured it, he
had deftined it to grace the place of his interment.
While he availed the fatal hour, ' he placed it in his
garden.
C E A [ 1744 ] C E C
Cazerom garden, where he ufed to look upon it with a tranquil
II but thoughtful eye, and pointed it out to the infpec-
Ceanothus- tion of his friends.
The character of Count Caylus is to be traced in
the different occupations which divided his cares and
his life. In fociety, he had all the franknefs of a fol-
dier, and a politenefs which had nothing in it of de¬
ceit or circumvention. Born independent, he applied
to ftudies which fuited his tafle. His heart was yet
better than his abilities. In his walks he ufed fre¬
quently to try the hone fly of the poor, by fending
them with a piece of money to get change for him.
In thefe cafes, he enjoyed their confufion at not find¬
ing him; and then prefenting himfelf, ufed to com¬
mend their honefty, and give them double the fum.
He faid frequently to his friends, “ I have this day
loft a crown; but I was forry that I had not an op¬
portunity of giving a fecond. The beggar ought not
to want integrity.”
CAZEROM, or CazEron, a city of Afia in Per-
fia, fituated in E. Long. 70. N. Lat. 29. 15.
CAZIC, or Cazique, a title given by the Spaniards
to the petty kings, princes, and chiefs, of the feveral
countries of America, excepting thofe of Peru, which
are called cur at as. The French call them cajjques, a
denomination which they always give to the Tarta¬
rian hords.—The cazics, in fome places, do the of¬
fice of phyficians, and in others of priefts, as well as
of captains. The dignity of cazic among the Chiites,
a people of South America, does not defcend to child¬
ren, but muft be acquired by valour and merit. One
of the prerogatives annexed to it is, that the cazic
may have three wives, while the other people are
allowed only one. Mexico comprehended a great
number of provinces and iflands,-which were govern¬
ed by lords called caziques, dependent on and tribu¬
tary to the emperor. Thirty of thefe vaffals are faid
to have been fo powerful, that they were able, %ach
of them, to bring an army of 100,000 men into the
field.
CAZIMIR, a handfome town of Poland, in the pa¬
latinate of Lublin, fituated on a hill covered with
trees, in E. Long. 3. to. N. Lat. 51. 5.
CEANOTHUS, New-JerseyTea ; agenusofthe
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are three fpecies, of which the moft
remarkable is the Americanus, a native of moft parts
of North America, from whence great plenty of the
feeds have been imported into Europe. In England,
this plant feldom rifes more than four or five feet high,
fending out branches on every fide from the ground
upward. They are garnifhed with oval pointed leaves,
having three longitudinal veins running from the foot-
ftalk to the point. The leaves are placed oppofite,
and are of a light green colour. . At the extremity of
each fhoot, the flowers are produced in clofe thick
fpikes, which are compofed of five fmall leaves, and
are of a clear white ; ami every {hoot is terminated
by one of thefe fpikes, fo that the whole {hoot is co¬
vered over with flowers. When the autumn proves
mild, thefe Ihrubs often flower again in October. In
warm feafons, the feeds will ripen pretty well in Eng¬
land. But the flirub is beft propagated by laying down
the young branches, which, in a light foil, will put
out roots in a year’s time; but they muft not be much Cebes
watered, otherwife they will rot. II
CEBES, of Thebes, a celebrated Socratic philofo- eci'
pher, autlior of the admired Table of Cebes; or “ Dia¬
logues on the life, birth, and death of Mankind.” He
flouriftied about 405 years before Chrift.
CECIL (William), Lord Burleigh, treafurer of Eng¬
land in the reign of queen Elizabeth, was the fon of
Richard Cecil, Efq; mafter of the robes to king Hen¬
ry VIII. He was born in the houfe of his grandfa¬
ther, David Cecil, Efq; at Bourn in Lincolnlhire, in
the year ifao; and received the rudiments of his e-
ducation in the grammar-fchool at Grantham. From
thence he was removed to Stamford; and about the
year 1535, was .entered of St John’s College, Cam¬
bridge. Here he began his ftudies with a degree of
enthufiaftic application very uncommon in young gen¬
tlemen of family. At the age of 16 he read a fophif-
try lefture, and at 19 a voluntary Greek ledlure,
which was the more extraordinary as being at a time
when the Greek language was by no means univer-
fally underftood. In 1541 he went to London, and
became a member of the fociety of Gray’s-Inn, with
an intention to ftudy the law; but he had not been long
in that fituation, before an accident introduced him
to king Henry, and gave a new bias to his purfuits.
O’Neil, a famous Irilh chief coming to court, had
brought with him two Irilh chaplains, violent bigots to
the Romifh faith ; with thefe Mr Cecil, vifiting his
father, happened to. have a warm difpute in Latin, in
which he difplayed uncommon abilities. The king,
being informed of it, ordered the young man into his
prefence, and was fo pleafed with his converfation,
that he commanded his father to find a place for him.
He accordingly requefted the reverfion of the cuflos
breviunt, which Mr Cecil afterwards poffeffed. A-
bout this time, he married the filler of Sir John Cheke,
by whom he was recommended to the earl of Hert¬
ford, afterwards duke of Somerfet and prote<5lor.
Soon after king Edward’s acceflion, Mr Cecil came
into the poflTeffion of his office of cufos brevium, worth
about L. 240 a-year. His firft lady dying in 154.3,
he married the daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, direc¬
tor of the king’s ftudies. In 1547, he was appointed
by the protestor, mafter of requefts; and foon after,
attended his noble patron on his expedition againft the
Scots, and was prefent at the battle of Muflelburgh.
In this battle, which was fought on the 10th of Sep¬
tember 1547, Mr Cecil’s life was miraculoufly preferv-
ed by a friend, who in pulhing him out of the level of
a cannon, had his arm {flattered to pieces. The fight
and judgement of his friend muft have been as extra¬
ordinary as his friendfhip, to perceive the precil'e di-
redition of a cannon {hot; unlefs we fuppofe, that the
ball was almoft quite fpent; in which cafe the thing
is not impoffible. The {lory is told in his life by a
domeftic. In the year 1548, Mr Cecil was made fe-
cretary of ftate; but in the following year, the duke
jof Northumberland’s faction prevailing, he fuffered in
the difgrace of the protestor Somerfet, and was lent
prilbner to the Tower. After three months confine¬
ment he was releafed ; in 1551, reftored to his office;
and, foon' after knighted, and fworn of the privy
council. In 1553, he was made chancellor of the
Order
C E C [ 1745 ] C E C
Cecil. Order ©fthe Garter, with an annual fee of too merks.
  On the death of Edward VI. Mr Cecil prudently
refufed to have any concern in Northumberland’s at¬
tempt in favour of the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey;
and, when queen Mary acceded to the throne, he
was gracioufly received at Court; but, not chuling to
change his religion, was difmilfed from his employ¬
ments. During this reign, he was twice elected knight
of the fliire for the county of Lincoln; and often fpoke in
the houfe of commons, with great freedom and firmnefs,
in oppofition to the miniftry. Neverthelefs, though
a proteftant and a patriot, (that is, a courtier out of
place,) he had the addrefs to fleer through a very
dangerous lea without fhipwreck.
Queen Elizabeth’s acceffion, in the year rjjS, im¬
mediately difpelled the cloud which had obfcured his
fortunes and miniflerial capacity. During the horrid
reign of her filler, he had conflantly correlponded
with the princefs Elizabeth. On the very day of her
acceffion, he prefented her with a paper containing
twelve articles neceffary for her immediate difpatch;
and, in a few days after, was fworn of the privy-
council, and made fecretary of Hate. His firft advice
to the queen was, to call a parliament; and the firft
bufinefs he propofed after it was affembled, was the
eftablifhment of a national church. A plan of refor¬
mation was accordingly drawn up under his imme¬
diate infpedlion, and the legal eftablifhment of the
Church of England was jhe confequence. Sir Wil¬
liam Cecil’s next important concern, was to reftore
the value of the coin, which had in the preceding
reigns been confiderably debafed. In 1561, he was
appointed mafter of the wards; and, in 1571, created
baron of Burleigh, as a reward for his fervices, par¬
ticularly in having lately ftifled a formidable rebelli¬
on in the north. The following year he was honour¬
ed with the garter, and raifed to the office of Lord
High Treafurer of England. From this period we
find him the prhnum mobile of every material tranfac-
tion during the glorious reign of queen Elizabeth.
Notwithftanding the temporary influemie of other fa¬
vourites, Lord Burleigh was, in fadl, her prime mi-
nifter, and the perfon in whom ffie chiefly confided
in matters of real importance. Having filled the
higheft and moft important offices of the flate for 40
years, and guided the helm of government during the
moft glorious period of Engliffi hiflory, he departed
this life on the 4th of Augult 1598, in the 78 th year
of his age. His body was removed to Stamford, and
there depofited in the family vault, where a magnifi-
cient tomb was eredled to his memory.—Notwith¬
ftanding his long enjoyment of fuch lucrative employ¬
ments, he left only an eftate of L. 40CO per a7mum,
L. x 1,coo in money, and effefts worth about L. 14,000.
He lived, indeed, in a manner fuitable to his high
rank and importance. He had four places of refi-
dence, viz. his lodgings at court, his houfe in the
Strand, his feat at Burleigh-Park near Stamford, and
his feat at Theobalds. The laft of thefe was his favou¬
rite place of retirement, where he frequently enter¬
tained the queen at a vaft expence.
Lord Burleigh was doubtlefs a man of fingular abi¬
lities and prudence ; amiable in his private charadler,
and one of the moft able, upright, and indefatigable
VOL. III.
minifters ever recorded in the annals of this kingdom. Cecilia.
His principal works are, 1. La Comp/ainte d- I’ame  
pechere[fe, or the Complaint of a finful Soul, in French
verfe, in the king’s library. 2. Materials for Pat¬
ten’s Diarium exped. Scoticee, London I5'4I, ]2mo'.
3. Slanders and lies malicioully,grofsly,and impudently
vomited out, in certain traiterous books and pamph¬
lets, againft two counfellors. Sir Francis Bacon, and
Sir William Cecil. 4. A fpeech in parliament, 1562,
Strype’s Mem. vol. iv. p. 107. 5. Precepts or direc¬
tions for the well ordering of a man’s life, 1637,
Harl. Cat. vol. ii. p. 755. 6. Meditatfons on the death
of his lady, Ballard’s Mem. p.184. 7. Meditations
on the ftate of England during the reign of queen E-
lizabeth, manufcript. 8. The execution of juftice in
England for the maintenance of public and Chriftian
peace, be. Lond. 1581, 1583, Somer’s tradls, 4th
colledt. vol. i. p. 5. 9. Advice to queen Elizabeth
in matters of religion and ftate, ib. p. 101. 16. 10. A
great number of letters. See Peck’s Dejiderata Cti-
riofa; Howard’s collections, be. 11. Several pedi¬
grees, fome of which are preferved in the archbilhop
of Canterbury’s library at Lambeth, n° 299, 747.
CECILIA (St), the patronefs of mufic, has been ho¬
noured as a martyr ever fince the fifth century. Her
ftory as delivered by the notaries of the Roman church,
and from them tranferibed into the Golden Legend
and other books of the like kind, fays, that Ihe was a
Roman lady born of noble parents, about the year
22 J. That, notwithftanding Ihe had been converted to
Chriftianity, her parents married her to a young pagan
nobfeman named Valerianus; who going to bed to her
on the wedding night, as the cuftom is, fays the book,
was given to underiland by his fpoufe, that fhe was
nightly vilited by an angel, and that he mull forbear
to approach her, otherwife the angel would deftroy
him. Valerianus, fomewhat troubled at thefe words,
defired that he might fee his rival the angel; but his
fpoufe told him that was impoffible, unlefs he would
confent to be baptized and become a Chriftian. This
he confented to; after which, returning to his wife, he
found her in her clofet at prayer, and by her fide, in
the ffiape of a beautiful young man, the angel clothed
with brightnefs. After fome converfation with the
angel, Valerianus fold him that he had a brother na¬
med Tiburtius, whom he greatly wiffied to fee a par¬
taker of the grace which he himfelf had received.
The angel told him that his delire was granted, and
that they fliould be both crowned with martyrdom in
ajhort time. Upon this the angel vaniffied, and was
not long in ffiewing himfelf as good as his word ;
Tiburtius was converted, and both he and his brother
Valerianus were beheaded. Cecilia was offered her
life upon condition that ffie would facrifice to the
deities of the Romans; but ffie refufed : upon which
fte was thrown into a caldron of boiling water, and
fealded to death : others fay that ffie was ftiffled in a
dry bath, i. e. an inclofure, from whence the air was
excluded, having a flow fire underneath it ; which
kind of death was fometimes infiidled by the Romans
upon women of quality who were criminals. Upon
the fpot where her houfe flood, is a church faid to
have been built by pope Urban I. who adminiftei t d
baptifm to her hufband and his brother : it is the
10 M church
C E D [ 1746 ] C E D
Cecrops church of St Cecilia at Traftevere ; within is a moft
II curious painting of the faint, as alio a ftately monu-
Cedar. juent with a cumbent itatue of her with her face
“ downwards. There is a tradition of St Cecilia, that
fhe excelled in mufic ; and that the angel who was
tiius enamoured of her, was drawn from the celeftial
regions by the charms of her melody : this has been
deemed authority fufficient for making her the patron-
nefs of muilc and mulicians. The legend of St Cecilia
has given frequent occafion to painters and fculptors
to exercife their genius in reprefentations of her,
playing on the organ, and fometimes on the harp.
Raphael has painted her linging with a regal in her
hands; and Domenichino and Mignard, finging and
playing on the harp.
CECROPS, the founder and firft king of Athens,
about the time of Moles the lawgiver of the Hebrews.
He was the firlt who eftablilhed civil government, re¬
ligious rites, and marriage among the Greeks; and
died after a reign of 50 years. See Attica, n° 4.
CEDAR, in botany. See Cedrus, Juniperus,
and Larix.
The fpecies of cedar famous for its duration, is
* See Larix. that popularly called by us the cedar of Lebanon*,
by the ancients cedrus magna, or the great cedar;
alio cedrelate, Kf^piAarj) ; and fometimes the Phoe¬
nician, . or Syrian cedar, from the country where
it grows in its greateft perfection. It is a coniferous
evergreen, of the bigger fort, bearing large roundilh
cones of fmooth fcales, handing ereCt, the leaves being
fmall, narrow", and thick let.—They fometimes coun¬
terfeit cedar, by dying wood of a reddilh hue : but the
fmell difcovers the cheat, that of true cedar being very
aromatic. In fome places, the wood of the cajou tree
palfes under the name of cedar, on account of its red¬
dilh colour, and its aromatic fmell, which fomewhat
refemble that of fantal. Cedar wood is reputed al-
moll immortal and incorruptible; a prerogative which
it owes chiefly to its bitter talle, which the worms
cannot endure. For this reafon it wras that the
ancients ufed cedar tablets to write upon, efpecially
for things of importance, as appears from that expref-
fion of Perfius, Et cedro digna locutus. A juice was
alfo drawn from cedar, with which they fmeared
their books and writings, or other matters, to pre-
ferve them from rotting; which is alluded to by
Horace ; by means of which it was, that Numa’s
book', written on papyrus, were preferved entire to
the year 535, as we are informed by Pliny.
Solomon’s temple, as well as his palace, were both
of this wood. That prince gave king Hiram feveral
cities for the cedars he had furnilhed him on thefe oc-
cafions. Cortes is faid to have erected a palace at
Mexico, in which were 7000 beams of cedar, moft
of them 120 feet long, and twelve in circumference,
as we are informed by Herrera. Some tell us of a
cedar felled in Cyprus 130 feet long, and 18 in dia¬
meter. It was ufed for the main mail in the galley
of king Demetrius. Le Bruyn alfures us, that the two
biggeft he faw on mount Lebanon, meafured one of
them 57 palms, and the other 47, in circumference.
In the temple of Apollo at Utica, there were cedar
trees near 2000 years old; which yet were nothing
to that beam in an oratory of Diana at Seguntum in
Spain, faid to have been brought thither 200 years be¬
fore the deftrudtion of Troy. Cedar is of fo dry a na¬
ture, that it will not endure to be faftened with iron _
nails, from which it ufually fhrinks, fo that they com¬
monly faften it with pins of the fame wood.
CEDRIA, a refinous liquor iffuing from the great
cedar tree, or cedar of Lebanon. The word is alfo
written cedrium, and cedrinum.—Cedria, when good,
yields a ftrong fmell, is tranfparent, and of a thick fatty
conftftence ; fo that in pouring it out it does not fall
too faft or freely, but equally, drop by drop. It is
poflelfed of two oppofite qualities, viz. to preferve
dead bodies by its drying and confuming fuperfluous
moifture without damaging the folid parts, and to pu¬
trefy the fofc and tender parts of living bodies with¬
out exciting any pain. The cedria is properly the
tear of the cedar ; fome call it the gum, others the
pitch, of the cedar. The fame denomination is alfo
given to the cedreheon, or oil of the cedars, which dif¬
fers little from the refin, except that it is of a thinner
confiftence. -
CEDRUS, the cedar-tree of Barbadoes, and ma¬
hogany, izc. As the cedar of Libanus is very pro¬
perly referred by Linnaeus to the genus of larix, and
all the berry-bearing cedars to that of juniperus, Mr
Miller hath chofen to treat this as a diflindl genus;
which, to avoid embarrafsment from a long detail of
different fpecies, feems the moft proper method.
Species. 1. The odorata, or Barbadoes cedar, is a
native of the Britilh iflands in America, and is one of
the largeft trees to he found there.. The wood has
a fragrant odour, from whence the name of cedar has
been given to it. It grows to the height of 70 or
80 feet : while young, the bark is fmooth, and of an
alh colour ; but, as they advance, the bark becomes
rough, and of a darker colour. Towards the top it
fends out many fide-branches, which are garnifhed
with winged leaves, compofed of 16 or 18 pair of
lobes, and are fometimes near three feet long : the
lobes are broad at their bafe, and near two inches
long, blunt at their ends, and of a pale colour ; thefe
emit a very offenfive odour in the fummer-time. The
fruit is oval, of the fize of a partridge’s egg, fmooth,
and of a dark colour, and opens in five parts, having
a five-cornered column Handing in the middle, be¬
tween the angles of which the winged feeds are clofe-
ly placed, lapping over each other like the fcales of
filhes. 2. The mahogoni, or mahogany-tree, is a
native of the warmeft parts of America; growing
plentifully in the iflands of Cuba, Jamaica, Hifpaniola,
and the Bahama iflands. In Cuba and Jamaica there
are mahogany trees of a very large fize, fo as to cut
into planks of fix feet breadth ; but thofe of the Ba¬
hama iilands commonly do not exceed four. They
rife to a great height, though they are generally found
growing upon folid rocks, where there is fcarce any
earth for their nourifliment. The leaves of this tree
are winged like the alh, having commonly fix or eight
pair of lobes, which are fliorter and broader at the
bafe than thofe of the alh, where they adhere by the
midrib by very fliort foot-ftalks : thefe lobes are very
fmooth, having but one vein running through each,
which is always on one fide, lb as to divide them un¬
equally. Mr Catelby has delineated both the flowers
and
Cedrk
Cedrus.
CEL [ 1747 ] CEL
Cedrus and fruit of this tree. The former cannot be de¬
ll pended on, as they were drawn from a withered im-
Celebes- perfect fragment; but the fruit is very exaft. The
fruit before it opens is of a brown colour, growing
ereft upon long foot-ftalks, which clofely adhere to
the five-cornered column running through the middle,
•and to which the feeds are faftened, lying imbricatim
like the Hates of a houfe. When the fruit is ripe, it
divides at the bottom into five equal parts; and when
thefe fall off, and the feeds are difperfed, the foot-
ftalk and the column remain fome months after on the
tree. 3. The alaternifolius grows to the height of
80 feet or more. Towards the'top it divides into
many large branches, garnilhed with leaves fomewhat
refembling the witch-hazel; but broader at their bafe,
and cut angular at their top: thefe are of an alh co¬
lour underneath, and fet on the branches without any
order : the fruit is much larger than that of the Bar-
badoes cedar, broad at the bafe, and diminilhing gra¬
dually to the top, where it terminates in a point.
This has alfo a woody column or core running length-
wile through the fruit, to which the winged feeds ad¬
here as in the former.
Culture, See. All thefe plants may be eafily propa¬
gated by feeds; but, being natives of very warm
climates, they mull be planted in pots Iheltered in a
Hove. The trunks of the firlt fpecies are fo large,
that the inhabitants of thote illands where they grow
were wont to hollow them, and form them into the
fltape of boats and periaguas ; for which purpofe they
are extremely well adapted: the wood being foft, may
be cut with great facility; and being light, will carry
a great load on the water. The wood is often ufed
for wainfcottir.g rooms, and to make chelts, becaufe
vermin do not fo frequently breed in it as in other
forts of wood; this having a very bitter talle, which
is communicated to whatever is put into the cherts,
efpecially while the wood is frelh ; for which reafon
it is never made into calks, as the liquors put into
them would diffolve part of the bitter refin. The
ufes of mahogany are fo well known that it is need-
lefs to enumerate them. As for the wood of the third
fpecies, we have no accounts,whether it is ever ufed
in buildings or for other purpofes.
CELANDINE, in botany. See Chelidonium.
CELARENT, among logicians, a mode of fyllo-
gifm, wherein the major and conclufion are univerfal
negative propofitions, and the minor an univerfal af¬
firmative.
£. gr. cE None whofe underftanding is limited can
be omnifeient.
Id Every man’s underftanding is limited.
rEut Therefore no man is oranifeient.
CELASTRUS, the stafk-tree ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are five fpecies, all natives of warm
climates. In Senegal the negroes ufe the powder of
the root as a fpecific againft gonorrheas, which it is
laid to cure in eight, or fometimes in three days. An
infulion of the bark of a fpecies of rtaff-tree, which
grows in the ille of France, is faid to poffefs the
fame virtues.
CELEBES, an ifland in the Indian fea, feated under
the equator, and called by feme Macajfar. The
length and breadth has not been accurately computed ; Celebes,
but the circumference, at a medium, is about eight
hundred miles. It had formerly fix kingdoms, which
are reduced to one. The air is hot and moift; and
fubjedt to great rains during the north-weft winds,
which blow from November to March, at which time
the country is overflowed, and for this reafon they
build their houfes on piles of wood ten feet high.
The moft healthful time is during the northern mon-
foons, which feldom fail blowing regularly in one
part of the year. The chief vegetables are rice and
cocoas; but they have ebony, landers, ire. Their
fruits and flowers are much the fame as in the neigh¬
bouring parts of the Indies. They have pepper,
fugar, betel, areca, the fineft cotton, and opium. The
natives have bright olive complexions, and the wo¬
men have fliining black hair. They arc thought to
be very handfome by the Dutch and Chinefe, who
often purchafe them for bedfellows. The men are
induftrious, robuft, and make excellent foldiers. Their
arms are fabres, and trunks, from whence they blow
poifoned darts, which are pointed with the tooth of a
fea-filh. Some likewile ufe poifoned daggers. They
were the laft of the Indian nations that were enflaved
by the Dutch, which could not be effected till after a
long war. They teach their children to read and
write, and their characters have fome refemblance of
the Arabic. Their religion being Mahometan, the
men indulge themfelves in many wives and concu¬
bines. The employment of the women is fpinning,
cookery, and making their own and their hnlbands
cloaths. The men wear jewels in their ears, and the
women gold chains about their necks. The inhabitants
in general go half naked, without any thing on their
head, legs, or feet, and fome have nothing but a cloth
about their middle. The ftreets of.the town Macaffar
are fpacious, and planted with trees on every fide. It
Hands by the fide of the only large river they have in
the ifland. The Dutch have a fort here, mounted
with 40 guns, and garriloned with 700 men. There
is only one other town of note, called Jampandam,
where they alfo have_ a fort. The ifland is not near
fo populous as when the Dutch conquered it; the men
being hired for foldiers in molt of the neighbouring
countries.
The religion of thefe iflands was formerly idolatry.
They worfltipped the fun and moon. They facrificed
to them in the public fquares, having no materials
which they thought valuable enough to be employed
in raifing temples. About two centuries ago, fome
Chriftians and Mahometans having brought their opi¬
nions to Celebes, the principal king of the couptry
took a diflike to the national worfliip. Having con-
veened a general afiembly, he afeended an eminence,
when, fpreading out his hands towards heaven, he
told the deity, that he would acknowledge for truth
that doCtrine whofe minifters lhoi#d firrt arrive in his
dominions, and, as the winds and waves were at his
command, the Almighty would have himfelf to blame
if he embraced a falfehood. The aflembly broke up,
determined to wait the orders of heaven, and to obey
the firft milfionaries that fliould arrive. The Maho¬
metans were the moft adlive, and their religion ac¬
cordingly prevailed.
10 M 2
CELERES,
GEL [ 1748 ] CEL
Celeres CELERES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of body-
.11 guards belonging to the Roman kings, eftabliflied by
Celibacy. RornuiUS) and compofed of 300 young men, chofen
out of the moft illuftrious'Roman families, and ap¬
proved by the fuffrages of the curiae of the people,
each of which furniflied ten.
CELERI, in botany, the EngMi name of a fpecies
of AriuM.
CELERITY, in mechanics, the fwiftnefs of any
body in motion. It is alfo defined to be an affection
of motion, by which any moveable body runs through
a given fpace in a given time.
CELESTINS, a religious order fo called from their
founder Peter de Meuron, afterwards raifed to the
pontificate under the name of Celeftin V. This Pe¬
ter, who was born at ifernia, a little town in the king¬
dom of Naples, in the year 1215, of but mean pa¬
rents, retired, while very young, to a folitary moun¬
tain, in order to dedicate himfelf wholly to prayer
and mortification. The fame of his piety brought fe-
veral, out of curiofity, to fee him ; fome of whom,
charmed with his virtues, renounced the world to ac¬
company him in his folitude. With thefe he formed
a kind of community in the year 1254 ; which was
approved by pope Urban IV. in 1264, and erected
into a diftindl order, called the hermits of Si Damien.
Peter de Meuron governed this order till 1286, when
his love of folitude and retirement induced him to quit
the charge, in July 1294, the great reputation of his
fan&ity raifed him, though much againil his will, to
the pontificate. He then took the name of Celeftin V.
and his order that of Cskfiins from him. By his
bull he approved their conftitutions, and confirmed all
their monafteries to the number of 20. But he fat
too fliort time in the chair of St Peter to do many
great things for his order ; for having governed the
church five months and a few days, and coniidering
the great burden he had taken, upon him, to which he
thought himfelf unequal, he folemnly renounced the
pontificate in a confiftory held at Naples.
After his death, which happened in 1296, his order
made great progrefs not only in Italy, but in France
likewife ; whither the then general Peter of Tivoli
fent twelve religious, at the requeftof king Philip the
Fair, who gave them two monafteries; one in the fo-
reft of Orleans, and the other in the foreft of Com-
peigne at mount Chartres. This order likewife paf-
fed into feveral provinces of Germany. They have
about 96 convents in Italy, and 21 in France, under
the title of priories.
The Celeftins rife two hours after midnight, to fay
matins. They eat no fleflt at any time, except when
they are fick. They fail every Wednefday and Fri¬
day, from Eafter to the feaft of the exaltation of the
holy crofs ; and, from that feaft to Eafter, every day.
As to their habit, it confifts of a white gown, a ca-
puche, and a black fcapulary. In the choir, and when
they go out of the monaftery, they wear a black cowl
with the capuche : their fhirts are of ferge.
CELIBACY, the ftate of unmarried perfons. Scali-
ger derives the word from the Greek xoirr, “ bed-,” and
linquo, “ 1 leave others fay it is formed from
cee/i beatitudo ; q. d. the blefednefs of heaven.
The ancient Romans ufed all means imaginable to
difeourage celibacy. Nothing was more ufual than Celibate,
for the cenlbrs to impofe a fine on bachelors. Di-
onyfius Halicarnaflenlis mentions an ancient confti-
tution whereby all perfons of full age w’ere obliged
to marry. But the firll law of that kind, of which
we have any certainty, is that under Augultus, called
lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus. It was afterwards
denominated Papia Poppccay and more ufually Julia
Papia, in regard of fome new fan (ft ion and amendments
made to it under the confuls Papius and Poppaeus. By
this law, divers, prerogatives were given to perfon$
who had many children ; penalties impofed on thofe
who lived a fingle life, as that they fhould be inca¬
pable of receiving legacies, and not exceeding a cer¬
tain proportion.
CELIBATE, the fame with celibacy ; but it is
chiefly ufed in {'peaking of the {ingle life of the Popifh
clergy, or the obligation they are under to abftain from
marriage. In this fenfe we fay the lawr of celibate.
Monks and religioustake^a vow of celibate; and what
is more, of chaftity.
The church of Rome impofes an univerfal celibacy
on all its clergy, from the pope to the loweft deacon
and fubdeacon. The advocates for this ufage pretend,
that a vow of perpetual celibacy was required in the
ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from
the earlieft apofiolic ages. But the contrary is evi¬
dent from numerous examples of bilhops and archbi-
fhops, who lived in a ftate of matrimony, without any
prejudice to their ordination or their funtftion. It is
generally agreed that moft of the apoftles were mar¬
ried. Some fay all of them, except St Paul and St
John.- Others fay St Paul himfelf was married, be-
caufe he writes to his yokefellow, whom they inter¬
pret his wife. Be this as it will, in the next ages
after the apoftles, we have accounts of divers mar¬
ried bilhops, prefbyters, and deacons, without any re¬
proof or mark of difhonour fet on them : e. g. Valens,
prelbyter of Philippi, mentioned by Polycarp; and
Chaeremon, bifltop of Nilus. Novatus was a married
prelbyter of Carthage, as we learn from Cyprian ; who
himfelf was alfo a married man, as Pagi confefles ;
and fo was Cteciliusthe prelbyter who converted him;
and Numidius another prefbyter of Carthage. The
reply which the Romanifts give to this is, that all mar¬
ried perfons, when they came to be ordained, promi-
fed to live feparate from their wives by confent, which
anfwered the vow of celibacy in other perfons. But
this is not only faid without proof, but againft it. For
Novatus prelbyter of Carthage, was certainly allowed
to cohabit with his wife after ordination ; as appears
from the charge that Cyprian brings againft him, that
he had ftruck and abufed his wife, and thereby caufed
her to mifearry. There feems indeed to have been,
in fome cafes, a tendency towards the introduiftion of
fitch a law, by one or two zealots; but the motion
was no fooner made, than it was qualhed by the au¬
thority of wifer men. Thus Euft bins obferves, that
Pinytus, bifliop of Gnofliis in Crete, was for laying
the law of celibacy upon his brethren ; but Dionyfius
bifltop of Corinth wrote to him, that he fliould confi-
der the weaknefs of men, and not impofe that heavy
burden on them. In the council of Nice, anno 325,
the motion was renewed for a law to oblige the cler-
■gy
CEL [ >749 ] CEL
Celtdogra- gy to abftain from all conjugal fociety with their wives,
phia whom they had married before their ordination : but
1 Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian bilhop, and one who
e himlelf never was married, vigoroufly declaimed a-
gainft it, upon which it was unanimoufly reje&ed. So
Socrates and Sodomen tell the llory ; to which all
that Valelius, after Bellarmin, has to fay, is, that he
fufpecls the truth of it. The council in Trullo, held
in 692, made a difference in this refpedt between bi-
fhops and prefbyters; allowihgprefbyters, deacons, and
all the inferior orders, to cohabit with their wives after
ordination ; and giving the Roman church a fmart re¬
buke for the contrary prohibition, but at the fame time
laying an injunclion upon bifhops to live feparate from
tlieir wives, and appointing the wives to betake them-
ielves to a monaftic life, or become deaconeffes in the
church. And thus was a total celibate eftablifhed in
the Greek church, as to bifhops, but not any others.
In the Latin church, the like eftablifhment was alfo
made, but by flow fleps in many places. For in Afri¬
ca, even bifhops themfelves cohabited with their wives
at the time of the Council of Trullo. Tlte celibacy
of the clergy, however, appears of an ancient Hand¬
ing, if not of command and neceflity, yet as of coun-
fel and choice. But as it is clearly neither of divine
nor apoflolical inflitution, it is, at firfi, hard to con¬
ceive from what motive the court of Rome perfifted
fo very obflinately to impof’e this inflitution on the
clergy. But we are to obferve that this was a lead¬
ing Hep to the execution of the project formed of
making the clergy independent of princes, and ren¬
dering them a feparate body to be governed by their
own laws. In effect, while priefts had children, it was
very difficult to prevent their dependence on princes,
whofe favours have fuch an influence on private men ;
but having no family, they were more at liberty to
adhere to the Pope.
CELIDOGRAPHIA, the defcription of the fpots
which appear on the furfaces of the fun-and planets.
See Astronomy, n° 14—25, and 33—45.
CELL, cella, in ancient writers, denotes a place
or apartment ufually under ground, and vaulted, in
which were ftored up fome fort of neceffaries, as wine,
honey,-and the like ; and according to which it was
called C?lla Vhiaria, Oltaria, Mctlaria, &c. The word
is formed from the Latin cslare, to conceal.
Cella was alfo ufed for the lodge or habitation of
a common proftitute, as being anciently under ground,
hence alfo denominated fornix.
Cella likewil'e fignified the adyta, or inmoft and
moft retired parts of temples, wherein the images of
the gods to Whom-the edifices were confecrated were
preferved. In this fenfe we meet with cella Jo-vis,
cella Concordia, 8cc.
Cell is alfo ufed for a leffer or fubordinate fort of
miniflry dependent on a great one, by which it was
, erefted, and continues ftill to be governed The
great abbeys in England had moll of them cells in
places diftant from the mother abbey, to which they
were-accountable, and from which they received their
fuperiors. The alien priories in England were cells to
abbeys in Normandy, France, Italy, foe. The name
cell was alfo given to rich and conftderable monafte-
ries not dependent on any other.
Cell figriifies alfo a little apartment or chamber. Cell
fuch as thofe wherein the ancient monks, folitaries, II
and hermits, lived in retirement. .. c 0 ia‘ -
Cells are alfo the little divifions in honey-combs,
which are always regular hexagons *. * See Apis,
Cells, in botany, the hollow places between the 11- an<f
partitions in the pods, luifks, and other feed-veflels of ^ at®
plants; according as there is one, two, three, foe. of '
thefe cells, the veffel is laid to be unilocular, bilocular,
trilocular, foe.
Cells, in anatomy, little bags, or bladders, where
fluids or other matters are lodged ; called loculi, cel-
lula, &c.
CELLARIUS (Chriftopher) was born in 1638, at
Smalcade in Franconia, of which town his father was
minilter. He was luccefllvely reiftor of the colleges
at Weymar, Zeits, and Merfbourg ; and the king of
Pruflia having founded an univerfity at Hall in 1693,
he was prevailed on to be profieffor of eloquence and
hiftory there, where he competed the greatell part of
his works. His great application to fludy haflened
the infirmities of old age ; for it is faid, he would
fpend whole days and nights together at his books,
without any attention to his health, or even the calls
of nature. His works relate to grammar, geography,
hiftory, and the oriental languages, and the number of
them is amazing. He died in 1707.
CELLINI (Benvenuto), an eminent ftatuary, who
was bred a jeweller and goldfmith, but feems to have
had an extraordinary genius for the fine arts in gene¬
ral. He was cotemporary with Michael Angelo, and
Julio Romano ; and was employed by popes, kings,
and other princely patrons of (ciences and arts, 1b
highly cultivated in the days of Leo X. and Charles V.
fome of his productions being efteemed moft: exqui-
fite. He lived to a very coniiderable old age ; and
his life, altnoft to the laft, was a continued fceiie of
adventure, perfecution, and misfortune, truly won¬
derful. He wrote his own hiftory, which was not,
however, publHhed till the year 1730, probably on ac¬
count of the excefiive freedom with which he therein
treated many diftinguilhed perfonages of Italy and other
countries. It was tranflated into Englifli by Dr Nu¬
gent in 1771, to which the reader is referred, as it
will not admit of an abridgement fuitable to the defiga
of this work.
CELLULAR, in a general fenfe, is applied to any
thing confifting of fingle cells.
Cellular Membrane. See Anatomy, n° 82, et
feq.
CELOSIA, cocks-comb; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants*
There are eight fpecies, of which the moft worthy of
notice is the crijlata, or common cocks-comb, fo cal¬
led on account of its crefted bead of flowers, refem-
bling a cock's comb ; of thefe there are a great va¬
riety of fpecies. The principal colours of their flow¬
ers are red, purple, yellow, and white; but there are
fome whofe heads are variegated with two or three
colours. The heads are fometimes divided like a
plume of feathers, and are of a beautiful fcarlet co¬
lour. Tbefe plants are very tender exotics, and re¬
quire a great deal of care to cultivate them in this
country. Three hot-beds muft be prepared ; a fmall.
one
CEL [ 1750 ] CEL
Celfus. one in March, on which to raife the plants an inch
or two in height; a fecond in April, of larger dimen-
fions, in which to tranfplant them when proper ; and
a third in May for a large frame, to receive them
tranfplanted into pots, to remain till the end of June
or beginning of July to grow to full fize: all of which
hot-beds muft be covered with frames and glalies,
and have five or fix inches depth of fine rich light
earth for the reception of the feed and plants; and in
the fecond and third hot-bed, the frames muft occa-
fipnally be railed or augmented, according as the
plants lhall rife in height.
CELSUS (AureliusXornelius), a celebrated phyfi-
cian of the firft century, who wrote eight books on
medicine, in elegant Latin. He was the Hippocra¬
tes of the Latins, and Quintilian gives him a high eu-
logium. The great Boerhaave tells us, that Celfus is
one of the beft authors of antiquity for letting us into
the true meaning and opinions of Hippocrates; and
that, without him, the writings of this father in phy-
fic would be, often unintelligible, often mifunderftood
by us. He Ihews us alfo how the ancients cured di-
ftempers by friftion, bathing, ire. His eight books
de Medichia have been feveral times printed. The
Elzivir edition, in the year 1650, by Vander Linden,
is the beft, as being entirely corredled from his ma-
nuferipts.
Celsus,an epicurean philofopher in the fecond cen¬
tury. He wrote a work againft the Chriftians, intitled,
The true Difcourfe ; to which Origen, at the defire of
Ambrofe his friend, wrote a learned anfwer. To this
philofopher Lucian dedicated his Pfeudomantis.
CELTAC, or Celtes, an ancient nation, by which
moft of the countries of Europe are thought to have
been peopled. The compilers of the Univerfal Hi-
ftory are of opinion, that they are defeended from
Corner the eldeft fon of Japhet, the fon of Noah.
They think that Comer fettled in the province of
Phrygia in Afia: Alhkenaz his eldeft fon, or Togar-
mah his youngeft, or both, in Armenia, and Riphath
the fecond fon in Cappadocia. When they fpread
themfelves wider, they feem to have moved regularly
in columns without interfering with or difturbing
their neighbours. The defeendants of Comer, or the
Celtae, took the left hand, infenfibly fpreading them¬
felves weftward towards Poland, Hungary, Germany,
France, and Spain; while the defeendents of Magog,
Comer’s brother, moving eaftward, peopled Tar¬
tary.
In this large European traeft, tlje Celtes began to
appear a powerful nation under a regular monarchy,
or rather under feveral confiderable kingdoms. Men¬
tion is made of them indeed in fo many parts of Eu¬
rope, by ancient geographers and hiftorians, that Or-
telius took Celtica to be a general name for the con¬
tinent of Europe, and made a map of it bearing this
title. In thofe parts of Afia which they pofteffed, as
well as in the different parts of Europe, the Celtes
went by various names. In Leffer Alia they were
known by the names of Titans and Sacks ; in the nor¬
thern parts of Europe, by thofe of Cimmerians, Cym-
brians, &c.; and in the fouthern parts they were cal¬
led Celtes, Gauls, or Galatians..
With refpeft to the government of the Celtes we
are entirely in the dark. All we know is, that the Celfus.
curetes, and afterwards druids and bards, were the 
interpreters of their laws; judged all caufes whether
criminal or civil; and their fentence was reckoned fo
facred, that whoever refufed to abide by it was by
them excluded from aflifting at their facred rites ; af¬
ter which no man dared converfe with him ; fo that
this punifhmeut was reckoned the moft fevere of all,
even feverer than death itfelf.
They neither reared temples nor ftatues to the dei¬
ty, but deftroyed them wherever they could find them,
planting in their ftead large fpacious groves; which
being open on the top and fides, were, in their opi¬
nion, more acceptable to the divine Being, who is ab-
folutely unconfined. In this their religion feems to
have refembled that of the Perfees and difciples of
Zoroafter. The Celtes only differed from them in
making the oak, inftead of the fire, the emblem of the
deity ; in chufing that tree above all others to plant
their groves with, and attributing feveral fupernatural
virtues both to its wood, leaves, fruit, and mifsletoe;
all which were made ufe of in their facrifices and
other parts of their worlhip. But after they had adop¬
ted the idolatrous fuperftition of the Romans and other
nations, and the apotheofis of their heroes and prin¬
ces, they came to worfhip them much in the fame
manner: as Jupiter under the name of Tar an, which
in the Celtic fignifies thunder: Mercury, whom fome
authors call Hens, or Hefus, probably from the Celtic
huadh, which fignifies a dog, and might be the Anubis
latrans of the Egyptians. But Mars was held in the
greateft veneration by the warlike, and Mercury by
the trading part of the nation. The care of religion
was immediately under their curetes, fince known by
the name of druids and bards. Thefe were, as Cs-
far tells us, the performers of facrifices and all reli¬
gious rites, and expounders of religion to the people.
They alfo inftrudled youth in all kinds of learning,
fuch as philofophy, aftronomy, aftrology, be. Their
doctrines were taught only by word of mouth, e-
fteeming them too facred to be committed to writing.
Other more common fubjefts, fuch as their hymns to
their gods, the exploits of princes and generals in time
of war, and efpecially before a battle, were couched
in elegant verfe, and recited, or rather fung, on . all
proper occafions; though even thefe were alfo kept
from vulgar eyes, and either committed to memory,
or if to writing, the whole was a fecret to all the
laity. The latter indeed feems the moft probable, if
what Caefar hints be true ; namely, that thefe poetic
records were increafed in his time to fuch a bulk, that
it took up a young bard near ao years to learn them
by heart. Diodorus tells us farther, that tbefe poets
ufed to accompany their fongs with inftrumental mufic,
fuch as that of organs, harps, and the like ; and that
they were held in fuch veneration, that if, in the time
of an engagement between two armies, one of thefe
bards appeared, both fides immediately ceafed fighting.
The reafon of this was, that they were univerfally be¬
lieved to be prophets, as well as poets; fo that it was
thought dangerous, as well as injurious, to difobey what
they fuppofed came from their gods. Thefe prophe¬
tic philofophers kept academies, which were reforted
to not only by a great number of their own youth,
but
CEL [ 1751 ] C E M
Ccltes but alfo of thofe from other countries, infomuch that4
II Ariftotle fays, their philofophy pafled from thence in-
Ce’tis- to Greece, and not from Greece thither. Diodorus
likewife quotes a paifage from Hecateus, which is
greatly in their praife ; viz. that the druids had fome
kind of inftruments by which they could draw diftant
objedls nearer, and make them appear larger and
plainer; and by which they could dilcover even Teas,
mountains, and vallies, in the moon. But whatever
might be their learning, it is certain, that in procefs
of time they adopted feveral very barbarous cultoms,
fuch as facrificing human victims to their gods as more
acceptable to them than thofe of any other animals.
And Diodorus tells us of another inhuman cuftom they
ufed in their divinations, efpecially in great matters,
which was done by killing fome of their Haves, or
fome prifoners of war, if any they had, with a fcime-
tar, to draw their augury from the running of his
blood from his mangled limbs.
For the hiftory, tec. of the different Celtic nations
fee the article Gaul, ire..
Celtes, certain ancient inftruments of a wedge¬
like form, of which feveral have been difeovered in
different parts of Great Britain. Antiquarians have
generally attributed them to the Celtae ; but, not a-
greeing as to their ufe, diftinguilhed them by the a-
bove unmeaning appellation. But Mr Whittaker makes
it probable that that they were Britilh battle-axes.
See Battle-ax.
CELTIBERIA (anc. geog.) a country of the Hither
Spain, along the right or fouth-weft iitle of the river
Iberus; though fometimes the greateft part of Spain
was called by the name of Celtiberia. The people
were denominated Cdtiberi, or the Celts; feated on
the Iberus. They were very brave and warlike, their
cavalry in particular was excellent. They wore a
black and rough cloak, the (hag of which was like
goats hair. Some of them had light bucklers like the
Gauls; others hollow and round ones like thofe of o-
ther nations. They all wore boots made of hair, and
iron helmets adorned with crefts of a purple colour.
They ufed fwonls which cut on both fides, and poi-
nards of a foot long. Their arms were of an admi¬
rable temper, and are faid to have been prepared in
the following manner : they buried plates of iron un¬
der ground, where they let them remain till the ruft
had eaten the weakeft part of the metal, and the reft
was confequently hard and firm. Of this excellent iron
they made their fwords, which were fo ftrong and
well tempered, that there was neither buckler nor
helmet that could refift their edge. The Celtiberians
were very cruel towards their enemies and malefac¬
tors, but Ihewed the greateft humanity to their guefts.
They not only cheerfully granted their hofpitality to
ftrangers, who travelled in their country, but were
defirous that they Ihould feek protection under their
roof.
CELTIS, the Lote, or Nettle-tree; a genus of the
monoecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of
plants. There are three fpecies, all of them hardy
deciduous trees, with leaves fomewhat refembling the
common nettle, proper for ornamental plantations,
and two of them alfo proper for foreft-trees. I. The
auftralis riles with a large upright Item, and very
branchy head, to the height of 40 or JO feet, garnifir Cement.
ed with large fpear-lhaped, pointed, and deeply fer-  
rated leaves, with greenilh flowers produced in May
from the fides of the branches; fucceeded by round
black fruit, of the fize of a black-berry. It is, a native
of the fouthern parts of Europe. 2. The occidenta-
lis is a native of America, and hath a large upright
Item, with a very branchy head like the former ;
grows to the height of 40 or 50 feet; with large, o-
val, lharp-pointed', and deeply fawed oblique leaves ;
greenifli flowers from the fides of the branches in
May, fucceeded by purple fruit of the fize of large
peas. 2. The orientalis was difeovered by Dr Tour-
nefort in America. It rifes with an upright Item, di¬
viding into many Ipreading, greeni(h branches, ten or
twelve feet high; fmall, oval, heart-(liaped, ferrated,
oblique leaves; yellowiih flowers from the fides of
the branches in the Ipring, fucceeded by large, oval,
yellow fruit. There are feveral varieties of each
fort, with bloatched leaves. They may be propaga¬
ted by feeds, but the bloatched-leaved kinds only by
layers, cuttings, grafting, ire. The feeds ought to
be fown in autumn, and covered with earth half an
inch deep. When the plants appear, they will re¬
quire to be flickered by mats from the cold.
CEMENT, in a general fenfe, any glutinous fub-
ftance capable of uniting and keeping things together
in clofe coheficn. In this fenfe the word cement com¬
prehends mortar, folder, glue, be. but has been gene¬
rally rertrained to the compofitions ufed for holding
together broken glaffes, china, and earthen W’are. For
this purpofe the juice of garlic is recommended as ex¬
ceedingly proper, being both very ftrong, and, if the
operation is performed with care, leaving little or no
mark. Quicklime and the white of an egg mixed to¬
gether, and expeditioufly ufed, are alfo very proper
for this purpofe. Dr Lewis recomn ends a mixture
of quicklime and cheefe, in the following manner:
“ Sweet cheefe fhaved thin and ftirred with boiling
hot water, changes into a tenacious flime which does
not mingle with the water. Worked with frefli par¬
cels of hot water, and then mixed upon a hot ftone,
with a proper quantity of unflaked lime, into the
confiftence of a pafte, it proves a ftrong and durable
cement for wood, ftone, earthen-ware, and glafs.
When thoroughly dry, which will be in two or three
days, it is not in the leaft a<5led upon by water.
Cheefe barely beat with quicklime, as directed by
fome of the chemifts for luting cracked glaffes-, is not
near fo efficacious.” A compofition of the drying oil
of lintfeed and .white-lead is alfo ufed for the lame
purpofes, but is greatly inferior.
Cement in building, is ufed to denote any kind
of mortar of a ftronger kind than ordinary. The ce¬
ment commonly ufed is of two kinds; hot, and cold.
The hot cement is made of rofin, bees wax, brick-duft,
and chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be cement¬
ed are heated, and rubbed one upon another, with
cement between them. The cold cement is that a-
bove deferibed for cementing china, be. which is
fometimes, though rarely, employed in building.'
The ruins of the ancient Roman buildings are found
to cohere fo ftrongly, that moft people have imagi¬
ned the ancients were acquainted with fome kind of
mortar.
C E M [ 1752 ] GEM
Cement, mortar, which, in comparifon of ours, might juftly
' " be called cement; and that to our want of knowledge
of the materials they tiled, is owing the great inferi¬
ority of modern buildings in their durability. In
1770, one M. Loriot, a Frenchman, pretended to
have difcovered the fecret of the ancient cement,
which, according to him, was no more than a mix¬
ture of powdered quick-lime with lime which had
been long flacked and kept under water. The flack¬
ed lime was firft to be made up with fand, earth,
brick-dull, into mortar after the common method,
1 and then about a third part of quick-lime in powder was
added to the mixture. This produced an almofl: in-
flantaneous petrification, fomething like what is called
the felting of alabaster, but in a much ftronger degree;
and was polFelfed of many wonderful qualities need-.
lefs here to relate, feeing it has never been known to
fucceed with any other perfon who tried it. Mr An-
derfon, in his elfays on agriculture, has difcufled this
f'ubjedl at confiderable length, and feemingly with great
judgment. He is the only perfon we know, who has
given any rational theory of the ufes of lime in build¬
ing, and why it comes to be the proper bafis of all ce-
ments. His account is in fubltance as follows :
Lime which has been flaked and mixed with fand,
becomes hard and cpnfiftent when dry, by a procefs
iimilar to that which produces the natural flalattitcs
in caverns. Thefe are always formed by water drop¬
ping from the roof. By fome unknown and inexpli¬
cable procefs of nature, this water has dilfolved in it a
fmall portion of calcareous matter in a caujlic ftate.
As long as the water continues covered from the air,
it keeps the earth diflblved in it; it being the natural
property of calcareous earths, when deprived of their
fixed air, to diflblve iri water. But when the fmall
drop of water comes to be expofed to the air, the
calcareous matter contained in it begins to attract the
fixable part of the atmofphere. In proportion as it
does fo, it alfo begins to feparate from the water, and
to reaffume its native form of limeftone or marble.
This procefs, Mr Anderfon calls a cryflallization;
and when the calcareous matter is perfectly cryjlal-
lizcd in this manner, he affirms that it is to all intents
and purpofes limeftone or marble of the fame confift-
ence as before : and “ in this manner, (lays he,) with¬
in the memory of man, have huge rocks of marble
been formed near Matlock in Derbylhire.” If lime
in a cauftic ftate is mixed with water, part of the
lime will be dilfolved, and will alfo begin to chryftal-
lize. The water which parted with the chryftalliz-
ed lime, will then begin to a<ft upon the remainder,
which it could not dilfolve before ; and thus the pro-
cels will continue, either till the lime be all reduced
to an effete, or, (as he calls it) cryftalline ftate, or
fomething hinders the aclion of the water upon it. It
is this chryftallization which is obferved by the work¬
men when a heap of lime is mixed with water, and
left for fome time to macerate. A hard cruft is form¬
ed upoii the furface, which is ignorantly cnWeAfroJUng,
though it takes place in fummer as well as, in winter.
If therefore the hardnefs of the lime, or its becom¬
ing a cement, depends entirely on the formation of
its cryftals, it is evident, that the perfection of the ce¬
ment mult depend on the perfection of the cryftals.
and the hardnefs of the matters which are entangled
among them. The additional lubftances uled in ma¬
king of mortar, fuch as fand, brick-dull, or the like,
according to Mr Anderfon, ferve only for a pnrpole
fimilar to what is anfwered by fticks put into a veflel
full of any faline folution, namely to afford the cryftals
an opportunity of faftening themfelves upon it. if
therefore the matter interpofed between the cryftals
of the lime is of a friable, brittle nature, fuch as
brick-duft or chalk, the mortar will be of a weak
and imperfeCt kind; but when the particles are hard,
angular, and very difficult to be broken, fuch as thofe
of river or pit-fand, the mortar turns out exceedingly
good and ftrong. Sea-fand is found to be an impro¬
per material for mortar, which Mr Anderfon afcribes
to its being lels angular than the other kinds. That the
cryftallization may be the more perfeCt, he alfo re¬
commends a large quantity of water, that the ingre¬
dients be perfeCUy mixed together, and that the dry¬
ing be as flow as poffible. An attention to thele cir-
cumftances, he thinks, would make the buildings of the
moderns equally durable with thofe of the ancients ;
and from what remains of the ancient Roman works,
he thinks a very ftrong proof of his hypothefis might be
adduced. The great thicknefs of their walls neceffari-
ly required a vaft length of time to dry. The middle
of them was compofed of pebbles thrown in at ran¬
dom, and which have evidently had mortar fo thin as
to be poured in among them. By this means, a great
quantity of the lime would be diflblved, and the
cryftallization performed in the moft perfeCt man¬
ner ; and the indefatigable pains and perfeverance for
which the Romans were fo remarkable in all their un¬
dertakings, leave no room to doubt that they would
take care to have the ingredients mixed together as
well as poffible. The confequence of all this is, that
the buildings formed in this manner are all as firm as
ifcutoutof afolidrock; the mortar being equally
hard, if not more fo, than the ftones themfelves. For
the proper proportion of lime and fand requifite in
building, fee the article Mortar.
Cement, among engravers, jewellers, tec. is the
fame with the hot cement ufed in building * ; and is
ufed for keeping the metals to be engraven firm to the
block, and alfo for filling up what is to be chifleled.
Cement, in chemiftry, is tiled to fignify all thofe
powders and paftes with which any body is furround-
ed in pots or crucibles, and which are capable by the
help of fire of producing changes upon that body.
They are made of various materials ; and are ufed
for different purpofes, as for parting gold from filver,
converting iron into iteel, copper into brafs: and by
cementation, more confiderable changes can by effec¬
ted upon bodies, than by applying to them liquids -of
any kind ; becaufe the adlive matters are then in a
ftate of vapour, and aflifted by a very confiderable de¬
gree of heat.
Cement which quickly hardens in Water. This is
defgribed in the pofthumous works of Mr Hooke, and
irrecommended for gilding live craw-fifh, carps, tec..
without injuring the fiffi. The cement for this pur-
pofe is prepared, by putting fome Burgundy pitch into
a new earthen pot, and warming the veflel till it re¬
ceives fo much of the pitch as will ftick round it ;
then
Cement.
* See the
foregoing
article.
C E N [ i
Cement then flxewing fome finely powdered amber over the
II pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three
or‘ pounds of linleed oil, and one of oil of turpentine, co¬
vering the veffel and boiling them for an hour over a
gentle fire, and grinding the mixture as it is wanted
with as much pumice-itone in fine powder as will
reduce it to the confiftence of paint. The filh being
wiped dry, the mixture is fpread upon it; and the
gold leaf being then laid on, the fifh may be imme¬
diately put into water again, without any danger of
the gold coming off, for the matter quickly grows
hard in the water.
CEMENT-Z’oifx, are thofe earthen pots ufed in the
cementation of metals.
CEMENTATION, the a6t of corroding or other-
wife changing a metal by means of a cement. See
the foregoing article.
CEMETERY, Ko^arnpiov, from Kapctu to “ fleep ■”
a place fet apart or confecfated for the burial of the
dead.
Anciently none were buried in churches or church¬
yards : it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the
cemeteries were without the walls. Among the pri¬
mitive Chriftians thefe were held in great veneration.
It even appears from Eufebius and Tertullian, that, in
the early ages, they aflembled for divine worlhip in
the cemeteries. Valerian feems to have confifcated
the cemeteries and other places of divine worfhip, but
they were reftored again by Gallienus. As the mar¬
tyrs were buried in thefe places, the Chriftians chofe
them for building churches on, when Conllantine efta-
blilhed their religion; and hence fome derive the rule
which ftill obtains in the church of Rome, never to
confecrate an altar without putting under it the relics
of fome faint. The practice of confecrating ceme¬
teries is of fome antiquity. The biihop walked round
it in proceffion, writh the crozier or paftoral ft*ft’ in his
hand, the holy water pot being carried before, out of
which the afperfions were made.
CENOBITE. See Coenobite.
CENOTAPH, in antiquity, an empty tomb, eredted
' by way of honour to the deceafed. It is diftinguiflied
from a fepulchre, in which a coffin was depofited.
Of thefe there were two forts ; one for thofe who
had, and another for thofe who had not, been honour¬
ed with funeral rites in another place.
The fign whereby honorary fepulchres were diftin-
guilhed from others, was commonly the wreck of a
ffiip, to denote the deceafe of the perfon in fome fo¬
reign country.
CENSER, a vafe containing incenfe to be ufed in
offering facrifices. It was ufed by the heathens as
well as Jews, and is ftill ufed in the Romiffi churches.
CENSOR, (from cenfere to “ fee” or “ perceive”),
one of the prime magiftrates in ancient Rome.—Their
bufinefs was to regifter the effects of the Roman citi¬
zens, to impofe, taxes in proportion to what each man
pofieffed, and to take cognizance or infpedtion of the
manners of the citizens. In confequence of this laft
part of their office, they had a power to cenfure vice
or immorality by inflicting fome public mark of igno¬
miny on the offender. They had even a power to
create the princeps fenatus, and to expel from the fe-
nate fuch as they deemed unworthy of that office.
Voi. III.
753 ] C E N
This power they fometimes exercifed without fuffi- Cenfor
cient grounds; and therefore, a law was at length II
paffed, that no fenator ffiould be degraded or difgra- Cenforimis.
ced in any manner, until he had been formally accu-
fed and found guilty by both the cenfors. It was alfo
a part of the cenforian jurifdiCtion, to fill up the va¬
cancies in the fenate, upon any remarkable deficiency
in their number ; to let out to farm all the lands, re¬
venues, and cuftoms, of the republic ; and to contraCt
with artificers for the charge of building and repairing
all the public works and edifices both in Rome, and the
colonies of Italy. In all parts of their office, however,
they were fubjeft to the juriffiiCtion of the people ;
- and an appeal always lay from the fentence of the
cenfors to that of an affembly of the people.
The firft two cenfors were created in the year of
Rome 311, upon the fenate’s obferving that the con-
fuls were fo much taken up with war, as not to have
time to look into other matters. The oflice continued
to the time of the emperors, who affumed the cenfo-
rial power, calling themfelves morum prafefii; though
Velpafian and his fons took the title of cenfors. De-
cius attempted to reftore the dignity to a particular
magiftrate. After this we hear no more of it, till
Conftantine’s time, who made his brotiier cenfor, and
he feems to have been the laft that enjoyed the office.
The office of cenfor was fo confiderable, that for a
long time none afpired to if, till they had pafftd all
the reft ; fo that it was thought furprifing that Craffus
ffiould be admitted cenfor, without having been either
conful or prastor. At firft the cenfors wrjoyed their
dignity for five years, but in 420 the dictator Mamer-
tinus made a law reltraing it to a year and an half,
which was afterwards obferved very ftridtly. At firlt
one of the cenfors was eleifted out of a patrician, and
the other out of a plebeian family ; and upon the death
of either, the other was difcha'rged from his office,
and two new ones elected, but not till the next lu-
ftrum. In the year of Rome 622, both cenfors were
chofen from among the plebeians; and after that time
the office was ffiared between the fenate and people.
—After their election in the Comitia Genturialia, the
cenfors proceeded to the capitol, where they took an
oath not to manage either by favour or difaffeclion, 1
but to adt equitably and impartially throughout the
whole courfe of their adminiftration.
The republic of Venice ftill has a cenfor'of the
manners of their people, whofe office lafts fix months.
Censors of Books, are a body of doctors or others
eftabliffied in divers countries, to examine all books
before they go to the prefs, and to fee they contain
nothing contrary to faith and good manners.
At Paris, the faculty of theology claim this privilege,
as granted to them by the pope ; but, in 1624, new
commilfions of four dodlors were created, by letters-
patent, the foie cenfors of all books, and anfwerable
for every thing contained therein.
In England, we had formerly an officer of this kind,
under the title of licenfer of the prefs; but, fince the
revolution, our prefs has been laid under no fuch re-
ftraint.
CENSORINUS, a celebrated writer in the third
century, well known by his treatife De Die Natali.
This treatife, which was written about the year 238,
10 N Gerard
C E N [ 1754 ] C E N
Cenfure Gerard Voffius calls it a little book of gold ; and de¬
ll dares it to be a moft learned work, of the higheft ui'e
Centaurs. „ncj importance to chronologers, fince it connects and
determines, with great exadnefs, fome of the princi¬
pal ter as in pagan hiftory. It was printed at Cam¬
bridge, with the notes of Lindenbrokius, in 1695.
CENSURE, a judgment which condemns fome
book, perfon, or action, or, more particularly, a repri¬
mand from a fnperior. Ecclefiaftical cenlures, are
penalties by which, for fome remarkable mifbeHaviour,
Chriftiansare deprived of the communion of the church,
or prohibited to execute the facerdotal office.
CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic decla¬
ration made before the cenfors, by the feveral fub-
jeCts of the empire, of their refpective names and
places of abode. This declaration was regiftered by
the cenfors; and contained an enumeration, in wri¬
ting, of all the eftates, lands, and inheritances they
pollefled ; their quantity, quality, place, wives, child¬
ren, domeftics, tenants, Haves. In the provinces the
cenfus ferved not only to difcover the fubftance of
each perfon, but where, and in what manner and
proportion, taxes might be knpofed. The cenfus at
Rome is commonly thought to have been held every
five years; but Dr Middleton hath fliewn, that both
cenfus and luitrum were held irregularly and uncer¬
tainly at various intervals. The cenfus was an ex¬
cellent expedient for difcovering the ftrength of the
Rate : for by it they difcovered the number of the
citizens, how many were fit for war, and how many
for offices of other kinds; how much each was able to
pay of taxes, ire. It went through all ranks of peo¬
ple, though under different names : that of the com¬
mon people was called cenfns ; that of the knights,
■cenfus, recenfio, rccognitio ; that of the fenators, tettio,
rehBro.
The cenfus which intitled one to the dignity of a
knight, was 400,000 fellerces: that of a fenator, was
double that him.
In the Voconian law, cenlus is ufed for a man
whofe eftate in the cenfor’s books is valued at 100,000
fefterces.
CENT, fighifies properly an hundred, being an
abridgement of the word cesituj/i; but is often ufed in
commerce to exprefs the profit or lofs arifing from the
fale of any commodity: fo that when we fay there is 10
per cent profit, or 10 per cent lofs, upon any merchan¬
dize that has been fold, it is to be underftood, that the
feller has either gained or loft ten pounds on every
hundred pounds of the price at which he bought that
merchandize ; which is ^ of profit, or ^ of lofs, upon
the total of the fale.
CENTAURS, in mythology, a kind of fabulous mon-
fters, half men and half horfes.—The poets pretend
that the centaurs were the fons of Ixion and a cloud ;
the reafon of which fancy is, that they retired to a caflle
called which lignifies a “ cloud.”—This fable is
differently interpreted : fome will have the centaurs
to have been a body of ftiepherds and herdfmen, rich
in cattle, who inhabited the mountains of Arcadia,
and to whom is attributed the invention of bucolic
poetry. Pakephaetus, in his book of incredibles, re¬
lates, that under the reign of Ixinn, king of Theffaly,
a herd of bulls on mount Thelfaly run mad, and rava¬
ged the whole country, rendering the mountains m- Centaurea
acceffible ; that fome young men who had found the ||
art of taming and mounting horfes, undertook to clear Center-
the mountains of thefe animals, which they purfued
on horfeback, and thence obtained the appellation of
Centaurs. This fuccefs rendering them infblent, they
infulted the Lapithae, a people of Theffaiy ; and be-
caufe when attacked they fled with great rapidity, it
was fuppofed they were half horfes and half men.—
The Centaurs in reality were a tribe ofTapithae, who
inhabited the city Pelethronium adjoining to mount
Pelion, and firft invented the art of breaking horfes,
as is intimated by Virgil.
CENTAUREA, greater centaury ; a genus of
■the polygamia frnftanea order, belonging to the fyn-
genefia clafs of plants. There are 61 fpecies. The
root of one of them call.ed glafiifolia, is an article in
the materia medica. It has a rough, fomewhat acrid
tafte, and abounds with a red vifeid juice. Its rough
tafte has gained it fome efteem as an aftringent; its
acrimony, as an aperient; and its glutinous quality, as
a vulnerary; but the prefent practice takes very little
■notice of it in any intention. Another of the fpecies is
the cyanus or blue-bottle, which grows commonly a-
mong corn. The exprelfed juice of this flower Rains
linen of a beautiful blue colour, but-is not permanent.
Mr Boyle fays, that the juice the inner petals, with a
little alum, makes a beautiful permanent colour, equal
to ultramarine.
Lcjfjr Centaury. See Gentiana.
CENTENARIES, or Centenario, in the middle
age, an officer who had the government or command,
with the adminrffiration of juffice, in a village. The
centenarii as well as vicarii were under the jurifdic-
tion and command of the court. We find them among
the Franks, Germans, Lombards, Goths, ire.
Centenarius was alfo ufed for an officer who
had the command of 100 men; moft frequently called
a Centurion.
Centenarius, in monafteries, was an officer who
had the command of 100 monks.
CENTENINUM ovum, among naturalifts, de¬
notes a fort of hen’s egg much fmaller than ordinary,
vulgarly called a cock’s egg; from which it has been
fabuloufly held that the cockatrice or bafilMk is produ¬
ced. The name is taken from an opinion, that thefe
are the lad eggs which hens lay, having laid 100 be¬
fore ; whence centeninutu, q. d. the hundredth egg.—
Thefe eggs have no yolks, but in other refpefts dif¬
fer not from common ones; having the albumen, cha-
lazes, membranes, ire. in common with others. In
the place of the yolk is found a little body like a fer-
pent coiled up, which doubtlefs gave rife to the fable
of the bafililk’s origin from thence. Their origin is
with probability aferibed by Hervey to this, that the
yolks in the vitellary of the ben are exhaufted before
the albumina.
CENTER, or centre, in a general fenfe, fignifies
a point equally diftant from the extremities of a line,
figure, or body. The word is formed from the Greek
xsvrpoy, a “ point.”
Center of Gravity, in mechanics, that point about
which all the parts of a body do in any fituation ex-
atRly balance each other.
Center
C E N
Center Center cf Motion, that point which remains at
II reft, while ail the other parts of a body move about it.
Icnthvre. Center of a Sphere, a point in the middle, from
which all lines drawn to the furface are equal.
Hermes Trifmegiftus defines God an hitellecftnal
fphere, whofe center is every where, and circumfe¬
rence no where.
CENTES1MATION, a milder kind of military pu-
nifhment, in cafes of defertion, mutiny, and the like,
when only every hundredth man is executed.
C ENTIL0OUIUM, denotes a collection of 100
fentences, opinions, or flyings.
The centiloquium of Hermes, contains too apho-
rifms, or aftroiogicalfentenees, fuppofed to have been
written by fome Arab, falfely fathered on Hermes
Trifmegiftus. It is only extant in Latin, in which it
has feveral times been printed.—The centiloquium of
Ptolomy is a famous aftrological piece, frequently con¬
founded with the former, confifting likewife of too
fentences, or doClrines, divided into Ihort aphorifms,
intitled alfo in Greek xapTr©-, as being the fruit or re-
fult of the former writings of that celebrated aftrono-
tner, viz. his quadripartitum and almageflum; or ra¬
ther, by reafon that herein is ftiewn the ufe of aftro¬
logical calculations.
CENTIPES, in zoology. See Scolotendra.
CENTIPED worm, a term ufed for fuch worms
as have a great many feet, though the number does
not amount to too, as the term feems to import.—
M. Maloet relates the hiftory of a man, who, for
three years, had a violent pain in the lower part of
the forehead near the root of the nofe: at length he
felt an itching, and afterwards fame thing moving
within his noftril, which he brought away with his
finger; it was a worm of the centiped kind, an inch
and an half long, whmh run fwiftly. It lived five or
fix days among tobacco. The patient was free of his
pain ever after. Mr Littre mentioned a like cafe' in
i 708, of a larger centiped voided at the nofe, after
it had thrown the woman, in whofe frontal finus it
was, into convulficns, and had almaft deprived her of
her realbn.
CENTLIVRE (Sufanna), a celebrated comic wri¬
ter, was the daughter of Mr Freeman of Holbeach,
in Lincolnlhire; and had fuch an early turn for poe¬
try, that it is faid fhe wrote a fong before fhe was
feven years old.- Before flie was twelve years of
age, flie could not only read Molicre in French, but
enter into the fpirit of all the charaifters. Her father
dying, left her to the care of a flep-mother, whale
treatment not being agreeable to her, Ihe determined,
though almoft deftitute of money and every other ne-
ceflary, to go up to London to feck a better fortune
than what Ihe had hitherto experienced. As flie was
proceeding on her journey on foot, flie was met by a
young gentleman from the Univerfity of Cambridge,,
the afterwards well-known Anthony Hammond, Efq;
who was fo extremely ftruck with her youth, and
beauty, that he fell inftantly in love with her; and:
inquiring into the particulars of her ftory, foon pre¬
vailed upon her unexperienced innocence to feize on
the protection he offered her,, and go with him to,
Cambridge. After fome months cohabitation, he per-
fuaded her to come tp London; where, in a fliort
C E N
time, flie was married to a nephew of Sir Stephen Cento
Fox. But that gentleman not living with her above }
a twelve-month, her wit and beauty foon procured v'" -" '
her a fecond hufband, whofe name was Carrol, and
who was an officer in the army; but he having the
misfortune to be killed in a duel about a year and an
half after their marriage, flie became a fecond tirr-' a
widow. For the lake of fupport flie now applied to
her pen, and became avotary of the mufes; and it is
under this name of Carrol that fome of her earlier
pieces were publiflied. Her firft attempt was in tra¬
gedy, in a play called the l erjured Hvjband; yet her
natural vivacy leading her afterwards to comedy, we
find but one more attempt in the bulkin, among 18
dramatic pieces which flie afterwards wrote.
In 1706, flie wounded the heart of one Mr Jofeph
Centlivre, yeoman of the mouth, or in other words
principal cook, to her Majefty, who married her; and,
after palling feveral years happily together, flie died
at his houfe in Spring-Garden, Charing-Crofs, in De¬
cember 1 723.
This lady for many years enjoyed the intimacy and
efteem of the molt eminent wits of the times, viz.
Sir Richard Steele, Mr Rowe, Budgell, Farquhar, Dr
Sewell, ire. and very few authors received more
tokens of efteem and patronage from the great.
With regard to her merit as a writer, it muft be al¬
lowed that her plays do not abound with wit, and
that the language of them is fometimes even poor,
enervate, incorredt, puerile; but then her plots are
bufy and well conducted* and her characters in ge¬
neral natural and well marked.
CENTO, in poetry, a work wholly compoftd of
verfes or paflages promifcuoully taken from other au¬
thors, only dilpofed in a new form and order.—Pro-
ba Falconia has written the life of Jefus Chrift in
centos taken from Virgil. Alexander Rofs has done
the like in his Chriftrados, and Stephen de Pleure the
fame.
CENTONARII, in antiquity, certain of the Roman
army, who provided different forts of ftulF called con¬
tones, made ufe of to quench the fire which the ene¬
mies engines threw into the camp.
Thefe centonarii kept with the carpenters and 0-
ther officers of artillery.
CENTRAL forces, the powers which caufe a
moving body to tend towards, or recede from, the
center of motion. See Mechanics.
Central Rule, a rule difeovered by Mr Thomas
Baker, whereby to find the center of a circle defign-
ed to cut the parabola.in as many points as at) equati¬
on to be conftrudled hath real roots. Its principal ufe
is in the conftrudiion of equations, and he hath applied
it with good fuccefs as far as biquadratics.
The. central rule is chiefly founded on this property
of the parabola, that, if a line be inferibed in that
curve perpendicular to any diameter, a rectangle
formed of the fegments of the infeript is equal to the
rectangle of the intercepted diameter and parameter
of the axis.
The central rule has the advantage over Cartes and
De Latere’s methods of conftructing equations, in
that both thefe are fubjeeft to the trouble of preparing
the equation by taking away the fecond term.
10 N 2 CENTRI-
1 >755 ]
C E N [ 1756 ] C E N
Centrifu- CENTRIFUGAL force, that force by which all
gal- bodies that move round any other body in a curve,
endeavour to fly off from the axis of their motion in
a tangent to the periphery of the curve, and that in
every part of it. See Mech an ics.
Centrifugal Machine, a very curious machine,
invented by Mr Erikine, for raifing water by means
of a centrifugal force combined with the prefl'ure of
the atmofphere.
It confifts of a large tube of copper, ire. in the form
of a crofs, which is placed perpendicular in the wa¬
ter, and l efts at the bottom on a pivot. At the upper
part of the tube is a horizontal cog-wheel, which
touches the cogs of another in a vertical petition; fo
that by the help of a double winch, the whole ma¬
chine is moved round with very great velocity.
Near the bottom of the perpendicular part of the
tube is a valve opening upwards; and near the two
extremities, but on the contrary lides of the arms, or
crofs part of the tube, are two other valves opening
outwards. Thefe two valves are, by the afiifiance
of fprings, kept fhut till the machine is put in motion,
when the centrifugal velocity of the water forces
them open, and diiiharges itfelf into a ciftern or rel’er-
voir placed there for that purpole.
On the upper part of the arms are two holes, which
are doled by pieces (crewing into the metal of the
tube. Before the machine can work, thefe holes mult
be opened, and water poured in through them, till
the whole tube be full: by this means all the air will
be forced out of the machine, and the water fupport-
ed in the tube by means of the valve at the bottom.
The tube being thus filled with water, and the
holes doled by their ferew caps, it is turned round by
means of the winch, when the water in the arms of
the tube acquires a centrifugal force, opens the valves
near the extremities of the arms, and flies out with
a velocjty nearly equal to that of the extremities of
the faid arms.
The above defeription will be very eafily under-
flood by the figure we have added on Plate LXXV.
fig. 3. which is a perfpedive view of the centrifugal
machine, ereded on board a Ihip. ABC is the cop¬
per tube. D, a horizontal cog-wheel, furnifhed with
twelve cogs. E, a vertical cog-wheel, furnifhed with
thirty-fix cogs. F, F, the double winch. a, the
valve near the bottom of the tube, b, b, the two pi¬
vots on which the machine turns, c, one of the valves'
in the crofs-piece; the other at d, cannot be feen in
this figure, being on the other fide of the tube ; e, e,
the two holes through which the water is poured into
the machine. GH, the ciftern, or refervoir. I, I,
part of the (hip’s deck. The diltance between the
two valves c, d, is fix feet. The diameter of thefe
valves is about three inefies; and that of the perpen¬
dicular tube about feven inches.
If we fuppofe the men who work the machines can
turn the winch round in three feconds, the machine
will move round its axis in one fecond ; and confe-
quently each extremity of the arms will move with a
velocity of 18.S feet in a fecond. Therefore a co¬
lumn of water of three inches diameter will iffue
through each of the valves with a velocity of 18.8
feet in a fecond: but the area of the aperture of each
of the valves is 7.14 inches; which being multiplied Centripetal
by the velocity in inches=225.6, gives 1610.784 cu- II.
bic inches, the quantity of water difeharged through Centurlon-
one of the apertures in one fecond ; fo that the whole
quantity difeharged in that fpace of time through both
the apertures is=3221.568 inches; or 193294 08 cu¬
bic inches in one minute. But 60812 cubic inches
make a tun, beer-meafure ; confequently, if we fup¬
pofe the centrifugal machine revolves round its axis
in one fecond, it will raife nearly 3 tuns 44 gallons
in one minute: but this velocity is certainly too great,
at lead to be held for any confiderable time ; fo that,
when this and other deficiencies in the machine are
allowed for, two tuns is nearly the quantity that can
be railed by it in one minute.
It will perhaps be unneceffary to obferve, that as
the water is forced up the perpendicular tube by the
preffure of the atmofphere, this maclrine cannot raife
water above 32 feet high.
An attempt was made to fubflitute this machine in
place of the pumps commonly ufed on fliip-board, but
the labour of working was found to be fo great as to
render the machine inferior to the chain-pump. A
confiderable improvement, we apprehend, would be,
to load with a weight of lead the ends of the tubes
through which the water ilfues, which would make
the machine turn with a great deal more cafe, as the
centrifugal force of the lead would in fome meafure
a£l the part of a fly.
CENTRIPETAL fojice, that force by which a
body is every where impelled, or any how tends, to¬
wards fome point as a center. See Mechanics.
CENTRISCUS in ichthyology, a genus of filhes
belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. The head
gradually ends in a narrow fnout, the aperture is
broad and flat; the belly is carinated; and the belly-
fins united. There are two fpecies, viz. 1. The feu-
tatus has its back covered with a fmooth bony (hell,
which ends in a lharp fpine under which is the tail;
but the back-fins are between the tail and the fpine.
It is a native of the Eafl Indies. 2. The Icolopax has
a rough fcabrous body, and a flraight extended tail.
It has two belly-fins, with four rays in each, and has
no teeth. It is found in the Mediterranean.
CENTUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, judges ap¬
pointed to decide common caufes among the people:
they were chofen, three out of each tribe ; and though
five more than an hundred, were neverthelefs called
centumviri, from the round number centum, an hundred.
CENTURION, among the Romans, an officer in
the infantry, who commanded a century, or an hund¬
red men.
In order to have a proper notion of the centurions,
it mull be remembered, that every one of the thirty
manipuli * in a legion was divided into two brdines, * See Mi-
or ranks ; and confequently the three bodies of the nipulus.
hallati, principes, and triarii, into 20 orders a-piece,
as into 10 manipuli. Now, every manipulus was al¬
lowed two centurions, or captains, one to each order
or century : and, to determine the point of priority
between them, they were created at two different
eledlions. The 30 who were miade firlt always took
the precedency of their fellows; and therefore com¬
manded the right-hand orders, as the others did the
left.
C E N [ 1757 ] CEP
Centurion left. The triarii, or pilani, fo called from their
1 weapon tHe pilum, being efteemed the moft honou-
Centuflis, rable, had their centurions elefted hrft, next to them
the principes, and afterwards the hailati; whence
they were called primus et fecundus pilus, primus et
fecundus princeps, primus et fecundus hafhitus; and fo
on. Here it may be obferved, that primi ordines is
fometimes ufed in hiltorians for the centurions of thefe
orders ; and the centurions are fometimes llyled prin¬
cipes ordinum, and priucipes cetiturionum. We may
take notice too what a large held there lay for pro-
rriotion : hrft through all the orders of the haftati;
then quite through the principes ; and afterwards from
the la It order of the triarii to the primipiius, the molt
honourable of the centurions, and who deferves to be
particularly defcribed. Tiiis officer, befides his title
of primipiius, went under the feveral titles of dux le-
gionis, prasfectus legionis, primus centurionum, and
primus centurio ; and was the hrlt centurion of the
triarii in every legion. He prelided over all the other
centurions, and generally gave the word of command
by order of the tribunes. Behdes this, he had the
care of the eagle, or chief ftandard, of the legion t
hence, dquilte pracjfe, is to bear the dignity of prirni-
pilus; and hence aquila is taken by Pliny for the faid
office. Nor was this llation only honourable, but very
profitable too : for he had a fpecial llipend allowed
him, probably as much as a knight’s eftate ; and,
when he left that charge, was reputed equal to the
members of the equellrian order, bearing the title of
primipilarius, in the fame manner as thofe who had
dilcharged the greateft civil offices were {tiled ever
after, confiilares, cenforii, ire.
CENTURY, in a general fenfe, any thing divided
into, or confiding of, am hundred parts.
The marquis of Worcefter publifhed 2. Century of
inventions, (for a fpecimen of which, fee Acoustics,
n° 28.) ; and Dr Hooke has given a dicimate of in¬
ventions, as part of a Century, of which he affirmed
himfelf mafter. It is remarkable, that both in the
century of the former, and the decimate of the lat¬
ter, we find the principle on which Savary’s fire or
{team engine is founded. See Steam-jEV^//;?.
Century in antiquity. The Roman people, when
they were afTembkd for the electing of magillrates,
enacting of laws, or deliberating upon any public qf-
fair, were always divided into centuries, and voted
by centuries, in order that their votes might be the
more eafily coliefled, whence thefe afiemblies were
called comities centuriata. The Roman cohorts were
alfo divided into centuries. See Centurion, and
Cohort.
Century, in chronology, the {pace of one hundred
years. This method of computing by centuries is ge*
nerally obferved in church-hiitory, commencing from
the time of our Saviour’s incarnation : in which fenfe
we fay the firlt century, the fecond century, ire.
Centuries of Magdeburg, a famous ecclefiafti-
cal hiilory, ranged into 1 q centuries, carried down
to die year 1298, compiled by feveral hundred Pro-
teftants of Magdeburg, the chief of whom was Flacius
Ulyrious.
CENTUSSIS, in Roman antiquity, a coin contain¬
ing' 100 affes.
CEP A, the onion; is by Linnaeus referred to the Cepa.
genus of allium ; the botanic difference of it from gar-   
lie is, the fweiling pipy ftalk, which is much larger in
the middle than at either end. The varieties arey
the Stralburgh, the Spanilh, and the Egyptian onion.
They are' propagated by feeds, which Ihould he Town
the latter end of February, or the beginning of March,
on good, light, rich ground, well dug and levelled,
and cleared from weeds. They Ihould abb be fown
at a time when the furface of the ground is not moift;
and where they are intended for a winter crop they
muff not be lown too thick. The common allowance
is fix pounds of Iced to an acre ; though fome allow
more, in order to have a crop to draw out, which
they call cullings.. In about fix weeks after, the oni¬
ons will be up and forward enough to iioe ; at which
time the weeds ffiouid be lightly cut up with a fmall
hoe, about two inches and a half broad, as allb the
onions themfelves where they grow too clofe in
bunches, leaving them at this firff time, at leal! twa
or three inches apart. This, if properly performed^
and in a dry feafon, will preferve the ground clear of
weeds at leaft. a month, when they muff be hoed
over again, leaving them at this time about four or
five inches anmder. In fix weeks after, they”muff be
hoed a third time. The weeds are how to be care¬
fully cut up, and the onions fingled out fo as to leave
them about fix inches fquare, by which means they
will grow much larger than if left too clofe. This,
if well performed, in cafe the weather proves dry,,
will keep the onions till they are fit to pull; but if the
weather ffiould prove moift, and any of the weeds-
take root again, the weeds muff be pulled out with
the hand; tor the onions having now begun to bulb,
muff not be difturbed with a hoe. Towards the
middle of Auguft the onions will have arrived at their
full growth, which may be known by their blades fal¬
ling to the ground and flirinking. At this time there¬
fore, before their necks or blades are withered ofiy
they ffioukl be drawn out of the ground, the extreme
part of the blade cut off, and. the onions laid upon
dry fpot of ground, obferving to turn them every
other day at ieaft, to prevent them from taking root
again ; which in moil! weather they would be apt to.
do. At any rate they are very apt to grow in the-
lofts where they are kept all winter ; the molt effec¬
tual method of preventing which is, with a hot iron,.
{lightly to touch their beards or roots, which will ef¬
fectually prevent their fprouting; but in doing this,
great caution muff be ufed not to i'corch the pulp ; for
that will caufe them to perilh loon after. In order to
fave feeds, you muff in the fpring make choice of fome
of the large!!, firmeft, and belt Ihapen onions, (in.
quantity proportionable to the feed youintend to lave)
and having prepared a piece of gooil ground, which
ftiould be well dug, and laid out in beds about three
feet wide, the onions muff be planted in the begin¬
ning of March in the following manner: Having {train¬
ed a line of about four inches within the fide of the
bed, you muff with a fpade throw out an opening fix
inches deep, the length of the bed, into which you
ffiould place the onions with their roots downward,,
at about nine inches diffance from each other; and
with a rake draw the earth into the opening again ta
cover
CEP [ 1758 ] C E R
Cepa cover the bulbs ; then proceed to remove the line
1 again about a foot farther back, where you muft make
Cephalan- an 0pening as before, and fo again, till the whole is
thus' finilhcd, by which you will have four rows.in each
bed; between each bed you muft allow the fpace of
two feet for an alley to go among them. In a month’s
time the leaves will appear above ground, and many
of the roots will produce three or four iialks each.
About the beginning of Juhe, when the flowers begin
to appear, the ftalks muft be tied to ftakes to prevent
them from being broke by their own weight. About
the end of Augult the feed will be ripe, which may
be known by the opening of the cells which contain
it, and its changing to a brown colour. When the
heads are cut off, they fliould be fpread abroad upon
coarle cloths in the fun, obferving to keep it under
flicker in the night, as alfo in wet weather. When
the heads are quite dry, the feeds fhould be beat out
from them; and after being cleared from the hulks,
and expoled one day to the fun to dry, they may be
put up in bags for ufe.
Belides the above mentioned fpecies of onions, the
fcallions, or efcallions, Welfli onions, and cives were
formerly in great repute. The former is a fort which
never forms any bulbs at the roots, and was chiefly
ufed in the fpring for green onions ; but is now be¬
come fo learce as hardly to he known. Some gar¬
deners inftead of the fcailion, fubltitute fueh onions as
decay and Iprout in the houl’e. Thefe they plant in
a bed early in the fpring, and in a Ihort time they
become large enough for ufe. The true fcallion is
eafily propagated by parting the roots either in fpring
or autumn ; but the latter is preferable. The roots
fliould be planted three or four in a hole, and about
fix inches diftance every way.
The cives are a very fmall fort of onion, which
never produce any bulbs, and feldoin grow above fix
inches high in the blade, which is very fmall and
flender. They grow in round bunches like the former.
They are propagated by parting their roots like the
former, and are very hardy.
The Welfli onions are propagated only for fpring
ufe ; they never make any bulbs, and are therefore
fit only to be ufed green for fallads. They are lown
in the end of July, in beds about three feet and a half
wide. In a fortnight’s time they appear above ground,
but in Oblober their blades die, and the ground be¬
comes quite naked ; in January, however, they will
again appear very ftrong, and in March will be fit to
draw for young onions.
Onions are fuppofed to afford little nourifliment;
and, when eaten liberally, produce flatulencies, occa-
fion thirft, head-achs, and turbulent dreams; in cold
phlegmatic habits, where vifcid mucus abounds, they
are undoubtedly of ufe, by their ftimulatory and at¬
tenuating qualities. By fame they are ftrongly re¬
commended in fupprtfiions of urine and dropfies.
Their chief medicinal ufe at prefent, however, is in
external applications, as a cataplafin for fuppurating
tumours, ire.
CEPHALALGIA, or head-ach. See (the hictex
fubjoined to) Medicine.
CEPHALANTHUS, button-wood ; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clals
of plants. There is only one fpecies, a native of North Cephalic
America, from whence the feeds are imported into |]
Britain, and great numbers of the plants railed in the Cerafn‘
gardens of the curious. It feldom rifes higher than
five or fix feet in this country. The branches come
out oppolite, fometimes by pairs, and at other times
there are three arifmg at the fame joint. The ends
of the branches are terminated by fpherical heads,
about the fize of a marble, each of which are com-
poled of many fmall flowers, funnel-fltaped, and of a
whitifh yellow colour, faftened to an axis that ftands
in the middle. They are propagated chiefly by feeds,
though many are alio railed from cuttings : they re¬
quire a little flicker from cold when young, as well
as from the fun in very hot weather ; but in other
refpedls are hardy enough. They thrive belt in a
moiil foil.
CEPHALIC, in a general meaning, fignifies any
thing belonging to the head.
Cephalic Medicines, are remedies for diforders
of- the head. Cordials are comprehended herein, as
are alfo whatever promotes a free circulation of the
blood through the brain.
Except when the diforder arifes from excefs of
heat, or an inflammatory difpofition in the head, moift
topicals fhould never be ufed ; but always dry ones.
To rub the head after it is fhaved proves an inftan-
taneous cure for a cephalalgia, a fluffing of the head,
and a weakttefs of the eyes, arifing from a weak and
relaxed ftate of the fibres. And as by every frefli
evacuation of the humours their quantity is not only
leflened, but all'o their recrementitious parts derived
thither, the more frequently the head is ftiaved, the
larger quantity of humour is difeharged ; fo that the
frequent fhaving of the head and beard is likewife a
perpetual blirter ; and in as much as it is ufeful, it is
a cephalic.
Cephalic Vein, in anatomy, creeps along the arm
between the ikin and the mufcles, and divides it into
two branches: the external goes down to the wrift,
where it joins the bafilica, and turns up to the back of
the hand ; the internal branch, together with a fmall
one of the bafilica, m^kes the mediana. See Plate
XVII. 10, 10. 12.
The ancients ufed to open tlrk vein for diforders of
the head, for which reafon it bears this name ; but a
better acquaintance with the circulation of the blopd
informs us, that there is no foundation for fuch a no¬
tion.
CEPHALONIA, the capital of an ifland of the
fame name, fituated in the Mediterranean, near the
coaft of Epirus, and fubjedl to the Venetians. E. Long.
21. N. Lat. 30. 30.
CEPHEUS, in fabulous hiftory, a king of Arcadia,
on whofe head Minerva faftening one of Medufa’s
hairs, he was rendered invincible.
Cepheus, in aftronomy, a conftellation of the nor¬
thern hemifphere. See Astronomy, n° 206.
CERAM, an ifland in the Indian ocean, between
the Molucca iflands on the north, and thofe of Amboyna
and Banda on the fouth, lying between E. Long. 126.
and 129. in S. Lat. 3. It is about 150 miles long,
and 60 broad ; and here the Dutch have a fortrefs,
which keeps the natives in fubjeetion.
CERAMBYX,
C E R [ 1759 ] C E R
Cerambyx CERAMBYX, in zoology, a genus of infers of
i , the beetle kind, belonging to the order of inle&a co-
Ceraunm. iCOpatera> -pile antenna, are long and fmall 5 the
brealt is fpinous or gibbous ; and the elytra are
linear. There are no lefs than 83 fpecies enumerated
by Linnaeus, principally diltinguiflied by the figure of
the breaft.
CERASTES, in zoology, the trivial name of a
fpectes of Anguis and Coluber.
CERASTIUM, mouse-ear ; a genus of the pen-
tagynia order, belonging -to the decandria clafs of
plants. There are 16 fpecies, but none of them poT-
iefled of any remarkable property.
C KRAS US, in botany. See Pru'nus.
CERATE, in pharmacy, a thickifh kind of oint¬
ment, applied to ulcerations, excoriations, tec. See
Pharmacy, 110980. roio, loii/rora.
CERATION, tire name given by the ancients to
the fmall feeds ofCeratonia, ufed by the Arabian phy-
ficians as a weight to adjuft the dofes of medicines ;
as the grain weight with us took its rife from a grain
of barley.
Ceration, or Ceratium, was alfo a filver coin,
equal to one third of an obelus.
CERATOCEPHALUS, in botany. See Bidens.
CERATOIDES, in botany. See Urtica.
CERATONIA, the Carob, cr St John’s-bread;
•a genus of the polyaecia ol der, belonging to the poly-
gctmia clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies, a
native of Spain, of fome parts of Italy, and the Le¬
vant. It is an ever-green ; and, in the countries
where it is native, grows in the hedges. It produces
a quantity of long, flat, brown-coloured pods, which
are thick, mealiy, and of a fweetifh tafle. Thefe
pods -are many times eaten by the poorer fort of in¬
habitants when there is a fcarcity of other food ; but
they are apt to loofen the belly, and caufe gripings
of the bowels. The tree may be propagated in this
country from feeds, which are to be Town on a mo¬
derate hot-bed, and the plants inured to the open air
by degrees.
CERAUNIA, Ceraunias, or Ceraunius, La¬
pis, in natural hiftory, a fort of flinty ftone of ho
certain colour, but of a pyramidal or wedge-like fi¬
gure ; popularly fuppofed to fall from the clouds in the
time of thunder-ftorms, and to be pofleffed of divers
notable virtues, as promoting fleep, preferving from
lightning, ire. The word is from the Greek y.epa.vv<&,
thunderbolt. The ceraunia is the fame witli what is
otherwife called the thunder-flone, or thunder-bolt;
and alfo fometimes fagitta, or arrow’s-head, on ac¬
count of its fnape. The cerauni* are frequently con¬
founded with the ombriae and brontiae, as being all
fuppofed to have the fame origin. The generality
of naturalifts take the eeraunia for a native flone,
formed among the Pyrites, of a faline, concrete, mi¬
neral juice. Mercatus and Dr Woodward affert it to
be artificial, and to have been falhioned thus by tools.
The ceraunia, according to thefe authors, are the heads
of the ancient weapons of war, in ufe before the in¬
vention of iron ; which, upon the introduction of that
metal, growing into difufe, were difperfed in the fields
through this and that neighbouring country. Some of
them had pofiibly ferved in the early ages for axes,
others for wedges, others for chiflels ; but the greater Ccrhera
part for arrow-heads, darts, and lances. The cerau- II
nia is alfo held by Pliny for a white or cryftal-coloured
gem, that attracted lightning to itfelf. What this
was, is hard to fay. Prudentius alfo fpeaks of a yel¬
low ceraunia; by which he is fuppofed to mean the
carbuncle or pyropus.
CERBERA, in botany; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
The moft remarkable fpecies is the atroucir, a native
of the warm parts of America. It rifes with an irre¬
gular Item to the height of eight or ten feet, fending
out many crooked diiiufed branches, which towards
their tops are garniflied with thick fuccult nt leaves of
a lucid green, fmooth, and very full of a milky juice.
The flowers come out in loofe bunches at the end of
the branches ; they are of a cream colour, having
long narrow tubes, and at the top are cut into five ob-
tufe fegments, which feem twifted, fo as to Band ob¬
lique to the tube. The wood of this tree Rinks moft
abominably, and the kernels of the nuts are a deadly
poifon to which there is no antidote ; fo that the In¬
dians will not even ufe the wood for fuel.
CERBERUS, in fabulous hillory, a dreadful three¬
headed mafliff, born of Typhon and Echidna, and pla¬
ced to guard the gates of hell. He fawned upon thofe
who entered, but devoured all who attempted to get
back. He was, however, maftered by Hercules, who
dragged him up to-the earth, when, in .ftrugghng, a
foam dropped from his mouth, which produced the
poifonons herb called aconite or wo/’s-bane.
CERCELE, in heraldry : a crofs cercele is a crofs,
which opening at the ends, turns round both ways like
a ram’s horn. See Cross.
CERCIS, the Judas-tree ; a genus of the mono¬
gynia order, belonging to.the decandria clafs of plants.
Species 1. The liliquaflrum, or common Judas-tree,
is a native of the fouth of France, Spain, and Italy.
It riles with an upright trunk to the height of 12 or
14 feet, covered with a dark reddilh bark, and divides
upward into many irregular branches, gain tilled with
round, heart-fhaped, fmooth leaves, placed irregularly
on the branches, having long foot-ftalks. The flowers
come out on every fide of the branches, and many
times from the Hem of the tree, in chrlters, having
fhort foot-(talks; they are of a very bright purple co¬
lour, fo make a fine appearance, efpecially when the
brandies are covered pretty thick with them. The
leaves having an agreeable poignancy, are frequently
eaten in fallads. There are other two varieties of this
tree; one with a white, and the other with a flelh-co-
loured flower; but the firfl: is the mod beautiful. 2.
The canadenfis, or red-bud tree, is a native of molt
parts ofNorthAmerica, and hath flowers refembltngthe
former, but inferior in beauty. Thefe plants are hardy
enough to bear the open air, and are eafily propaga¬
ted from feeds. The wood of the flrft fort is beau¬
tifully veined with black and green,' and takes a fine
polilh. By the Portugufe it is called the tree of love.
CERCOPITHECI, in natural hiilory, the name gi¬
ven by Mr Ray to monkeys, or the clafs of apes with
long tails. See Ape and Simia.
CERDA (John Lewis de la), a learned Jefuit of
Toledo, wrote large commentaries on Virgil, which
have
C E R [ 1760 ] C E R
Cerdonians have been much efteemed ; alfo feveral other works.
II He dieciin 1643, aged 80.
Cerebellum. CERDONIANS, ancient heretics, who maintained
moft of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and
the Manichees. They took their name from their
leader Cerdon, a Syrian, who came to Rome in the
time of Pope Hygimis, and there abjured his errors:
but in appearance only ; for he was afterwards con-
victed of^perfifting in them, and accordingly call out
of the church again. Cerdon aflerted two principles;
the one good, and the other evil: this laft, according
to him, was the creator of the world, and the god
that appeared under the old law. The firft, whom
he called unknown, was the father of Jeftis Chrill;
who, he taught, was incarnate only in appearance, and
was not born of a virgin; nor did he fulfer death but
in appearance. He denied the refurreclion; and re-
jedted all the books of the Old Teftament, as coming
"from an evil principle. Marcion, his difciple, fuc-
ceeded him in his errors.
CEREALIA, in antiquity, feafts of Ceres, inftituted
by Triptolemus, fon of Celeus king of Eleufine in At¬
tica, in gratitude for his having been inftrudted by
Ceres, who was fuppofed to have been his nurfe, in
the art of cultivating corn and making bread.
There were two feafts of this kind at Athens; the
one called Eltuftnia, the other Thefttiophoria. See the
article Eleusinia. What both agreed in, and was
common to all the cenalia, was, that they were cele¬
brated with a world of religion and purity ; fo that
it was efteemed a great pollution to meddle, on thofe
days, in conjugal matters. . It was not Ceres alone
that was honoured here, but alfo Bacchus. The vic¬
tims offered were hogs, by reafon of the wafte they
make in the products of the earth : whether there
was any wine offered, or not, is matter of much de¬
bate among the critics. Plautus and Macrobius feem
to countenance the negative fide ; Cato and Virgil the
politive. Macrobius fays, indeed, they did not offer
wine to Ceres, but mulfutn, which was a compofii on
of wine and honey boiled up together : that the fa-
crifice made on the 21 ft of December to that goddefs
and Hercules, was a pregnant fow, together with
cakes and mulfum ; and that this is what Virgil means
by Mill Baccho. The cerealia paffed from the Greeks
to the Romans, who held them for eight days fuccef-
fively; commencing, as generally held,' on the fifth
of the ides of April. It was the women alone who
were concerned in the celebration, all dreffed in white:
the men, likewife in white, were only fpe&ators.
They eat nothing till after fun-fet; in memory of
Ceres, who in her fearch after her daughter took no
repaft but in the evening.
After the battle of Cannse, the defolation was fo
great at Rome, that there were no women to cele¬
brate the feaft, by reafon they were all in mourning;
fo that it wrs omitted that year.
Cerealia, in botany, from Ceres the goddefs of
corn; Linnteus’s name for the larger efculent feeds of
the graffes : thefe are rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats,
millet, panic grafs, Indian millet, hoicus, zizania, and
maize. To this head may be likewife referred darnel,
(loliurn) ; which, by preparation, is rendered efculent.
CEREBELLUM. See Anatomy, n° 398.
CEREBRUM, the brain. Its ftrutfture and ufe are
not fo fully known as fome other parts of the body,
and different authors confider it in various manners.
However, according to the obfervations of thofe moft
famed for their accuracy and dexterity in anatomical
inquiries, its general ftrudture is as given in Ana¬
tomy, n° 397.
Dr Hunter obferves, that the principal parts of the
medullary fubftance of the brain in ideots and mad¬
men, fuch as the thalarni nervoru?n optiejorum, and me¬
dulla oblongata, are found entirely changed from a
medullary to a hard, tough, dark-coloured fubftance,
fometimes refembling white leather.
CEREMONIAL, (ceremoniale), a book in which is
preferibed the order of the ceremonies to be obferved
in certain actions and ocqafions of folemnity and pomp.
The ceremonial of the Roman church is called ordo
Romanus. It was publilhed in 1516 by the bifhop of
Corcyra; at which the college of cardinals were fo
fcandalized, that fome of them voted to have the au¬
thor as well as book burnt, for his temerity in expoling
the facred ceremonies to the eyes of profane people.
Ceremonial is alfo ufed for the fet or fyftem of
rules and ceremonies which cuftom has introduced for
regulating our behaviour, and which perfons pradtife
towards each other, either out of duty, decency, or ci¬
vility.
Ceremonial, in a more particular fenfe, denotes
the manner in which princes and ambaffadors ufe' to
receive and to treat one another. There are endlefs
difputes among fovereigns about the ceremonial: fome
endeavouring to be on a level, and others to be fupe-
rior; infomuch that numerous febemes have been pro-
pofed for fettling them. The chief are, 1. to accom¬
modate the difference by compromife, or alternation,
fo that one Ihall precede now, the other the next
time; or one in one place, and the other in another:
2. By feniority; fo that an elder prince in years (hall
precede a younger, without any other diftindtion.
Thefe expedients, however, have not yet been ac¬
cepted of by any, except fome alternate princes, as
they are called, in Germany.
Ceremonial is more particularly ufed in fpeaking
of the laws and regulations given by Mofes relating
to the worlhip of God among the ancient Jews. In
this fenfe it amounts to much the fame with what is
called the Levitical law, and Hands contradiftinguilhed
from the moral as well as judicial law.
CEREMONY, an affemblage of feveral adlions,
forms and circumftances, ferving to render a thing
more magnificent and folemn.
In 1646, M. Ponce publiflied a hiftory.of ancient ce¬
remonies, tracing the rife, growth, and introdudlion
ol each rite into the church, and its gradual advance¬
ment to fuperftition therein. Many of them were
borrowed from Judaifm ; but more, feemingly, from
Paganifm. Dr Middleton has given a fine difeourfe
on the conformity between the pagan and popilh ce¬
remonies, which he exemplifies in the ufe of incenfe,
holy water, lamps, and candles,, before the ihrines of
faints, votive gifts or offerings round the fhrines of the
deceafed, terc. In effect the altars; images, croffes,
proceffions, miracles, and legends; nay, even the very'
hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, ire. of the pre-
Cerebrutn
II
Ceremony.
C E R [ 1761 ] C E R
Ceremonies fent Romans, he fhews are all copied from their hea-
fi then anceftors.—We have an ample and magnificent
^ere3, account of the religious ceremonies and cuftoms of all
nations in the world, reprefented in figures deligned by
Picart, with hiltorical explanations, and many curious
diflertationsv
Majter of thi Ceremonies, an officer inllituted by
king James I. for the more honourable reception of
ambaffadors and flrangers of quality. He wears about
his neck a chain of gold, with a medal under the
crown of Great Britr.in, having on one fide an em¬
blem of peace, with this motto, be all pacifici; and on
the other, an emblem of war, with Dieu et mon droit:
his falary is 300 /. per annum.
Afiiflatit Majier of the Ceremonies, is to execute
the employment in all points, whenfoever the mafter
of the ceremonies is abfent. His falary is 141 /. 13 /.
and 4</. per annum.
Marjhal of the Ceremonies is their officer, being
fubordinate to them both. His falary is 100/. per
annum.
CERENZA, a town of Italy in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Hither Calabria, with a bifhop’s
fee. It is feated on a rock in E. Long. 17. 5. N.
Lat. 39. 23.
CERES, a Pagan deity, the inventor or goddefs of
corn ; in like manner as Bacchus was of wine.
According to the poets, fhe was the daughter of Sa¬
turn and Ops, and the mother of Proferpine, whom
fhe had by Jupiter. Pluto having ftolen away Pro¬
ferpine, Ceres travelled all over the world in queft of
her daughter, by the help of a torch, which fhe had
lighted in Mount /Etna.
As Ceres was thus travelling in fearch of her daugh¬
ter, fhe came to Ceieus king of Eleufis, and under¬
took to bring up his infant fon Triptolemus. Being
defirous to render her charge immortal, fhe fed him
in the day-time with divine milk, and in the night co¬
vered him with fire. Ceieus obferving an unufual
improvement in his fon, refolved to watch his nurfe,
to which end he hid himfelf in that part of the houfe
where fhe ufed to cover the child with fire ; but when
he faw her put the infant under the embers, he cried
out and difeovered himfelf. Ceres punifhed the cu-
nofity and indiferetion of the father with death. Af¬
terwards fhe taught the youth the ait of fowing corn
and other fruits, and mounted him in a chariot drawn
by winged dragons, that he might traverfe the world,
and teach mankind the ufe of corn and fruits. After
this, having difeovered, by means of the nymph Are-
thufa, that Proferpine was in the infernal regions, fhe
applied to Jupiter, and obtained of him that Profer¬
pine fliould be reflored, on condition that fhe had tailed
nothing during her flay in that place: but it being
difeovered, by the information of Afcalapbys, that, as
fhe was walking in Pluto’s orchard, fhe had gathered
an apple, and had tailed of fome of the feeds, fhe was
for ever forbidden to return. Ceres, out of revenge,
turned Afcalaphus into an owl. At length, Jupiter,
to mitigate her grief, permitted that Proferpine fhould
pafs one half of the year in the infernal regions with
Pluto, and the other half with her mother on earth.
Cicero fpeaks of a temple of Ceres at Catanea in
Sicily, where was a very ancient flatue of that god-
Vol. III.
defs, but entirely concealed from the fight of men, Ceret
every thing being performed by matrons and virgins. J
CERET, a town of France in Rouffillon, with a Cenntlni-
magnificent bridge of a fingle arch. It is feated near
the river Tec, in E. Long. 2. ef. N. Lat. 42. 23.
CEREUS, in botany. See Cactus.
CERIGO, an ifland in the Archipelago, anciently
called Cytherea ; noted for being the birth place of
Helen, and, as the poets fay, of Venus. At prefen t,
there is nothing very delightful in the place ; for the
country is mountainous, and the foil dry. It abounds
in hares, quails, turtle, and excellent falcons. It is
about 50 miles in circumference, and had formerly
good towns; but there is now none remaining but
that which gives name to the ifland. This is llrong
both by art and nature, it being feated on a craggy
rock. The inhabitants are Chriltian Greeks, and fub-
je£t to the Venetians, who keep a governor there,
whom they change every two years.
CERINES, a town in the ifland of Cyprus, with a
good caftle, an harbour, and a bifliop’s fee. E. Long.
33. 35. N. Lat. 35. 22.
CERINTHE, honeywort; a genus of themono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are three fpecies, natives of Germa¬
ny, Italy, and the Alps. They are low annual plants
with purple, yellow and red flowers, which may be
propagated by feed fown in autumn, in a warm fitu-
ation.
CERINTHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied the
deity of Jefus Chrilt.—They took their name from
Cerinthus, one of the firfl herefiarchs in the church,
being cotemporary with St John. See Cerinthus.
They believed that Jefus Chrift was a mere man,
born of Jofeph and Mary : but that, in his baptifm,
a celeltial virtue defeended on him in form of a doyo;
by means whereof he was confecrated by the holy
fpirit, and made Chrift. It was by means of this ce-
leftial virtue, therefore, that he wrought fo many mi¬
racles ; which, as he received it from heaven, quitted
him after his paflion, and returned to the place whence
it came : fo that Jefus, whom they called a pure-man,
really died and rofe again ; but that Chrift, who was
diftinguiflied from Jefus, did not fuffer at all. It was
partly to refute this fedl, that St John wrote his go-
fpel. They received the gofpel of St Matthew, to
countenance their doiftrine of circumcifion, from
Chrift’s being circumcifed; but they omitted the ge¬
nealogy. They difearded the epiftles of St Paul, be-
caufe that apoftle held circumcifion aboliflied.
CERINTHUS, a hereliarch, cotemporary with the
apoftles, aferibed the creation not to God, but to an¬
gels. He taught that Jefus Chrift was the fon of Jo¬
feph, and that circumcifion ought to be retained under
the gofpel. He is looked upon as the head of the
converted Jews, who raifed in the church of Antioch
the tumult of which St Luke has given the hiftory in
the 15th chapter of the Adis. Some authors aferibe
the book of the apocalypfe to Cerinthus ; adding, that
he put it off under the name of St John, the better to
authorife his reveries touching Chrift’s reign upon
earth : and it is even certain that he publifhed fome
works of this kind under the title of Apocaiypfe. See
Apocalypse.
10 O
CERT HI A;
G E 11 [ 1762 ] CEE
Certhia CERTHIA, in ornithology, the CREEPER or ox-
II . E y e, a genus belonging to the order of picas. The beak
Certiorari- of this genus is arched, flender, fltarp, and triangular ;
the tongue is fharp at the point ; and the feet are of
the walking kind, i. e. having the toes open and un-
conncbled. There are 25 ipecies, of which only the
familiaris, or common ox-eye, is a native of Britain.
It is grey above, and white underneath, with brown
wings and ten white fpots on the ten prime feathers.
It creeps up trees lays about 20 eggs ; and feeds
upon caterpillars, and the eggs of infects.
CERTIFICATE (TVitf/by), in the law of England,
a fpecies of trial allowed in fuch cafes where the evi¬
dence of the perfon certifying is the only proper cri-
* See Trial terion of the point in difpute *. For when the fact
in queftion lies out of the cognizance of the court,
the judges muft rely on the foiemn averment or in¬
formation of perfons in fuch a llation as aftords them
the molt clear and competent knowledge of the truth.
BLck/f. as therefore fuch evidence, if given to a jury, mull
Comment. jiavrc (}een corlciuflve> tiie laW) to fave trouble and cir¬
cuity, permits the fa<5t to be determined upon fuch certi¬
ficate merely. Thus, 1. If the ilfue be whether A was
abfent with the king in his army out of the realm in
, time of war, this Jhall be tried by the certificate of
the marefchal of the king’s holt in writing under his
feal, which {hall be fent to the juilices. 2. If, in or¬
der to avoid an outlawry, or the like, it was alledged
that the defendant was in prifon, ultra mare, at Bour-
deaux, or in the fervice of the mayor of Bourdeaux,
' this Ihould have been tried by the certificate of the
mayor; and the like of the captain of Calais. But
when this was law, thofe towns were under the do¬
minion of the crown of England. And therefore, by
a parity oF reafon, it fhould now hold, that in fimilar
cafes arifing at Jamaica or Minorca, the trial Ihould
be by certificate from the governor of thofe iflands.
We alfo find that the certificate of the queen’s mef-
fenger, fent to fummon home a peerefs of the realm,
was formerly held a fufficient trial of the contempt in
refufing to obey fuch fummons. 3. For matters with¬
in the realm ; the cuftoms of the city of London
{hall be tried by the certificate of the mayor and al¬
dermen, certified by the mouth of their recorder ;
upon a furmife from the party alleging it, that the
cuftom ought to be thus tried : elfe it muft be tried by
the country. As, the cuftom of diftributing the ef¬
fects’ of freemen deceafed ; of enrolling apprentices;
or that he who is free of one trade may uie another;
if any of thefe, or other fimilar points come in iflue.
4. The trial of all cuftoms and praCtice of the courts
{hall be by certificate from the proper officers of thofe
courts refpeCtively ; and what return was made on a
writ by the Iheriff or under-flieriff, {hall be only tried
by his own certificate.
CERTIORARI, in law, a writ which iffues out of the
chancery, directed to an inferior court, to call up the
records of a caufe there depending, in order that juftice
may be done. And this writ is obtained upon com¬
plaint, that the party who feeks it has received hard
iffage, or is not. like to have an impartial trial in the
inferior court. A certiorari is made returnable either
in the king’s bench, common pleas, or in chancery.
It is not only ilfued out of the court of chancery,
but likewife out of the king’s bench, in which lafi: men- Certitude
tinned court it lies where the king would be certified 1
of a record. Indictments from inferior courts, and Ccru‘?•
proceedings of the* quarter-feflions of the peace, may
alfo be removed into the king’s bench by a certiorari:
and here the very record muft be returned, and not
a tranfeript of it ; though ufually in chancery, if a
certiorari be returnablethere, it removes only the tenor
of the record.
CERTITUDE, confidered in the things or ideas
which are the objects of our underftanding, is a ne-
ceftary agreement or difagreement of one part of our
knowledge with another : as applied to the mind, it
is the perception of fuch agreement or difagreement;
or fuch a firm well-grounded aflent, as excludes not
only all manner of doubt, but all conceivable pofiibi-
lity of a miftake.
There are three forts of certitude, or affiirance, ac¬
cording to the different natures and circumftances of
things.
I. A phyfical or natural certitude, which depends
upon the evidence of lenfe ; as that I fee fuch or fuch
a colour* or hear fuch or fuch a found ; no body que-
ftions the truth of this,, where the organs, the medium,
and the object, are rightly difpofed. 2. Mathematical
certitude is that arifing from mathematical evidence ;
fuch is, that the three angles of a triangle are equal
to two right ones. 3. Moral certitude is that founded
on moral evidence, and is frequently equivalent to
a mathematical one ; as that there was formerly fuch
an emperor as Julius Caefar, and that he wrote the
commentaries which pafs under his name; becaufe
the hiftorians of thefe times have recorded it, and no
man has ever difproved it fince : this affords a moral
certitude, in common fenfe fo great, that one would,
be thought a fool or a madman for denying it.
CERTOSA, a'celebrated Carthufian monaftery, in
the territory of the Favefe, In the duchy of Milan,
four miles from Pavia ; its park is furrounded with a
wall 20 miles in circumference ; but there are feve-
ral fmall towns and villages therein.
CERVANTES. See Saavedra.
CERVERA, a town of Spain in Catalonia, feated
on a fmall river of the fame name, in E. Long. 1. 9.
N. Lat. 41.2S.
CERVIA, a fda-port town pf Italy, in Romagna,
with a biffiop’s fee, feated on the gulph of Venice, in
E. Long. 1;. 5. N. Lat. 44. 16.
CERUSS, white-lead, a fort of calx of lead,
made by expofing plates of that metal to the vapour
of vinegar. See Chemistry, n° 281.
Cerufs, as a medicine, is ufed externally either mix¬
ed in ointments, nr by fprinkling it on old gleeting
and watery ulcers, and in many difeafes of the Ikin.
If, when it is reduced into a fine powder, it is receiv¬
ed in with the breath in infpiration, and carried down
into the lungs, it caufes terrible afthmas, that are al-
moft incurable, and at la ft generally prove fatal: fad
inftances of the very pernicious effeifts of this metal
are too often feen among thofe perfons who work
lead in any form, but particularly among the workers
in white-lead.
The painters ufe it in great quantities ; and that it
may be afforded cheap to them, it is generally adulte¬
rated
C E R [ 1763 ] C E R
Cervus.' rated with common whiting : the Englifh and Dutch
  cerufs are very bad in this refpedt : the Venetian
ought always to be ufed by apothecaries.#'
Ceruss of Antimony. See Pharmacy, n° 777.
CER.VUS, or Deer, in zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The horns
are folid, brittle, covered with a hairy Ikin, and grow¬
ing from the top; they likewife fall off and are re¬
newed annually. There are eight fore-teeth in the
under jaw, and they have no dog-teeth. The fpecies
of this genus enumerated by Linnaeus are feven, viz.
1. The Camelopardalis, or Giraffe, with limple or
unbranched horns, and the fore-feet remarkably longer
than the hind-feet. This is an uncommon animal, few
of them having ever been feen in Europe. It is a
native of ^Ethiopia, and is very mild and gentle :
the head is like that of a flag ; its horns are blunt
and about fix inches long. The neck refembles that
of a camel, but is much longer, being iometimes feven
feet in length. The body is fmall, covered with white
hair, and fpotted with red. He is 18 feet in length
from the tail to the top of the head ; and when he
holds up his head, it is 16 feet from the ground. He
feeds principally on the leaves of trees : for, from
the ftrange length of his fore-legs, he cannot graze,
without dividing them to a vaft diftance. He kneels
like a camel, when he would lie down.
2. The Alces, or Elk, has pahnated horns, without
any proper ftem, and a flelhy protuberance on the
throat. The neck is much (horter than the head, with
a fliort, thick, upright mane, of a light brown colour.
The eyes are fmall; the ears a foot long, very broad and
flouching ; noftrils very large ; the upper lip fquare,
hangs greatly over the lower, and has a deep fulcus
in the middle, fo as to appear almoit bifid. This is
the largeit animal of the deer kind. At the fair of
St Germain at Paris, in the year 1752, a female elk
was exhibited as a Ihow. It was caught in the year
1749, in a foreft of Red Ruffia, belonging to a khan
of Tartary. The height was fix feet feven inches,
the length ten feet, and the thicknefs eight. The
hair was long, like that of a wild boar. The elk is
a very fwift animal; and he feeds upon leaves of al¬
der, birch, willow, ire. When tamed, he devours
large quantities of hay or bread. This animal is found
in the northern parts of Europe, Afia, and America.
They live amidft the forefis for the conveniency of
browfing the boughs of trees; for the great length of
their legs, and the fliortnefs of their neck, prevent
them from grazing with any fort of eafe. They of¬
ten feed on water-plants, which they can readily get
at by wading, and M. Sarrafin fays, they are fo fond
of the anagyris feetida, or (linking bean-trefoil, as to
dig for it with their feet, when covered with fnow.
They have a fingular gait their pace is a high fham-
bling trot, but they go with vaft fwiftnefs. In old
times thefe animals were made ufe of in Sweden to
draw fledges ; but as they were frequently acceffary
to the efcapg of murderers and other great criminals,
the ufe was prohibited under very fevere penalties.
In palling through thick woods they carry their heads
horizontally, to prevent their horns being entangled
in the branches. In their common walk they raife
their fore-feet very high ; and will with great eafe
ftep over a rail a yard in height. They are inoffen- Cemv
five animals except when wounded, or in the rutting 
fealbn, when they become very furious, and at that
time fwim from ifle to file in purfuit of the females.
They ftrike with both horns and hoofs; are hunted
in Canada during winter, when they fink fo deep in
the fnow, as to become an eafy prey. The fldh is
much commended for being light and nourilhing, but
the nofe is accounted the greateft delicacy in all Cana¬
da : the tongues are much efteemed, and are frequently
brought here from Rulfia ; the Ikin makes excellent
buff-leather ; Linnaeus lays, it will turn a mulket-bail:
the hair which is on the ne ck, withers, and hams of the
full grown elk, is ufed in making mattrefles. It is
very long, and very elaftic. The hoofs were fuppofed
to have great virtues in curing the epilepiy. It was
pretended that the elk being fubjedt to that difeafe,
cured itfelf by fcratching its ear with its hoof. The
elk was known to the Romans by the name of Ales
and Machlis: they believed that it had no joints in its
legs ; and, from the great lize of the upper lip, ima¬
gined it could not feed without going backward as it
grazed.
3. The Elaphus, or Stag, with long cylindrical rami¬
fied horns bent backwards. The colour of the ftag is
generally a reddilh brown with tome black about die
face, and a black lift down the hind part of the neck
and between the Ihoulders. This animal is common
to Europe, Barbary, the north of Afia, and America.
Lives in herds: one male generally fupreme in each
herd. Furious and dangerous in rutting-time : feeks
the female with a violent braying. Rutting feafon in
Auguft. Begins to Ihed its horns the latter end of
February, or beginning of March: recovers them en¬
tirely by July. Fond of the found of the pipe j will
Hand and liften attentively. The account of the cer-
vina fenedus, or vaft longevity of the ftag, is fabulous.
Hinds go with young above eight months; bring one
at a time, feldom two; fecure the young from the
ftag, who would deftroy it. Flefli of thefe animals
coarfe and rank ; Ikin ufeful for many purpofes. The
horns give name to the common volatile alcalline fpirits
fold in the Ihops for fmelling to.
In Britain the ftag is become lefs common than for¬
merly ; its exceflive vidoufnefs during the-rutting fea¬
fon, and the badnefs of its flelh, induce moft people to
part with the fpecies. Stags are ftill found wild in the
Highlands of Scotland, in herds of four or five hundred
together, ranging at full liberty over the vaft hills of
the north. Formerly the great Highland chieftains
ufed to hunt with the magnificence of an eaftern mo¬
narch, alfembling four or five thoufand of their clan,
who drove the deer into the toils, or to the ftations
the lairds had placed themfelves in : but as this pre¬
tence was frequently ufed to colled their valfals for
rebellious purpofes, an ad was paffed prohibiting any
aflemblies of this nature. Stags are likewife met with
on the moors that border on Cornwal and Devonfliire;
and in Ireland on the mountains of Kerry, where they
add greatly to the magnificence of the romantic fee-
nery of the lake of Killarny. The flags of Ireland
during its uncultivated ftate, and while itfemained an
almoft boundlefs trad of foreft, had an exad agree¬
ment in habit with thofe that range at prefent through
10 O 2 the
C E R [ 1764 1 C E R
Cervus. the wilds of America. They were lefs in body, but
“ very fat; and their horns of a fize far fuperior to
thoi’e of Europe, but in form agreed in all points.
4. The Tarandus, or Rein-deer, is a native of
Lapland, and the northern parts of Europe, Alia, and
America. The horns are large, cylindrical, branched,
and palmated at the tops. Two of the branches hang
over the face. He is about the fize of a buck, of a dirty
whitilh colour ; the hairs of his fit in are thick and
* See Plate ftrong*. To the Laplanders this animal is the fubftimte
LXXV. of the horfe, the cow, the goat, and the fteep ; and
% 4- js the}r oniy wealth : the milk affords them cheefe ;
the flefli, food ; the Ikin, cloathing ; the tendons, bow-
ftrings ; and when fplit, thread ; the horns, glue ;
the bones, fpoons. During the winter it fupplies the
want of a horfe, and draws their fledges with amaz¬
ing fwiftnels over the frozen lakes and rivers, or
over the fnow, which at that time covers the whole
country. A rich Laplander is polfelled of a herd of
I coo rein-deer. In autumn they feek the higheft hills,
- to avoid the Lapland gad-fly, which at that time de-
pofits its eggs in their Ikin ; it is the peft of thefe ani¬
mals, and numbers die that are thus vifited. The
moment a Angle fly appears, the whole herd inftantly
perceives it ; they fling up their heads, tofs about
their horns, and at once attempt to fly for Ihelter
amidft the fnow's of the loftieft Alps. In fummer they
feed on feveral plants; but during winter on the rein¬
liverwort, which lies far beneath the fnow, which
they remove with their feet and palmated brow
antlers, in order to get at their beloved food. They
live only 16 years.
5. The Dama, Fallow-deer, or Buck and Doe ;
with horns branched, compreffed, and palmated at the
f See Plate top f. The colour of this deer is various; reddilh, deep
LXXIVi brown, white, or fpotted. Not fo univerfal as the
flag ; rare in France and Germany. Found in Greece,
the Holy Land, and the north of China. In great
abundance in England ; but, except on a few chafes,
» confined in parks. None originally in America. They
are eafily tamed ; and their flefli, which goes by the
name of venifon, is in high efteem among the luxu¬
rious : during rutting-time they will conteft with eafch
other for their miftrefs, but are lefs fierce than the
flag ; during that feafon, the male will form a hole
in the ground, make the female lie down in it, and
then often walk round and fmell at her. Moore fpeaks
of a fpecies found on the banks of the Gambia, in the
interior parts of Africa, near Barracunda, called To//-
cong, which he fays differed not in form from the
Englifli fallow-deer ; only that its fize was equal to
that of a fmall horfe, and weighed 300 lb. It had
aifo on its neck an erect black mane, four or five
inches long.
6. The Capreolus, or Roe-buck; has eretff, cylin¬
drical, branched horns, and forked at the top. The
roe-buck is the leaf! of the deer kind ; being only
three feet nine inches long, two feet three inches high
before, and two feet feven inches high behind ; weight
from 50 to 60 lb. Its make is very elegant, and
formed for agility. They prefer a mountainous woody
country to a plain one. They were formerly very com¬
mon in Wales, in the north of England, and in Scot¬
land ; but at prefent the fpecies nowhere exifts in
Great Britain, except in the Scottifti highlands. In Cervus
France thqy are more frequent; they are alfo found C{J0Ui
in Italy, Sweden, and Norway ; and in Afia they are ‘
met with in Siberia. The firft that are met with in
Great Britain are in the woods on the fouth-fide of
Loch-Rannoch, in Perthfliire : the lait in thofe of
Longwal, on the fouthern borders of Caithnefs ; but
they are moft numerous in the beautiful forefts of In-
vercauld, in the rriidft of the Grampian hills. They
are unknown in Ireland. Thefe animals do not keep
in herds like other deer, but only in families ; they
bring two fawns at a time, which the female is obli¬
ged to conceal from the buck while they are very
young. The flefli of this creature is reckoned a very
delicate food. Wild roes, during fummer, feed on
grafs ; and are very fond of the rubus faxatilis, called
in the Highlands the roe-buck berry ; but in the win¬
ter-time, when the ground is covered with fnow,
they browfe on the tender branches of the fir and birch.
7. The Guineenfis, about the fize of a cat, is of a
greyilh colour, and black underneath. It is a native
of Guinea, and the fize and figure of its horns have
not been hitherto defcribed with any precifion.
Cervus Volans, in natural hiftory, a name given
by authors to the ftag-fly, or horned beetle, a very
large fpecies of beetle with horns Hoped, and fome-
thing like thofe of the flag.
CESARE, among logicians, one of the modes of
the fecond figure of fyllogifms; the minor,propofition
of which is an univerfal affirmative, and the other two
univerfal negatives : thus,
Ce No immoral books ought to be read.
Sa But every obfcene book is immoral;
Re Therefore no obfcene books ought to be read.
CESENA, a town of Romagna in Italy, with a
bifhop’s fee, fubjeft to the pope, and featefl on the
river Savio, in E. Long. 12. 46. N. Lat. 44. 8.
CESPITOSAf plant®, (from cefpes, turf or fod,)
are thofe plants which produce many Items from one
root, and thence form a clofe thick carpet on the fur-
face of the earth.
Cespitos® Paludes, turf-bogs.
CESSATION, the adt of intermitting, difcontinuing,
or interrupting the courfe of any thing, work, adtion,
or the like.
Cessation of sir ms, an armiftice, or occafional
truce. See Truce.
When the commander of a place finds things redu¬
ced to an extremity, fo that he muft either furrender,
or facrifice the garrifon and inhabitants to the mercy
of the enemy, he plants a white flag on the breach,
or beats the chamade ; on which a ceffation of arms
and hoftilities commences, to give room for a capitu¬
lation.
CESSIO bonorum, in Scots law, the name of that
adlion by which an infolvent debtor may apply for li¬
beration from prifon, upon making over his whole real
and perfonal efiate to his creditors.
CESSION, in law, an adl by which a perfon furren-
ders and tranfmits to another perfon, a right which
belonged to himfelf. Cefllon is more particularly ufed
in the civil law for a voluntary furrender of a perfon’s
effedis to his creditors, to avoid imprifonment. See
the article Bankrupt.
In
I
' /, />r// r
Tlate IvXXIT.
C ATKA Bin CTT S,
v /f)//////(>// S/t'frrT?
Ceb.w? ID^ama ,
or /jrud.
CAPBIMm. GITS,
s//oAr/.
^' faj. 2. ( JODAll ^ t
£/re&. _
Plate XXXP.
TSf. 1.
C' AN ('ER ,/r
C E S [ 1765 ] GET
Ceflion In feveral places the ceffion carried with it a mark
II of infamy, and obliged the perfon to wear a green
Cettus. cap or bonnet. at: Lucca, an orange one : to neglect
this was to forfeit the privileges of the ceflion. This
wras originally intended to fignify that the ceflionary
was become poor through his own folly. The Italian
lawyers delcribe the ceremony of ceffion to conlift in
flriking the bare breech three times againft a ftone,
called Lapis Vituperii, in prefence of the judge. For¬
merly it confiited in giving up the girdles and keys in
court; the ancients uling to carry at their girdles the
chief utenfils wherewith they got their living; as the
fcrivener his efcritoire, the merchant his bag, ire.
The form of ceffion among the ancient Gauls and Ro¬
mans was as follows. The ceffionary gathered up dull
in his left hand from the four corners of the houfe, and
Handing on the threffiold, holding the door-poft in his
right hand, threw the duft back over his (boulders ;
then ftripping to his ffiirt, and quitting his girdle and
bags, he jumped with a pole over a hedge ; hereby
letting the world know, that he had nothing left, and
that when he jumped all he was worth was in the
air with him. This was the ceffion in crirthnal mat¬
ters. In civil cafes, it was fufficient to lay a broom, a
fwitch, or a broken ft raw, on the threffiold : this was
called chrenecruda per durpillum et feflucam.
Cession, in the ecclefiaftical law, is when an ec-
clefiaftical perfon is created a biffiop, or when a par-
fon of a pariffi takes another benefice, without difpen-
fation, or being otherwife qualified. In both thele
cafes their firft benefices became void by ceffion, with¬
out any refignation ; and to thofe livings that the per¬
fon had, who was created bifliop, the king may pre-
fent for that time, whofoever is patron of them ; and
in the other cafe the patron may prefent: but by dif-
penfation of retainder, a biffiop may retain fome or
all the preferments he was intitled to before he was
made biffiop.
CESTRUM, BASTARD JASMINE ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are fix fpecies, all of them natives of
the warmeft parts of America ; fo cannot be prefer-
ved in this country without artificial heat. They are
flowering ffirubs," riling in height from five to twelve
feet, with flowers of a white, herbaceous, or pale
yellow colour* The flowers of one Ipecies commonly
called Badmington Jafmine, have the property of fend¬
ing out a ftrong (cent after funfet. They may be pro-
.pagated either by feeds or cuttings.
CESTUI, a French word, lignifying he or him,
frequently ufed in the Engliffi law writings. Thus,
Cefhti qui trufl, a perfon who has lands, ire. commit¬
ted to him for the benefit of another; and if fuch per¬
fon does not perform his truft, he is compellable to it
in chancery. Cuflui qui vie, one for wliofe life any
lands, ire. are granted. Ceflui qui ufe, a perfon to
whofe ufe any one is infeoffed of lands or tenements.
Formerly the feoffees to ufes were deemed owners of
the lard, but now the poffeffion is adjudged in cefiui
qui ufe.
CESTUS, among ancient poets, a fine embroidered
girdle faid to be worn by Venus, to which Homer
aferibes the power of charming and conciliating
love.
CETACEOUS, an appellation given to the fillies Cetaceous,
of the whale kind ; the characters of which are : they II
have no gills ; there is an orifice on the top of the C£tus'
head, through which they breathe and ejeCt water ;
and they have a flat or horizontal tail.
Nature on this tribe hath beftowred an internal
ftruCture, in all refpeefts agreeing with that of quadru¬
peds ; and in a few others the external parts in both
are limilar. Cetaceous fiffi, like land animals, breathe
by means of lungs, being deftitute of gills. This
obliges them to rife frequently to the furface of the
water to refpire, to Ik-ep on the furface, as well as
to perform feveral other fun&ions. They have the
power of uttering founds, fuch as bellowing and.ma-
king other ncifes denied to genuine fiffi. Like land-
animals they have warm blood, are furniffied with or¬
gans of generation, copulate, bring forth, and lyckle
their young, ffiewing a ftrong attachment to them.
Their bodies beneath the Ikin are entirely furrounded
with a thick layer of fat (blubber), analogous to the
lard on hogs. The number of their fins never ex¬
ceeds three, viz. two peCloral fins, and one back fin ;
but in fome fpecies the Lift is wanting. Their tails
are placed horizontally, or flat in refpeCt to their bo¬
dies; contrary to the direction < fi thofe of all other
fiffi which have them in a perpendicular fite. This
fituation of the tail enables them to force themfelves
fuddenly to the furface of the water to breathe, which
they are lb frequently conftrained to do. Many of
thefe circumftances induced Linnaeus to place this tribe
among his mammalia, br what other writers call qua¬
drupeds*. To have preferved the chain of beings * geeZ^/a-
entire, he ffiould in this cafe have made the genus of gj, ne 7. g.
phoca; or Jeais, and that of the trichecus or manati,
immediately precede the whale, thole being the links
that connedt the mammalia or quadrupeds with the fiffi:
for the feal is, in relpeift to its legs, the moft imper-
feeft of the former clafs; and in the manati the hind feet
coalefce, alfuming the form of a broad horizontal tail.
Notwithftanding the many parts and properties
which cetaceous fiffi have in common with land ani¬
mals, yet there Hill remain others which render it
more natural to place them, with Ray, in the rank of .
fiffi : the form of their bodies agrees with that of fiffi;
they are entirely naked, or covered only with a
fmooth Ikin; they live conftantly in the water,and have
all the aftions of fifli.
CETE, the name of Linnseus’s feventh order of
mammalia, comprehending the Monodon, Baljena,
Physeter, and Delphinus.
CETERACH, in botany, the trivial name of a fpe¬
cies of Asplenium.
CETTE, a maritime town of France, in Langue¬
doc, feated at the place where the canal of Languedoc
begins, between Montpellier and Agde, on the bay of
Maguelona in the Mediterranean fea. E. Long. 3.15.
N. Lat. 43. 25.
CETUS, in aftronomy, the whale ; a large con-
ftellation of the fouthern hemifphere, under Pi fees,
and next the water of Aquarius. See Astronomy,
n° 206.
Cetus is reprefented by the poets, as the fea-mon-
fter which Neptune, at the fuit of the nymphs, lent to
devour Andromeda for the pride of her mother, and
which
C E ■ Y [ 17
Ceva which was killed by Perfeus. In the mandible of ce-
# tus is a variable liar winch appears and difappears
periodically, palling through the leveral degrees of
magnitude both increaiing and diminilhing, in about
333 days. See Astronomy, n° 9.
CEVA, a ftrong town of Piedmont in Italy, feated
or) the river Tanero,with a llrong fort, in E. Long. 8. 8.
N. Lat. 44. 20.
CEVENNES, mountains of Languedoc in France,
remarkable for the frequent meetings of the Prote-
ftants there as a place of fecurity againft the tyranny of
their governors. In queen Anne’s reign there was an
attempt made to affilt them by an Englilli fledt in the
Mediterranean ; but to no purpofe, for the French had
occupied the paflages.
CEU FA, a maritime town of Barbary in Africa,
and in the kingdom of Fez, feated on the Itraits of
Gibraltar, oppolite that place, in W. Long. 6. 25. N.
Lat. 36. 33. John king of Portugal took it from the
Moors in 1415, but it now belongs to Spain. In 1697,
it fuflained a vigorous fiege by the Moors.
CEYLON, a large illand in the Eaft Indies, about
230 miles in length and 200 in breadth. The air is
■very good ; the country full of mountains, but inter-
fperfed with fertile valleys; and it is remarkable for
producing excellent cinnamon. In fome places are
rich mines of fapphires, rubies, topazes, and cats-eyes,
befides other ftones of lefs value. There is alfo plenty
of wood for dyeing, and all other ufes. The animals
are cows, buffaloes, goats, hogs, tygers, monkeys, ire.
They have large elephants, and monltrous i'erpents
which are very dangerous. The ifland is alfo infefted
with ants, which do a great deal of mifehief. It lies
from E. Long. 78° to 82° and from N. Lat. 6° to io°.
The conqueft of this ifland was the firft attempt of
Albuquerque the celebrated Portuguefe admiral. Fie
found it well peopled, and inhabited by two different
nations, the Bedas inhabiting the northern, and the
Cinglatfes who dwelt in the fouthern parts. The for¬
mer were very barbarous, but the latter a good deal
more poliflied. Befides the advantages already men¬
tioned, which thefe nations derived from their mines
of precious ftones, they carried on the greateft pearl-
fiftiery in the Eaft. Thefe nations the Portuguefe con¬
quered, and tyrannized over in fuch a manner, that
they affifted the Dutch in expelling them from the
ifland ; and by their united efforts this was accompli-
Ihed in 1658, after a bloody and obftinate war. All
the Portuguefe fettlements fell into the hands of the
Dutch Eaft India company, who (till keep polfeffion
of them, excepting a fmall diftridt on the Eaftern
coaft without any port, from whence the fovereign of
the country had his fait. Thefe fettlements formed
a regular track, extending from two to twelve leagues
into the inland parts of the ifland. The company
have appropriated all the produdlions of the ifland.
The feveral articles of trade are, 1. Amethyfts, fap¬
phires, topazes, and rubies ; the laft are very fmall,
and very indifferent. The Moors who come from
the coaft of Coromandel buy them, paying a moderate
tax : and when they are cut, fell them at a low price
in the different countries of India. 2. Pepper, which
the company buy for about 4d. per pound ; coffee for
which they only pay 2 d. and cardamom which has no
i6 ] C H A
fixed price. Thefe articles are all of an inferior qua- Ceylon
lity, and through the indolence of-the inhabitants will li
never turn to any account. 3. An hundred bales of ctlaco’
handkerchief;, pagnes, and ginghams, of a fine red
colour, which are fabricated by the Malabars at Jafra-
napatan. 4. A fmall quantity of ivory, and about 50
elephants, which are carried to the coaft of Coroman¬
del. 5. Areca, which the company buys at about
8 s. pd. the ammonan, and fells on the Ipot at L. 1,
13 s. to the merchants of Bengal, Coromandel, and the
Maldives; who give in return rice, coarfe linen, and
cowries. 6. The pearl-filhery, which was formerly
of great confequence ; but is now lb much exhaufted
as not to bring in more than L. 8,750 per annum.
7. After all, the great object of the company is cin¬
namon. They purchafe the greateft part of their cin¬
namon of the Indians who are fubjeeft to them, and,
all expencqs deducted, it does not colt them above 6 d.
per pound. The annual expences of the colony may
amount to about L. 96,250; their revenues and fmall
branches of commerce produce only about L. 87,500.
This deficiency muft be fupplied out of the profits a-
riling from the cinnamon trade; and they are obliged
to provide for the expences of the wars in which they
are frequently engaged with the king of Candy, who
is at prefent the foie fovereign of the ifland. Thele
are very detrimental to the interefts of the Holland¬
ers; for which reafon they endeavoured to engage
the good will of this monarch by (hewing him all ima¬
ginable civilities. The harmony, however, has been
often interrupted. In a bloody war which terminated
on the 14th of February 1766, the Ceylonefe monarch
was driven from his capital, fo that the Dutch made a
very advantageous treaty. Their fovereignty was
acknowledged over all that part of the country they
poffefled before the troubles broke out; and that part
of the coafts held by the natives was ceded to them.
They were allowed to gather cinnamon in all the
plains ; and the court was to fell them the beft fort
which is produced in the mountains, at the rate of
L. 1 : 16 : 1, for 18 lb. The government engaged
to have no connection with any foreign power ; arid
even to deliver up any Europeans who may happen
to ftray into the ifland. In return for fo many concef-
fions, the king was to receive annually the value of
the produce of the ceded coafts; and from thence his
fubjeffts were to be furnifhed gratis with as much fait
as they had occafion for. The Ceylonefe are in the
moft miferable fltuatiori : they are in a ftate of total
inactivity; live in huts without any furniture ; and
fubfifl upon fruits: thofe who are the moft affluent
have no other covering than a piece of coarfe linen
wrapt about their wailt.
CHACE. See Chase.
CHACO, a large country of South America fituated
between 190 and 37“ S. Lat. It belongs to the Spani¬
ards, by whom it was conquered in 1536. It is not na¬
turally fruitful; but abounds in gold mines, which are
fo much the more valuable that they are eafily worked.
The works are carried on by about 8000 blacks, who
deliver every day to their mailers a certain quanti¬
ty of gold; and what they can collect above this, be¬
longs to themfelves ; as well as what they find on
thofe days that are confecrated to religion and reft,
upon
C H A [ 1767 ] C H A
Chadchod upon condition that during the feftival they maintain
|| themfelves. This enables many of them to purchafe
chaffinch, their liberty ; after which they intermarry with the
" * Spaniards.
CHADCHOD, in Jewifh antiquity. Ezekiel men¬
tions chadchod among the feveral merchandizes which
were brought to Tyre. The old interpreters, not
very well knowing the meaning of this term, con¬
tinued it in their tranflation. St Jerom acknowledges
that he could not difcover the interpretation of it.
The Chaldee interprets it pearls ; others think that
the onyx, ruby, carbuncle, cryftal, or idiamond is
meant by it.
CH/EROPHYLLUM, Chervil; a genus of .the
digynia order, belonging to the pentanclria clafs of
plants. There are feven fpecies, two of which, cal¬
led cow-weed, and wildc hervil, are weeds common
in many places of Britain. The roots of the firft have
been found poifonous when ufed as parfnips: the
rundles afford an indifferent yellow dye; the leaves
and italks a beautiful green. Its prefence indicates a
fertile and grateful foil. It ought to be rooted out
from all paltures early in the Ipring, as no animal
but the afs will eat it. It is one of the moft early
plants in {hooting, fo that by the beginning of April
the leaves are near two feet high. The leaves are
recommended by Geoffroy as aperient and diuretic,
and at the fame time grateful to the palate and fto-
mach. He even afferts, that dropfies which do not
yield to this medicine can fcarcely be cured by any o-
ther. He directs the juice to be given in the dole of
three or four ounces every fourth hour, and continued
for fome time either alone, or in conjunction with
nitre and fyrup of the five opening roots.—The o-
ther fpecies of chaerophyllum are not poffeffed of any
, remarkable property.
CKZETODON, in ichthyology, a genus of fifties
belonging to the order of thoraci. The teeth are ve¬
ry numerous, thick, fetacious, and flexile ; the rays of
the gills are fix. The back-fin and the fin at the a-
nus are fleflty and fquamous. There are 23 fpecies,
diftinguifted from each other principally by the figure
of the tail, and the number of fpines in the back-fin.
The moft remarkable is the roftratus, or ftooting-fift,
having a hollow, cylindrical beak. It is a native of
the Eaft Indies, where it frequents the fides of the
fea and rivers in fearch of food, from its lingular
manner of obtaining which it receives its name. .When
it fpies a fly fitting on the plants that grow in {hal¬
low water, it fwims on to the diftance of four, five,
or fix feet; and then, with a furprifing dexterity, it
ejufts out of its tubular mouth a Angle drop of wa¬
ter, which never fails ftriking the fly into the water,
where it foon becomes its prey.
CHAFERY, in the iron-works, the name of one of
i the two principal forges. The other is called the fi¬
nery. When the iron has been brought at the finery
into what is called an ancony, or fquare mal's, ham¬
mered into a bar in its middle, but with its two ends
rough, the bufinefs to be done at the chafery is the
reducing the whole to the fame Ihape, by hammering
down thefe rough ends ;o the ftape of the middle part.
CHAFFINCH, in ornithology, the Englift name of
a fpecies of Fringilla.
CKAGRE, a fort of America in the province of Chain.
Darien at the mouth of a river of the fame name. It
has been taken feveral times by the bucaneers, and
laft of all by Admiral Vernon in 1740. W. Long.
82. 7. N. Lat. 9. 50.
CHAIN, (Catena), a feries of feveral rings,or links,
fitted into one another.
There are chains ofdivers matters, fizes, forms, and
for divers ules.—Ports, rivers, ftreets, ire. are do-
fed with iron chains: rebellious cities are punifted by
taking away their chains and barriers.
The arms of the kingdom of Navarre are, Chains
Or, in a field Gules. The occafion hereof is referred
to the kings of Spain leagued againft the Moors ; who
having gained a celebrated victory againft them in
1212, in the diftribution of the fpoils the magnificent
tent of Miralmumin fell to the king of Navarre, as
being the firft that broke and forced the chains thereof.
J gold Chain, is one of the ornaments or badges
of the dignity of the chief magiftrates of a city, as the
mayor of London, the provoft and bailies of Edin¬
burgh, ire.—Something like this obtained among the
ancient Gauls: the principal ornament of their per-
fons in power and authority was a gold chain, which
they wore on all occafions; and even in battle, to dif-
tinguifli them from the common foldiers.
Chain alfo denotes a kind of firing, of twifted
wire; ferving to hang watches, tweezer-cafes, and
other valuable toys upon. The invention of this piece
of curious work is owing to the Englift ; whence, in
foreign countries, it is denominated the Englijh chain,
Thefe chairs are ufually either of filver or gold, fome
of gilt copper; the thread, or wire of each kind to
be very fine.—For the fabric, or making of thefe
chains: a part of the wire is folded in$o little links
of an oval form; the longeft diameter about three
lines; the ftorteft, one. Thefe, after they have
been exactly foldere ’. are again folded into two ;
and then bound together, or imervove, by means of
feveral other little threads of the fame thicknefs ; fome
whereof, which pal’s from one end to the other, imi¬
tate the warp of a ftuft’; and the others, which pafs
tranverfe, the woof. There are at leaft four thoufand
little links in a chain of four pendants; which are by
this means bound fo equally, and withal fo firmly to¬
gether, that the eye is deceived, and takes the whole
to conlift of one entire piece.
Chain is alfo a kind of meafure in France, in the
trade of wood for fuel. There are chains for wood
by tale, for wood by the rope, for faggots, for cleft
wood, and for round fticks. There are alfo chains
for meafuring the fteaves of all forts of corn, particu¬
larly with regard to the payment of tithes; for mea¬
furing pottles of hay, and for meafuring horfes. All
thel’e are divided into feet, inches, hands, ire. accord¬
ing to the ufe they are deiigned for.
Chain, in furveying, a meafure of lentil, made oF
a certain number of links of iron-wire, ferving to
take the diftance between two or more places.
♦ Gunter’s chain confifts of loofuch links, each mea¬
furing 7TcVinches, and confequently equal to 66 feet,
or four poles. See Surveying.
CnAiN-fWp. See Pump.
ChAiN-iS^o/, two bullets with a chain between
them.
C H A [ 1768 ] C H A
chain. them. They are ufed at fea to fhoot down yards or
I malts, and to cut the flirouds or rigging of a Ihip.
. halcedo* T'o/i-Chai n, onboard a lliip, a chain to fling the
—iZl  fail-yards in time of battle, in order to prevent them
from falling down whpn the ropes by which they are
hung happen to be Ihot away or rendered, incapable
of fervice.
Cnkin-Wales, ox Channels, of a ftny, porteboijfoits,
are broad and thick planks projecting horizontally from
the fhip’s outiide, abreaft of and fomewhat behind
the malls. They are formed to extend the flirouds
from each other, and from the axis or middle line of
the Ihip, fo as to give a greater fecurity and fupport
to the malts, as well as to prevent the flirouds from
damaging the gunwale, or being hurt by rubbing a-
gainlt it. Every malt has its chain-wales, which are
either built above or below the fecond deck-ports in
a fliip of the line: they are llrongly connected to the
fide by knees, bolts, and llandards, befides being con¬
fined thereto by the chains whole upper ends pafs
through notches on the outer edge of the chain-wales,
fo as to unite with the flirouds above.
Chains, in fliip-building, are llrong links or plates
of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through
the Ihip-lide to the timbers.
Chkm-IJland, aniflandlately difeovered by captain
Wallis in the South-fea. It feemed to be about five
miles long and as much broad, lying in the direction of
north-welt and fouth-eaft. It appeared to be a double
range of woody illands joined together by reefs, fo as
to compofe one ifland of an oval figure, with a lake
in the middle. The trees are large; and from the
finoke that ilfued from the woods, it appeared to be
inhabited. W. Long. 145. 54. S. Lat. 17. 23.
CHAIR, [Cathedra), was anciently ufed for the
pulpit, or fuggeltum, whence the prielt fpoke to the
people. See Pui-i’iT, and Cathedra.
It is Hill applied to the place whence profelfors and
regents in univerfities deliver their leCtures, and teach
the fciences to their pupils: thus we fay, the profef-
for’s chair, the doCtor’s chair, 8cc.
Curule CnMR. See Curule.
Chair is alfo applied by the Romanills to certain
fealts, held anciently in commemoration of the tranf-
lation of the fee or feat of the vicarage of Chrilt by
St Peter.
The perforated chair, wherein the new-eleCted
pope is placed, F. Mabillon obferves, is Hill to be feen
at Rome : but the origin thereof he does not attri¬
bute, as is commonly done, to the adventure of pope
Joan; but fays there is a myllery in it; and it is in¬
tended, forfooth, to explain to the pope thofe words
of feripture, that Cod draws the poor fro?n out of the
drift and mire.
Marine Chair. See Marine Chair.
CHAISE, a fort of light open chariot or calalli.
See Chariot.
CHALAZA, among naturalifts, a white knotty fort
of firing at each end of an egg, formed of a plexus of
the fibres of the membranes, whereby the yolk and
white are connected together. See Egg.
CHALCEDONY, in natural hiftory, a genus of
the femipellucid gems: they are of an even and re¬
gular, not tabulated ftruCture; of a femi-opaque cryrtal-
line bafis ; and variegated with different colours, but Chalddius
thofe ever difpofed in form of milts or clouds, and, if , . I
nicely examined, found to be owing to an admixture C a^°n
of various coloured earths, but imperfeCtly blended in ! 
the mafs, and often vilible in diltinCt moleculae.—It
has been doubted by fome whether the ancients were
at all acquainted with the ftone we call chalcedony ;
they having deferibed a Chalcedonian carbuncle and
emerald, neither of which can at all agree with the
characters of our ftone ; but we are to confider that
they have alio deftribed a Chalcedonian jafper which
feems to have been the very fame ftone, as they de-
feribe by the word turbida, which extremely well-a-
grees with our chalcedony.
There are four known fpecies of the chalcedony.
I. A bluilh white one. This is the molt common of
all, and is found in the lhape of our flints and pebbles,
in maffes of two or three inches or more in diame¬
ter : it is of a whitilh colour, with a faint cloud of
blue diffufed all over it, but always in the greatell de¬
gree near the furface. This is a little lefs hard than
the oriental onyx. The oriental chalcedonies are the
only ones of any value; they are found in valt abund¬
ance on the Ihores of rivers in all parts of the Eall In¬
dies, and frequently come over among the balaft of
the Ealt-India fliips. They are common in Silefia and
Bohemia, and other parts of Europe alfo; but with
us are lefs hard, more opaque, and of very little va¬
lue. 2. The dull milky-veined chalcedony. This is
a ftone of little value ; and is fometimes met with a-
mong our lapidaries, who miftake it for a kind of ne¬
phritic ftone. It is of a fomewhat yellowifh white or
cream colour, with a few milk-white veins. This is
principally found in New-Spain. 3. The third is a
brownifli, black, dull, and cloudy one, known to the
ancients by the name of fmoky jafper, or jafpis capni-
tis. This is the leaft beautiful ftone of all the clafs;
it is of a pale brownifti white, clouded all over with a
blackilh mill, as the common chalcedony is with a
blue. It is common both in the Eaft and Weft Indies,
and in Germany; but is very little valued, and is fel-
dom worked into any thing better than the handles of
knives. 4. The yellow and red chalcedony is great¬
ly fuperior to all the reft in beauty ; and is in great
repute in Italy, though very little known among us.
It is naturally compofed of an admixture of red and
yellow only, on a clouded cryftalline bafis; but is fome¬
times found blended with the matter of common chal¬
cedony, and then is mixed with blue. It is all over
of the mifty hue of the common chalcedony. This is
found only in the Eaft-Indies, and there not plentiful¬
ly. The Italians make it into beads, and call thefe
caftidonies; but they are not determinate in the ufe
of the word, but call beads of feveral of the agates
by the fame name.—All the chalcedonies readily give
fire with fteel, and make no effervefcence with aqua¬
fortis.
CHALCIDIUS, a famous platonic philofopber, in
the third century, who wrote a commentary, which is
efteemed, on the Timteus of Plato. This work has
been tranflated from the Greek into Latin.
CHALCONDYLAS (Demetrius), a learned Greek,
born at Conftantinople, left that city after its being ta¬
ken by the Turks, and afterwards taught Greek in
feveral
C H A [ 1769 ] C H A
Chalcondy- feveral cities in Italy. He compofed a Greek gram-
las mar; and died at Milan in 1513.
II Chalcondylas (Laonicus), a famous Greek hif-
18 ‘ torian of the fifteenth century, was born at Athens;
and wrote an excellent hiltory of the Turks, from
Ottoman, who reigned about the year 1300, to Ma¬
homet II. in 1463.
CHALDEA, or Babylonia, the name of an an¬
cient kingdom of Afia, now called Eyrac Arabi. See
Babylonia.
CHALDEE language, that fpoken by the Chal-
dseans, or people of Chaldaea. It is a dialedl of the
Hebrew.
CHALDRON, a dry Englifli meafure, confifting
of thirty-fix bulhels, heaped up according to the feal-
ed bulhel kept at Guild-hall, London : but on Ihip-
board, twenty-one chaldron of coals are allowed to
the fcore. The chaldron Ihould weigh two thoufand
pounds.
CHALICE, the cup or veflel ufed to adminifter the
wine in the facrament; and by the Roman catholics
in the mafs.
The ufe of the chalice, or communicating in both
kinds, is, by the church of Rome, denied to the lai¬
ty, who communicate only in one kind, the clergy
alone being allowed the privilege of communicating
in both kinds.
CHALK, Greta, is a white earth found plentifully
in Britain, France, Norway, and other parts of Eu¬
rope ; faid to have been anciently dug chiefly in the
ifland of Crete, and thence to have received its name
of Creta. They have a very eafy way of digging
chalk in the county of Kent in England. It is there
found on the fides of hills; and the workmen under¬
mine it fo far as appears proper ; then digging a
trench at the top as far diftant from the edge as the
undermining goes at bottom, they fill this with water,
Which foaks through in the fpace of a night, upon
which the whole flake falls down at once. In other
parts of the kingdom, chalk generally lies deeper, and
they are forced to dig for it at confiderable depths,
and draw it up in buckets.
Chalk is of two kinds;; hard, dry, and firm, or foft
and unctuous; both of which are adapted to various
purpofes. The hard and dry kind is much the pro-
pereft for burning into lime; but the foft and unc¬
tuous chalk is beft for ufing as a manure for lands.
Chalk, whether burnt into lime or not, is in fome
cafes an excellent manure. Its mode of operating on
the foil, is explained under the article Agriculture,
n° 21.
Pure chalk melts eafily with alcali and flint into a
tranfparent colourlefs glafs. With alcaline falts it
melts fomewhat more difficultly ; and with borax
fomewhat more eafily than with flint or fand. It re¬
quires about half its weight of borax, and its whole
weight of alcali, to fufe it. Sal mirabile, and fandi-
ver, which do not vitrify at all with the cryffalline
earths, form, with half their weight of chalk, the firft
a yellowilh black, the latter a greenilh, glafs. Nitre,
on the other hand, one of the moft aftive fluxes for
flint, does not perfectly vitrify with chalk. This
earth notably promotes the vitrification of flint; a mix¬
ture of the two requiring lefs alcali than either of them
VOL. III.
feparately. If glafs made from flint and alcali is fur- Chalk.
ther faturated with the flint, fo as to be incapable of 
bearing any further addition of that earth without
becoming opaque and milky, it will ftill in a llrong
fire take up a confiderable proportion, one-third or
one-fourth of its weight of chalk, without injury to its
tranfparency ; hence chalk is fometimes made ufe of
in compofitions for glafs, as a part of the fait may
then be fpared. Chalk likewife has a great effed in
melting the ftony matters intermixed with metallic
ores, and hence might be of ufe in fmelting ores;
as indeed limeftone is ufed for that purpofe. But
it is remarkable, that chalk, when deprived of its
fixed air, and converted into limeftone, lofes much of
its difpofition to vitrify. It is then found to melt
very difficultly and imperfe&ly, and to render the glafs
opaque and milky.
Chalk readily imbibes water; and hence mafles of
it are employed for drying precipitates, lakes, earthy
powders that have been levigated with water and
other moift preparations. Its oeconomical ufes in
cleaning and polilhing metalline or glafs utenlils are
well known. In this cafe it is powdered and walhed
from any gritty matter it may contain, and is then
called •whiting. In medicine it is one of the moft
ufeful abforbents, and is to be looked upon limply as
fuch: the aftringent virtues which fome have attri¬
buted to it have no foundation, unlefs in as far as the
earth is faturated with an acid, with which it compofes
a faline concrete manifeftly fub-aftringent. For the
further properties of chalk, fee Chemistry, n°33,
127, 191, 234, 277, 342.
Black Chalk, a name given by painters to a fpe-
cies of earth with which they draw on blue paper,
ire. It is found in the earth in pieces from two to
ten feet long, and from four inches to 20 in breadth,
generally flat, but fomewhat rifing in the middle, and
thinner towards the edges, commonly lying in large
quantities together. While in the1 earth, it is moift
and flaky; but being dried, it becomes confiderably
hard and very light; but always breaks in fome par¬
ticular direction; and if attentively examined when
frelh broken, appears of a ftriated texture. To the
touch it is foft and fmooth, ftains very freely, and by
virtue of its fmoothnefs makes very neat marks. It
is eafily reduced into an impalpable foft powder, with¬
out any diminution of its blacknefs : In this ftate it
mixes eafily with oil into a fmooth pafte ; and being
diffufed through water, it flowly fettles in a black flimy
or muddy form ; properties which make its ufe very
convenient to the painters both in oil and water co¬
lours. It appears to be an earth quite different from
common chalk, and rather of the flaty bituminous kind.
In the fire it becomes white with a reddiffi call, and
very friable, retaining its flaky ftrucfture, and looking
much like the white flaky maffes which fome forts of
pit-coal leave in burning. Neither the chalk nor thefe
allies are at all affeifted by acids.
The colour-ffiops are fupplied with this earth from
Italy or Germany ; though fome parts of England af¬
ford fubftances nearly, if not entirely, of the lame qua¬
lity, and which are found to be equally ferviceable
both for marking and as black paints. Such particu¬
larly is the black earth called killcw, faid by DrMerret
10 P in
C H A [ 1770 ] C H A
Chalk in his Piuax Rerum Britannic arum, to be found in Lan-
1 calhire ; and by Mr Da Cofta, in his hiftory of fulfils.
Challenge. t0 be pjentifui on t}ie fide near the top of Cay-Avon,
an high hill in Merioneth-lhire.
Red Chalk, an earth much ufed by painters and
artificers, and common in the colour-Ihops. It is pro¬
perly an indurated' clayey ochre ; and is dug in Ger¬
many, Italy, Spain, and France, but in greateft quan¬
tity in Flanders. It is of a fine, even, and firm tex¬
ture ;.very heavy, and very hard ; of a pale red on the
outfide, but of a deep dulky chocolate colour within.
It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfe&ly infipid to
the tafte, and makes no effervefcence with acids.
Cii\-LK-Land. Barley and wheat will fucceed very
well on the better fort of chalky land, and oats gene¬
rally do well on any kind of it. The natural produce
of this fort of land in weeds, is that fort of fmall vetch
called the tine-tare, with poppies, may-weed, ire.
Saint-foin and hop-clover will generally fucceed tole¬
rably well on thefe lands ; and, where they are of
the better fort, the great clover will do. The belt
manure is dung, old rags, and the Iheep-dung left af¬
ter folding them on it.
CHALK-Stc»e/, in medicine, lignify the concretions
of calcareous matter in the hands and feet of people
violently afflidted with the gout. Lewenhoeck has
been at the pains of examining thefe by the micro-
fcope. He divides them into three parts. The firft
is compofed of various fmall parcels of matter looking
like white grains of fand; this is harder and drier,
and alfo whiter, than the reft. When examined with
large magnifiers, thefe are found to be compofed of
oblong particles laid clofely and evenly together :
though the whole fmall ftones are opaque, thefe com¬
ponent parts of them are pellucid, and referable pie¬
ces of horfe-hair cut Ihort, only that they are fome-
what pointed at both ends. Thefe are fo extremely
thin, that Mr Lewenhoeck computes that 1000 of
them placed together would not amount to the fize of
one hair of our heads The whole ftones in this harder
part of the chalk are not compofed of thefe particles,
but there are confufedly thrown in among them fome
broken parts of other fubftances, and in a few places
fome globules of blood and fmall remains of other
juices. The fecond kind of chalky matter is lefs bard
and lefs white than the former, and is compofed of
fragments or irregular parts of thofe oblong bodies
which compofe the firft or hardeft kind, and thefe are
mixed among tough and clear matter, interfperfed
with the fmall broken globules of blood difcoverable
in the former, but in much greater quantity. The
third kind appears red to the naked eye; and, when
examined with glaffes, is found to be a more tough
and clammy white matter, in which a great number
of globules of blood are interfperfed; thefe give it the
red appearance it has.
CHALLENGE, a cartel or invitation to a duel or
* SttDueJ. other combat *. A challenge either by word.or let¬
ter, or to be the bearer of fuch challenge, is punilh-
able by fine and imprifonment on indhftment or infor¬
mation.
Challenge, among hunters. When hounds or
beagles, at firft finding the feent of their game, pre-
fently open and cry, they are faid to challenge.
Challnege, in the law of England, is an excep- Challengr,
tion made to jurors *; and is either in civil or crimi- .Seetliear_
nal cafes. udeTnat.
I. In civil cafes challenges are of two forts; chal¬
lenges to the array, and challenges to the poll.
1. Challenges to the array are at once an exception Blackjlone’s
to the whole panel, in which the jury are arrayed, or Comment.
fet in order by the flieriff in his return ; and they may
be made upon account of partiality or fome default in
the fheriff or his under officer who arrayed the paneh
Alfo, though there be no perfonal objection againft
the iheriff, yet if he arrays the panel at the nomina¬
tion, or under the direiftion of either party, this is
good caufe of challenge to the array. Formerly if a
lord of parliament had a caufe to be tried, and no
knight was returned upon the jury, it was a caufe of
challenge to the array: alfo by the policy of the an¬
cient law, the jury was to come de vicineto, from the
neighbourhood of the vill or place where the caufe
of a eft ion was laid in the declaration : and therefore
fome of the jury were obliged to be returned from
the hundred in which fuch vill lay; and, if none
were returned, the array might be challenged from
defedl of hundreders. For, living in the neighbour¬
hood, thefe were fuppofed to know beforehand the
characters of the pkrties and witnefles ; and therefore
they better knew what credit to give to the facts al-
ledged in evidence. But this convenience was over¬
balanced by another very natural and almoft unavoid¬
able inconvenience ; that jurors coming out of the im¬
mediate neighbourhood, would be apt to intermix
their prejudices and partialities in the trial of right.
And this the law was fo fenfible of, that it for a long
time has been gradually relinquilhing this practice;
the number of neceflary hundreders in the whole pa¬
nel, which in the reign of Edward III. were conftantly
fix, being in the time of Fortefcue reduced to four ;
afterwards by ftatute 27 Eliz. c. 6. to two; and at
length, by ftatute 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16. it was en¬
tirely abolilhed upon all civil actions, except upon pe¬
nal ftatutes ; and upon thofe alfo by the 24 Geo. II
c. 18. the jury being now only to come de corpore cc-
mitatus, from the body of the county at large, and not
de vicineto, or from the particular neighbourhood.
The array by the ancient law may alfo be challenged,
if an alien be party to the fuit, and, upon a rule ob¬
tained by his motion to the court for a jury de medie-
tate linguae, fuch a one be not returned by the fheriff
purfuant to the ftatute 28 Edward III. c. 13. enforced
by 8 Hen. VI: c. 29. which enaeft, that where either
party is an alien born, the jury fhall be one half deni¬
zens and the other aliens, (if fo many be forthcoming
in the place), for the more impartial trial: A privi¬
lege indulged to ftrangers in no other country in the
world ; but which is as ancient in England as the time
of kingEthelred, in whofe ftatute de monticolis Walliae,
(then aliens to the crown of England) c. 3. it is or¬
dained, that “ duodeni legales homines, quorum fex
Walli et fex Angli erunt, Anglis et Wallis jus di-
cunto.”
2. Challenges to the polls, in capita, are exceptions
to particular jurors ; and feem to anfwer the recufatio
judicis in the civil and canon laws ; by the conftitu-
tions of which, a judge might be refufed upon any fu-
fpieion
C H A f 1771 ] C H A
Challenge. . fpicion of partiality. By the laws of, England alfo, in
the times of Bratton and Fleta, a judge might be re-
fufed for good caufe ; but now the law is otherwife,
and it is held that judges or juitices cannot be challen¬
ged. For the law will not fuppofe a poffibility of bias
or favour in a judge who is already fworn to admi-
nifter impartial juflice, and whofe authority greatly
depends on that prefumption and idea. And, fhould
the faft at any time prove flagrantly fuch, as the de¬
licacy of the law will not prefume beforehand, there
is no doubt but that fuch milbehaviour would draw
down a heavy cenfure from thofe to whom the judge
is accountable for his condudt. But challenges to the
polls of the jury (who are judges of fadt) are reduced
to four heads by Sir Edward Coke: propter honoris
refpeClum; propter defeftum ; propter ajfeftum ; and
propter delittum. I. Propter honoris refpedum; as,
if a lord of parliament be impanelled on a jury, he may
be challenged by either party, or he may challenge
himfelf. 2. Propter defeChtm ; as, if a juryman be an
alien born, this is defedl of birth; if he be a flave or
bondman, this is defeft of liberty, and he cannot be
a liber et legalis homo. Under the word homo alfo,
though a name common to both fexes, the female is
however excluded, propter defcfium fexus : except
when a widow feigns herfelf with child in order to
exclude the next heir, and a fuppofititious birth is fu-
fpe&ed to be intended; then, upon the writ de ventre
infpiciendo, a jury of women is to be impanelled to try
the queftion whether with child or not. But the prin¬
cipal deficiency is defect of eftate fufficient to qualify
him to be a juror, which depends upon a variety of
Black- ftatutes*. 3. Jurors may be challenged propter affec-
ftone’s turn, for fufpicion of bias or partiality. This may be
' either a principal challenge, or to the favour. A prin¬
cipal challenge is fuch, where the caufe afligned car¬
ries with it, prima facie, evident marks of fufpicion ei¬
ther of malice or favour : as, that a juror is of kin to
either party within the ninth degree; that he has an in-
tereft in the caufe; that there is an action depending
between him and the party; that he has taken money
for his verdict, ire. which, if true, cannot be over¬
ruled, for jurors muft be omni exceptione majores.
Challenges to the favour, are where the party hath no
principal challenge ; but objects only fome probable
circumflances of fufpicion, as acquaintance, and the
like; the validity of which muft be left to the deter¬
mination of triors, whofe office it is to decide whether
the juror be favourable or unfavourable. 4. Chal¬
lenges propter dslidutn, are for fome crime or mif-
demeanour that affeefts the juror’s credit, and renders
him infamous : As for a conviction of treafon, felony,
perjury, or confpiracy; or if, for fome infamous offence,
he hath received judgment of the pilory or the like.
II. In criminal cafes, challenges may be made ei¬
ther on the part of the king, or on that of the prifon-
er ; and either to the whole array, or to the feparate
polls, for the very fame reafons that they may be
in civil caufes. For it is here at leaft as neceffary as
there, that the fheriff or returning officer be totally
indifferent; that, where an alien is indiCIed, the jury
fhould be de medietate, or half foreigners, if fo many
are found in the place (which does not indeed hold in
treafon?, aliens being very improper judges of the
breach of allegiance ; nor yet in the cafe of Egyp- Challenj?
tians under the ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10.); that on li
every panel there fhould be a competent number °f j^Saone*
hundreders; and that the particular jurors fhould be 11 *
omni exceptione majores, not liable to objections either
propter honoris rtfpettum, propter defetfum, propter af-
fettum, or propter ddiClum.
Challenges on any of the foregoing accounts are
filled challenges for caufe; which may be without
flint in both civil and criminal trials. But in crimi¬
nal cafes, or at leaft in capital ones, there is, iujavo-
rem vitx, allowed to the prifoner an arbitrary and
capricious fpecies of challenge to a certain number of
jurors, without fhewing any caufe at all; which F
called a peremptory challenge : a provifion full of that
tendernefs and humanity to prifoners for which our
laws are juftly famous. This is grounded on two rea¬
fons : 1. As every one muft be fenfible what hidden
impreffions and unaccountable prejudices we are apt
to conceive upon the bare looks and geftures of ano¬
ther ; and how neceffary it is, that a prifoner, when
put to defend his life, fhould have a good opinion of
his jury, the want of which might totally difconcert
him ; the law wills not that he fhould be tried by any
one man againft whom he has conceived a prejudice
even without being able to aflign a reafon for fuch his
diflike. 2. Became upon challenges for caufe fhewn,
if the reafon afligned prove infufficient to fet afide the
juror, perhaps the bare queflioning his indifference
may fometimes provoke a refentment; to prevent all
ill confequences from which, the prifoner is ftill at li¬
berty, if he pleafes, peremptorily to fet him afide.
This privilege of peremptory challenges, though
granted to the prifoner, is denied to the king by the
ftatute 33 Edward I. flat. 4. which enaiSls, that the
king fhall challenge no jurors without afligning a caufe
certain to be tried and approved by the court. How¬
ever, it is held that the king need not aflign his caufe
of challenge, till all the panel is gone through, and un-
lefs there cannot be a full jury without the perfons fo
challenged. v And then, and not fooner, the king’s
counfel muft fliew the caufe : otherwife the juror fhall
be fworn.
The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muft,
however, have fome reafonable boundary; otherwife
he might never be tried. This reafonable boundary
is fettled by the common law to be the number of 35 ;
that is, one under the number of three full juries. For
the law judges, that 35 are fully fufficient to allow the
moft timorous man to challenge through mere caprice ;
and that he who peremptorily challenges a greater
number, or three full juries, has no intention to be
tried at all. And therefore it deals with one who pe¬
remptorily challenges above 35, and will not retract
his challenge, as with one who Hands mute or refufes
his trial; by fentencing him to the peine forte et dure
in felony, and by attainting him in treafon. And fo
the law Hands at this day with regard to treafon of
any kind. But by ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 14. (which,
with regard to felonies, Hands unrepealed), no perfon
arraigned for felony can be admitted to make more
than 20 peremptory challenges.
CHALLON-sur-Saone, an ancient town of
France, in Burgundy, and capital of the Challonnois,
10 P 2 with
C H A
Challons- with a citadel and biftiop’s fee. It is feated on the
fur-Marne rjver Saone, in E. Long. 5. 7. N. Lat. 46. 47.
C ha loner C H A l £ o us-fur-Marnt, a large epifcopal town of
~- a °n r~ France, in Champagne. It carries on a confider-
able trade in flialloons, and other woollen fluffs. It
is feated between two fine meadows on the rivers
Marne, Man, and Nau, in E. Long. 4. 3 7. N. Lat.
48.57.
CHALONER (Sir Thomas), a ftatefman, foldier,
and poet, defcended from a good family in Denbigh
in Wales, was born at London about the year 1515.
Having been educated in both univerfities, but chiefly
at Cambridge, he was introduced at the court of
Henry VIII. who fent him abroad in the retinue of
Sir Henry Knevet ambaffador to Charles V. and he
had the honour to attend that monarch on his fatal ex-
•SeeAlgi- pedition againft Algiers in 1541*. Soon after the
—20^ l4’ ^eet that place, he was Ihipwrecked on the coaft
of Barbary in a very dark night: and having exhauft-
ed his ftrength by fwimming, he chanced to ftrike his
head againft a cable, which he had the prefence of
mind to catch hold of with his teeth; and, with the
lofs of feveral of them, was drawn up by it into the
fliip to which he belonged. Mr Chaloner returned
foon after to England, and was appointed firft clerk
of the council, which office he held during the reft of
that reign. On the acceffion of Edward VI. he be¬
came a favourite of the Duke of Somerfet, whom he
attended to Scotland, and was knighted by that no¬
bleman after the battle of Muffelburgh, in 1547. The
protestor’s fall put a flop to Sir Thomas Chaloner’s
expectations, and involved him in difficulties. Du¬
ring the reign of queen Mary, being a determined
proteftant, he was in fome danger; but having many
powerful friends, he had the good fortune to efcape.
On the acceffion of queen Elizabeth, he appeared
again at court; and was fo immediately diftinguifhed
by her majefty, that fhe appointed him ambaffador to
the emperor Ferdinand I. being the firft ambaffador
fhe nominated. His commiffion was of great impor¬
tance ; and the queen was fo well fatisfied with his
conduft, that, foon after his return, fhe fent him in the
fame capacity to Spain : but Sir Thomas was by no
means fatisfied with this inftance of her majefty’s con¬
fidence : the courts of England and Spain being at this
time extremely diffatisfied with each other, he fore-
faw that his fituation would be very difagreeable ;
and fo it proved ; but Elizabeth muft be obeyed. He
embarked for Spain in 1561, and returned to London
in 1564, in confequence of a requeft to his fovereign,
in an elegy written in imitation of Ovid. After his
return, he refided in a houfe built by himfelf in Cler-
kenwell-clofe, where he died in the year 1565, and
was buried in St Paul’s. Sir William Cecil aflifted as
chief mourner at his funeral.
So various were the talents of Sir Thomas Chaloner,
that he excelled in every thing to which he applied
C H A
himfelf. He made a confiderable figure as a poet. His Chaloner
poetical works were publilhed, by William Malim, II
mafter of St Paul’s fchool, in 1 579- His capital work Chalybeat
was that “ Of reftoring the Englifh republic, in ten
books,” which he wrote when he was ambaffador in
Spain. It is remarkable, that this great man, who
knew how to tranfadl as well as write upon the moft
important affairs of ftates and kingdoms, could defcend
to compofe a dictionary for children, and to tranflate
from the Latin a book Of the office of fervants, merely
for the utility of the fubjeCls.
Chaloner (Sir Thomas) the younger, though in-
confiderable as an author, deferves to be recorded as
a fkilful naturalift, in an age wherein natural hiftory
was very little underftood in this or any other coun¬
try ; and particularly as the founder of the alum-
works in Yorkfhire, which have fince proved fo ex¬
ceedingly advantageous to the commerce of this king¬
dom. He was the only fon of Sir Thomas Chaloner
mentioned in the laft article, and was born in the year
1559. Being very young at the time of his father’s
death, the lord treafurer Burleigh taking charge of his
education, fent him to St Paul’s fchool, and after¬
wards to Magdalen college in Oxford, where, like his
father, he difcovered extraordinary talents for Latin
and Englilh poetry. About the year ij8o, he made
the tour of Europe, and returned to England before
1584, for, in that year, we find him a frequent atten¬
dant in the court of queen Elizabeth. About this time
he married the daughter of Sir William Fleetwood,
recorder of London. In 1591 he was knighted ; and,
fome time after, difcovered the alum-mines on his
eftate at Gilborough, near the river Tees in York-
fliire f.
Towards the latter end of the queen’s reign. Sir
Thomas vifited Scotland ; and returning to England in
the retinue of king James I. found fuch favour in the
fight of his majefty, that he was immediately appointed
governor to prince Henry, whom he conftantly at¬
tended, and, when his royal pupil vifited Oxford, was
honoured with the degree of mafter of arts. How he
was employed after the death of the prince is not
known. Some years before that event, he married
a fecond wife, the daughter of Mr William Blount of
London, by whom he had fome children. He died in
the year 1615, and was buried at Chifwick in Middle-
fex. His eldeft fon William was created a baronet in
the 18th of James anno 1620. The title was extindl
in 1681. He wrote, 1. Dedication to lord Burleigh of
his father’s poetical works, dated 1579. 2. The vir¬
tue of nitre, wherein is declared the fundry cures by
the lame effedted. Lend. 1584, 4to.
CHALYBEAT, in medicine, an appellation given
to any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated with
particles of iron or fteel.
Dr Monro, profeffor of anatomy at Edinburgh, by
pouring a tindlure of galls into common water, and
diflblving
f Sir Thomas, during his refidence in Italy, being particularly fond of natural hiftory, (pent fome time at Puzzoli, where he
was very attentive to the art of producing alum. This attention proved infinitely ferviceable to his country, though of no great
benefit to himfelf or family, his attempt being attended with much difficulty and expence. "It was begun about the year 1600, in
the reign of queen Elizabeth ; but was not brought to any degree of perfeftion till fome time in the reign of Charles I. by the
alfiftance of one Ruflel a Walloon, and two other workmen brought from the alum-works at Rochelle. By one of the arbitrary
a£ts of Charles, it was then deemed a mine royal, and granted to Sir Paul Pindar. The long parliament adjudged it a monopoly,
and juftly reftorcd it to the original proprietor!.
[ i772 I
c H A [ 1773 ] C H A
Chalybeated diflblving therein a fmall quantity of fal martis, add-
1 ing fome filing of iron, and oil of vitrol, procured
Chamaerops. a water exatfly like the natural chalybeat water; and
he is of opinion, that where thefe are not to be had,
the artificial water may be made to anfwer all their
intentions, according to its being more or lefs clol'ely
kept, or expofed in the air or heat, ire.
CHALYBEATED tartar. See Chemistry,
n° 299.
CHAM, or Khan, a word of much the fame im¬
port with king in Englilh: It is the title of the fove-
reign princes of Tartary, and is like wife applied to
the principal noblemen in Perfia.
Cham, in geography, a town of the Bavarian palati¬
nate, fituated on a river of the fame name, about 25 miles
north-eaftof Ratifbon; E. Long. 13. N.Lat. 49. 15.
CHAMA, in zoology, a genus of Ihell-fifh belonging
to the order of vermes tellacea. The fhell is thick,
and has two valves; it is an animal of the oyfter kind.
Linnaeus enumerates 14 fpecies, principally diftinguifh-
ed by the figure of their fhells.
CHAMADE, in war, a certain beat of a drum, or
found of a trumpet, which is given the enemy as a
fignal to inform them of fome propofition to be made
to the commander, either to capitulate, to have leave
to bury their dead, make a truce, or the like. 
Menage derives the word from the Italian chiamata,
of clamare to “ cry.”
CHAMACDRYS, in botany. See Veronica.
CHAMELEON, in zoology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Lacerta.
CHAMAlPITYS, in botany. See Teucrium.
CHAMACROPS, dwarf palm, or palmetto ; a
genus of the pahnas flabellifoliae of Linnaeus. There
are two fpecies, the moft remarkable of which is the
glabra, a native of the Weft Indies, and warm parts of
America, alfoof the correfpondinglatitudes of Afia and
Africa. It never rifes with a tall ftem ; but when the
plants are old, their leaves are five or fix feet long,
and upwards of two feet broad; thefe fpread open like
a fan, having many foldings, and at the top are deeply
divided like the fingers of a hand. This plant the
Americans call thatch, from the ufe to which the leaves
are applied.—Under the name of palmetto, however,
Mr Adanfon deferibes a fpecies of palm which grows
naturally at Senegal, whole trunk rifes from 50 to
60 feet in height : from the upper end of the trunk
iffues a bundle of leaves, which, in turning off, form
a round head ; each leaf reprefents a fan of five or fix
feet in expanfion, fupported by a tail of the fame length.
. Of thefe trees, fome produce male flowers, which are
confequently barren; others are female, and loaded
with fruit, which fucceed each other uninterruptedly
almoft the whole year round. The fruit of the large
palmettos, Mr Adanfon affirms to be of the bignefs
of an ordinary melon, but rounder: it is inveloped in
two Ikins as tough as leather, and as thick as ftrong
parchment; within the fruit is yellowilh, and full
of filaments faftened to three large kernels in the
middle. The negroes are very fond of this fruit,
which, when baked under the alhes, is faid to tafte
like a quince.
The little palmetto may be eafily raifed in this
country from feeds brought from America j but, as
the plants are tender, they muft be conftantly kept in
a bark-ftove.
CHAMANIM, in the Jewilh antiquities, is the He¬
brew name for that which the Greeks call Pyreia or
Pyrateria ; and St Jerom in Leviticus has tranflated
Simuiachra, in Ilaiah, dclubra *. Thefe chamanim
were, according to Rabbi Solomon, idols expofed to
the fun upon the tops of houfes. Abenezoa fays they
were portable chapels or temples made in the form of
chariots, in honour of the fun. What the Greeks call
Pyreia, were temples confecrated to the fun and fire,
wherein a perpetual fire was kept up. They were
built upon eminences; and were large inclofures with¬
out covering, where the fun was worfhipped. The
Guebres, or worfliippers of fire, in Perfia and the Eaft
Indies, have ftill thefe Pyreia. The word chamanim is
derived from which fignifies to warm, or burn.
CHAMARIM, a word which occurs in feveral places
of the Hebrew bible, and is generally tranflated the
friefts of the idols, or the priefls cloathed in black, be-
caufe charnar fignifies “ black,” or “ blacknefs.” St
Jerom in the lecond book of Kingsf, renders it arufpices.
In Hofea and Zephaniah he tranflates it aditui or
church-wardens. But the beft commentators are of
opinion, that by this word we are to underftand the
priefts of the falfe gods, and in particular the wor-
fhippers of fire ; becaufe they were, as they fay, dref-
fed in black; or perhaps the Hebrews gave them this
name in derifion, becaufe as they were continually em¬
ployed in taking care about the fewel, and keeping
up the fire, they were always as black as fmiths or
colliers. We find priefts, among thofe of Ifis, called
melancphovi, that is to fay, that wear black; but whe¬
ther this may be by reafon of their drefling in black,
or whether it were becaufe they wore a certain fhin-
ing black veil in the proceffions of this goddefs, is not
certain. Camar, in Arabic, fignifies the “ moon.” Ifis
is the fame deity. Grotius thinks the Roman priefts,
called camilli, came from the Hebrew chamarim.
Thofe among the heathens who facrificed to the in¬
fernal gods were dreffed in black.
CHAMBER, in building, a member of a lodging,
or piece of an apartment, ordinarily intended for fleep-
ing in; and called by the Latins cubiculum. The
word comes from the Latin camera; and that, accor¬
ding to Nicod, from the Greek xapapa, vault or curve ;
the term chamber being originally confined to places
arched over.
A compleat apartment is to confift of a hall, anti¬
chamber, chamber, and cabinet.
.Pmy'-CHAMBER. Gentlemen of the privy-cham¬
ber, are fervants of the king, who are to wait and at¬
tend on him and the queen at court, in their diver-
fions, ire. Their number is forty-eight under the
lord-chamberlain, twelve of whom are in quarterly
waiting, and two of thefe lie in the privy-chamber.
In the abfence of the lord-chamberlain, or vice¬
chamberlain, they execute the king’s orders: at co¬
ronations, two of them perfonate the dukes of Aqui-
tain and Normandy ; and fix of them, appointed by
the lord-chamberlain, attend ambaffadors from crown¬
ed heads to their audiences, and in public entries.
The gentlemen of the privy-chamber were inftituted
by Henry VII.
Chamanim
Chamber.
• Levit.
xxvii. 30.
Ifa.xxvii.9.
f 2 Kings'
xxiii. .5
t Hof. x. 5.
Zeph. i. 4.
Chamber
C H A L 1774 ] C H A
Chamber. Chamber, in policy, the place where certain af-
  — femblies are held, alfo the airemblies themielves. Of
thefe fome are eftablilhed for the adminiltration of juf-
tice, others for commercial affairs.
Of the firft kind are, 1. Star-chamber, fo called,
becaufe the roof was painted with ftars ; the autho¬
rity, power and jurifdkition of which are abfolutely
aboliflied by the ftatute 17, Car. I. 2. Imperial cham¬
ber of Spire, the fupreme court of judicatory in the
empire, erected by Maximilian I. This chamber has
a right of judging by appeal; and is the laft refort of
all civil affairs of the ftates and fubje<Ts of the empire,
in the fame manner as the aulic council of Vienna.
Neverthelefs it is rellrained in feveral cafes: it takes
no notice of matrimonial caufes, thefe being left to
the pope ; nor of criminal caufes, which either belong
to particular princes or towns in their refpecffive ter¬
ritories, or are cognizable by all the ftates of the em¬
pire in a diet. By the treaty of Ofnaburg, in 1648,
fifty affelfors were appointed for this chamber, where¬
of twenty-four were to be Proteftants, and twenty-fix
Catholics ; befides five prefidents, two of them Pro¬
teftants, and the reft Catholics. 3. Chamber of ac¬
counts, a fovereign court in France, where accounts
are rendered of all the king’s revenues, inventories,
and avowels thereof regiftered ; oaths of fidelity ta¬
ken, and other things relating to the finances tranfae-
ted. There are nine in France, that of Paris is the
chief; it regifters proclamations, treaties of peace, na¬
turalizations, titles of nobility, ire. All the members
wear long black gowns of velvet, of fattin, or damafk,
according to their places. 4. Ecclefiaftical chambers
in France, which judge by appeal of differences about
colledting the tythes. 5. Chamber of audience, or
grand chamber, a jurifdidtion in each parliament of
France, the counfellors of which are called jugeun,
or judges, as thofe of the chamber of inquefts are cal¬
led rapporteurs, reporters of procefles by writing.
6. Chamber of the edidt, or miparty, a court eftabliflied
by virtue of the edidi of pacification .in favour of
thofe of the reformed religion. This chamber is now
fupprelfed. 7. Apoftolical chamber of Rome, that
wherein affairs re'ating to the revenues of the church
and the pope are tranfadled. This council confifts of
the cardinal-camerlingo, the governor of the rota, a
treafurer, an auditor, a prefident, one advocate-gene¬
ral, a folicitor-general, a commilfary, and 12 clerks.
8. Chamber of London, an apartment in Guildhall,
where the city-money is depofited.
Of the laft fort are, 1. The chambers of commerce.
2. The chambers of affurance. And, 3. The royal
or fyndical chamber of bookfellers in France.
The chamber of commerce is an aflembly of mer¬
chants and traders, where the affairs relating to trade
are treated of. There are feveral eftabliflied in moft
of the chief cities'of France ; and in our own coun¬
try, we have lately feen chambers of this kind eredled
for carrying on the Britifli herring-fifliery. Chamber
of afliirance in France, denotes a fociety of merchants
and others for carrying on the bufinefs of infuring ;
but in Holland, it fignifies a court-of juftice, where
caufes relating to infurances are tried. Chamber of
bookfellers in Paris, an aflembly confifting of a fyndic
and afliftants, eledled by four delegates from the prin¬
ters, and twelve from the bookfellers, to vifit the books
imported from abroad, and to fearch the houfes of fel¬
lers of marbled paper, printfellers, and dealers in prin¬
ted paper for hangings,.who are prohibited from keep¬
ing any letters proper for printing books. In the vi-
■fitation of books, which ought to be performed by
three perfons at leaft frojn among the fyndic and aflif¬
tants, all libels againft the honour of God and the wel¬
fare of the ftate, and all books printed either within
or without the kingdom in breach of their regulations
and privileges, are ftopt, even with the merchandifes
that may happen to be in the bales with fuch libels
or other prohibited books. The days appointed for
this chamber to meet, are Tuefdays and Fridays, at
two o’clock in the afternoon.
Chamber, in military affairs. 1. Powder-cham¬
ber, or bomb-chamber ; a place funk under ground for
holding the powder, or bombs, where they may be
out of danger, and fecured from the rain. 2. Cham¬
ber of a mine ; the place, moft commonly of a cubi¬
cal form, where the .powder is confined. 3. Cham¬
ber of a mortar; that part of the chafe, much nar¬
rower than the reft of the cylinder, where the pow¬
der lies. It is of different forms ; fometimes like a re-
verfed cone; fometimes globular, with a neck for its
communication with the cylinder, whence it is called
ajmttled chamber; but moft commonly cylindrical, that
being the form which is found by experience to carry
the ball to the greateft diftance.
CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the ma¬
nagement and direction of a chamber. See Cham¬
ber, in policy.
There are almoft as many kinds of chamberlains as
chambers, the principal whereof are as follows.
Lord Chamberlain of Great Britain, the fixth
great officer of the crown ; to whom belongs livery
and lodging in the king’s court; and there are certain
fees due to him from each archbifhop or bifhop when
they perform their homage to the king, and from all
peers at their creation or doing their homage. At
the coronation of every king, he is to have forty ells
of crimfon velvet for his own robes. This officer, bn
the coronation-day, is to bring the king his fhirt, coif,
and wearing cloths; and after the king is drefled, he
claims his bed, and all the furniture of his chamber,
for his fees: he alfo carries at the coronation, the coif,
gloves, and linen, to be tiled by the king on that occa-
llon ; alfo the fword and fcabbard, the gold to be of¬
fered by the king, and the robbs-royal and crown : he
dreffes and undreffes the king on that day, waits on
him before and after dinner, ire.
To this officer belongs the care of providing all
things in the houfe of lords, in the time of parliament;
to him alfo belongs the government of the palace of
Weftminfter : he difpofes likewife of the fword of
ftate, to be carried before the king, to what lord he
pi cafes.
Lon/Chamberlain of the Houfhold,^ officer who
has the overfight and direction of all officers belonging
to the king’s chambers, except the precinift of the
king’s bed-chamber.
He has the overfight of the officers of the wardrobe
at all his majefty’s houfes, and of the removing ward¬
robes, or of beds, tents, revels, inufic, fcomedians,
hunting,.
Chamber
Chamber-
lain.
c H A [ 1775 ] C H A
Chamber- hunting, meirengers, ire. retained in the king’s fer-
lain vice. He moreover has the overfight and direction
Chambers t*le ^erjeants at arms, of all phyficians, apothecaries,
am ers~ furgeons, barbers, the king’s chaplain, ire. and admi-
nifters the oath to all officers above ftairs.
Other chamberlains, are thofe of the king’s court
of exchequer, of North Wales, of Chefter, of the city
of London, ire. in which cafes this officer is generally
the receiver of all rents and revenues belonging to
the place whereof he is chamberlain.
In the exchequer there are two chamberlains, who
keep a controlment of the pells of receipts and exitus,
and have certain keys of the treafury, records, ire.
Chamberlain of London keeps the city money,
which is laid up in the chamber of London : he alfo
prefides over the affairs of mafters and apprentices,
and makes free of the city, ire.
His office laiis only a year; but the cuftom ufually
obtains to re-chufe the fame perfon, unlefs charged
with any mifdemeanour in his office.
CHAMBERLAYNE (Edward), defeended from an
ancient family, was born in Gloucefterfhire 1616, and
made the tour of Europe during the diftradlions of the
civil war. After the reftoration, he went as fecreta-
ry with the earl of Carlifle, who carried the order of
the Garter to the king of Sweden ; was appointed tu¬
tor to the duke of Grafton, natural fon of Charles II.
and was afterwards pitched on to inrtrudt prince
George of Denmark in the Engliffi tongue. He died
in 1703, and was hurried in a vault in Chelfea church¬
yard : his mouumental infeription mentions fix books
of his writing; and that he was fo defirous of doing
fervice to pofterity, that he ordered fome copies of
his books to be covered with wax, and buried with
hitn. That work by which he is bell known, is his
Anglia; Nothin, or the Prefent State of England, which
has been often fince printed.
CHAMBERRY, a confiderable and populous town
of Italy, in Savoy, with a caftle. It is capital of the
duchy, and well built, but has no fortifications. It is
watered by feveral ftreams, which have their fources
in St Martin’s-hill, and run through feveral of the
ftreets. There are piazzas under moft part of the
houfes, where people may walk dry in the worft
weather. It hath large and handfome fuburbs; and
in the center of the town is the royal palace. The
parliament meet here, which is compofed of four pre-
iidents, and a pretty large number of fenators, being
the fupreme tribunal of the whole duchy. The prin¬
cipal church is St Legar, and the Jefuits college is the
moft magnificent of all the monafteries. E. Long. 5.
50. N. Lat. 45. 35.
CHAMBERS (David), a Scots hiftorian, prieft, and
lawyer, was born in the fhire of Rofs, about the year
1530, and educated in the univerfity of Aberdeen.
From thence he went to France and Italy, where he
continued fome time, particularly at Bologne, where,
in 1556) he was a pupil of Marianus Sozenus.
After his return to Scotland, he was appointed, by
queen Mary, parfon of Suddy and chancellor of Rofs.
He was foon after employed in digefting the laws of
Scotland, and was principally concerned in publifhing
the a<fts of parliament of that kingdom by authority
in 1566. He was alfo appointed one of the lords of
feffion, and continued her majefty’s faithful fervant Chambers
till her declining fortune obliged her adherents to feek 11
for refuge in other kingdoms. Chambers went firft Chamos.
to Spain, where he was gracioufly received by king
Philip; and thence he travelled to Paris, where he
was no lefs kindly received by Charles IX. of that
kingdom, to whom, in 1572, he prefented his hifto-
ry of Scotland, ire. He died at Paris in the year
1592, much regreted (fays Mackenzie) by all who
knew him. His writings were chiefly calculated to
affift his royal miftrefs, and to extol the wifdom of
the Scots nation.
Chambers (Ephraim), an eminent philofopher
and fellow of the royal fociety, who has perpetuated
his name by a moft laborious work, firft publiflied in
1 727, in two folio volumes, under the title of Cyclope¬
dia ; or, An Univerfal DiC ionary of Arts and Sciences.
All we know of Mr Chambers, is, that he ferved an
apprenticefhip to Senex a globe and map maker; but
finding himfelf under no neceffity to follow bufinefs,
he took chambers in Gray’s-Inn, devoted himfelf to
ftudy, and died about the year 1 740.—The proprie¬
tors of the above work afterwards procured a Supple¬
ment to be compiled, which extended to two vo¬
lumes more. Of both thefe the compilers of the
Encyclopedia Britannica have availed them-
felves, by' extracting every thing of value; every
thing that, in the prefent improved ftate of fcience,
feemed admiffible, or concerning which no better in¬
formation could be obtained.
CHAMBRE (Martin Cureau de la), phyfician in or¬
dinary to the French king, was diftinguilhed by his
knowledge in medicine, philofophy, and polite learn¬
ing. He was born at Mons; and was received into
the French academy in 1635, and afterwards into the
academy of fciences. He wrote a great number of
works, the principal of which are, 1. The charaClers
of the paffions. 2. The art of knowing men. 3. On the
knowledge of beads, ire. He died at Paris in 1669.
CHAMELEON. See Lacerta.
CHAMFERING, in architecture, a phrafe ufed for
cutting any thing allope on the under fide.
CHAM1ER (Daniel), an eminent proteftant divine,
born in Dauphine. He was many years preacher at
Montellimart; from whence he went, in 1612, to
Montaubon, to be profeflor of divinity in that city, and
was killed by a eannon-baH during the fiege in 1621,
The moft confiderable of his works is his Panj) rati a
Catholica, or “ Wars of the Lord,” in four volumes,
folio, in which he treats very learnedly of the con-
troverfies between the Proteftants and Roman Catho¬
lics.
CHAMOIS, or Chamois-goat, in zoology. See
Capra.
CHAMOMILE. See Anthemis.
CHAMOS, or Chemosh, the idol or god of the
Moabites.
The name of chamos comes from a root which, in
Arabic, fignifies to make haffe; for which reafon
many believe chamos to be the fun, whofe preci¬
pitate courfe might well procure it the name of fwift
or fpeedy. Others have confounded chamos with
the god Hammon, adored not only in Libya and E-
gypt, but alfo in Arabia, Ethiopia, and the Indies.
Macrobius
C H A [ 1776 ] C H A
Champagne Macrobius fliews that Hammon was the fun; and the
N horns, with which he was reprefented, denoted his
try?** rays- Calmet is of opinion, that the god Hamonus,
    and Apollo Chomeus, mentioned by Strabo and Am-
mianus Marcellinus, was the very i'ame as chamos or
the fun. Thefe deities were worfliipped in many of
the ealtera provinces. Some who go upon the re-
femblance of the Hebrew term chatuos, to that of the
Greek rowor, have believed chamos to fignify the god
Bacchus the god of drunkennefs, according to the Tig-
nification of the Greek comos. St Jerom, and with
him moll other interpreters, take Chamos and Peor for
the fame deity. But it feems that Baal-Peor was the
fame as Tammuz or Adonis; fo that Chamos muft be
the god whom the heathens call the Sun.
CHAMPAGNE, a confiderable province of France,
about 162 miles in length, and 112 in breadth, bound¬
ed on the north by Hainhalt and Luxemburg, on the
call by Lorrain and the Franche-Comte, on the fouth
by Burgundy, and on the weft by the ifie of France
and Soiflbnnois. It has a great number of rivers, the
principal of which are the Meufe, the Seine, the
Marne, the Aube, and the Aine. Its principal trade
confifts in excellent wine, all forts of corn, linen, cloth,
woollen fluffs, cattle, and Iheep. It is alfo divided
into the higher and lower, and Troys is the capital
town. Its fub-divifions are Champagne Proper, and
Rhemois, the Retelois, the Pertois, the Vallage, Baf-
figni, the Senonois, and the Brie Champenois.
Champagne Proper, is one of the eight parts of
Champagne, which comprehend the towns of Troys,
Chalons, St Menehold, Eperney, and Vertus.
CHAMPAIN, or Point Ch ampain, in heraldry, a
mark of dilhonour in the coat of arms of him who
kills a prifoner of wah after he has cried quarter.
CHAMPERTRY, in law, a fpecies of mainte¬
nance, and punilhed in the fame manner; being a
bargain with the plaintiff or defendant campum pur-
tire, “ to divide the land,” or other matter fued for
between them, if they prevail at law; whereupon
the champertror is to carry on the party’s fuit at his
own expence. Thus champart, in the French law,
fignifies a fimilar divifion of profits, being a part of
the crop annually due to the landlord by bargain or
cuftom. In our fenfe of the word, it fignifies the pur-
chafing of a fuit, or right of filing ; a practice fo much
abhorred by our law, that it is one main reafon why a
chafe in aelion, or thing of which one hath the right
but not the poffeffion, is not aflignable in common law;
becaufe no man Ihould purchafe any pretence to fue
in another’s right. Thefe pefts of civil fociety, that
are perpetually endeavouring to difturb the repofe of
their neighbours, and officioufly interfering in other
mens quarrels, even at the hazard of their own for¬
tunes, were feverally animadverted on by the Roman
law; and were punilhed by the forfeiture of a third
part of their goods and perpetual infamy. Hitherto
alfo muft be referred the provifion of the ftatute 32
Henry VIII. c. 9. that no one lhall fell or purchafe
any pretended right or title to land, unlefs the vend¬
er hath received the profits thereof for one whole
year before fuch grant, or hath been in a&ual polfef-
fion of the land, or of the reverfion or remainder;
on pain that both purchafer and vender lhall each for¬
feit the value of fuch land to the king and the profecutor. Champion.
CHAMPION, a perfon who undertakes a combat II ^
in the place or quarrel of another; and fometimes the ance‘
word is ufed for him who fights in his own caufe.
It appears that champions, in the juft fenfe of the
the word, were perfons who fought inllead of thofe
that, by cuftom, were obliged to accept the duel, but
had a juft excufe for difpenfing with it, as being too
old, infirm, or being ecclefiaftics, and the like. Such
caufes as could not be decided by the courfe of com¬
mon law, were often tried by fingle combat; and he
who had the good fortune to conquer, was always re¬
puted to have jullice on his fide. See the article
Battle.
Champion of the King, (campio regis), is an an¬
cient officer, whofe office is, at the coronation of our
kings, when the king is at dinner, to ride armed
cap-a-pee, into Weftminfter-Hall, and by the procla¬
mation of an herald make a challenge, “ That if any
man ftiall deny the king’s title to the crown, he is
there ready to defend it in fingle combat, b-c.” which
being done, the king drinks to him, and fends him a
gilt cup with a cover full of wine, which the champion
drinks, and hath the cup for his fee. This office, at
the coronation of king Richard II. when Baldwin
Freville exhibited his petition for it, was adjudg¬
ed from him to his competitor Sir John Dymocke
(both claiming from Marmion), and hath continued
ever fince in the family of the Dymockes; who hold
the manor of SinveHby in Lincolnfhire, hereditary from
the Marmions by grand ferjeantry, viz. that the lord
thereof lhall be the king’s champion as aforefaid. Ac¬
cordingly Sir Edward Dymocke performed this office
at the coronation of king Charles II. and a perfon of
the name of Dymocke performed at the coronation
of his prefent majefty George the third.
CHAMPLAIN (Samuel de), a celebrated French
navigator, the founder of the colony of New France,
or Canada. He built Quebec ; and was the firft go¬
vernor of the colony in 1603. Died after 1649. See
Quebec.
CHANCE, a term we apply to events, to denote
that they happen without any necelfary or foreknown
caufe. See Cause.
Our aim is, to afcribe thofe things to chance, which
are not neceffarily produced as the natural effe&s of
any proper caufe: but our ignorance and precipitancy
lead us to attribute effedls to chance, which have a
neceffary and determinate caufe.
When we fay a thing happens by chance, we real¬
ly mean no more, than that its caufe is unknown to
us: not, as fome vainly imagine, that chance itfelf
can be the caufe of any thing.
The cafe of the painter, who, unable to exprefs
the foam at the mouth of a horfe he had painted,
threw his fponge in defpair at the piece, and, by
chance, did that which he could not before do by de-
fign, is an eminent inftance of the force of chance :
yet, it is obvious, all we here mean by chance, is,
that the painter was not aware of the effedl; or that
he did not throw the fponge with fuch a view : not but
that he actually did every thing neceffary to produce
the effetft; infomuch, that, confidering the dire<5lion
wherein he threw his fponge, together with its form,
fpecific
C H A [ 1777 ] C H A
Chance, fpecific gravity, the colours wherewith it was fmear-
————— ed, and the diitance of the hand from the piece, it
was impoflible, on the prefent fyftem of things, the
effedt Ihould not follow.
Chance is frequently perfonified, and erected into
a chimerical being, whom we conceive as afting ar¬
bitrarily, and producing all the effedt whofe real
caufes do not appear to us: in which fenfe the word
coincides with the fortuna, of the ancients.
Chance is alfo ufed for the manner of deciding
things, the conduct or diredtion whereof is left at large,
and not reducible to any determinate rules or mea-
fures ; or where there is no ground for preference :
as at cards, dice, lotteries, be.
For the Laws of Chance, or the Proportion of Ha¬
zard in Gaming. See Game.
The ancient fors or chance, M. Placette obferves,
was inftituted by God himfelf; and in the Old Tefta-
ment we find feveral Handing laws and exprefs com¬
mands which prefer] bed its ufe on certain occafions :
hence, the feripture fays, “ The lot, or chance, fell
on Matthias,” when it was in queftion who fliould fill
Judas’s place in the apoftolate.
Hence alfo arofe the fortes fantforum; or method
of determining things, among the ancient Chriftians,
by opening fome of the facred books, and pitching on
the firft verfe they cart their eye on, as a fure prog-
noftic of what was to befal them. The fortes Ho¬
meric#, Virgiliaiue, Pnetiejlin#, &c. ufed by the hea¬
thens, were with the fame view, and in the fame
manner. See Sortes.
St Auguftin feems to approve of this method of de¬
termining things future, and owns that he had pradtifed
it himfelf; grounded on this fuppofition, that Godpre-
lides over chance ; and on Fruv. xvi. 33.
Many among the modern divines hold chance to
be condudied in a particular manner by providence ;
and efteem it an extraordinary way which God ufes
to declare his will, and a kind of immediate revela¬
tion.
Chance-AT^/^, in law, is where one is doing a
lawful adt, and a perfon is killed by chance thereby;
for if the adt be unlawful, it is felony. If a perfon
cafts, not intending harm, a Hone, which happens to
hit one, whereof he dies ; or fhoots an arrow in an
highway, and another that paffeth by is killed there¬
with ; or if a workman, in throwing down rubbifti
from a houfe, after warning to take care, kills a per¬
fon ; or a fchooltnafter in correcting his fcholar, a
mailer his fervant, or an officer in whipping a cri¬
minal in a reafonable manner, happens to occalion
his death ; it is chance-medley and mifadventure.
But if a man throw Hones in a highway, where per-
fons ufually pafs ; or ffioot an arrow, be. in a mar¬
ket place among a great many people ; or if a work¬
man cafl down rubbilh from a houfe, in cities and
towns where people are continually paffing ; or a
fchool-mafler, be. corredt his fervant or fcholar, be.
exceeding the bounds of moderation ; it is man-flaugh-
ter; and if with an improper inflrument of correction,
as with a fword or iron bar, or by kicking, flamp-
ing, be. in a cruel manner, it is murder. If a man
whips his horfe in a Hreet to make him gallop, and
the horfe runs over a child and kills it, it is man-
VOL. III.
daughter : but if another whips the horle, it is man- Chancel
daughter in him, and chance-medley in the rider. I
Anti if two are fighting, and a third perfon coming ancellor.
to part them is killed by one of them without any
evil intent, yet this is murder in him ; and not man-
daughter by chance-medley or mifadventure. In
chance-medley, the offender forfeits his goods ; but
hath ft pardon of courfe.
CHANCEL, is properly that part of the choir of a
church, between the altar or communion-table, and
the balultrade or rail that inclofes it ; where the mi-
nilter is placed at the celebration of the communion.
The word comes from the Latin cancellus, which in
the lower Latin is ufed in the lame fenfe, from can-
celli, “ lattices or crofs bars,” wherewith the chancels
were anciently incompaffed, as they now are with
rails. The right of a feat and a fepulchre in the
chancels, is one of the privileges of founders.
CHANCELLOR, was at firlt only a chief notary
or feribe under the emperors; and was called cancel-
larius, becaufe he fat behind a lattice (in Latin can-
cellus) to avoid being crowded by the people : though
Ibme derive the word from cancellare to cancel; (lee
Chancery.) This officer was afterwards invefied
with feveral judicial powers, and a general fuperin-
tendency over the relt of the officers of the prince.
From the Roman empire it paffed to the Roman
church, ever emulous of imperial Hate ; and hence
every bifhop has to this day his chancellor, the prin¬
cipal judge of his confiffory. And when the modern
kingdoms of Europe were eflabliflied upon the ruins
of the empire, almoH every Hate preferred its chan¬
cellor with different jurifdiftions.and dignities, accor¬
ding to their different conHitntions. But in all of them
he feems to have had the fupervifion of all charters,
letters, and fuch other public inltruments of the crown
as were authenticated in the mofl folemn manner :
and therefore, when feals came in ufe, he had always
the cuHody of the king’s great leal.
Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, or Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal, is the highefl honour of the
long robe, being created by the mere delivery of the
king’s great feal into his cuHody : whereby he be¬
comes, without writ or patent, an officer of the great-
eff weight and power of any now fubfiffing in the
kingdom ; and fuperior, in point of precedency, to
every temporal lord. He is a privy counfellor by
his office; and, according to Lord Chancellor Ellefmere,
prolocutor of the houfe of lords by prefeription. To
him belongs the appointment of all the juffices of the
peace throughout the kingdom. Being in former
times ufually an ecclefiafiic, (for none elfe were then
capable of an office fo converfant in writing,) and
prefiding over the royal chapel, he became keeper
of the king’s confcience ; vifitor, in right of the king,
of all hofpitals and colleges of the king’s foundation ;
and patron of all the king’s livings under the value of
L. 20 per annum, in the king’s books. He is the ge¬
neral guardian of all infants, idiots, and lunatics ; and
has the general fuperintendance of all charitable ufes
in the kingdom. And all this over and above the vail
extenfive jurifdiction which he exercifes in his judi¬
cial capacity in the court of chancery. See Chan¬
cery.
10 Q,
Chancellor
C H A [ 1778 ] C H A
Chancellor Chancellor of a Cathedral, an officer that hears
II leflbns and lectures read in the church, either by him-
Chancery. fe]f or hjs vicar . to correct and fet right the reader
when he reads amifs; to infpect fchools; to hear
caufes ; apply the Teal; write and difpatch the letters
of the chapter ; keep the books ; take care that there
be frequent preachings, both in the church and out
of it ; and affign the office of preaching to whom he
pleafes.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lane after, an officer
appointed chiefly to determine controverfies between
the king and his tenants of the duchy-land, and other-
wife to direft all thev king’s affairs belonging to that
court. See DutchY-Co«r/.
Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who pre-
fides in that court, and takes care of the intereff of
the crown. He is always in commiflion with the lord-
treafurer, for the letting of crown-lands, ire. and has
power, with others, to compound for forfeitures of
lands, upon penal ftatutes : He has alfo great autho¬
rity in .managing the royal revenues, and in matters
relating to the flrft-fruits.
Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, and other
Military Orders, is an officer who feals the commiffions
and mandates of the chapter and aflembly of the
knights, keeps the regifter of their proceedings, and
delivers arts thereof under the feal of their order.
Chancellor of an Univerftty, is he who feals the
diplomas, or letters of degrees, provifion, ire. given
in the univerfity.
The chancellor of Oxford is ufually one of the prime
nobility, chofen by the ftudents themfelves in convo¬
cation. He is their chief magillrate ; his office is,
durante vita, to govern the univerfity, preferve and
defend its rights and privileges, convoke aflemblies,
and do juftice among the members under his jurifdic-
tion.
Under the chancellor is the vice-chancellor, who is
chofen annually, being nominated by the chancellor,
and elerted by the univerfity in convocation : He is
always the head of fome college, and in holy orders.
His proper office is to execute the chancellor’s power,
to govern the univerfity according to her ft-atutes, to
fee that officers and Undents do their duty, that courts
be duly called, ire. When he enters upon his office,
he chufes four pro-vice-chancellors out of the heads
of the colleges, to execute his power in his abfence.
The chancellor of Cambridge is alfo ufually one of
the prime nobility, and in mofi: refperts the fame as
that in Oxford ; only he does not hold his office du¬
rante vita, but may be elerted every three years.
Under the chancellor there is a commiflary, who
holds a court of record for all privileged perfons and
fcholars under the degree of mafter of arts, where all
taufes are tried and determined by the civil and ftatute
law, and by the cuftom of the univerfity.
The vice-chancellor of Cambridge is chofen annually
by the fenate, out of two perfons nominated by the
heads of the feveral colleges and halls.
CHANCERON, in natural hiftory, a name given
by the French writers to the fmall caterpillar, that eats
the corn, and does vaft mi (chief in their granaries.
See the article Cokk-Butterfly.
CHANCERY, the higheft court of jufiice in Britain
next to the parliament, and of very ancient inftitution. Chancery.
It has its name chancery (cancellaria) from the judge '
who prefides here, the lord chancellor, or cancelTa-
rius; who, according to Sir Edward Coke, is fo
termed a cancellando, from cancelling the king’s let¬
ters patent when granted contrary to law, which is
the highell point of his jurifdirtion. In chancery
there are two diftinrt tribunals: the one ordinary,
being a court of common law ; the other extraor¬
dinary, being a court of equity.
1. The ordinary legal court holds pleas of recogni¬
zances acknowledged in the chancery, writs of Jcire
facias, for repeal of letters patent, writs of parti- Mtckft.
tion, ire. and alfo of all perfonal artions by or againft Comment*
any officer of the court. Sometimes a fuperfedeas, or
writ of privilege, hath been here granted to difeharge
a perfon out of prifon : one from hence may have a
habeas corpus prohibition, ire. in the vacation ; and
here a fubpoena may be had to force witnefles to ap¬
pear in other courts, when they have no power to call
them. But, in profecuting caufes, if the parties de-
feend to ilfue, this court cannot try it by jury ; but
the lord chancellor delivers the record into the king’s
bench to be tried there ; and after trial had, it is to
be remanded into the chancery, and there judgment
given : though if there'be a demurrer in law, it (hall
be argued in this court.
In this court is. alfo kept the officina juftitia ; out
of which all original writs that pafs under .the great
feal, all commiflions of charitable ufes, fewers, bank¬
ruptcy, idiocy, lunacy, and the like, do iflue ; and for
which it is always open to the fubjert, who may there
at any time demand and have, ex debito juftitia, any
writ that his occafions may call for. Thefe writs, re¬
lating to the bufinefs of the fubjert, and the returns
to them, were, according to the fimplicity of ancient
times, originally kept in a hamper, in hanaperio ; and
the others, (relating.to fuch matters wherein the crown
is mediately or immediately concerned,) were prefer-
ved in a little fack or bag, in parva baga : and hence
hath arifen the diftinrtion of the hanaper office, and
the petty-bag office, which both belong to the common
law-court in chancery.
2. The extraordinary coqrt, or court of equity, pro¬
ceeds by the rules of equity and confcience ; and mo¬
derates the rigour of the common law, confidering the
intention rather than the words of the law. It gives
relief for and againll infants notwithftanding their mi¬
nority, and for and againft married women notwith¬
ftanding their coverture. Ail frauds and deceits, for
which there is no redrefs at common law ; all breaches
of truft and confidence ; and accidents, as to relieve
obligors, mortgagers, ire. againft penalties and forfei¬
tures, where the intent was to pay the debt, are here
remedied : for in chancery, a forfeiture, <b'c. (hall not
bind, where a thing may be done after, or compenfa-
tion made for it. Alfo this court will give relief againft
the extremity of unreafonable engagements entered
into without confideration ; oblige creditors, that are
unreafonable, to compound with an unfortunate debt¬
or ; and make executors, ire. give fecurity and pay
intereft for money that is to lie long in their hands.
This court may confirm title to lands, though one hath
loft his writings; and render conveyances, defertive
through
C H A [ 1779 ] G H A
Chancery through miftake, ire. good and perfect. In chancery,
II copy-holders may be relieved againft the ill ui'age of
Chandler, their lords ; inclofures of lands that are common, be
decreed j and this court may decree money or lands
given to charitable ufes, oblige men to account with
each other, ire. But, in all cafes where the plaintiff
can have his remedy at law, he ought not to be re¬
lieved in chancery ; and a thing which may be tried
by a jury is not triable in this court.
The proceedings in chancery are, firlt to file the bill
of complaint, figned by fome counfel, fetting forth the
fraud or injury done, or wrong fudained, and praying
relief: after the bill is filed, procefs offubpoena iffues to
compel the defendant to appear; and when the defen¬
dant appears, he puts in his anfwer to the bill of com¬
plaint, if there be no caufe for the plea to the jurifdic-
tion of the court, In difability of the perfon, or in bar, ire.
Then the plaintiff brings his replication, unlefs he files
exceptions againft the anfwer as infufficient, referring
it to a mafter to report whether it be fufiicient or not;
to which report exceptions may alfo be made. The
anfwer, replication, rejoinder, &c. being fettled, and
the parties come to ifthe, witneffes are to be exami-
, ned upon interrogatories, either in court, or by com-
miflion in the country, wherein the parties ufually join;
and when the plaintiff and defendant have examined
their witneffes, publication is to be made of the de-
pofitions, and the caufe is to be fet down for hearing,
after which follows the decree. But it is now ufual
to appeal to the houfe of lords; which appeals are to
be figtied by two noted counfel, and exhibited by way
of petition : the petition or appeal is lodged with the
clerk of the houfe of lords, and read in the houfe,
whereon the apellee is ordered to put in his anfwer,
and a day fixed for hearing the caufe ; and after coun¬
fel heard, and evidence given on both fides, the lords
will affirm or reverfe the decree of the chancery,
anjl finally determine the caufe by a majority of
votes, ire.
CHANDELIER, in fortification, a kind of move-
able parapet, conlifting of a wooden frame, made of
two upright flakes, about fix feet high, with crofs
planks between them ; ferving to fupport fafeines to
cover the pioneers.
CHANDERNAGORE, a French fettlement in the
kingdom of Bengal in the Eaft Indies. It lies on the
river Ganges, two leagues and a half above Calcutta.
The diftrieft is hardly a league in circumference, and
has the difadvantage of being fomewhat expofed on
the weftern fide ; but its harbour is excellent, and the
air is as pure as it can be on the banks of the Ganges.
Whenever any building is undertaken that requires
ftrength, it muft here, as well as in all other parts
of Bengal, be built upon piles : it being impofiible to
dig three or four feet without coming at water.
CHANDLER (Mary), dittinguifhed by her talent
for poetry, was the daughter of a diffenti/fg minifter
at Bath; and was borh at Malmfbury in Wiltfhire, in
1687. She was bred a milliner; but from her child¬
hood had a turn for poetry, and in her riper years ap¬
plied herfelf to the ftudy of the poets. Her poems,
for which {he was complimented by Mr Pope, breathe
the fpirit of piety and philofophy. She had the mif-
fortune to be deformed, which determined her to live
fingle; though ffie had great fweetnefs of counte- Chandler
nance, and was foiicited to marry. She died in 174?, II
aged 58. Changes.
Chandler (Dr Samuel), a learned and refpec-
table diflenting minifter, defeended from anceltors
heartily engaged in the caufe of religious liberty, and
lufferers for the fake of confcience and nonconformity;
was born at Hungerford in Berks, where his father
was a minifter of confiderable worth and abilities.
Being by his literary turn deftined to the miniftry, he
was firft placed at an academy at Bridgewater, and
from thence removed to Gloucefter under Mr Samuel
Jones. Beginning to preach in 1714, he was two
years afterwards chof’en minifter of a congregation at
Peckham in Surry ; and then joint preacher with the
learned Dr Lardner, of a w inter weekly evening lec¬
ture at the meeting-houfe in the Old Jewry London :
in which meeting he was eftablifhed affiftant preacher
about the year 1725, and then as the paftor. Here
he miniftered to the religious improvement of a very
refpeeftable congregation for 40 years with the great-
eft applaufe; and with what diligence and application
he improved the vacancies of time from hjs paftoral
duties, for improving himfelf and benefiting the world,
wnll appear from his many writings on a variety of
important fubjefts. While he was thus laudably em¬
ployed, not only the univerfities of Edinburgh and A-
berdeen gave him, without any application, teftimo-
nies of their efteem in diplomas, conferring on him
the degree of D. D. but he alfo received bffers of
preferment from fome of the governors of the efta¬
blifhed church, which he nobly declined. Dr Chand¬
ler firft formed the plan of the fund for the widows
and orphans of poor diflenting minifters; to which, by
his interefl and indoftry, he procured very generous
fubferiptions. He died in 1766.
CHANGER, an officer belonging to the king’s mint,
who changes money for gold, or filver bullion. See
Mint.
A/ak^'-Changer, is a banker, who deals in the
exchange, receipt, and payment, of moneys. See
Banker.
CHANGES, in arithmetic, ire. the permutations or
variations of any number of quantities; with regard
to their pofition, order, ire. See Combination.
To find all the pofiibls Changes of any Number of
Quantities, or how oft their Order may be varied. Sup-
pofe two quantities a and b. Since they may be ei¬
ther wrote ab or b a, it is evident their changes are
2=2.1. Suppofe three quantities ab c : their changes
will be as in the margin ; as is evident by com-
c a b bining c firft with a 0, then U'ith b a; and hence
a c b the number of changes arifes 3. 2. 1=6. If
a b c the quantities be 4, each may be combined four
  ways with each order of the other three ;
c b a whence the number of changes arifes 6. 4=4.
b c a 3. 2. 1.=24. Wherefore, if the number of
b a c quantities be fuppofed «, the number of changes
will be n.n— 1.;;—23.4. ire. If the fame
quantity occur twice, the changes of two will be found
b b; of three, bab,abb,bbc;oi four, c b ab, b c a b,
babe. And thus the number of changes in the firft
cafe will be i=(2. 1) : 2. 1 ; in the fecond, 5=(3. 2.
1) : 2. 1; in the third, I2=(4. 3'. 2.1) : 2. 1.
10^2
If
Channel
Changes
Channa,
C H A [ 1780 ] C H A
If a fifth letter be added, in each feries of four quan¬
tities, it will beget five changes, whence the number
of all the changes will be 6o=(5. 4. 3. 2.) I, : 2. I.
Hence if the number of quantities be », the number of
changes vj\\\ be (n.n—\.n—2.«—3.».—4. ire.) : 2. 1.
From thefe fpecial formulae may be collected a general
one, viz. if n be the number of quantities, and m the
number which Ihewshow oft the fame quantity occurs;
we fhall have {n.n—\.n—2.»—3.»—4*«—5-n—6.
n—7.;/—8.7?—y.irc.) : m—\.m—un——4. ire.)
The feries being to be continued, till the continual
lubtracftion of unity from n and rn leave o. After the
fame manner we may proceed further, till putting «
for the number of quantities, and /, m, r, &c. for the
number that {hews how oft any of them is repeated,
we arive at an univerfal form, (w.r;—i.n—2.»—3.
«—4.»—5.;;—6.«—7.»—8. ire.) : (/./—1./~ 2./—3.
/—4./—j. l$c. vi.m—1.711—i.m—3. ire. r.r—i.r—2.
3-r—4.r—5. l£c.
Suppofe, for inftance, »=6, /=3, r=-.o. The num-
of changes will be (6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.) : (3. 2. 1.3. 2.1.)
=(6.5.4.) : (3. 2=2. 5. 2=20).
Hence, fuppofe thirteen perfons at a table, if it be
required how oft they may change places ; we {hall
find the number 13. 12. X1.1o. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2.1.
=6227020800.'
In this manner may all the pofiible anagrams of any
word be found in all languages, and that without any
ftudy: fuppofe, v.g. it were required to find the ana¬
grams of the word amor, the number of changes will
be a o a m r m 0 a m a r 0 a r 0 m
  a 0 m m r 0 a m a 0 r a 0 r m
vi a a ni 0 m 0 r a   a 0 m r
0 m a
m 0 a
r ?n a 0 0 a r sn a r m 0
m r a 0 0 a m r a vs r 0
vs a 0
The anagrams therefore of the word amor, in the
Latin tongue, are roma, mora, maro, ramo, anno. See
Anagram.
Whether this new method of anagramatizing be like
to prove of much fervice to that art, is left to the
poets.
CHANNA, in zoology, the name of a fifti caught
in great plenty in the Mediterranean, and broughf to
market in Italy and elfewhere, among the fea-perch,
which it lb nearly refembles, that it would not be di-
llingui{liable from it, but that the fea-perch is bigger,
and has only broad tranfverfe lines on its back, where¬
as the channa has them both tranfverfe and longitudi¬
nal. It has a very wide mouth, and its lower jaw is
longer than its upper; fo that its mouth naturally falls
open. Its eyes are fmall, and its teeth very {harp:
its back is of a blackilh red : it has feveral longitudinal
lines of a reddilh hue, and its tail is marked with red-
dilh fpots. There is an obfervation, that in all the
fifti of this kind which have been examined by natu-
ralifts, there have been found none but females. This
is as old as the days of Ariftotle. Whether this be
true in fail, would require many obfervations. If it
fhould prove fo, the whole feems to end in this, that
the channa is no diftinit fpecies, but only the female
of feme other filh. There is another fifti not unlike
this, called cannadella, or rather channadella, which
at Marfeilles is known by the name of charina.
CHANNEL, in geography, an arm of the fea, or a
narrow fea between two continents, or between a
continent and an ifland. Such are the Britifli channel,
St George’s channel, the channel of Conftantinople,
&c.
Channels o/'rf Mi/. See Chain-^/^j.
CHANT, (cantus), is ufed for the vocal mufic of
churches.
In church-hiftory we meet with divers kinds of
chant or fotsg. The firft is the Ambrofian, eftablilhed
by St Ambrofe. The fecond, the Gregorian chant, in¬
troduced by Pope Gregory the great, who eftabliflied
fchools of chantors, and correited the church-fong.
This is ftill retained in the church under the name of
plain fong: at firft it was called the Roman fong. The
plain or Gregorian chant, is where the choir and people
ling in unifon, or all together in the fame manner.
CHANTILLY, a village in France, about feven
leagues from Paris, where there is a magnificent pa¬
lace and fine foreft belonging to the duke of Bourbon.
CHANTOR, a finger of a choir in a cathedral.
The word is almoft grown obfolete, chorijler or fing-
ing-man being commonly ufed inftead of it. All great
chapters have chantors and chaplains to afiill the ca¬
nons, and officiate in their abfence.
Chantor is ufed by way of excellence for the pre¬
centor or mafter of the choir, which is one of the firft
dignities of the chapter. At St David’s in Wales,
where there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the
bilhop. The ancients called the chantor primicerius
cantorum. To him belonged the direction of the
deacons and other inferior officers.
Chantors.in the temple of Jerufalem, were a num¬
ber of Levites employed in finging the praifes of God,
and playing upon inftruments before his altar. They
had no habits difthnft. from the reft of the people ; yet
in the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon’s
temple, the chantors appeared drefled in tunics of
byffiis or fine linen. 2 Chron. v. 12.
CHAUNTRY, or Chantry, was anciently a church
or chapel endowed with lands, or other yearly reve¬
nue, for the maintenance of one or more priefts, daily
faying or finging mafs for the fouls of the donors, and
fuch others as they appointed. Hence chauntry-rents
are rents paid to the crown by the tenants or pur-
chafers of chauntry-lands.
CHAOLOGY, the hiftory or defeription of the
chaos. See Chaos.
Orpheus, in his chaology, fets forth the different al¬
terations, fecretions, and divers forms which matter
went through till it became inhabitable, which a-
mounts to the fame with what we otherwife call cof-
mogony. Dr Burnet, in his theory of the earth, re-
prefents the chaos as it was at firft, entire, undivided,
ami univerfally rude and deformed ; or the tohu bohu :
then ffiews how it came to be divided into its refpedtive
regions; how the homogeneous matter gathered itfelf
apart from all of a contrary principle ; and laftiy, how
it hardened, and became a folid habitable globe. See
Earth.
CHAOS, that confufion in which matter lay when
newly
Chaos.
C H A r 1781 1 C II A
Chaos newly produced out of nothing at the beginning of the
II _ world, before God, by his almighty word, had put it
Chapelam. jn{(> tlie order anc] condition wlierein it was after the
fix days creation. See Earth..
Chaos, in zoology, a genus of infers belonging, to
the order of vermes zoophyta. The body has no Ihell
or covering, and is capable of reviving after being
dead to appearance for along time: it has no joints
or external organs of fenfation. There are five fpe-
cies, moftly obtained by infulions of different vege¬
tables in water, and only difcoverable by the micro-
fcope. See Animalcule.
CHAPEAU, in heraldry, an ancient cap of dignity
worn by dukes, being fcarlet-coloured velvet on the
outfide, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne
above an helmet inflead of a wreath, under gentle¬
mens crefls. See Heraldry, n° 27.
CHAPEL; a place of divine worlhip, fo called. The
word is derived from -the Latin capella. In former
times, when the kings of France were engaged in
war, they always carried St Martin’s hat into the field,
which was kept in a tent as a precious relic: from
whence the place was called captlla s and the priefls,
who had the cuflody of the tent, capeliani. Afterwards
the word capdla became applied to private oratories.
In Britain there are fevera! forts of chapels. 1. Pa¬
rochial chapels: thefe differ from parilh-churches only
in name ; they are generally final!, and the inhabitants
within the diftrhSl few. If there be a prefentation ad
ecclefiam, inftead of capdlaw, and an admiflion andin-
flitution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church.
2. Chapels, which adjoin to and are part of the church:
fuch were formerly built by honourable perfons, as bury-
ing-places for themfelves and their familes. 3. Chapels
of eafe ; thefe are ufually built in very large parifhes,
where all the people cannot conveniently repair to
the mother-church. 4. Free chapels; fuch as were
founded by kings of England. They are free from
all epifcopal jurifdiction, and only to be vifited by the
founder and his fucceffors ; which is done by the lord
chancellor: yet the king may licenfe any fubjedl to
build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent ex¬
empt it from the vifitation of the ordinary. 5. Cha¬
pels in the univerfities, belonging to particular col¬
leges. 6. Domeflic chapels, built by noblemen or gen¬
tlemen for the private fervice of God in their families.
See Chaplain.
Knights (jf the Chapel, called alfo “ Poor knights
of Windfor,” were inftituted by Henry VIII. in his
te-fiament. Their number was at firft thirteen, but
has been iince augmented to twenty-fix. They affift
in the funeral fervices of the kings of England : they
are fubjeefi: to the office «f the canons of Windi'or, and
live on penfions affigned them by the order of the
garter. They bear a blue or red cloak, with the arms
of St George on the left fhoulder.
CHAPELAIN (James), an eminent French poet
born at Paris in 1595, and often mentioned in the
works of Balzac, Menage, and other learned men. He
wrote feveral works, and at length diftinguiffied him-
fielf by an heroic poem called La Puce lie, on France
Delivree, which employed him feveral years; and
which, raifing the expectation of the public, was as
much decried by fome as extolled by others. He was
ohe of the king’s confellors; and died in 1674, very Chapeles
rich, but was very covetous and fordid. I
CHAPELET, in the menage, a couple of ftirrup- c^aP'ctj
leathers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and
joined at top in a fort of leather buckle, called the
head of the chapelet, by which they are made faft to
the pummel of the faddle, after being adjufted to the
rider’s length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid
the trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups,
every time that the gentleman mounts on.a different
borfe and faddle, and to fupply the place of the aca¬
demy faddles, which have no ftirrups to them.
CHAPELLE (Claudius Emanuel Luillier,) the natu¬
ral fon of Francis Luillier, took the name of Chapelle
from a village between Paris and St Denys, where he
was born. He diflinguilhed himfelf by writing finall
pieces of poetry, in which he dilcovered great deli¬
cacy, an eafy turn, and an admirable facility of ex-
preffion. He was the friend of GalFendi and Moliere;
and died in 1686.
CHAPITERS, in architecture, the fame with capi¬
tals.
Chapiters, in law, formerly fignified a fummary
of fuch matters as were inquired of, or prefented be¬
fore juftices in eyre, juftices of affize, or of the peace,
in their feffions.
Chapiters, at this time, denote fuch articles as are
delivered by the mouth of the juftice in his charge to
the inquefl.
CHAPLAIN, an ecdefiaflic Who officiates in a cha¬
pel. See Chapel.
The king of Great Britain hath 48 chaplains in or¬
dinary, ufually eminent dodors in divinity, who wait
four each month, preach in the chapel, read the fer¬
vice to the family, and to the king in his private ora¬
tory, and fay grace in the abfence of the clerk of the
clofet. Belides, there are 24 chaplains at Whitehall,
fellows of Oxford or Cambridge, who preach in their
turns, and are allowed 301. per annum each. Accord¬
ing to a ftatute of Henry VIII. the perfons veiled
with a power of retaining chaplains, together with
the number each is allowed to qualify, is as fol¬
lows : An archbifhop, eight; a duke or biffiop, fix ;
marquis or earl, five ; vifeount, four ; baron, knight of
the garter, or lord chancellor, three ; a dutchefs, mar-
chionefs, countefs, baronefs, the treafurer and comp¬
troller of the king’s houfe, clerk of the clofet, the
king’s fecretary, dean of the chapel, almoner, and ma¬
iler of the rolls, each of them two; chief juflice of the
king’s bench, and warden of the cinque-ports, each
one. All thefe chaplains may purchafe a licence or
difpenfation, and take two benefices with cure of fouls..
A chaplain mull be retained by letters teftimonial un¬
der hand and feal; for it is not fufficient that he ferve
as chaplain in the family.
Chaplain of the Order of Malta, otherwife called
diacOy and clerk coveufital the fecond dafs of the or¬
der of Malta. The knights make the firll rank.
CHAPLET, an ancient ornament for the head, like
a garland or wreath ; but this word is frequently ufed
to fignify the circle of a crown. There are in fiances
of its being borne in a coat of arms, as well as for
crells; the paternal arms for Lafcelles are argent,,
three chaplets, gules.
Chaplet
Chaplet
»
Chappel.
C H A [ 1782 ] C H A
Chaplet alfo denotes a fti ing of beads ufed by the
Roman Catholics, to count the number of their pray-
efs. The invention of it is afcribed to Peter the her¬
mit, who probably learned it of the Turks, as they
owe it to the Ealt-Indians.
Chaplets are fometimes called pater-nofters ; and
are made of coral, of diamonds, of wood, ire. The
common chaplet contains fifty ave-marias, and five
pater-nofters. There is alfo a chaplet of our Saviour,
confifting of 33 beads, in honour of his 33 years living
on earth, inltituted by father Michael the Camaldufian.
The Orientals have a kind of chaplets which they
call chains, and which they ufe in their prayers, re-
hearfing one of the perf ections of God on each link or
head. The Great Mogul is faid to have 18 of thefe
chains, all precious ftones; fome diamonds, others ru¬
bies, pearls, ire. The Turks have likewife chaplets,
which they bear in the hand, or hang at the girdle :
but father Dandini obferves, they differ from thofe
ufed by the Romanifls, in that they are all of the fame
bignefs, and have not that diflinClion into decads ;
though they confift of fix decads, or 60 beads. He
adds, that the muffulmans run over the chaplet almoft
in an inftant, the prayers being extremely fhort, as
containing only thefe words, “ praife to God,” or
glory to God,” for each bead. Befides the com¬
mon chaplet they have likewife a larger one confift¬
ing of 100 beads, where there is fome diftinction, as
being divided by little threads into three parts ; on
one of which they repeat 30 times foubhan Allah, i. e.
u God is worthy to be praifedon another, ellatnb
Allah, “ glory be to God and on the third, Allah
echcr, “ God is great.” Thefe thrice thirty times ma¬
king only 90; to complete the number too, they add
other prayers for the beginning of the chaplet He
adds, that the Mahometan chaplet, appears to have
had its rife from the mea beraccth, or “ hundred be¬
nedictions which the Jews are obliged to repeat
daily, and which we find in their prayer-books ; the
Jews and Mahometans having this in common, that
they fcarce do anything without pronuncing fome laud
or benedidton.
Menage derives the word chaplet from chapeau,
“ hat.” The modern Latins call it chapelliua, the Ita¬
lians, more frequently corona.
CHAPMAN (George), born in I5J7, a man highly
efteemed in his time for his dramatic and poetic works.
He wrote 17 plays ; tranflated Homer and fome other
ancient poets; and was thought no mean genius. He
died in 1634 ; and was buried in St Giles’s ii; the fields,
where his friend Inigo Jones erected a monument to
him.
CHAPPE', in heraldry, the dividing an efcutcheon
by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to
the angles below, into three parts, the fetftions on the
fides being of different metal or colour from the reft.
CHAPPEL in frith,amarket-townof'Derbyfhire,
about 26 miles north-weft of Derby; W. Long. 1. 50.
N. Lat. 53. 22.
Chappel (William) a learned and pious bifhop of
Cork, Cloyne, and Rofs,in Ireland, born in Nottingham-
fhire in 1582. When the troubles began under Char. I.
he was profecuted by the puritan party in parliament;
and retired to Derby, where he devoted himfelf to
ftudy until his death in 1649. He wrote Methodus
Concionandi, i. e. “ the method of preaching:” and he is
one of thofe to whom the Whole Duty of Man has been
attributed. He left behind him alfo his own life writ¬
ten by himfelf in Latin, which has been twice printed.
CHAPTER, in ecclefiaftical polity, a fociety or com¬
munity of clergymen belonging to the cathedrals and
collegiate-churches.
It was in the eighth century that the body of canons
began to be called a.chapter. The chapter of the ca¬
nons of a cathedral were a Handing council to the bi-
fhip, and,-during the vacancy of the fee, had the jurif-
duftion pf the diocefe. In the earlier ages, the bifhop
was head of the chapter; afterwards abbots and other
dignitaries, as deans, provofts, treafurers, ire. were
prefered to this diftimftion. The deans and chapters,
had the privilege of chufing the bifhops in England ;
but Henry VIII. got this power vefted in the crown :
and as the fame prince expelled the monks from the
cathedrals, and placed fecular canons in their room,
thofe he thus regulated were called deans and chapters
of the new foundation; fuch are Canterbury, Winchef-
ter, Ely, Carlifle, ire. See Dean.
Chapter, in matters in literature, a divifion in a
book for keeping the fubjedt treated of more clear and
diftindt.
CHAR, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Salmo.
CHARABON, a fea-port town on the northern coaft
of the ifland of lava in the Eaft-Indies; E. Long. 10.8.
S, Lat. 6.
Chapter
Charafter.
CHARACTER, in a general fenfe, fignifies a mark,
or figure, drawn on paper, metal, ftone, or other mat¬
ter, with a pen, graver, chiflel, or other inftrument,
to fignify or denote any thing.
The word is Greek, ^apax-njp, formed from the verb
yayaeam, infculpere, to ingrave, imprefs, ire.
The various kinds of charatters may be reduced to
three heads, viz. Literal Charaflers, Numeral Charac~
ters, and Abbreviations.
I. Literal Character, is a letter of the alphabet,
ferving to indicate fome articulate found, expreffive,
of fome idea or conception of the mind. See Alpha¬
bet.
1. Thefe may be divided, with regard to their na¬
ture and ufe, into Nominal Characters, or thofe we
properly call letters; which ferve to exprefs the names
of things: See Letter. Real Characters; thofe
that inftead of names exprefs things and ideas: See
Idea, ire. Emblematical, or Symbolical Characters :
which have this in common with real ones, that
they exprefs the things themfelves; but have this fur¬
ther, that they in fome meafure perfonate them, and
exhibit their form: fuch are the hieroglyphics of the an¬
cient Egyptians. See Hieroglyphic, Symbol, tffc.
2. UAtvi/Ch auacters may be again divided, with
regard to their invention and ufe, into particular and
general or univerfal.
Particular Characters, or thofe peculiar to this
or that nation. Such are the Roman, Italic, Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, Gothic, Chinefe, ire. characters. See
Hebrew, Gothic, Chinese, ire.
Univerfal Characters, are alfo real characters,
and make what fome authors call a Philofophical Lan¬
guage. -
That
c H A [ 1783 ] C H A
Characters. That diverfity of characters ufed by tlte feveral na-
  tions to exprefs the fame idea, is found the chief ob-
ftacle to the advancement of learning: to remove
thn, feveral authors have taken occafion to propofe
plans of characters that fliould be univerfal, and which
eafch people Ihould read in their own language. The
character here is to be real, not nominal: to exprefs
things and notions; not, as the common ones, letters
or founds : yet to be mute, like letters, and arbitrary ;
not emblematical, like hieroglyphics.
Thus, every nation fhould retain its own language,
yet every one underftand that of each other, without
learning it; only by feeing a real or univerfal charac¬
ter, which fliould fignify the fame things to all people,
by what founds foever each exprefs it in their particu¬
lar idiom. For inftance, by feeing the character de-
ftined to fignify to drink, an Englilhman fliould read
to drink ; a Frenchman, T>oire; a Latin, bibcre; a Greek,
vmw, a Jew, a German, trincken ; and fo of
the relt: in the fame manner as feeing a horfe, each
people expreffes it after their own manner j but all
mean the fame animal.
This real character is no chimera ; the Chinele and
Japonefe have already fomething like it. They have
a common character which each of thofe nations un¬
derftand alike in their feverai languages; though they
pronounce them with fuch different founds, that they
do not underftand one another in fpeaking.
The firft and moft confiderable attempts for a real
character, or philofopliicai language, in Europe, are
thole of bifliop Wilkins, and Dalgarme : but thefe,
with how much art foever they were contrived, have
yet proved ineffeftual.
M. Leibnitz had fome thoughts the fame way; he
thinks thofe great men did not hit the right method.
It was probable, indeed, that by their means, people,
who do not underftand one another, might eafily have
a commerce together ; but they have not hit on true
real characters.
According to him, the characters fliould refemble
thofe ufed in algebra : which, in eftecft, are very fini-
ple, yet very expreflive ; without any thing fuper-
fluous or equivocal; and contain all the varieties re¬
quired.
The real character of bifliop Wilkins has its juft ap-
plaufe : Dr Hook recommends it on his own know¬
ledge and experience, as a moft excellent fcheme ; and
to engage tlie world to the ftudy thereof, publilhes
fome fine inventions of his own therein.
M. Leibnitz tells us, he had under confxderation an
alphabet of human thoughts ; in order to a new philo-
fophical language, on his own fcheme : but his death
prevented its being brought to maturity.
M. Lodwic, in the philofophical tranfaClions, gives
us a plan of an univerfal alphabet or character of ano¬
ther kind : this was to contain an enumeration of all
fuch fingle founds, or letters, as are ufed in any lan¬
guage ; by means whereof, people fliould be enabled
to pronounce truly and readily any language ; to de-
fcribe the pronunciation of any language that ftiall be
pronounced in their hearing, fo as others accuftom-
ed to this language, though they had never heard the
language pronounced, (hall at firft be able truly to pro¬
nounce it: and, laftly, this character to ferve as a ftan-
dard to perpetuate the founds of any language. In Chara&ers.
the Journal Literaire, an. 1720, we have a very inge-
nious project for an univerfal character. The author,
after obviating the objeHions that might be made a-
gainft the fealiblenefs of fitch fchemes in the general,
propofes his own: his characters are to be the com¬
mon Arabic, or numeral figures. The combinations
of thefe nine are fufficieht to exprefs diftimftly an in¬
credible quantity of numbers, much more than we fliall
need terms to fignify our actions, goods, evils, duties,
paffions, ire. Thus is all the trouble of framing and
learning any new character at once faved ; the Ara¬
bic figures having already all the univerfality requir¬
ed.
The advantages are immenfe. For, i°, We have
here a (table, faithful interpreter ; never to be cor¬
rupted or changed, as the popular languages continu¬
ally are. 20, Whereas the difficulty of pronouncing
a foreign language is fuch as ufually gives the learner
the greateft trouble, and there are even fome founds
which foreigners never attain to; in the character here
propofed, this difficulty has no place : every nation is
to pronounce them according to the particular pronun¬
ciation that already obtains among them. All the dif¬
ficulty is, the accuftoming the pen and the eye to affix
certain notions to characters that do not, at firft fight,
exhibit them. But this trouble is no more than we
find in the ftudy of any language whatever.
The-inflexions of words are hereto be expreffed
by the common letters. For inftance, the fame cha¬
racter (hall exprefs a filly, or a colt, a horfe, or a mare,
an old horfe, or an old mare, as accompanied with this
or that diftmXive letter, which-fliall (hew the fex,
youth, maturity, or old age : a letter alfo to exprefs
the bignefs or fize of things; thus, v.g. a man with .
this or that letter, to fignify a great man, or a little
man, &c.
The ufe of thefe letters belongs to the grammar;
which, once well underftood, would abridge the voca-
bulary exceedingly. An advantage of this grammar
is, that it would only have one declenfion, and one con¬
jugation : thofe numerous anomalies of grammarians
are exceeding troublefome; and arife hence, that the
common languages are governed by the populace, who
never reafon on what is heft : but in the character
here propqfed, men of fenfe having the introdudtion
of it, would have a new ground, whereon to build re¬
gularly.
But the difficulty is not in inventing the moft fimple,
eafy, and commodious character, but in engaging the fe¬
veral nations to ufe it; there being nothing they agree
lefs in, than the underftanding and purfuing their com¬
mon intereft.
3. Literal charaXers may again be divided, with re-
fpeeft to the nations among whom, they have been in¬
vented, into Greek characters, Roman characters, He¬
brew charaXers, ire. The Latin charaXer now ufed
through all Europe, was formed from the Greek, as the
Greek was from the Phoenician ; and the Phoenician,
as well as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic charaXers,
were formed" from the ancient itebrew, which fublift-
ed till the Babyloniflt captivity ; for after that event
the charaXer of the Aflyrians, which is the fquare
Hebrew now in ufe, prevailed, the ancient being only
found
C H A [ 1784 ] C H A
Charafters. found on fome Hebrew medals, commonly called Sa-
maritan medals. It was in 1091 that the Gothic cha¬
racters, invented by Ultilas, were abolilhed, and the
Latin ones eftablilhed in their room.
Medalliits obferve, that the Greek character, con¬
fining only of majufcule letters, has preferv ed its uni¬
formity on all medals, as low as the time of Gallienus;
from which time it appears fomewhat weaker and
rounder : from the time of Conftantine to Michael
we find only Latin characters: after Michael, the
Greek characters recommence; hut from that time
they began to alter with the language, which was a
mixture of Greek and Latin. The Latin medals per-
ferve both their character and language as low as
the tranllation of the feat of the empire to Conftan-
tinople : towards the time of Decius the character
began to lofe its roundnefs and beauty ; fome time
after, it retrieved, and fubfifted tolerably till the time
of Juflin, when it degenerated gradually into the Go¬
thic. The rounder, then, and better formed a cha¬
racter is upon a medal, the fairer pretence it has to
antiquity.
II. Numeral Characters, or characters ufed to
exprefs numbers, are either letters or figures.
The Arabic character, called alfo the common one,
becaufe it is ufed almoft throughout Europe in all forts
of calculations, eonfifts of thefe ten digits 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o.
The Roman numeral character con lifts of feven ma-
jufcule letters of the Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X,
L, C, D, M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten,
L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a thou-
fand. The I repeated twice makes two, II ; thrice,
three, III; four is expreffed thus IV, as I before V or
X takes an unit from the number expreffed by thefe
letters. To exprefs fix, an I is added to a V, VI ;
for feven, two, VII : and for eight, three, VIII. nine
is expreffed by an I before X, thus IX. The fame
remark may be made of the X before L or C, ex¬
cept that the diminution is by tens ; thus, XL de¬
notes forty, XC ninety, and LX fixty. The C be¬
fore D or M diminifhes each by a hundred. The num¬
ber five hundred is fometimes expreffed by an I be¬
fore a C inverted, thus, jq ; and inftead of M, which
fignifies a thoufand, an I is fometimes ufed between
two C's, the one direCt, and the other inverted, thus
CIO. The addition of C and D before or after raifes,
CIO by tens, thus, CCIDD expreffes ten thoufand,
CCCIODD, a hundred thoufand. The Romans alfo
expreffed any number of thoufands by a line drawn
over any numeral lefs than a thoufand ; thus v de¬
notes five thoufand, LX, fixty thoufand : fu likewife
M is one million, MM is two millions, ire.
The Greeks had three ways of expreffing numbers :
1. Every letter, according to its place in the alpha¬
bet, denoted a number, from «, one, to a, twenty-
four. 2. The alphabet was divided into eight units,
« one, 0 two, y three, 55c. ; into eight tens, »ten,
x twenty, A thirty, ye.; and eight hundreds, § one hun¬
dred, cr two hundred, r three hundred, life. 3.1 flood
for one, II five, A ten, H a hundred, X a thoufand,
M ten thoufand ; and when the letter n inclofed any
of thefe, except I, it fhewed the inclofed letter to be
five times its value ; as lAi fifty, IHl five hundred, Charafters.
1x1 five thoufand, 1m1 fifty thoufand.
The French Character ufed in the chamber of ac¬
counts, and by perfons concerned in the management
of the revenue, is, properly fpeaking, nothing plfe
than the Roman numerals, in letters that are not ma¬
jufcule : thus, inflead of expreffing fifty-fix by LVI,
they denote it by fmaller charaClers Ivj.
III. Characters of Abbreviations, ite. in feveral
of the arts, are fymbols contrived for the more concife
and immediate conveyance of the knowledge of things.
For the
Characters ufed in Algehra. See Algebra,
fetf. i.
Characters ufed in AJlronomy, viz.
Of the Planets. See Plate XLIII. fig. 5.
Of the Signs. Ibid. fig. 3.
Of the afpefts.
cf or S Conjundlion A Trine
SS Semifextile Bq Biquintile
* Sextile Vc Quincunx
Q Quintile 0° Oppofition
[J Quartile Q Dragon’s head
Td Tredecile ft Dragon’s tail
Of time.
A. M. ante meridiem, before the fun comes upon
the meridian.
O. or N. noon.
P. M. pojl meridiem, when the fun is part the me¬
ridian.
Characters in Comrperc.
D° ditto, the fame R° reflo 7
N° numero, or number V° 1
0 7 /* y
o > folio
¥° folio, or page
C or 0 hundred
weight, or 112
pounds
qrs quarters
S or j fhillings
d pence or deniers
lb pound weight.
Characters in Chemijlry. See Plate LXXVI.
Characters in Geometry and Trigonometry.
|| the character of pa- X. equiangular, or II-
£. or l. pounds Ilerling
ft. per, or by, as fr ann.
by the year, fr cent.
Rx rixdollar
D1 ducat
P. S. poftfeript, ire.
rallelifm
A triangle
□ fquare
[]□ reclangle
O circle
milar
_L equilateral
an angle
l_ right angle
'. perpendicular
denotes a degree; thus 450 implies 4$ degrees.
' Denotes a minute; thus, 50', is 50 minutes. ",
Denote feconds, thirds, and fourths: and the fame
characters are ufed where the progreffions are by
tens, as it is here by fixties.
Characters in Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, &c.
D. D. doctor in divi¬
nity
V. D. M. minifter of
the word of God
LL. D. doctor of laws
J. V. D. doctor of ci¬
vil and canon law
“ quotation
() parenthefis
[] crotchet
- hyphen
’ apotrophe
emphafis or accent
“ breve
dialyfis
a caret and circumflex.
f t and
Charafter.
C H A [ 1785 ] C H A
f X and * references M. D. do&or in phyfic
§ fedtion or divifion A. M. mafter of. arts
paragraph A. B. bachelor of arts.
F. R. S. fellow of the royal fociety.
For the other chara<5ters ufed in grammar, fee
Comma, Colon, Semicolon, &c.
Characters amsng the ancient Laywers, and in an¬
cient bifcriptiom.
§ paragraphs
ff digefls
Scto. fenatus con-
fulto
E. extra
S. P. Q; R. fena¬
tus populufque
Rom anus
P. P. pater patriae
C. code
C. C. cpnfules
T. titulus.
P. P. D. D. propria
pecunia dedicavit
D. D. M. dono dedit
monumentum.
Characters in Medicine and Pharmacy.
IJ. recipe M. manipulus, a
a, an, or ana, of each handful
alike P. a pugil
ft> a pound, or a pint P. As. equal quan-
§ an ounce titles
5 a drachm S. A. According to
9 a fcruple art
gr. grains q. s. a fufficient
■g or /r, half of any quantity
thing. q. pi. as much as
cong. congius, a gallon you pleafe
coch. cochleare, a P. P. pulvis patrum,
fpoonful the Jefuit’s bark.
Characters itponTomb-ftones.
S. V. Side viator, i. e. Stop traveller.
M. S. Memoriae facrum, i. e. Sacred to the me¬
mory.
D. M. Diis manibus.
I. H. S. Jefus.
X. P. a charadfcer found in the catacombs, about
the meaning of which authors are not agr'eed.
Characters ufed in Muftc} and of mufical Notes with
their proportions, are as follow.
Iq charadler of a large 8 f crotchet i
F| a long 4 quaver 4
pi] a breve 2 £ lemiquaver
O a femibreve I § demifemiquaver
C) a minim f-
character of a flrarp note : this character at the
beginning of a line or fpace, denotes that all the notes
in that line are to be taken a femitone highter than in
the natural feries; and the fame affedts all the oftaves
above and below, though not marked: but when pre¬
fixed to any particular note, it ftiews that note alone
to be taken a femitone higher than it would be with¬
out fuch character.
b or b, character of a flat note : this is the contra¬
ry to the other above; that is, a femitone lower.
^ character of a natural note : when in a line or
feries of artificial notes, marked at the beginning b or
the natural note happens to be required, it is de¬
noted by this charadter.
charadter of the treble cliff,
t] character of the mean cliff.
d: bafs cliff.
or 4 charadters of common duple time, fignify-
VoL. III.
ing the meafure of two crotchets to be equal to two Charafter.
.notes, of which four make a femibreve.  =—
G charadters that diftinguifh the move¬
ments of common time, the firlt implying flow, the
fecond quick, and the third very quick.
?> f> b Ij charadters of fimple triple time,
the meafure of which is equal to three femibreves, or
to three minims.
£, 4, or r6z, charadters of mixed triple time, where
the meafure is equal to fix crotchets, or fix qua¬
vers.
|, or^f, or ~9S, or f, or 4, charadters of compound
triple time.
tt> ff> or tt> or characters of that fpe-
cies of triple time called the meafure of twelve times.
Character, in epic and dramatic poetry, that
which is peculiar in the manners of any perfbn, and
diftinguifhes him from all others.
The poetical charadter, fays Mr Boffu, is not pro¬
perly any particular virtue or quality, but a compofi-
tion of feveral which are mixed together, in a diffe¬
rent degree, according to the neccfnty of the fable and
the unity of the adtion : there muft be one, however,
to reign over ^11 the reft; and this muft be found, in
fome degree, in every part. The firft quality in
Achilles, is wrath; in Ulyffes, diffimulation; and in
ACneas, mildnefs: but as thefe charadters cannot be
alone, they muft be accompanied with others to em-
bellifh them, as far as they are capable, either by
hiding their defedts, as in the anger of Achilles, which
is palliated by extraordinary valour; or by making
them center in fome folid virtue, as in Ulyffes, whole
diffimulation makes a part of his prudence; and in
Alneas, whole mildnefs'is employed in a fubmiflion tq
the will of the gods. In the making up of which
union, it is to be obferved, the poets have joined to¬
gether fuch qualities as are by nature the moft com¬
patible ; valour with anger, piety with mildnefs, and
prudence with diffimulation. The fable required pru¬
dence in Ulyffes, and piety in Aneas ; in this, there¬
fore, the poets were not left to their choice : but Ho¬
mer might have made Achilles a coward without a-
bating any thing from the juftnefs of his fable: fo that
it was the neceffity of adorning his charadter that
obliged him to make him valiant: the charadter, then,
of a hero in the epic poem, is compounded of three
forts of qualities ; the firft effential to the fable; the
fecond, embellifhments of the firft; and valour, which
fuftains the other two, makes the third.
Unity of charadter is as neceffary as the unity of
the fable. For this purpofe a perfon fltopld be the
fame from the beginning to the end : not that he is
always to betray the fame fentiments, or one paffion ;
but that he fhould never fpeak nor adt inconfiffently
with his fundamental charadter. For inftance, the
weak may fometimes fally into a warmth, and the
breaft of the paffionate be calm, a change which oft¬
en introduces in the drama a very affecting variety;
but if the natural difpofition of the former was to be
reprefented as boifterous, and that of the latter mild
and foft, they would both adt out of charadter, and
contradidl their perfons.
True charadters are fuch as we truly and really fee
in men, or may exift without any contradiction to
R r nature:
C H A [ 1786 ] C H A
C ha rafter, nature: no man queftions but there have been men
 as generous and as good as i^neas, as paffionate and
as violent as Achilles, as prudent and wife as Ulylfes,
as impious and atheiftical as Mezentius, and as amo¬
rous and paflionate as Dido; all thefe characters,
therefore, are true, and nothing but juft imitations
of nature. On the contrary, a character is falfe when
an author fo feigns it, that one can fee nothing like
it in the order of nature wherein he defigns it lhall
ftand: thefe characters Ihould be wholly excluded
from a poem, becaufe, tranfgrefling the bounds of
probability and reafon, they meet with no belief from
the readers; they are fictions of the poet’s brain, not
imitations of nature ; and yet all poetry confifts in an
imitation of nature.
Character is alfo ufedfor certain vifible qualities,
which claim refpeCt or reverence tothofe veiled there¬
with.—-The majefty of kings gives them a charafter
which procures rel'peCt from the people. A bilhop
Ihould fuftain his char after by learning and folid piety,
rather than by worldly luftre, be. The law of na¬
tions fecures the charafter of an ambalfador from all
infults.
Chafacters, among botanifts, is fynonimous with
the definition of the genera of plants.—The term cha¬
rafter is not extended by Linnaeus to the fpecies of
plants, becaufe he never gives the complete deferip-
tion of any fpecies; but only enumerates thofe cha-
raClers or circumftances in which it differs from all
the other fpecies of the fame genus. The characters
which are known by the fenfe of light, are only to
be depended on in diltinguilhing bodies; thofe which
are acquired by the other fenfes, as the tafte and
fmell, being rarely or never to be admitted as marks
of diftinCtion. The charaCteriftic mark of each ge¬
nus is to be fixed from the figure, lituation, conneCti-
* See TBoti- onj number, and proportion, of all the parts*. Lin-
71lc“ a e’ naeus has fuggefted four different characters ; the ar¬
tificial, the natural, and the habitual; which are all
equally applicable to the higher and lower divifions.
The firft is drawn indiferiminately from different parts
of the plant, and admits of more or fewer charaCterif-
tical marks than are abfolutely neceffary for diftinguifh-
ing the clalfes, genera, and fpecies. Linnteus elta-
blifhes for a criterion of the artificial character, that
it can never diltinguifh the genera in a natural order;
being calculated merely for diferiminating fuch as ar¬
range themfelves under the fame artificial order. In
the fexual fyftem the claffical charaClers are only con-
fidered as artificial. The eflential character diftin-
guifttes one plant from another by means of a fingle
mark fo ftriking and particular as to diftinguilh the
plant in which it is found, from every other, at firrt
fight. It ferves to diftinguifh fuch genera as arrange
themfelves under the fame natural order. The effen-
tial character of the claffes and genera ought to be ta¬
ken from one of the feven parts of fruCtincation ; that
of the fpecies from any of the other parts; as the ftem,
leaf, root, buds, be. The natural character includes
the two former, and colleCts all the poflible marks of
plants. Iris uftful, fays Linnaeus, in every method ;
lays the foundation of the fyftems; remains unchan¬
ged though new genera are daily difeovered ; and is
capable of emendation by the detection of new fpe¬
cies alone which afford an opportunity of excluding Cbarafte-
fuch charaCteriftical marks as are totally fuperfluous. rhhc
The habitual character drawn from the habit or port chJ'a(3e
of plants, was the invention of the earlier botanifts   _L
who knew no better rule for the diftribution of vege¬
tables. This character has never been employed but
in diftinguifiiing the fpecies; ^though Linnaeus feems
to think that it may be ufed with caution, and in de¬
fault of other characters, for afeertaining the genera.
See Botany.
CHARACTERISTIC, in the general, is that which
charafterij'es a thing, or perfon, i. e. conftitutes its cha¬
rafter, whereby it is diftinguilhed. See Character.
Characteristic, is peculiarly ufed in grammar,
for the principal letter of a word : which is preferved
in moft of its tenfes and moods, its derivatives and
compounds.
Characteristic of a Logarithm, is its index or
exponent. See Logarithm.
Characteristic Triangle of a Curve, in the high¬
er geometry, is a reCtilinear right-angled triangle,
whofe hypotheneufe makes a part of the curve, not
fenfihly different from a right line. It is fo called,
becaufe curve lines are ufed to be diftiuguilhed here¬
by. See Curve.
CHARADE, the name of a new fpecies of compo-
fition or literary amufement. It owes its name to the
idler who invented it. Its fubjeCt muft be a word of
two fyllables, each forming a diftinft word ; and
thefe two fyllables are to be concealed in an enigma¬
tical defeription, firft feparately, and then together.
The exercife of charades, if not greatly inftructive,
is at ieaft innocent and amnfing. At all events, as
it has made its way into every falhionable circle, and
has employed even Garrick, it will fcarcely be deem¬
ed unworthy of attention. The fillineffes indeed of
moft that have appeared in the papers under this title,
are not only deftitute of all plealantry in the ftating,
but are formed in general of words,utterly unfit for the
purpofe. They have therefore been treated with the
contempt they deferved. In trifles of this nature,
inaccuracy is without excufe. The following exam¬
ples therefore are at leaf! free from this blemifh^
I.
My firft, however here abufed,
Defigns the fex alone ;
In Cambria, fuch is cuftom’s pow’r,
’Tis Jenkin, John, or Joan.
My fecond oft is loudly call’d,
When men prepare to lift it:
It’s name delights the female ear ;
Its force, may none refill it!
It binds the weak, it binds the ftrong.
The wealthy and the poor ;
Still ’tis to joy a paffport deem’d,
For fullied fame a cure.
It may infure an age of blifs,
Yet mif’ries oft attend it;
To fingers, ears, and nofes too,
Its various lords commend it.
My whole may chance to make one drink.
Though vended in a fifh-fhop ;
’Tis now the monarch of the feas,
And has been an archbifhop. Her-ring.
My
C H A [ 1787 ] C H A
Charade II.
II • . My firjl, when a Frenchman is learning Englifh,
araanus. ferves to fwear by, My js either hay or
corn. My whole, is the delight of the prefent age,
and will he the admiration of pofterity. Car-rick.
III.
My fir ft, is plowed for various reafons, and grain
is frequently buried in it to little purpol'e. My fe-
cond, is neither riches nor honours; yet the former
would generally be given for it, and the latter is of¬
ten taftelefs without it. My whole applies equally to
Ipring, fummer, autumn, and winter ; and both fifli
and fleih, praife and cenfure, mirth and melancholy,
are the better for being in it. Sea-fon.
IV.
My firft, with the moft rooted antipathy to a
Frenchman, prides himfelf, whenever they meet, up¬
on flicking clofe to his jacket. My fecond has many
virtues, nor is it its lead that it gives name to my
firfl. My whole, may I never catch ! Tar-tar.
V.
My firjl is one of England’s prime boafls; it re¬
joices the ear of a horfe, and anguiflies the toe of a
man. tAy fecond, when brick, is good, when done,
better; when wooden, bed of all. My whole is fa¬
mous alike for jottennefs and tin. Corn-wall.
VI.
My firjl is called bad or good.
May pleafure or offend ye ;
My fecond, in a thirdy mood,
May very much befriend ye.
My whole, tho* dyled “ a cruel word,”
May yet appear a kind one;
It often may with joy be heard,
With tears may often blind one. Fare-well.
VII.
My firjl is equally friendly to the thief and the
lover, ;the toper, and the dudent. My Jecond is
light’s oppofite : yet they are frequently feen hand in
hand ; and their union, if judicious, gives much plea-
lure. My whole, is tempting to the touch, grateful to
the fight, fatal to the tade. Night-fhade.
CHARADRIUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging
to the order of gralbe. The beak is cylindrical and
blunt; the nodrils are linear; and the feet have three
toes. There are 12 fpecies, viz.
X. The Hiaticula, or Sea-lark of Ray, has a black
bread; a white dreak along the front; the top of the
head is brown ; and the legs and beak are reddifh. It
is found on the fliores of Europe and America. They
frequent our fliores in the dimmer, but are not nume¬
rous. They lay four eggs, of a dull whitifli colour,
fparingly fprinkled with black: at approach of winter
they dilappear.
2. The Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian Dotterel, is
of a brownifli colour, with the forehead, collar, and
belly white ; the prime tail-feathers on both fides are
white; and the legs are black. It is about the fize of
a lark, and lives upon inleCls.
3. The Vociferus, or Noify Plover of Catelby, has
black dreaks on the bread, neck, forehead, and cheeks;
and the feet are yellow. It is a native of North Ame¬
rica.
4. The iEgyptius has a black dreak on the bread, Charadriurs.
white eye-brows, the prime tail-feathers dreaked with 
black at the points, and bluifli legs. It is found in the
plains of Egypt, and feeds on iniecds.
5. The Morinellus has an iron-coloured bread, a
fmall white dreak on the bread and eye-brows, and
black legs. It is the Dotterel of Ray, and a native
of Europe. They are found in Cambridgefliire, Lin-
colnlhire, and*Derbyfliire : on Lincoln-heath, and on
the moors of Derbyftiire, they are migratory; appear¬
ing there in finall flocks of eight or ten only in the lat¬
ter end of April, and day there all May and part of
June, during which time they are very fat, and much
edeemed for their delicate flavour. In the months of
April and September, they are taken on the Wilrihire
and Berkfliire downs: they are alfo found in the be¬
ginning of the former month on the fea-fide at Meales
in Lancafliire, and continue there about three weeks,
attending the barley fallows : from thence they re¬
move northward to a place called Leyton Haws, and
day there about a fortnight; but where they breed,
or where they refide during the winter, we have not
been able to difcover. They are reckoned very fool-
ifli birds, fo that a dull fellow is proverbially dyled a
dotterel. They were alfo believed to mimic the addon
of the fowler, to dretch out a wing when he dretches
out an arm, ire. continuing their imitation, regardlefs
of the net that is fpreadingfor them.
To this method of taking them, Michael Drayton
alludes in his panegyrical verfes on Cory ate's Crudities:
Mod worthy man, with thee it is ev’n thus.
As men take dott'rels, fo had thou ta’en us;
Which as a man his arm or leg doth fet.
So this fond bird will likewife counterfeit.
At prefent fportfmen watch the arrival of the dot¬
terels, and flioot them ; the other method having been
long difufed.
6. The Apricarius has a, black belly ; the body is
brown, and variegated with white and yellow fpots;
and the legs are alh-coloured. It is the fpotted Plover
of Edwards, and a native of Canada.
7. The Pluvialis is black above, with green fpots,
white underneath, and the feet are afli-coloured. It
is the green Plover of Ray, and is a native of Europe,
They lay four eggs, Iharply pointed at the leffer end,
of a dirty white colour, and irregularly marked, efpe-
cially at the thicker end, with blotches and fpots. It
breeds on feveral of our unfrequented mountains ;
and is very common on thofe of the ifle of Rum, and
others of the loftier Hebrides. They make a fhrill
whiftling noife ; and may be enticed within Ihot by a
Ikilful imitator of the note.
8. The Torquatus has a black breaft, and a white
front; the top of the head and the collar is black ;
and the beak and feet are bluifli. It is a native of St
Domingo.
9. The Calidris has black feet, and a black bill; the
rump is greyilh ; and the body is pure white below.
It frequents the fliores of Europe.
10. The (Edicnemus, or Stone-curlew of Ray, is
of a grew colour, with two of the prime wing-feathers
black, but white in the middle ; it has a fharp bill,
and afli-coloured feet; and is about the fize of a crow.
In Hampfliire, Norfolk, and on Lincoln-heath, it is
10 R 2 called
C H A [ 1788 ] C H A
Char aims called the ftone-curlew, from a fimilarity of colours to
II the curlew. It breeds in fome places in rabbet-bnr-
Charcoal. r0V1ghs. ajf0 among ftones on the bare ground, laying
two eggs of a copper colour fpotted with a darker red.
The young run loon after they are hatched. Thefe
birds feed in the night on worms and caterpillars: they
will alfo eat toads, and will catch mice. They inha¬
bit fallow lands and downs ; affe<5l dry places, never
being feen near any waters. When they fly, they ex¬
tend their legs ftraight out behind': are very fhy birds;
run far before they take to wing ; and often fquat:
are generally feen Angle ; and are efieemed very de¬
licate food. — HaflTelquill informs us, that this bird is
alfo “ met with in Lower Egypt, in the Acacia groves,
near the villages Abufir and Sackhara, near the fepul-
chres of the ancient Egyptians, and in the defarts.
The Arabians call it Kervan. It has a flirill voice,
fbmewhat refembling that of the black woodpecker
which it raifes and lowers fucceffively, uttering ’a-
greeable notes. The Turks and Egyptians value
it much if they can get it alive ; and keep it in a
cage for the fake of its linging. Its flelh is hard, and
of a very good tafte, inclined to aromatic. It is a
very voracious bird, catching and devouring rats and
mice, which abound in Egypt. It feldom drinks ;
and when taken- young, and kept in a cage in Egypt,
they give it no water for feveral months, but feed it
with frelh meat macerated in water, which it devours
very greedily. It is found in defarts, and is there¬
fore accuftomcd to be without water.
ir. The Himantopus is white below, with a black
back, and a long black bill; the feet are red, and
very long. It is the autumnal dotterel of the Englifli
authors, and frequents the fea-fhores of Europe. It
is alfo found in the lakes of Egypt in the month of
October.
12. The Spinofus, armed Dotterel, or Lapwing, has
a black brealt, legs, and wings; it has a crefl on the
hinder part of the head. It is of the fize of a pigeon ;
the French call it dominie anus, from the refemblance
it has to the drefs of a Dominican monk. It is a na¬
tive of Egypt.
CHARAIMS, a fetf of the Jews in Egypt. They
live by themfelves, and have a feparate fynagogue ;
and as the other Jews are remarkable for their eyes,
lo are thofe for their large nofes, which run through
all the families of this feift. Thefe are the ancient
Effenes. They ftriftly obferve the five books of Mo-
fes, according to the letter; and receive no written tra¬
ditions. It is faid that the other Jews would join the
Charaims; but thofe not having obferved the ex aft
rules of the law with regard to divorces, thefe think
they live in adultery.
CHARANTIA, in botany. See Momordica.
CHARBON, in the menage, that little black Ipot
or mark which remains after a large fpot in the cavity
of the corner teeth of a horfe : about the feventh or
eighth year when the cavity fills up, the tooth being
fmooth and equal, it is faid to be rafed.
CHAIICAS, the fouthern divilion of Peru in South
America, remarkable for the filver mines of Potofi.
'CHARCOAL, a fort of artificial coal, or fuel, con¬
fiding of wood half burnt; chiefly ufed where a clear
ftrong fire, without fmoke, is required; the humidity
of the wood being here moftly diffipated, and exhaled Charcoal,
in the fire wherein it is prepared.
The microicope difcovers a furprizing number of
pores in charcoal : they are difpofed in order, and
traverfe it lengthwife ; fo that there is no piece of
charcoal, how long fcever, but may be eafily blown
through. If a piece be broken pretty fliort, it may be
feen through with a microfcope. In a range the i8til
part of an inch long, Dr Hook reckoned 150 pores ;
whence he concludes, that in a charcoal of an inch dia¬
meter, there are not lefs than 5,724,000 pores. It is to
this prodigious number of pores, that the blacknefs of
charcoal is owing: for the rays of light ftriking on the
charcoal, are received and abforbed in its pores, inltead
of being reflefted ; whence the body mult of neceflity
appear black, blacknefs in a body being no more than
a want of refleftion. Charcoal was anciently ufed to
dillinguilh the bounds of eftates and inheritances; as
being incorruptible, when let very deep within ground.
In effeft, it preferves itfelf fo long, that there are
many pieces found entire in the ancient tombs of the
northern nations. M. Dodart fays, there is charcoal
made of corn, probably as old as the days of Caefar :
he adds, that it has kept fo well, that the wheat may
be ftill diftinguilhed from the rye; which he looks on
as a proof of its incorruptibility.
The operation of charring wood, is performed in
the following manner: The wood intended for this
purpofe is cut into proper lengths, and piled up in
heaps near the place Where the charcoal is intended to
be made : when a fnfBcient quantity of wood is thus
prepared, they begin conftrufting their Racks, for
which there are three methods. The firft is this: They
level a proper fpot of ground, of about twelve or
fifteen feet in diameter, near the piles of wood ; in
the center of this area a large billet of wood, fplit
acrofs at one end and pointed at the other, is fixed
with its pointed extremity in the earth, and two pieces
of wood inferred through the clefts of the other end,
forming four right-angles ; again!! thefe crofs pieces
four other billets of wood are placed, one end on the
ground, and the other leaning again!! the angles.
This being finifhed, a number of large and flraight
billets are kid on the ground to form a floor, each be¬
ing as it were the radius of the circular area : on this
floor a proper quantity of brufh or finall wood is
ftrewed, in order to fill up the interftices, when the
floor will be complete ; and in order to keep the bil¬
lets in the fame order and pofition they were fir!! ar¬
ranged, pegs or flumps are driven into the ground in
the circumference of the circle, about a foot diftant
from one another: upon this floor a ftage is built with
billats let upon one end, but fomething inclining to¬
wards the central billet; and on the tops of tiiefe
another floor is laid in a horizontal direftion, but of
Ihorter billets, as the whole is, when finiflied, to form
a cone.
The fecond method of building the flacks for ma¬
king charcoal is performed in this mariner :• A long
pole is erefted in the center of the area above defcri-
bed, and feveral fmall billets ranged round the pole on
their ends : the intedlices between thefe billets and the
pole is filled with dry bru!h-wood, then a floor is laid,
on that a ftage in a reclining pofition, and on that a fe¬
cond
C PI A [ 1789 ] C H A
Chircofi’- cond 8oor, be, in the fnme manner as defcribecl above •,
 * but in the lower floor there is a billet larger and longer
than the re(t, extending from the cential pole to fome
difiance beyond the circumterence of the circle.
Tlie third method is this : A chimney, or aperture
of a fquare form, is built with billets in the center,
from the bottom to the top; and round thefe, floors
and inclined ftages are eredted, in the fame manner as
in the (lacks above defcribed, except that the bafe of
this, inftead of being circular like the others, is fquare;
and the whole (lack, when completed, forms a pyra¬
mid.
The flack of either form being thus finiftied, is coat¬
ed over with turf, and the furface plaflered with a
mixture of earth and charcoal-duft well tempered to¬
gether.
The next operation is the fetting the flack on fire.
In order to this, if it be formed according the firft
conftrudlion, the central billet in the upper flage is
drawn out, and fome pieces of very dry and combtlf-
tibie wood are placed in the void fpace, called, by
workmen, the chimney, and fire fet to thefe pieces.
If tlie flack be built according to the fecond conitruc-
tion, the central pole is drawn out, together with the
large horizontal billet above defcribed ; and the void
fpace occupied by the latter being filled with pieces of
very dry combuftible wood, the fire is applied to it at
the bafe of the flack. With regard to the third con-
flruclion, the fquare aperture or chimney is filled with
fmall pieces of very dry wood, and the fire applied to
it at the top or apex of the pyramidal flack. When
the flack is fet on fire, either at the top or bottom,
the greatefl attention is neceflary in the workman ;
for in the proper management of the fire the chief
difficulty attending the art of making good charcoal
confifts. In order to this, care is taken, as foon as the
flame begins to iffue fome height above the chimney,
that the aperture be covered with a piece of turf, but
not fo clofe as to hinder the fmoke from pafling out:
and whenever the fmoke appears to iffue very thick
from any part of the pile, the aperture muft be cove¬
red with a mixture of earth and charcoal drift. At
tlie fame time time, as it is neceflary that every part
of the flack fliould be.equally burnt, it will be requifite
for the workman to open vents in one part and (hut
them in another. In this manner the fire muft be kept
up till the charcoal be fufficiently burnt, which will
happen in about two days and a half, if the wood be
dry; but if green, the operation will not be finiflied
in lefs than three days. When the charcoal is thought
to be fufficiently burnt, which is eafiiy known from
the appearance of the fmoke, and the flames no lon¬
ger ifluing with impetuofity through the vents ; all
the apertures are to be clofed up very carefully with
a mixture of earth and charcoal-duft, which, by ex¬
cluding all accefs of the external air, prevents the
coals from being any further confumed, and the fire
goes out of itfelf. in this condition it is fnffered to
remain, till the whole is fufficiently cooled ; when the
cover, is removed, and the charcoal is taken away.
If the whole procefs is (kilfully managed, the coals
will exactly retain the figure of the pieces of wood :
fome are faid to have been fo dextrous, as to char an
arrow without altering even the figure of the feather.
There are confiderable differences in the coals of charcoal.
different vegetables, in regard to their habitude to 
fire : the very light coals of linen, cotton, (bme fun¬
gi, be, readily catch fire from a fpark, and foon burn
out; the more denfe ones of woods and roots are fet
ore fire more difficultly, and burn more (lowly : the
coals of the black berry-bearing alder, of the hazel,
the willow, and the lime-tree, are faid to anfwer belt
for the making of gunpowder and other pyrotechnical
compofitions, perhaps from their being eafiiy inflam¬
mable : for the reduiftion of metallic calces thofe of
the heavier woods, as the oak and the beech, are pre¬
ferable, thefe feeming to contain a larger proportion
of the phlogiftic principle, and that, perhaps, in a
more fixed ftate : confidered as common fuel, thofe
of the heavy woods give the greateft heat, and re¬
quire the rnoft plentiful fupply of air to keep them
burning; thofe of the light woods preferve a glowing
heat,' without much draught of air, till the coals them-
felves are confumed ; the bark commonly crackles and
flies about in burning, which the coal of the wood it¬
felf very feldom does.
Mathematical-inftrument makers, engravers, be,
find charcoal of great ufe to polilh their brafs, and
copper-plates after they have been rubbed clean with
powdered pumice-ftone. Plates of horn are polilbable-
in the fame way, and a glofs may be afterwards given
with tripoli.
The coals of different fubftances are alfo ufed as
pigments; hepce the bone-black, ivory-black, ire?, of
the (hops. Moft of the paints of this kind, befides their
incorruptibility, have the advantage of a full colour,
and work freely in all the forms in which powdery pig¬
ments are applied ; provided they have been.carefully
prepared, by thoroughly burning the fubjeeft in a dole
veifel, and afterwards grinding the coal into a powder
of due finenefs. Pieces of charcoal are ufed alfo in
their entire ftate for tracing the outlines of drawings,
be.; in w'hich intention they have an excellence, that
their mark is eafiiy wiped out. For thefe purpofes,
either the finer pieces of common charcoal are picked
out and cut to a proper (hape ; or the pencils are form¬
ed of wood, and afterwards burnt into charcoal in a
proper veffel well covered. The artifts commonly
make choice of the (mailer branches of the tree freed
from the bark and pith; and the willow and vine are
preferred to all others. This choice is confirmed by
the experiments of Dr Lewis, who has found that the Philofoph^
wood of the trunks of trees produces charcoal of a Comma car
harder nature than their finail twigs or branches; and °f ^rtI-
the hard woods, fuch as box and guaiacum*. produced
coals very fenfibly harder than the (biter woods. Wil¬
low he prefers to all others. The (hells and (tones of
fruits yielded coals fo hard that they would fcarce mark
on paper at all; while the coals of the kernels of fruits
were quite foft and mellow. The feveral coals pro¬
duced by the doctor’s experiments, were leviaated in¬
to fine powder, mixed both with gum-water and oil,
and applictl as paints both thin and thick, and diluted
with different degrees of white. All of them, when
laid on thick, appeared of a ftrong full black, nor
could it be judged that one was of a finer colour than
another; diluted witli white, or when fpread thin,,
they had all fomewhat of a bluiih caft.
Horns,,
C H A [ 1790 ] C H A
Chardin Homs, and the bones both of flfhes and land-animals,
II gave coals rather gloflier and deeper-coloured than ve-
arge’ getables; and which, in general, were very hard, fo
. as difficultly, or not at. all, to ftain paper. Here alfo
the hardnefs of the coal feemed to depend on that of
the fubje^l from whence it was prepared; for lilk,
woollen, leather, blood, and the flefhy parts of ani¬
mals, yielded foft coals. Some of thele differed from
others very fenfibly in colour : that of ivory is fupe-
rior to all the reit, and undifputabiy the fineft of all
the charcoal blanks. The animal coals had much lefs
of the bluilli caft in them than the vegetable, many of
them inclining rather to a brown. Charred pit-coal,
on the other hand, feemed to have this bluenefs in a
greater degree.
Charcoal is not foluble in any of the acids; but may
be diflblved in confiderable quantities by a folution of
he par fulphuris, to which it communicates a green co¬
lour. Melted with colourlefs fritts or glaffes, it gives
a pale yellow, dark yellow, reddifh, brownifh, or black-
ifh colour, according as the inflammable matter is in
greater or lefs proportion ; the phlogifton, or inflam¬
mable matter of the coal, feeming to be the dire£t tin¬
ging fubftance. When the phlogiftic matter is thus
diffufed through glafs, it is no more affected by conti¬
nued ftrong fire than charcoal is when excluded from
the air.
The vapour of burning charcoal is found to be highly
noxious, being no other than fixed air. How this af-
fedts the animal fyftem is explained under the article
Blood, n° 50, 31.
CHARDIN (Sir John), a celebrated traveller, was
born at Paris in 1643. His father, who was a jewel¬
ler, had him educated in the Proteftant religion ; after
which he travelled into Perfia and India. He traded
in jewels, and died at London in 1713. The account
he wrote of his travels is much efteemed.
CHARENTON, the name of two towns of France,
the one upon the Marmaude in the Bourbonnois ; the
other in the ifle of France, near the confluence of the
Marne with the Seine.
CHARES the Lydian, a celebrated ftatuary, was
the difciple of Lyfippus; and made the famous Cololfus
of the fun in the city of Rhodes. Flourilhed 288 years
before Chrilt.
CHARGE, in gunnery, the quantity of powder and
ball wherewith a gun is loaded for execution.
The rules for charging,large pieces in war are. That
the piece be firll cleaned or fcoured withinfide : that
the proper quantity of powder be next driven in and
rammed down ; care, however, being taken, that the
powder, in ramming, be not bruifed, becaufe that
weakens its effedl: that a little quantity of paper, hay,
lint, or the like, be rammed over it; and that the ball
or fliot be intruded. If the ball be red-hot, a tompion,
or trencher of green wood, is to be driven in before
it. The common allowance fora charge of powder of
a piece of ordnance, is half the weight of the ball. In
the Britilh navy, the allowance for 32 pounders is but
Robins’s feven fixteenths of the weight of the bullet. But a
Prof.ofa.lfar late author is of opinion, that if the powder in all fliip
TbTsirewtb cannon whatever, was reduced to one-third weight of
of the Navy. Mie or even lefs, it would be of confiderable ad¬
vantage, not-only by faving ammunition, but by keep¬
ing the guns cooler and quieter, and at the fame time Charge
more effectually injuring the veifels of the enemy. II.
With the prefent allowance of powder the guns are aru)t'
heated, and their tackle and furniture (trained ; and
this only to render the bullets lefs efficacious: for a
bullet which can but juft pafs through a piece of tim¬
ber, and lofes almoft all its motion thereby, has a much
better chance of rending and fradturing it, than if it
pafl’es through with a much greater velocity.
Charge, in heraldry, is applied to the figures re-
prefented on the efcutcheon, by which the bearers are
diitinguilhed from one another; and it is to be obfer-
ved, that too many charges are not fo honourable as
fewer.
Charge of Lead, denotes a quantity of 36 pigs.
See Pig.
Charge to enter Heir, in Scots law, a writing paf-
(ing under the fignet, obtained at the inftance of a cre¬
ditor, either againft the heir of his debitor, for fixing
upon him the debt as reprefenting the debitor, which
is called a general charge : or, againft the debitor him-
felf, or his heir, for the purpofe of veiling him in the
right of any heritable fubjedt to which he has made
up no title, in order the creditor may attach that fub-
jedt for payment of his debt, in the fame manner as if
his debitor or his heir were legally veiled in it by fer-
vice or otherwife. This laft kind is called a /fecial
charge.
CHARGED, in heraldry, a Ihield carrying fome im-
prefs or figure, is laid to be charged therewith; fo alfo,
when one bearing, or charge, has another figure added
upon it, it is-properly faid to be charged.
Charged, in eledlrical experiments, is when a vial,
pane of glafs, or other eledlric fubftance, properly coat¬
ed on both fides, has a quantity of eledlricity commu¬
nicated to it; in which cafe the one fide is always
eledtrified politively, and the other negatively.
CHARIOT, a half coach, having only a feat behind,
with a llool, at moll, before. See Coach.
The chariots of the ancients, chiefly ufed in war,
were called by the feveral names bigot, triga, &c. ac¬
cording to the number of horfes applied to draw them.
Every chariot carried two men, who were probably
the warrior and the charioteer; and we read of feve¬
ral men of note and valour employed in driving the
chariot. When the warriors came to encounter in
dole fight, they alighted out of the chariot, and fought
on foot; but when they were weary, which often hap¬
pened by reafon of their armour, they retired into
their chariot, and thence annoyed their enemies
with darts and milfive weapons. Thefe chariots
were made 'fo ftrong, that they lafted for feveral ge¬
nerations.
Befides this fort, we find frequent mention of the
currus falcati, or thofe chariots armed with hooks, or
feythes, with which whole ranks of foldiers were cut
off together, if they had not the art of avoiding the
danger; thefe were not only ufed by the Perfians, Syri¬
ans, Egyptians, &c. but we find them among the an¬
cient Britons; and notwithftanding the imperfedl ftate
of fome of the moll neceffary arts among that nation
before the invafion of the Romans, it is certain that they
had war-chariots in great abundance. By the Greek and
Roman hiftorians, thefe chariots are deferibed by the
C H A [ 1791 ] C H A
Chariots fix following names; viz. Benna, Petoritum, Currus
II or Carrus, Covinus, Elferlum^ and Rheda. Tlie benna
1 C^aril'a' feems to have been a chariot deiigned rather for travel¬
ling than war. It contained two perfons, who were
called combcnnones, from their fitting together in the
fame machine. The petoritum feems to have been a
larger kind of chariot than the benna; and is thought
to have derived its name from the Britilh word ped-
war, fignifying/ca;-; this kind of carriage having four
wheels. The carrus or currus was the common cart
or waggon. This kind of chariot was ufed by the an¬
cient Britons, in times of peace, for the purpofes of
agriculture and merchandife ; and, in time of war, for
carrying their baggage, and wives and children, who
commonly followed the armies of all the Celtic nations.
The covinus was a war-chariot, and a very terrible
inflrument of defirudlion ; being armed with lharp
fcythes and hooks for cutting and tearing all who were
fo unhappy as to come within its reach. This kind of
chariot was made very flight, and had few or no men
in it befides the charioteer ; being defigned to drive
with great force and rapidity, and to do execution
chiefly with its hooks and fcythes. The efledum and
rheda were alfo war-chariots, probably of a large fize,
and ftronger made than the covinus, defigned for con¬
taining a charioteer for driving it, and one or two
warriors for fighting. The far greateft number of
the Britifh war-chariots feem to have been of this kind.
Thefe chariots, as already obferved, were to be found
in great numbers among the Britons; infomuch that
Casl'ar relates that Caflibelanus, after difmifling all his
other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 of thefe
war-chariots about his perfon. The fame author re¬
lates, that, by continual experience, they had at laft
arrived at fuch perfeftion in the management of their
chariots, that “ in the moft fteep and difficult places
they could flop their horfes upon full ftretch, turn them
which way they pieafed, run along the pole, reft on
the harnefs, and throw themfelves back into their cha¬
riots, with incredible dexterity.”
Chariots, in the heathen mythology, were fome-
times confecrated to the fun ; and the fcripture ob-
ferves, that Jofiah burnt thofe which had been offer¬
ed to the fun by the king’s predeceffors. This fuper-
ftitious cuftom was an imitation of the heathens, and
principally of the Perfians, who had horfes and cha¬
riots confecrated in honour of the fun. Herodotus,
Xenophon, and Quintus Curtius, fpeak of white cha¬
riots crowned, which were confecrated to the fun,
among the Perfians, which in their ceremonies were
drawn by white horfes confecrated to the fame lumi¬
nary.
Triumphal Chariot, was one of the principal or¬
naments of the Roman celebration of a victory.
The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made
, of ivory, round like a tower, or rather of a cylindri¬
cal figure ; it was fometimes gilt at the top, and or¬
namented with crowns ; and, to reprefent a viiftory
more naturally, they ufed to ftain it with blood. It
was ufually drawn by four white horfes ; but often¬
times by lions, elephants, tygers, bears, leopards, dogs,
ire.
CHARTSIA, in the heathen theology, a wake, or
night-feftival, inftituted in honour of the graces. It
continued the whole night, moft of which time was Chanfius
fpent in dancing ; after which, cakes made of yellow II
flour mixed with honey, and other fweetmeats, were cllar!e-
diftributed among the atiiftants.—Char if 1 a is alfo fome- ma£lie'
times ufed to fignify the fweetmeats uled on fuch oc-
cafions.
CHARISIUS, in the heathen theology, a furname
given to Jupiter. The word is derived from xapn;,gra¬
tia, “ grace” or “ favourhe being the god by whole
influence men obtain the favour and affebtion of one
another. On which account the Greeks ufed at their
meals to make a libation of a cup to Jupiter Charilius.
CHARISTA, a feftival of the ancient Romans, ce¬
lebrated in the month of February, wherein the rela¬
tions by blood and marriage met, in order to preferve
a good correfpondence ; and that, if there happened
to be any difference among them, it might be the more
eafily accommodated, by the good-humour and mirth
of the entertainment. Ovid, Fajii. i. 617.
CHARITY, among divines, one of the three grand
theological virtues, confifting in the love of God and
of our neighbour, or the habit and difpofition of loving
God with all our heart, and our neighbour as ourfelves.
Charity is alfo ufed for the effetft of a moral vir¬
tue, which confifts in fupplying the neceffities of others,
whether with money, counfel, afliftance or the like.
ChaRiTY-Schoo/s, are fchools eredted and main¬
tained in various parilhes by the voluntary contribu¬
tions of the inhabitants, for teaching poor children to
read, write, and other neceflary parts of education.
See School.
Charity of St Hippolitus, a religious congregation
founded about the end of the XIVth century, by one
Bernardin Alvarez, a Mexican, in honour of St Hip¬
politus the martyr, patron of the city of Mexico ;
and approved by Pope Gregory XIII.
Charity of our Lady, in church-hiftory, a religi¬
ous order in France, which, though charity was the
principal motive of their union, grew in length of time
fo diforderly and irregular, that their order dwindled,
and at laft became extindl.
There is (till at Paris a religious order of women,
called “ Nuns hofpitallers of the charity of our lady.”
The religious of this hofpital are by vow obliged to
adminilter to the neceffities of the poor and the fick,
but thofe only women.
CHARL ATAN,or Ch a r let a n, fignifiesan empiric
or quack, who retails his medicines on a public ftage, and
draws people about him with his buffooneries, feats of
activity, ire. The word, according to Calepine, comes
from the Italian ceretauo; of Caret inn, a town near
Spoletto in Italy, where thefe impoftors. are faid to
have firft rilen. Menage- derives it from ciarlatano,
and that from circulatorius, of circulator, a quack.
CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles I. king of France by
fucceffion, and emperor of the weft by conqueft in 800,
(which laid the foundation of the dynafty of the weft-
ern Franks, who ruled the empire 472 years, till the
time of Radolphus Aufpurgenfis, the founder of the
houfe of Auftria). Charlemagne was as illuftrious in
the cabinet as in the field; and, though he could not
write his name, was the patron of men of letters, the
reftorer of learning, and a wife legiflator: he wanted
only the virtue of humanity to render him the moft
accompliflied
C H A [ 1792 ] C H A
Charletnont accomplifhed of men ; but when we read of his be¬
lt heading 4500 Saxons, folely for their loyalty to their
harIes V~ prince, in oppofing his conquefts, we cannot think he
merits the extravagant encomiums bellowed on him
by fome hiftorians. He died in 814, in the 74th year
of his age, and 47th of his reign.
France had nine fovereigns of this name, of whom
Charles V. merited the title of “ the wife,” (crown¬
ed in 1364, died in 1380): and Charles VIII. figna-
lized himfelf in the field by rapid victories in Italy ;
crowned 1483, died in 1498. The reft do not de-
ferve particular mention in this place. See f Hifiory of)
France.
CHARLEMONT, a town of the province of Na¬
mur in the Auftrian Netherlands, about 18 miles fouth
of Namur. E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. jo. 10.
Charlemont is alio the name of a town of Ire:
land, fituated on the river Blackwater, in the county
of Armagh, and province of Ulfter, about fix miles
louth-eaft of Dungannon. W. Longv6. 50. N. Lat.
50.16.
CHARLEROY, a ftrong town in the province of
Namur, in the Auftrian Netherlands, lituated on the
river Sambre, about 19 miles weft of Namur. E. Long.
4. 20. N. Lat. 50. 30.
CHARLES Martel, a renowned conqueror in
the early annals of France. He depofed and reftored
Chilpefic king of France ; and had the entire govern¬
ment of the kingdom, once with the title of mayor of
the palace, and afterwards as duke of France; but he
would not accept the crown. He died, regretted, in
741.
Charles le Cros, emperor of the weft in 881, king
of Italy and Suabia, memorable for his reverfe of for¬
tune ; being dethroned at a diet held near Mentz, by
the French, the Italians, and the Germans, in 887:
after which he was obliged to fubfift on the bounty of
the archbifliop of Mentz. He died in 888.
Charles V. (emperor and king of Spain), was fon
of Philip I. archduke of Auftria, and of Jane queen of
Caftile. He was born at Ghent, February 24. 1500/
and fucceeded to the crown of Spain in 1317. Two
years afterwards he was chofen emperor at Francfort
after the death of Maximilian his grandfather. He
was a great warrior and politician: and his ambition
was not fatisfied with the many kingdoms and pro¬
vinces he poftcfled ; for he is fuppofed, with reafon, to
have afpired at univerfal empire. He is laid to have
fought 60 battles, in molt of which he was victorious.
He took the king of France (Francis I.) prilbner, and
fold him his liberty on very hard terms : yet after¬
wards, when the people of Ghent revolted, he alked
leave to pafs through his dominions; and though the
generous king thus had him in his power, and had an
opportunity of revenging his ill-treatment, yet he re¬
ceived and attended him with all pomp and magni¬
ficence. He lacked Rome, and took the Pope pri-
foner; and the cruelties which his army exercifed
there are faid to have exceeded thofe of the northern
barbarians. Yet the pious emperor went into mourn¬
ing on account of this conqueft; forbad the ringing of
bells; commanded proceffions to be made, and pray¬
ers to be offered up, for the deliverance of the Pope
his prifoner ; yet did not infliCt the leaft punilhmeHt
on thole who treated the holy father and the holy fee Charles
with fitch inhumanity. He is accufed by fome RomilU
writers of favouring the Lutheran principles, which he
might eafily have extirpated. But the truth is, he
found his account in the divifions which that feCl oc-
cafioned ; and he for ever made his advantage of
them, fometimes againft the Pope, fometimes againft
France, and at other times againft the empire itfelf.
He was a great traveller, and made 50 different jour¬
neys into Germany, Spain, Italy, Flanders, France,
England, and Africa. Though he had been fuccefs-
ful in many unjuft enterprizes, yet his laft attempt on
Metz, which he befieged with an army of 100,000
men, was very juft and very unfuccefslul.
Vexed at the reverfe of fortune which feemed to
attend his latter days, and opprelfed by ficknefs, which
unfitted him any longer fpom holding the reins of go¬
vernment with fteadinefs, or to guide them with ad-
drefs, he refigned his dominions to his brother Ferdi¬
nand and his Ion Philip ; and retreated to the mona-
ftery of St Julius near Placentia in Eftremadura.
When Charles entered this retreat, he formed fuch
a plan of life for himftlf as would have fuited a pri¬
vate gentleman of moderate fortune. His table was
ne,\t, but plain ; his domeftics few ; bis intercourfe
with them familiar; all the cumberfome and ceremo¬
nious forms of attendance on his perfon were entirely
abolilhed, as deftrudiive of that focial eafe and tran¬
quillity which he courted in order to footh the remain¬
der of his days. As the mildnefs of the climate, toge¬
ther with his deliverance from the burdens and cares
of government, procured him at firlt a conliderable
remiffion from the acute pains of the gout, with which
he had been long tormented, he enjoyed perhaps
more complete fatnfaeftion in this humble iblitu Je than
all his grandeur had ever yielded him. The ambitious
thoughts and projects which had fo long engroffed ancl
difquieted him, were quite effaced from his mind.
Far from taking any part in the political t ran factions of
the princes of Europe, he reftrained his curiofity even
from an inquiry concerning them ; and he feemed to
view the bufy feene which he had abandoned with
all the contempt and indifference arifing from his
thorough experience of its vanity, as well as from the
pleafing reflection of having dilentangled himfelf from
its cares.
Other amufements, and other objects, now occupied
him. Sometimes he cultivated the plants in his gar¬
den with his own hands ; fometimes he rode out to
the neighbouring wood on a little horfe, the only one
that he kept, attended by a Angle fervant on foot.
When his infirmities confined him to his apartment,
which often happened, and deprived him of thefe more
active recreations, he ejther admitted a few gentlemen
who refided near the monaftery to vifit him, and en¬
tertained them familiarly at his table ; or he employed
himfelf in ftudying mechanical principles, and in form¬
ing curious works of mechanifm, of which he had al¬
ways been remarkably fond, and to which his genius
was peculiarly turned. With this view he had enga¬
ged Turriano, one of the moft ingenious artifts of that
age, to accompany him in his retreat. He laboured
together with him in framing models of the moft ufe-
ful machines, as well as'in making experiments with
regard
C H A [ 1793 ] C H A
regard to their refpedlive powers ; and it was not fel-
dom that the ideas of the monarch affiited or perfected
the inventions of the artift. He relieved his mind at
intervals with flighter and more fantaitic works of me-
chanifm, in falhioning puppets, which, by the Itrudture
of internal Iprings, mimicked the geilures and actions
of men, to the no fmall aftoniftnnent of the ignorant
monks, who, beholding movements which they could
not comprehend, fometimes diftrufted their own
fenfes, and fometimes fulpedted Charles and Turrjano'*
of being in compadt with invifible powers. He was
particularly curious with regard to the conftrudlion of
clocks and watches ; and having found, after repeated
trials, that he could not bring any two of them to go
exactly alike, he refledted, it is faid, with a mixture
of furprife as well as regret on his own folly, in having
bellowed fo much time and labour in the more vain at¬
tempt of bringing mankind to a precife uniformity of
fentiment concerning the intricate and mylterious doc¬
trines of religion.
But in what manner feover Charles difpofed of the
reft of his time, he conftantly referved a confiderable
portion of it for religious exercifes. He regularly at¬
tended divine feryice in the chapel of the monaftery
every morning and evening; he took great pleafure
in reading books of devotion, particularly the works
of St Auguftine and St Bernard; and converfed much
with his confeflbr, and the prior of the monaftery,
on pious fubjedls. Thus did Charles pafs the firft
year of his retreat in a manner not unbecoming a
man perfectly difengaged from the affairs of this pre-
fent life, and Handing on the confines of a future
world, either in innocent amusements which Toothed
his pains, and relieved a mind worn out with excef-
five application to bufinefs; or in devout occupations,
which he deemed neceffary in preparing for another
ftate.
But, about fix months before his death, the gout,
after a longer intermiflion than ufual, returned with
a proportional increafe of violence. His lhattered con-
ftitution had not ftrength enough remaining to with-
ftand fuch a Ihock. It enfeebled his mind as much as
his body ; and from this period we hardly difcern any
traces of that found and mafculine underftanding which
diftinguilhed Charles among his cotemporaries. An
illiberal and timid fuperftition depreffed his fpirit. He
had no relilh for amufements of any kind. He endea¬
voured to conform, in his manner of living, to all the
rigour of monaftic aufterity. He defined no other
fociety than that of monks, and was almoft continu¬
ally employed in chanting with them the hymns of the
miffal. As an expiation for his fins, he gave himfelf
the difcipline in fecret with fuch feverity, that the
whip of cords which he employed as the inftrument
of his punilhment, was found, after his deceafe, tin¬
ged with his blood. Nor was he fatisfied with thefe
adls of mortification, which, however fevere, were
not unexampled. The timorous and diftruftful folici-
tude which always accompanies fuperftition, ftill con¬
tinued to difquiet him, and depreciating all that he
had done, prompted him to aim at fomething extra¬
ordinary, at feme new and, Angular adl of piety that
would difplay his zeal, and merit the favour of hea¬
ven. The act on which he fixed was as wild and
VOL. III.
uncommon as any that fuperftition ever fuggefted to
a difordered fancy. He refolved to celebrate dis ¬
own obfequies belore his death. He ordered his
tomb to be eredted in the chapel of the monaftery.
His domeftics marched thither in funeral procefii-
on, with black tapers in their hands. He himfelf
followed in his ftiroud. He was laid in his coffin
with much fplemnity. The lervice for the.dead was
chanted ; and Charles joined in the prayers which were
offered up for the reft of his foul, mingled his tears
with thofe which his attendants Died, as it they had
been celebrating a real funeral. The ceremony doled
with fprinkling holy water on the coffin in the ufual
form, and, all the affillants retiring, the doors of the
chapel were ffiut. Then Charles role out of the cof¬
fin, and withdrew to his apartment, full of thofe aw¬
ful fentiments which fuch a Angular folemnity was
calculated to infpire. But either the fatiguing length
of the ceremony, or the impreflion which this image
of death left on his mind, affedted him fo much, that
next day he was feized with a fever. His feeble
frame could not long refill its violence ; and he expi¬
red on the 21st of September, after a life of 58 years,
fix months, and 21 days.
Charles I. 7 Kings of Britain. See Britain,
Charles II. 3 n° 49, 254.
Charles XII. king of Sweden, was born in 1682.
By his father’s will, the adminiftration was lodged in
the hands of the queen^dowager Eleonora with five
fenators, till the young prince was 18 : but he was
declared majorat 15, by the Hates convened at Stock¬
holm. The beginning of his adminiftration raifed no
favourable ideas of him, as he was thought both by-
Swedes and foreigners to be a perfon of mean capaci¬
ty. But the difficulties that gathered round him, foon
afforded him an opportunity to difplay his real charac¬
ter. Three powerful princes, Frederic king of Den¬
mark, Auguftus king of Poland and elector ot Saxony,
and Peter the Great czar of Mufcovy, prefuming
on his youth, confpired his ruin almoft at the fame
inftant. Their meafures alarming the council, they
were for diverting the ftorm by negociations; but
Charles, with a grave refolution that artoniffied them,
faid, “ I am refolved never to enter upon an unjult
“ war, nor to put an end to a juft one but by the
deftrueftion of my enemies. My refolution is fix-
“ ed: I will attack the firft who lhall declare againft
“ me; and when I have conquered him, I may hope
“ to ftrike a terror into the reft.” The oldcounfel-
lors received his orders with admiration ; and were
ftill more furprifed when they faw him on a fudden
renounce all the enjoyments of a court, reduce his
table to the utmoft frugality, drefs like a common fol-
dier, and, full of the ideas of Alexander and Casfar,
propofe thofe two conquerors for his models in every
thing but their vices. The king of Denmark began
by ravaging the territories of the duke of Holftein.
Upon this, Charles carried the war into the heart of
Denmark; and made fuch a progrefs, that the king
of Denmark thought it bell to accept of peace, which
was concluded in 1700. He next refolved to ad¬
vance againft the king of Poland, who had blocked up
Riga. He had no fooner given orders for his troops,
to go into winter-quarters, than he .received advice*
10 S that
Charles.
C H A [ 1794 ] C H A
Charles, that Narva, where count Horne was governor, was
—   befieged by an army of 100,000 Mulcovites. This
made him alter his meafures, and move toward the
Czar ; and at Narva he gained a furprifing vidlory,
which coft him not above 2000 men killed and wound¬
ed. The Mufcovites were forced to retire from the
provinces they had invaded. He purfued his con¬
quers, till he penetrated as far as where the diet of
Poland was fitting ; when he made them declare the
throne of Poland vacant, and eledt Staniflaus their
king: then making himfelf mafter of Saxony, he ob¬
liged Auguflus himfelf to renounce the crown of Po¬
land, and acknowledge Stanillaus by a letter of con¬
gratulation on his acceflion. All Europe was furpri-
fed with the expeditious finifhing of this great negocia-
tion, but more at the dilintereffednefs of the king of
Sweden, who fatisfied himfelf with the bare reputa¬
tion of this victory, without demanding an inch of
ground for enlarging his dominions. After thus re¬
ducing the king of Denmark to peace, placing a new
king on the throne of Poland, having humbled the
emperor of Germany^ and protedted the Lutheran
religion, Charles prepared to penetrate into Mufcovy
in order to dethrone the Czar. He quickly obliged
the Mufcovites to abandon Poland, purfued them into
their own country, and wonfeveral battles over them.
The Czar, difpofed to peace, ventured to make fome
propofals; Charles only anfwered, “ I will treat with
“ the Czar at Mofcow.” When this haughty anfwer
was brought to Peter, he faid, “ My brother Charles
“ ftill affe<5ts to aft the Alexander, but I flatter my-
<( felf he will not in me find a Darius.” The event
juftified him : for the Mufcovites, already beaten into
difcipline, and under a prince of fuch talents as Peter,
entirely deftroyed the Swedifh army at the memo¬
rable battle of Pultowa, July 8. 1709.; on which de-
Cifive day, Charles loft the fruits of nine years labour,
and of almoft 1 qo battles! The king, with a fmall
troop, purfued by the Mufcovites, palled the Borift-
henes to Oczakow in the Turkilh territories; and
from thence, through defert countries, arrived at
Bender ; where the Sultan, when informed of his ar¬
rival, fent orders for accommodating him in the bell
manner, and appointed him a guard. Near Bender,
Charles built a houfe, and intrenched himfelf; and
had with him 1800 men, who were all clothed and
fed, with their horfes, at the expenfe of the Grand
Signior. Here he formed a defign of turning the Ot¬
toman arms upon his enemies; and is faid to have had
_a promife from the Vizir of being fent into Mufcovy
with 200,600 men. While he remained here, he in-
fenfibly acquired a tafte for books: he read the tra¬
gedies of Corneille and Racine; with the works of
Defpreaux, whole fatires he relifhed, but did not
much admire his other works. When he read that
pallage in which the author reprefents Alexander as
a fool and a madman, he tore out the leaf. He would
fometimes play at chefs: but when he recovered of
his wounds, he renewed his fatigues in exercifing his
men ; he tired three horfes a day ; and thofe who
courted his favour were all day in their boots. To
difpofe the Ottoman Porte to this war, he detached
about 800 Poles and Cofaques of his retinue, with or¬
ders to pafs the Neifter, that runs by Bender, and
to obferve what palfed on the frontiers of Poland. Charles,
The Mufcovite troops, difperfed in thofe quarters, '
fell immediately upon this little company, and puitued
them even to the territories of the Grand Signior.
This was what the king expefted. His minilters at
the Porte excited the Turks to vengeance ; but the
Czar’s money removed all difficulties, and Charles
found himfeh in a manner prifoner among the Tar¬
tars. He imagined the fultan was ignorant of the in¬
trigues of his Grand Vizir. Poniatolky undertook to
make his complaints to the Grand Signior. The ful¬
tan, in anfwer, fome days after, fent Charles five A-
rabian horfes, one of which was covered with a fad-
dle and houfing of great riches; with an obliging let¬
ter, but conceived in fuch general terms, as gave rea-
fon to fufpeft that the minifter had done nothing with¬
out the fultan’s confent: Charles therefore refufed
them. Poniatolky had the courage to form a defign
of depofing the Grand Vizir ; who accordingly was
deprived of his dignity and wealth, and banilhed.
The feal of the empire was given to Numan Cu-
proughly : who perfuaded his mafter, that the law
forbid him to invade the Czar, who had done him no
injury ; but to fuccour the king of Sweden as an un¬
fortunate prince in his dominions. He fent his ma»-
jefty 800 purfes, every one of which amounted to
500 crowns, and advifed him to return peaceably to
his own dominions. Charles rejefted this advice,
threatening to hang up the balhaws, and lhave the
beards of any Janifaries who brought him fuch mef-
fages; and lent word that he fliould depend upon the
Grand Signior’s promife, and hoped to re-enter Po¬
land as a conqueror with an army of Turks. After
various intrigues at the Porte, an order was fent to
attack this head of iron, as he was called, and to take
him either alive or dead. He flood a liege in his
houfe, with forty domeltics, againft the Turkifh ar¬
my ; killed no lefs than 20 Janifaries with his own
hand ; and performed prodigies of valour on a very
unneceflary and unwarrantable occafion. But the houfe
being fet on fire, and himfelf wounded, he was at
laft taken prifoner, and fent to Adrianople ; where
the Grand Signior gave him audience, and promifed
to make good all the damages he had fuftained. At
laft, after a ftay of above five years, he left Turkey;
and, having difguifed himfelf, traverfed Wallachia,
Tranfylvania, Hungary, and Germany, attended on¬
ly by one perfon; and in 16 days riding, during which
time he never went to bed, came to Strallund at mid¬
night, November 21. 1714. His boots were cut from
his fwollen legs, and he was put to bed; where when
he had flept fome hours, the firft thing he did was to
review his troops, and examine the (fate of the forti¬
fications. He fent out orders that very day, to re¬
new the war with more vigour than ever. But af¬
fairs were now much changed: Augultus had recover¬
ed the throne of Poland ; Sweden had loft many of its
provinces; and was without money, trade, credit, or
troops. The kings of Denmark and Pruflia feized the
illand of Rugen; and befieged him in Stralfund, which
furrendered; but Charles efcaped to Carelfcrooh.
When his country was threatened with invafion by
fo many princes, he, to the furprife of all Europe,
marched into Norway with 20,000 men. A very
few
C H A [ 1795 ] C H A
Charles's- few Danes might have flopped the Swedifh army ;
CaPe but fuch a quick invafion they could not forefee. Eu-
Charlock. roPe was yet more at a to the Czar fo quiet,
»■ and not making a defcent upon Sweden, as he had
before agreed with his allies. This inaction was the
confequence of one of the greateft defigns, and at the
fame time the mod difficult of any that were ever form¬
ed by the imagination of man. In fhort, a fcheme was
fet on foot for a reconciliation with the Czar ; for re¬
placing Staniflaus on the throne of Poland; and fetting
James the fecond’s fon upon that of England, befide
reltoring the duke of Holflein to his dominions.
Charles was pleafed with thefe grand ideas, though
without building much upon them, and gave his tni-
nifter leave to ahl at large. In the mean time, Charles
was going to make a fecond attempt upon Norway in
1718 ; and he flattered himfelf with being mailer of
that kingdom in fix months: but he was killed at Fre-
dericfhall, a place of great flrength and importance,
which is reckoned to be the key of that kingdom, as
he was examining the works.—This prince experi¬
enced the extremes of profperity and of adverfity,
without being foftened by the one, or dilturbed for a
moment at the other; but was a man rather extraor¬
dinary than great, and fitter to be admired than imi¬
tated. He was honoured by the Turks foe his rigid
abflinence from wine, and his regularity in attending
public devotion. In religion he was a Lutheran, and
a flrong believer in predeflination. He wrote fome
obfervations on war, and on his own campaigns from
r 700 to 1709 ; but the MS. was loll at the unfortu¬
nate battle of Pultowa.
CHARLES’s-cape, a promontory of Virginia, in
North America, forming the northern head-land of
the ftreight that enters the bay of Cheafepeak.
Charles’s-Fo;/, a fortrefs in the county of Cork,
and province of Munfter, in Ireland, fituated at the
mouth of Kinfale harbour. W. Long. 8. 20. and N.
Lat. 5.1. 21.
Charles’s-Totw/, or Char left own, the capital of
South Carolina, in North America, fituated on a pe-
ninfula formed by Afhley and Cooper rivers, the for¬
mer of which is navigable for flops twenty miles above
the town. W. Long. 79. o. and N. Lat, 32. 30.
Charles’sTF47«, in aflronomy, feven flats in the
conflellation called urfa major or the Great Bear.
CHARLETON, an ifland at the bottom of Hud-
fon’s-bay, in North America, fubjedl to Great Britain.
W. Long. 80. o. and N. Lat. 52. 30.
Charleton (Walter), a learned Englifh phyfician
born in 1619, was phyfician in ordinary to Charles I.
and Charles II. one of the firfl members of the royal
fociety, and prefident of the college of phyficians.
He wrote on various fubje£ls ; but at lafl his narrow
circumflances obliged him to retire to the ifland of
Jerfey, where he died in 1707.
CHARLOCK, the Englifh name of the Raph anus ;
it is a very troublefome weed among corn, being more
frequent than almofl any other. There are two prin¬
cipal kinds of it ; the one with a yellow flower, the
other with a white. Some fields are. particularly fub-
jeft to be over-run with it, efpecially thofe’ which have
been manured with cow-dung alone, that being a
manure very favourable to the growth of it. The
farmers in fome places are fo fenfible of this, that they Charlotte’s
always mix horle-dung with their cow-dung, when II
they ufe it for arable land. When barley, as is often aron a$‘
the cafe, is infefled with this weed to fuch a degree as
to endanger the crop, it is a very good method to
mow down the charlock in May, when it is in flower,
cutting it fo low as juft to take off the tops of the
leaves of barley with ft : by this means the bai ley will
get up above the weed ; and people have got four
quarters of grain from an acre of fuch land as would
have fcarce yielded any thing without this expedient.
Where any land is particularly fubjeJt to this weed,
the beft method is to fow it with grafs-feed, and make
a paflure of it ; for then the plant will not be trouble¬
fome, it never growing where there is a coat of graft
upon the ground.
CHARLOTTE’S Island, an ifland in the
fouth i’ea, fi; ft difeovered by captain Wallis in the Dol¬
phin, in 1767, who took polfelfion of it in the name
of King George III. Here is good water, and plen¬
ty of cocoa-nuts, palm-nuts, and feurvy-grafs. The
inhabitants are of a middle ftature, and dark com¬
plexion, with long hair hanging over their fhoulders j
the men are well made, and the women handfome ;
their cloathing is a kind of coarfe cloth, or matting,
which they fallen about their middle.
Queen Charlotte’s 1/lands, a clufter of fouth-fea
iflands dilcovered in 1767 by captain Carteret. He
counted feven, and there were flippofed to be many
more. The inhabitants of thefe iilands are deleribed
as extremely nimble and vigorous, and almoft as well
qualified to live in the water, as upon land : they are
very warlike; and, on a quarrel with fome of captain
Carteret’s people, they attacked them with great re-
folution; mortally wounded the mafter and three of
the failors; were not at all intimidated by the fire¬
arms ; and at laft, notwithflanding the averfion of
captain Carteret to fhed blood, he was obliged to fe-
cure the watering places by firing grape-fhot into the
woods which deftroyed many of the inhabitants.
Thefe iflands lie in S. Lat. 11°. E. Long. 164°. They
are fuppofed to be the Santa Cruz of Mandana, who
died there in 1595.
CHARM, a term derived from the Latin carmen, a
“ verfe;” and ufed to denote a magic power, or (pell,
by which, with the affiftance of the devil, forcerers
and witches were fuppoied to do wonderful things,
far fur palling the power of nature.
CHARNEL, or Charnel-house, a kind of por¬
tico or gallery, ufually in or near a church-yard, over
which were anciently laid the bones of the dead, after
the flefh was wholly confumed. Charnel-houfes are
now ufually adjoining to the church.
CHARON, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Erebus
and Nox, whofe office was to ferry the fouls of the
deceafed over the waters of Acheron, for which each
foul was to pay a piece of money. For this reafon
the Pagans had a cuftom of putting a piece of money
into the mouth of the dead, in order that they might
have fomething to pay Charon for their paffage.
CHARONDAS, a celebrated legiflator of the Thu-
rians, and a native of Catanea in Sicily, flourifhed 446
before Chrift. He forbad any perfon’s appearing ar¬
med in the public alfemblies of the nation j but one
10 S 2 day
C H A [ 1796 ] C H A
CW,ft flay going thither in hafte, without thinking of his
H fword, he was no fooner made to obferve his mif-
chart‘ take than he ran it through his body.
Cl !AROST, a town of France, in Berry, with the
title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Arnon,
E. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 46. 56.
CHAROUX, a town of France, in the Bourbonnois,
feated on an eminence, near the river Sioulle. It
has two parilhes, which are in different diotefes.'
E. Long. 3. 1 j. N. Lat. 46. 10.
CHARPENTIER (Francis) dean of the French
academy, was born in 1620. His early capacity in¬
clined his friends to educate him for the bar : but he
was much more delighted with the fludy of languages
and antiquity, than of the law ; and preferred repofe
to tumult. M. Colbert made ufe of him in eflablifh-
ing his new academy of medals and infcriptions; and
no perfon of that learned fociety contributed more
than himfelf toward that noble feries of medals which
were ftruck on the confiderable events .that diftingui-
Ihed the reign of Lewis XIV. He publifhed feveral
works, which were all well received; and died in
1702.
CHARR, in ichthyology. See Salmo.
CHARRON (Peter), the author of a book intitled
OfWifdom, which gained him great reputation, was
horn at Paris in the year 1541. After being advocate
in the parliament of Paris for five or fix years, he ap¬
plied himfelf to divinity ; and became fo great a
preacher, that the bilhops of feveral diocefes offered
him the higheft dignities in their gift. He died at
Paris, fuddenly in the ftreet, November 16, 1603.
CHART, or Sea-chart, an hydrographical map,
or a projection of fome part of the earth’s fuperficies in
piano, for the ufe of navigators.
Charts differ very confiderably from geographical
or land maps, which are of no ufe in navigation. Nor
are fea-charts all of the fame kind, fome being what
we call plane-charts, others mercator-charts,and others
globular charts.
Plane Chart, is a reprefentation of fome part of
the fuperficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the
meridians are fuppofed parallel to each other, the
parallels of latitude at equal diftances, and confequent-
ly the degrees of latitude, and longitude every where
equal to each other. See Plane’ Chart.
Mercator’s Chart, is that where the meridians are
ftraight lines, parallel to each other, and equidiflant ;
the parallels are alfo ftraight lines, and parallel to
each other: but the diftance between them increafes
from the equinoCtial towards either pole, in the ratio
of the fecant of the latitude to the radius. See Navi¬
gation, SeCt. iv.
Globular Chart, a meridional projection, wherein
the diftance of the eye from the plane of the meridi¬
an, upon which the projection is made, is fuppofed to
be equal to the fine of the angle 45°. This projection
comes the neareft of all to the nature of the globe, be-
_ eaufe the meridians therein are placed at equal dif¬
tances ; the parallels alfo are nearly equidiftant, and
confequently the feveral parts of the earth have their
proper proportion of magnitude, diftance, and fitua-
tion, nearly the fame as on the globe itfelf. See
Globular Projefliosu
Chorographic Charts, deferiptions of particular Charts
countries. See Chorogrophy. II
Heliographic Chart, deferiptions of the body of Charterpar-
the fun, and of the maculae or fpots obferved in it. ty‘ . -
See Astronomy, n° 14,—18. and 33,—39. and
2d Plate XLII. fig. 1.
Hydrographic Ch arts, flieets of large paper,where¬
on feveral parts of the land and fea are delcribed,
with their refpeftive coafts, harbours, founds, flats,
rocks, (helves, fands, He. together with the longitude
and latitude of each place, and the points of the com-
pafs. See Mercator’j Chart.
Selenographic Charts, particular deferiptions of
the fpots, appearances, and macuke of the moon. See
Astronomy, n° 19. and 40,—43. and 3d PlateXLII.
Topographic Charts, draughts of fome (mail parts
of the earth only, or of fome particular places, without
regard to its relative fituation, as London, York, He.
CHARTA, or Carta, primarily fignifies a fort of
paper made of the plant papyrus or hiblus. See Pa¬
per, and Charter.
Charta Emporetica, in pharmacy, He. a kind of
paper made very foft and porous, ufed to filter withal.
See Filtration, He.
Charta is alfo ufed in our ancient cuftoms for a
charter, or deed in writing. See Charter.
Charta Magna, t\\egreat charter, is an ancient in-
ftrument, containing feveral privileges and liberties
granted to the church and ftate by Edward the con-
feflbr ; together with others relating to the feudal
laws of William the conqueror, granted by Henry I.;
all confirmed by the fucceeding princes above thirty
times. See Law, n° 31. par. penult.
CHARTER, in law, a written inftrument, or evi¬
dence of things atfted between one perfon and ano¬
ther. The word charter comes from the Latain carta,
anciently ufed for a public and authentic aift, a donation,
contraft, or the like; from the Greek “ thick pa¬
per” or “ pafteboard,” whereon public afts were wont
to be written. Britton divides charters into thofe of
the king, and thofe of private perfons. 1. Charters of
the king, are thofe whereby the king paffeth any
grant to any perfon or body politic, as a charter of ex¬
emption of privilege, He. ; charter of pardon, where¬
by a man is forgiven a felony, or other offence com¬
mitted againft the king’s crown and dignity ; charter
of the for eft, wherein the laws of the foi eft are com-
prifed, futh as the charter of Canutus, He 2. Charters^
of private perfons, are deeds and inftruments for the
conveyance of lands, &c. And the purchafer of lands
Ihall have all the charters, deeds, and evidences, as in¬
cident to the fame,and for the maintenance of his title.
Chart ER-Covfr/tm'w/.' in America. SeeCot ony.
Ch ARTER-/-rfw/, fiich land as a perfon holds by char¬
ter ; that is, by evidence in writing, otherwife called
freehold.
CHARTERPAR.TY, in commerce, denotes the in*
ftrument of freightage, or articles of agreement for
the hire of a velfel. See Freight, He.
The charterparty is to be in writing; and to be fign*
ed both by the proprietor or the mafter of the (hip,
and i he merchant who freights it. It is to contain the
name and the burden of the veflel; thofe of the maf¬
ter and the freighter; the price or rate of freight •,
and
C H A [ 1797 ] C H A
Chartophy- the time of loading and unloading ; and the other
lax conditions agreed on. It is properly a deed, or poli-
Ch ^ hd‘ cy> whereby the malter or proprietor of the veflel
—„   engages to f'urnifh immediately a tight found veil’d,
well equipped, caulked, and liopped, provided with an¬
chors, fails, cordage, and all other furniture to make
the voyage required, as equipage, hands, victuals, and
other munitions ; in conlideration of a certain fum to
be paid by the merchant for the freight. Laftly, the
flip with all its furniture, and the cargo, are reipec^
lively fubjeded to the conditions of the charterparty.
The ckarterparty differs from a bill of lading, in that
the firft is for the entire freight, or lading, and that
both for going and returning ; whereas the latter is
only for a part of the freight, or at molt only for the
voyage one way.
The prefident Boyer fays, the word comes from
hence, that per medium chart a incidebatur, et fc fiebat
chart a partita; becaule, in the time when notaries
were lefs common, there was only one inftrument
made for both parties: this they cut in two, and gave
each his portion; and joined them together at their re¬
turn, to know if each had done his part. This he ob-
ferves to have feen pradifed in his time ; agreeable
to the method of the Romans, who, in their Itipula-
tions, ufed to break a Half, each party retaining a
moiety thereof as a mark.
CHARTOPHYLAX, the name of an officer of the
church of Conllantinople, who attends at the door of
the rails when the facrament is adminiltered, and gives
notice to the priefts to come to the holy table. He
reprefents the patriarch upon the bench, tries all ec-
cleftallical caufes, keeps all the marriage regifters, af-
ftfts at the confecration of bilhops, and prefents the
biffiop eled at the folemnity, and likewife all other
fubordinate clergy. This office refembles in fome
ffiape that of the biblieihecariui at Rome.
CHARTRES, a large city of France, in the pro¬
vince of Orleanois, fttuated on the river Eure, in
E. Long. 1. 52. N. Lat. 48. 47. It is a bilhop’s fee.
CHARTREUSE, or Chartreuse-grand, a ce¬
lebrated monaltery, the capital of all the convents of
the Carthufian monks, fituated on a fteep rock in the
middle of a large foreft of fir-trees, about feven miles
north-eaft of Grenoble, in the province of Dauphine
in France : E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 45. 20. See Car-
THUSIANS.
From this mother-convent, all the others of the
fame cy-der take their name ; among which was the
Chartreufe of London, corruptly called the charter-
houfe, now converted into an hofpital, and-endowed
with a revenue of 6co 1. per aim.
Here are maintained 80 decayed gentlemen, not
under 50 years of age : alfo 40 boys are educated
and fitted either for the univerfity or trades. Thofe
fent to the univerfity, have an exhibition of 20 1. a-
year for eight years; and have an immediate title to
nine church-livings in the gift of the governors of the
hofpital, who are fixteen in number, all perfons of the
firft: diftineftion, and take their turns in the nomination
of penfioners and fcholars.
CHARYBDIS, a celebrated whirlpool in the ftraits
of Meflina between Italy and Sicily ; much taken no¬
tice of by the ancient hiftorians and poets, and de-
feribed by them in terms of the greateft horror. It Chartulary
is ftill dangerous, but not fo formidable as in former II
ages ; Mr Brydone only fays, that “ it often occafions Cha*~e~
fuch an inteftine and irregular motion in the water,
that the helm lofes moft of its power, and fliips have
the greateft difficulty to get into the harbour of Meffi-
na, even with the faireft wind that can blow.” He con¬
jectures that it is formed by the falciform promontory
of the ifland of Sicily, which makes part of the harbour a-
bove mentioned, alongwith fome other caufes unknown*
CHARTULARY, Chartutarius, a title given to
an ancient officer in the Latin church, who had the
care of charters and papers relating to public affairs.
The chartulary prelided in ecclefiaftical judgments, in
lieu of the pope. In the Greek church the chartulary
was called chartophy lax but his office was there much
more confiderable; and fome even diftinguiffi the
chartulary from the chartophylax in the Greek church.
See Chartopytax.
CHASE, ocChace, in law, is ufed for a driving of
cattle to or from any place; as to a diftrefs, or lort-
let, brc.
Chase, or Chacc, is alfo a place of retreat for deer
and wild beafts; of a middle kind between a foreft
and a park, being ufually lefs than a foreft, and not
poffefled of fo many privileges; but wanting, v.g.
courts of attachment, fwainmote, and juftice-feat*. 9See Fore/},.
Yet it is<»f a large extent, and flocked both with a
grcatef'dlv’erfity of wild beafts or game, and more
keeperiSCthan a park. Crompton obferves, that a fo¬
reft canftot be in the hands of a fubjetft but it forth¬
with lofos its name, and becomes a chafe ; in regard
all thofe courts lofe their nature when they come into
the hands of a fubjeft; and that none but a king can
make a lord chief juftice in eyre of the foreft. See
Justice in Eyre.
Th^ following hiftory of the Engliffi chafes is given
by Mr Pennant: “ At firft the beafts of chafe had this -f. Brit/fi..
whole ifland for their range; they knew no other li- Zoo!, i. 42^
mils than the ocean, nor confeffed any particular ma-
fter. When the Saxons had eftablilhed theinfelves in
the heptarchy, they were referved by each fovereign
for his own particular diverfion : hunting and war, in
thofe uncivilized ages, were the only employ of the
great; their atftive, but uncultivated minds, being fuf-
ceptible of no pleafures but thole of a violent kind,
fuch as gave exercife to their bodies, and prevented
the pain of thinking.
“ But as the Saxon kings only appropriated thofe
lands to the life of forefts which were unoccupied, fi>
no individuals received any injury : but when the con-
queft had fettled the Norman line on the throne, this
paffion for the chace was carried to an excefs, which
involved every civil right in a general ruin : it fuper-
feded the confideration of religion even in a fuperfti-
tious age : the village-communities, nay even the molt
facred edifices, were turned into one vail walle, to»
make room for animals, the objedfs of a lawlefs ty¬
rant’s pleafure. The new foreft in Hamplhire is too
trite an itiftance to be dw elt on; fanguinary laws were
enadled to preferve the game; and in the reigns of
William Rufus, and Henry 1. it was lefs criminal
to deftroy one of the human fpecies than a beaft of
chafe. Thus it continued while the Norman line fil¬
led
C H A [ 1798 ] C H A
Chafe. led the throne; but when the Saxon line was reftored
    under Henry II. the rigour of the foreft laws was im¬
mediately foftened.
“ When our barons began to form a power, they
claimed a vaft, but more limited tract for a diverfion
that the Englifli were always fond of. They were
very jealous of any encroachments on their rel'peetive
bounds, which were often the caufe of deadly feuds:
fuch a one gave caufe to the fatal day of Ghevy-chace;
a fatf: which, though recorded only in a ballad,, may,
from what we know of the manners of the times, be
founded on truth: not that it was attended with all
the circumftances which the author of that natural but
heroic compolition hath given it; for, on that day,
neither a Percy, nor a Douglas fell: here the poet
feems to have claimed his privilege, and mixed with
this fray fome of the events of the battle of Otter-
b our ne.
“ When property became happily more divided
by the relaxation of the feodal tenures, thefe exten-
live hunting-grounds became more limited ; and as
tillage and hufbandry increafed, the bealts of chace
were obliged to give way to others more ufeful to the
community. The vaft trails of land, before dedica¬
ted to hunting, were then contracted ; and, in propor¬
tion as the ufeful arts gained ground, either loft their
original deftination, or gave rife to the invention of
parks. Liberty and the arts feem coeval; for when
once the latter got footing, the former protected the
labours of the induftrious from being ruined by the li¬
centious fportfman, or being devoured by the objeils
of his diverfion: for this reafon, the fubjeils of a de-
fpotic government (till experience the inconvenien-
cies of vaft waftes, and forefts, the terrors of the
neighbouring hufbandmen; while in our well regu¬
lated monarchy very few chaces remain. The'Eng¬
lifli Hill indulge themfelves in the pleafures of hunting;
but confine the deer-kind to parks, of which England
boafts of more than any other kingdom in Europe.
The laws allow every man his pleafure ; but confine
them in fuch bounds as prevents them from being in¬
jurious to the meaneft of the community. Before the
Reformation, the prelates feem to have guarded fuf-
ficiently againft this want of amufement, the fee of
Norwich, in particular, being poffeffed, about that
time, of thirteen parks.
Chase, in the fea-language, is to purfue a fhip;
Which is alfo called giving chafe.
Stem Chase, is when the chafer follows the chafed
aftern directly upon the fame point of the compafs.
To lie with a Ship's fore-foot in a Chase, is to fail
and meet with her by the neareft diftance; and fo to
erofs her in her way, or to come acrofs her fore-foot.
A fliip is faid to have a good chafe, when flie is fo
built foreward on, or a-ftern, that fhe can carry many
guns to (hoot forewards or backwards; according to
which (he is faid to have z good foreword, or good fern,
shafe.
Chase-Ck«/, are fuchwhofe ports are either in the
head (and then they are ufed in chafing of others) ; or
in the ftern, which are only ufeful when they are pur-
fued or chafed by any other fliip.
Chase of a Gun, is the whole bore or length of a
piece taken within-fide.
Wild-goofeCtixsv., a term ufed to exprefs a fort of Chafe
racing on horfeback ufed formerly, which refembled H
the flying of wild-geefe ; thole birds generally going Chateau
in a train one after another, not in confufed flocks as
other birds do. In this fort of race the two horfes,
after running twelve fcore yards, had liberty, which
horfe foever could take the leading, to ride what
ground the jockey pleafed, the hindmoft horfe being
bound to follow him within a certain diftance agreed
on by the articles, or elfe to be whipped in by the
tryers and judges who rode by ; and whichever, horfe
could diftance the other, won the race. This fort of
racing was not long in common ufe; for it was found
inhuman, and deftruftive to good horfes, when two
fuch were matched together. For in this cafe neither
was able to diftance the other till they were both
ready to (ink under their riders; and often two very
good horfes were both Spoiled, and the wagers forced
to be drawn at laft. The mifchief of this fort of ra¬
cing foon brought in the method now in ufe, of run¬
ning' only for a certain quantity of ground, and deter¬
mining the plate or wager by the coming in firft at
the poft.
Chasing of Gold, Silver, &c. See Enchasing.
CHASTE-tree. See Vitex.
CHASTITY; purity of the body, or freedom from
obfcenity.—The Roman law juftifies homicide in de¬
fence of the chaftity, either of one’s felf or relations ;
and fo alfo, according to Selden, (food the law in the
Jewilh republic. Our law likewife juftifies a woman
for killing a man who attempts to ravilh her. So the
hufband or father may juftify killing a man who at¬
tempts a rape upon his wife or daughter ; but not if _
he takes them in adultery by confent : for the one is
forcible and felonious, but not the other. And with¬
out doubt the forcibly attempting a crime of a (till
more deteftable nature, may be equally refilled by the
death of the unnatural aggreflbr. For the one uniform
principle that runs through our own and all other laws
feems to be this, that where a crime in itfelf capital
is endeavoured to be committed by force, it is lawful
to repel that force by the death of the party attempt¬
ing.
CHATEAU-briant, a town of France in Brittany,
with an old caftle. W. Long. i. 20. N. Lat. 47. 40.
C h a r e a v-Chinon, a town of France in Nivernois,
and capital of Morvant, with a confiderable manufac¬
ture of cloth. E. Long. 3. 48. N. Lat. 47. 2.
Cnatehv-Dauphin, a very ftrong caftle of Pied¬
mont in Italy, and in the marquifate of Saluces, be¬
longing to the king of Sardinia. It was taken by the
combined army of France and Spain in 1744, and was
reftored by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
CiiATEAV-du-Loir, a town of France in'the Maine,
famous for fuftaining a fiege of feven years againft the
Count of Mans. It is feated on the river Loir, in
E. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 47. 40.
Chateau-Dun, an ancient town of France, and
capital of the Dnnois, with a caftle and rich monafte-
ry ; feated on an eminence near the river Loir, in
E. Long. 1. 26. N; Lat. 48. 4.
CnATEAV-Pieuf, the name of feveral towns of
France, viz. one in Perche ; another in Angumois, on
the river Charente, near Angoufeline; a third in Berry,
feated
Chateau
Chatham.
C H A [ 1799 ] C H A
featcd on the river Cher; and feveral other imall places.
Chateau-/V/«», a town of France, in Cham¬
pagne, and in a dhirift called Portien, with a caltle
built on a rock, near the river Aine. E. Long. 4. 23.
M. Lat. 49. 3 j.
Chateau-Renaudy a town of France in the Gate-
nois, where clothes are made for the army, and where
there is a trade in faffron. £. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat.
48. o. This is alfo the name of a town of Touraine,
in France, with the title of a marquifate. E. Long.
2. 41. N. Lat. 47. 22.
Ch ATEAU-^ez/x, a town of France, in Berry, with
the title of a duchy. It has a cloth-manufacture, and
is feated in a very large pleafant plain on the river
Indre, in E. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 46. 49.
CHATEAU-7'Ah?rr«, a town of France, in Cham¬
pagne, with the title of a duchy, and a handfome
caltle on an eminence, feated on the river Maine, in
E. Long. 3. 23. N. Lat. 49.12.
Chate au-^/Aww, atown of France, in Champagne,
with a caltle, and the title of a duchy ; feated on the
river Aujon. E. Long. 2. 59. N. Lat. 48. o.
CHATEL, or Chate, a town of Lorrain, in the
Vofque, feated on the river Mofelle, eight miles from
Mirecourt.
Chatel-/^V/o«, a maritime town of France, in
Saintonge, five miles from Rochelle ; formerly very
confiderable, but is now greatly decayed.
Chatel-C/Wo», a town of France, in Franche
Comte, remarkable for its abbey of benediftine nuns.
E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 46. 50.
CHATELET, a town of the Netherlands, in Na¬
mur, feated on the Sambre, in the biflioprick of Liege.
E. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 50. 25.
Chatelet, the name of certain1 courts of yuftice
elfablilhed in feveral cities in France. The grand
chatelet at Paris, is the place where the prefidial or
ordinary court of jullice of the provoft of Paris is kept;
coniifting of a prelidial, a civil chamber, a criminal
chamber, and a chamber of policy. The little chate¬
let is an old fort, now ferving as a prifon.
CHATELLERAULT, a town of France, in Poitou,
with the title of a duchy ; feated in a fertile and plea¬
fant country, on the river Vienne, over which there
is a handfome ftone-bridge. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat.
46. 34.
CHATHAM, a town of Kent, adjoining to Ro-
chefter, and feated on the river Medway. It is the
principal Ration of the royal navy ; and the yards and
magazines are furnilhed with all forts of naval ftores,
as well as materials for building and rigging the largeft
men of war. The entrance into the river Medway
is defended by Sheernefs and other forts ; and, in the
year 1757, by direction of the duke of Cumberland,
feveral additional fortifications were begun at Cha¬
tham ; fo that now the fhips are in no danger of an
infult, either by land or water. It has a church ; a cha¬
pel of eafe ; and a {hip ufed as a church for the failors:
it has likewife about 500 houfes, moftly low, and built
with brick; the ftreets are narrow, and paved ; and
it contains about 3000 inhabitants. The principal em¬
ployment of the labouring hands is Ihip-building in
the king’s yard, and private docks. E. Long. o. 40.
N. Lat. 51. 20.
CHATIGAN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of
Bengal, on the moil eafterly branch of the river Gan¬
ges. It is but a poor place, though it was the firlt
the Portuguei’e fettled at in thefe parts, and who Hill
keep a fort of poflellion. It has but a few cotton u>a-
nufaeiures; but affords the beft timber for building of
any place about it. The inhabitants are fo fufpicious
of each other, that they always go armed with a
fword, piflol, and blunderbufs, not excepting the
priefls. It is fubje^t to the Great Mogul. E. Long.
91. to. N. Lat 23. o.
CHATILLON-sur-Seine, a town of France, in
Burgundy, divided into two by the river Seine. It
is 32 miles from Langres, and 40 from Dijon ; and
has iron-works in its neighbourhood. E. Long. 4, 33.
N. Lat. 47. 45.
CHATRE, a town of France, in Berry, feated on
the river Indies, 37 miles from Bourges. It carries
on a confiderable trade in cattle. E. Long. 1.55.
N, L;rt. 46. 35.
CHATTELS, a Norman term, under which were
anciently comprehended all moveable goods ; thofe
immoveable being termed fiej^orfee.
Chattels, in the modern fenle of the word, are
all forts of goods, moveable or immoveable, except
fuch as are in the nature of freehold.
CHATTERER, in ornithology. See Ampelis.
CHAUCER (Sir Geofrey,) an eminent Englifh poet
in the 14th century, born at London in 1328. After
he left the univerfity he travelled into Holland, France,
and other countries. Upon his return he entered bim-
felf in the Inner-temple, where he ftudied the muni¬
cipal laws of England. His firfl Ration-at court was
page to Edward III. and he had a penfion granted
him by that prince till he could otherwife provide
for him. Soon after we find him gentleman of the
king’s privy chamber ; next year, fliield-bearer to the
king. EReemed and honoured, he fpent his younger
days in a conRant attendance at court, or for the moR
part living near it, in a fquare Rone houfe near the
Park-gate at WoodRock, Rill called Chaucer’s houfe.
Soon after, having got the duke of LancaRer for
his patron, Chaucer began every day to rife in great-
nefs. In 1373 he was lent, with other perfons, to
the republic of Genoa to hire fhips for the king’s navy
(our want of fhipping in thofe times being ufually fup-
plied by fuch means) ; and the king was fo well fatif-
fied with his negociation, that, on his return, he ob¬
tained a grant of a pitcher of wine daily in the port
of London, to be delivered by the butler of England;
and foon after was made comptroller of the cuRoms
for wool, wool-fells, attd hides; an office which he
difeharged with great diligence and integrity. At this
period, Chaucer’s income was about L. 1000 a year ;
a fum which in thofe days might well enable him to
live, as he fays he did, with dignity in office, and ho-
fpitality among his friends. It was in this meridian
blaze of profperhyyin perfect health of body and peace
of mind, that he wrote his moR humorous poems.-
His fatires againR the prieRs were probably written
to oblige his patron the duke of LancaRer, who fa¬
voured the caufe of Wickliff, and endeavoured to ex-
pofe the clergy to the indignation of the people. In
the lafl year of Edward IIL our poet was employed
ia>
Cfiatigan
Chaucer.
C H A [ 1800 ] C H A
Chaucer. "in a commiffion to treat with the French ; and in the
■ beginning of k-ing Richard’s reign, he was in fome de¬
gree of favour at court.
The duke of Lancafter at laft finding his views
checked, began to abandon Wickliffe’s party: upon
which, Chaucer likewil'e, how much foever he had
efpoufed that divine’s opinions, thought it prudent to
conceal them more than he had done. With the
duke’s intereft that of Chaucer entirely funk; and the
former paffing over lea, his friends felt all the malice
of the oppofite party. Th.efe misfortunes occafioned
his writing that excellent treatife The TeJiameKt of
Love, in imitation of Boethius on the confolation of
philofophy. Being much reduced, he retired to Wood-
flock, to comfort himlelf with ftudy, which produced
his admirable treatife of the. djlrotabe.
The duke of Lancalter at lalt furmounting his trou¬
bles, married lady Catharine Swynford, filler to Chau¬
cer’s wife; fo that Thomas Chaucer, our poet’s fon,
became allied to moll of the nobility, and to feveral
of the kings of England. Now the fun began to Ihine
upon Chaucer with an evening ray; for by the influ¬
ence of the duke’s marriage, he again grew to a con-
fiderable Iharemf wealth. But being now 70, he re¬
tired to Dunnington-callle near Newbury. He had
not enjoyed this retirement long before Henry IV. fon
of the duke of Lancaller, affumed the crown, and in
the firll year of his reign gave our poet marks of his
favour. But however pleafmg the change of affairs
might be to him at fit ft, he afterwards found no fmall
inconveniencies from it. The meafures and grants
of the late king were annulled ; and Chaucer, in or¬
der to procure frelh grants of his penlions, left his re¬
tirement, and applied to court: where, though he
gained a confirmation of fome grants, yet the fatigue
of attendance, and his great age, prevented him from
enjoying them. He fell fick at London ; and ended
his days in the 73d year of his age,’leaving the world
as though he defpifed it, as appears from his fong of,
Fite from the Prefe. The year before his death he
had the happinefs, if at his time of life it might be fo
called, to fee the fon of his brother-in-law (Hen. IV.)
feated on the throne. He was interred in Weftmin-
fter abbey; and in 1556, Mr Nicholas Bingham, a
gentleman of Oxford, at liis own charge, eredted a
handfonie monument for him there. Caxton firft
printed the Canterbury tales; but his works were firft
collected, and publiflied in-one volume folio, by Wil¬
liam Thyne, London, 1542. They were afterwards
reprinted in 1561, 1598, 1602. Oxford, 1721.
Chaucer was not only the fu ft, but one of the heft
poets which thefe kingdoms ever produced. He was
equally great in every fpecies of poetry which he at¬
tempted ; and his poems in general poffefs every kind
of excellence, even to a modern reader, except me¬
lody and accuracy of rheafure ; defeats which are to be
attributed to the imperfect (late of our language, and
the infancy of the art in this kingdom at the time when
he wrote. “ As he is the father of Englilh poetry, (fays
Mr Dryden,) fo I hold him in the fame degree of vene¬
ration as the Grecians held Homer, or the Romans Vir¬
gil ; he is a perpetual fountain of good fenfe, learned in
all fciences, and therefore fpeaks properly on all fub-
jefts: as he knew what to fay, fo he knows alfo when
to leave off; a continence v/hich is praclifed by few Chaud-
writersj and fcarcely by any of the ancients, except medley
Virgil and Horacfe.” This chara&er Chaucer cer-
tainly deferved. He had read a great deal; and was 1
a man of the world, and of found judgement. He
was the firft Englilh poet who wrote poeticatlj, as Dr
Johnfon obferves in the preface to his didlionary, and
(he might have added) who wrote like a'gentleman.
He had alfo the merit of improving our language con-
fiderably, by the introdudlion and naturalization of
words from the Provengal, at that time the moll po-
lilhed dialedi in Europe.
CHAUD-me.dley, in law, is of much the fame im¬
port with Chance- Medley. The former in its etymo-
logy fignifies an affray in the heat of blood or paffion ;
the latter, a cafual affray. The latter is in common
fpeech too often erroneoufly applied to any manner
of homicide by mifadventure ; whereas.it appears by
the flat. 24 Hen.VIII. c. J. and ancient books (Staundf.
P. C. 16.) that it is properly applied to fuch killing as
happens in felf-defence, upon hidden rencounter.
CHAUL, a town of the -Jiaft Indies, on the coaft
of Malabar, in the province of Blagana, and king¬
dom of Vifapour. Its river affords a good harbour
for fmall veffels. The town is fortified, and fb is the
illand on the fouth fide of the harbour. It had for¬
merly a good trade, but is now miferably poor. It
was taken by the Pqrtuguefe in 1507, to whom it ftill
belongs. It is fifteen miles fouth of Bombay, and five
miles from the fea. E. Long. 72. 45. N. Lat. 18. 50.
CHAULIEU (William Amfrye de), abbe d’Amale,
one of the moft polite and ingenious of the French
poets, was born in 1639; and died at the age of 84.
The moft complete edition of his poems is that print¬
ed in 2 vols 8V0, in 1733.
CHAUMONT, a town of France, in Champagne,
and in the diflridl of Baffigni, of which it is the capi¬
tal. It is feated on a mountain near the river Marne.
E. Long. 5. 15. N. Lat. 48. 6.
CHAUNE, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
the diftibl of Sanfierre, with the title of a duchy. E.
Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 49. 45.
CHAUNY, a town of France, in Picardy, feated
on the river Oife, in Chantry. E. Long. 3. 17. N.
Lat. 49. 37.
CHAUVIN (Stephen), a celebrated minifter of the
reformed religion, born at Nifmes, left France at the
revocation of the edict of Nantz, and retired to Rot¬
terdam, where he began a new Journal des Sgavans ;
and afterwards removing to Berlin, continued it there
three years. At this laft place, he was made profef-
for of philofophy, and difeharged that office with much
honour and reputation. His principal work is a phi-
lofophical dictionary, in Latin, which he publilhed at
Rotterdam in 1692: and gave a new edition of it
much augmented, at Lewarden, in 1713, folio. He
died in I72J, aged 8j.
CHAVEZ, a ftrong town of Tralos-Montes in Por¬
tugal, is leated at the fiiot of a mountain on the river
Tamega. It has two fuburbs, ^nd as many forts;
one of which looks like a citadel. Between the town
and fuburb of Magdalena, is an old Roman ftone-
bridge above 92 geometrical paces long. W. Long.
7. 1. N. Lat. 41. 45.
CHAZIN-
C H A [ 1801 ] CHE
Chazinza- CHAZINZARIANS, a fe6l of heretics, who rofe
rlans. jn Armenia in the feventh century. The word is
c, ® .. formed of the Armenian, chazus, “ crofs.” They are
- aze eS alfo called ftaurolatra, which, in Greek, fignifies the
fame as chazinzarians in Armenian, viz. adorers of
the crofs; they being charged with paying adoration
to the crofs alone. In other refpe<Sts they were Nef-
torians; and admitted two perfons in Jefus Chrift.
Nicephoros aferibes other Angularities to them; par¬
ticularly their holding an annual feaft, in memory of
the dog of their falfe prophet Sergius which they cal¬
led artzibartzes.
CHAZELLES (John Matthew), a celebrated French
mathematician and engineer, was born at Lyons in
1657. M. du Hamel, with whom he got acquainted,
finding his genius incline towards aftronomy, prefent-
ed him to M. Cafiini, who employed him in his obfer-
vatory. In 1684, the duke of Mortemar made ufe of
Chazelles, to teach him mathematics ; and, the year
after, procured him the preferment of hydrography
profeffor for the. galleys of Marfeilles, where he fet
up a, fchool for young pilots defigned to ferve aboard
the galleys. In 1686, the galleys made four little
campaigns, or rather four courfes, purely for exer-
qfe. Chazelles went on board every time with them;
kept his fchool upon the fea, and ihewed the practice
of what he taught. In the years 1687 and 1688, he
made two other fea-campaigns, in which he drew a
great many plans of ports, roads, towns, and forts,
which were lodged with the minifters of Rate. At
the beginning of the war, which ended with the peace
of Ryfwick, fome marine officers, and Chazelles a-
mong the reft, fancied the galleys might be fo contri¬
ved as to live upon the ocean ; that they might ferve
to tow the men of war when the wind failed or proved
contrary, and alfo help to fecure the coaft of France
upon the ocean. Chazelles was fent to the weft coafts
in July 1689, to examine the pra&icabienefs of this
fcheme ; and in 1690, fifteen galleys new built fet fail
from Rochefort, and cruifed as far as Torbay in Eng¬
land, and proved ferviceable at the defcent upon Tin-
mouth. After this, he digefted into order, the ob-
fervations he had made on the coafts of the ocean;
and drew difthuft maps with a portulan to them, viz.
a large defcription of every haven, of the depth, the
tides, the dangers and advantages difcovered, ire.
Thefe maps were inferted in the Neptune Frantpoife,
publiflied in 1692, in which year Chazelles was engi¬
neer at the defcent at Oneille. In 1693, Monfieur
de Pontchartrain, then fecretary of ftate for the ma¬
rine, and afterwards chancellor of France, refolved
to get the Neptune Frangoife carried on to a fecond
volume, which was alfo to take in the Mediterra¬
nean. Chazelles defired that he might have a year’s
voyage on this fea, for making aftronomical obferva-
tions; and, the requeft being granted, he puffed by
Greece, Egypt, and the other parts of Turkey, with
his quadrant and telefcope in his hand. When he
Was in Egypt he meafured the pyramids; and finding
the iides of the largeft precifely facing the four car¬
dinal points, naturally concluded this pofition to have
been intended, and alfo that the poles of the earth
and meridians had not fince deviated. Chazelles like-
wife made a report of his voyage in the Levant, and
VOL. III.
gave the academy all the fatisfatflion they wanted Cheafapeck
concerning the pofition of Alexandria: upon which II
he was made a member of the academy in 1695. He Chcck'
died in 1710.
CHEASAPEAK bay, in North America, the en¬
trance between Cape Henry and Cape Charles, run¬
ning up 3 0 miles between Virginia and Maryland.
It is navigable almoft all the way for large fliips, and
has feveral navigable rivers that fall into it, by means
of which, fliips go up to the very doors of the planters,
to take in their lading of goods.
CHEATS, are deceitful practices in defrauding, or
endeavouring to defraud, another of his known right,
by means of fome artful device, contrary to the plain
rules of common honefty ; as by playing with falfe
dice, or by cauling an illiterate perfon to execute a
deed to his prejudice, by reading it over to him in
words different from thofe in which it was writ¬
ten, tc.—If any perfon deceitfully get into his hands
or pofleffion, any money or other things of any other
perfon’s by colour of any falfe token, ire. being con-
vidted, he fliall have fuch punifhment by imprifon-
ment, fetting upon the pillory, or by any corporeal
pain except pains of death, as fnall be adjudged by
the perfons before whom he fliall be convicted.—As
there are frauds which may be relieved civilly, and not
puniflied criminally; fo there are other frauds, which
in a fpecial cafe may not be helped civilly, and yet fhall
be punifhed criminally. Thus if a minor goes about
the town, and, pretending to be of age, defrauds many
perfons by taking credit for a confiderable quantity of
goods, and then infilling on his nonage, the perfons in¬
jured cannot recover the value of their goods, but they
may indidt and punilh him for a common cheat. Pet -
fons convidted of obtaining money or goods by falle
pretences, or of fending threatening letters in order
to extort money or goods, may be puniftied with fine
or imprifonment, or by pillory, whipping, or tranfpor-
tation.
CHEBRECHIN, a town of Poland, in the province
of Ruffia and palatinate of Belfltow. It is feated on
the declivity of a hill, and the river Wierpi waters its
walls, and afterwards falls into the river Bog. The
Jews there are very rich. E. Long. 23. 51. N. Lat.
50. 35.
CHECAYA, in Turkilh affairs, the fecond officer of
the Janizaries, who commands them under the aga,
and is otherwife called protogero.
There is alfo a checaya of the treafury, ftables, kit¬
chen, frc. the word fignifying as much as lieutenant,
or the fecond in any office.
CHECK, or Chkcyl-RoII, a roll or book, wherein
are contained the names of fuch perfons as are atten¬
dants and in the pay of the king, or other great per-
fonages, as their houfehold fervants.
Clerk of the Check, in the king’s houfehold, has the
check and controlment of the yeomen of the guard,
and all the ulhers belonging to the royal family, allowing
their abfence or defeats in attendance, or diminifliing
their wages for the fame, ire. He alfo, by himfelf or
deputy, takes the view of thofe that are to watch in
the court, and has the fetting of the watch, ire.
Clerk of the Check in the royal dock-yards, an of¬
ficer who keeps a mnfter or regifter of all the men
10 T employed
CHE [ 1802 ] CHE
Check employed aboard his majelty’s Ihips and veflels, and
i! alfo of all the artificers and others in the fervice of the
Cheef’e' navy at the port where he is fettled.
" Check, in falconry, a term ufcd of a hawk, when
ftie forfakes her proper game, to fly at pyes, crows,
rooks, or the like, that crofs her in her flight.
CHECKY, in heraldry, is when the fhield, or a bor-
dure, ire. is chequered, or divided into chequers or
fquares, in the manner of a chefs-board.
This is one of the moft noble and moft ancient figures
ufed in armoury ; and a certain author faith, that it
ought to be given to none but great warriors, in to¬
ken of their bravery : for the chefs-board reprefents
a field of battle ; and the pawns placed on both fides
reprefent the foldiers of the two armies, which move,
attack, advance, or retire, according to the will of the
gamefters who are the generals.
This figure is always compofed of metal and colour.
But fome' authors would have it reckoned among the
feveral forts of furs.
CHEEK, in anatomy, that part of the face fituated
below the eyes on each fide.
Cheeks, a general name among mechanics, for
almoft all thofe pieces of their machines and in-
fixuments, that are double, and perfeclly alike.
Thus,
The Cheeks of a Printing-prvfs, are its two principal
pieces: they are placed perpendicular, and parallel to
each other; ferving to fuftain the three fommers, viz.
the head, fhelves, and winter, which bear the fpindle,
and other parts of the machine. See Printing-
Prcfs.
CHEESE, a fort of food prepared of curdled milk
purged from the ferum or whey, and afterwards dried
for ufe.
Cheefe differs in quality according as it is made from
new or fkimined milk, from the curd which feparates
fpontaneoufly upon handing, or that which is more
fpeedily produced by the addition of runnet. Cream
alfo affords a kind of cheefe, but quite fat and butyra-
* ceous, and which does not keep long. Analyzed che¬
mically, cheefe appears to partake much more of an
animal nature than butter, or the milk from which it
was'made. It is infoluble in every liquid except fpirit
of nitre, and cauftic alkaline ley. Shaved thin,and pro¬
perly treated with hot water, it forms a veryftrong ce-
* See Ci- ment if mixed with quicklime*. When prepared with
vient. the hot water, it is recommended in the Swedifh me¬
moirs to be ufed by anglers as a bait. It may be made
into any form, is not foftened by the cold water, and
the fifties are fond of it.—As a food, phyficians condemn
the too free ufe of cheefe. When new, it is extreme¬
ly difficult of digeftion : when old, it becomes acrid
and hot; and, from DrPercival’s experiments, is evi¬
dently of a feptic nature. It is a common opinion,
that old cheefe digefts every thing, yet is left undigef-
ted itfelf; but this is without any folid foundation —
Cheefe made from the milk of Iheep digefts fooner
than that from the milk of cows, but is lefs nourifliing;
that from the milk of goats digefts fooner than either,
but is alfo the leaft nouriftiing. In general, it is a
kind of food fit only for the laborious, or thofe whole
organs of digeftipn are ftrong.
Every country has places noted for this commodity:
thus Chefter and Gloucefter cheefe are famous in Eng- Cheefe
land; and theParmefan cheefe is in no lefs repute abroad, B
efpecially in France. This fort of cheefe is entirely c^r*n'
made of fweet cow-milk : but at Rochefort in Lan-   !_
guedoc, they make it of ewe’s milk; and in other
places it is ufual to add goat or ewe’s milk in a cer¬
tain proportion to that of the cow. There is likewife
a kind of medicated cheefe made by intimately mixing
the exprefled juice of certain herbs, as fage, baum,
mint, life, with the curd before it is falhioned into a
cheefe.—The Laplanders make a fort of cheefe of
the milk of their rein-deer; which is not only of great
fervice to them as food, but on many other occalions.
It is a very common thing in thefe climates to have a
limb numbed and frozen with the .cold ; their remedy
for this is the heating ar iron red hot, and thruft-
ing it through the middle of one of thefe cheefes; they
catch what drops out, and with this anoint the limb,
which foon recovers it. They are fubjedl alfo to
coughs and difeafes of the lungs, and thefe they cure
by the fame fort of medicine : they boil a large quan¬
tity of the cheefe in the frefli deer’s milk, and drink
the decoction in large draughts warm feveral times a-
day. They make a lefs ftrong decoiftion .of the fame
kind alfo, which they ufe as their common drink, for
three or four days together, at feveral times of the
year. They do this to prevent the milchiefs they are
liable to from their water, which is otherwife their
conftant drink, and is not good.
The hundred weight of cheefe pays on importation
is. 3T4sd. and draws back on exportation is. i^-d. at
the rate of. 6 s. 8 d. The cheefe of Ireland is prohibi¬
ted to be imported.
Cheese-,/?See Gal-lium.
CHE1RANTHUS, STOCK-GltLiFLOWER,or Wall¬
flower; a genus of the filiquofa order, belonging to the
tetradynamia clafs of plants. The fpecies are 13, but
the following three are moft worthy of notice. 1. The
cheiri or common wall-flower, with ligneous, long,
tough-roots; an upright, woody, abiding ftalk, divided
into many erect angular branches, forming a bufhy
head from one to two feefhigh, clofely garniffied with
fpear-fhaped, acute, fmooth leaves, and all the branches
terminating in long eredt fpikes of numerous flowers,
which in different varieties are yellow, bloody, white,
13c. 2. The incanus, or hoary cheiranthus, with lig¬
neous, long, naked, white roots; and upright, ftrong,
woody, abiding ftem, from one to three feet high,
branchy at top, adorned with long, fpear-lhaped, ob-
tufe, hoary leaves; and the top of the ftalk and all
the branches terminated by eredt fpikes of flowers
from one to two or three feet long, of diiterent colours
in different varieties. 3. The annum, or ten-weeks-
ftock, with an upright, woody, fmooth ftalk, divided
into a branchy head, 12 or 15 inches high, garniihed
with fpear-ftiaped, blunt, hoary leaves, a little indented,
and all the branches terminated by long eredt fpike-s
of numerous flowers of different colours in different
Varieties.—The two firft forts are very hardy ever¬
green biennials or perennials; but the laft is an annual
plant, fo muft be continued by feed fown every year;
and even the two firft, notwithftanding their being
perennial, degenerate fo much in their flowers after
the firft year, that it will be proper alio to raife an
annual
CHE [ 1803 ] C El E
Ciiekao annual fupply of them. The feeds are to be faved
S only from the plants with Angle flowers ; for the
Chekc’ double ones bring no feeds to perfection. The feeds
are to be chofen from fuch flowers as have five, fix,
or more petals, or from fuch as grow near to the
double ones. They may be fown in the full ground in
the fpring, and may be afterwards tranfplanted. When
fine doubles of the two firft kinds are obtained, they
may be multiplied by flips from the old plants.
CHEKAO, in natural hiltory, the name of an earth
found in many parts of the Eaft Indies, and fometimes
ufed by the Chinefe in their porcelain manufactures.
It is a hard and ftony earth ; and the manner of ufing
it is this : they firft calcine it in an open furnace, and
then beat it to a fine powder. This powder they mix
■with large quantities of water: then ftirring the whole
together, they let the coarfer part fubfide; and pouring
off the reft yet thick as cream, they leave it to fettle,
and ufe the matter which is found at the bottom in
form of a foft pafte, and will retain that humidity a
long time. This fupplies the place of the earth called
hoache, in the making of that elegant fort of china-
ware which is all white, and has flowers which feem
formed by a mere vapour within its furface. The
manner of their ufing it is this : they firft make the
veffel of the common matter of the manufacture ;
when this is almoft dry, they paint upon it the flowers,
or whatever other figures they pleafe, with a pencil
dipt in this preparation of the chekao ; when this is
thoroughly dry, they cover the whole velfel with the
varnifh in the common way, and bake it as ufual. The
■confequence is, that the whole is white : but the body
of the veffel, the figures, and the varnilh, being three
different fubftances, each has its own particular white ;
and the flowers being painted in the fineft white of
all, are diftin&ly feen through the varnilh upon the
veffel, and feem as if traced by a vapour only. The
hoache does this as well as the chekao; and has befides
this the quality of ferving for making the porcelain
ware either alone, or in the place of kaolin: the
chekao has not this property, nor any other fubftance
befides this hoache, which appears to be the fame with
our fteatites or foap-rpck.
CHEKE (Sir John), a celebrated ftatefman, gram¬
marian, and divine, of an ancient family in the ifle of
Wight, was born at Cambridge in the year 1514, and
educated at St John’s college in that univerfity ; where,
after taking his degrees in arts, he was firft chofen
Greek lecturer, and in 1540 profeffor of that lan¬
guage, with a ftipend of 40 1. a-year. In this ftation
he was principally inftrumental in reforming the pro¬
nunciation of the Greek language, which, having been
much negleifted, was imperfectly underftood. About
the year 1543 fig was incorporated mafter of arts at
Oxford, where, we are told, he had ftudied for fome
time. In the following year he was fent to the court
of king Henry VIII. and appointed tutor for the La¬
tin language, jointly with Sir Anthony Cooke, to prince
Edward, about which time he was made canon of the
college newly founded in Oxford ; wherefore he muft
have now been in orders. On the acceflion of his
royal pupil to the crown, Mr Cheke was firft reward¬
ed with a penfion of too merks, and afterwards ob¬
tained feveral confxderable grants from the crown. In
1J 50 he was made chief gentleman of the privy-cham- Che-kyang
ber, and was knighted the following year ; in 1552, il
chamberlain of the exchequer for life ; in 1553, clerk cfieke~
of the council; and Icon after fecretary of ftate and
privy-counfellor. But thefe honours were of fliort
duration. Having concurred in the meafures of the
duke of Northumberland for fettling the crown on the
unfortunate Jane Grey, and adted as her fecretary
during the nine days of her reign, on th.e acceflion of
queen Mary, Sir John Cheke was fent to the tower,
and ftript of the greateft part of his poftelfions. In
September 1554 he obtained his liberty, and a licence
from her majefty to travel abroad. He went firft to
Bafil, thence to Italy, and afterwards returned to
Stralburg, where he was reduced to the neceflity of
reading Greek lectures for fubfiftence. In 1556 he
fet out in an evil hour to meet his wife at Bruffels :
but, before he reached that city, he was feized by or¬
der of king Philip II. hoodwinked, and thrown into
a waggon ; and thus ignominioufly conducted to a
fhip, which brought him to the tower of London.
He foon found that religion was the caufe of his im-
prifonment; for he was immediately vilited by two
Romifh priefts, who pioufly endeavoured to convert
him, but without fuccefs. However, he was at lait
vifited by Fleckenham ; who told him from the queen,
that he muft either comply or burn. This powerful
argument had the defired effect; and Sir John Cheke
accordingly complied in form, and his lands, upon cer¬
tain conditions, were reftored : but his remorfe loon
put an end to his life. He died in September 1557,
at the houfe of his friend Mr Peter Ofborne in Wood-
ftreet, London, and wras buried in St Alban’s diurch.
He left three fons, the eldeft of which, Henry, was
knighted by queen Elizabeth. He wrote 1. A Latin
tranflation of two of St Chryfoftom’s homilies. Lond.
1543, 4t0- 2- The Hurt of Sedition. Lond. 1549,
1576, 1641. 3. Latin tranflation of the Englifh com¬
munion fervice. Printed among Bucer’s opufcula.
4. De pronunciatione Grascse. Bafil, 1555, 8V0. 5. Se¬
veral letters publiflied in his life by Strype ; and a
great number of other books.
CHE-KYANG, or Tsekian, a province of the em¬
pire of China, formerly the refidence of the Chinefe
monarchs, and one of the moft confiderable in the
whole empire. Is bounded on the fouth by Fo-kyen ;
on the north and weft, by Kyang-nan, and Kyang-fi ;
and on the eaft by the lea. It extends itfelf from the
27th to the 31st degree of North Latitude, and from
1160 to almoft 120° of Eaft Longitude, according to
the meridian of Paris. The climate of it is ferene
and healthy, and the inhabitants very numerous, a-
mounting, according to their regifters, to 4,525,700
men. The country is exceedingly rich and fertile,
beautifully variegated with well cultivated mountains,
fruitful valleys and plains ; fo that there is not a fpot
which is not turned to the heft advantage. It is in-
terfedled by a multitude of rivers and canals; the laft
cup wide and deep, and lined on both fides with hewn
ftone. The plains on both fides have a communication
with each other by a vaft number of bridges, fp that
one may travel through the whole province either by
land or water. A vaft quantity of filk is manufactu¬
red in this province; which is here finer, more rich and
to T 2 curioufly
CHE [ 1804 ] CHE
Chelidoni- curioufly wrought with gold and filver, than in any
um other ; and yet is lb cheap, that a good filk fuit will
il coft lefs than one of the moft ordinary cloth in Eu-
Chelm- rope. The tribute of filk paid to the emperor is laid
to amount to 370,466 pounds raw, and 2574 wrought,
befides fome other quantities of the fineft, fent as a
prefent to the court by the imperial barges. The
province hath eleven capital cities, or cities of the firft
rank, and 7 7 of the fecond and third rank; befides
j8 fortrelfes, rttoft of them upon the fea-coafts, and
large and populous enough to pais in other countries
for confiderable cities. The inhabitants are ingeni¬
ous, polite, and courteous to llrangers, but very fit
perftitious.
CHELIDONIUM, Celandine, and horned or
prickly poppy; a genus of the monogynia order,
belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants. There
are fix fpecies, none of which are remarkable for
their beauty ; but one of them, v/z. the majus, is an
article in the materia medica. It grows on old walls,
among rubbilh, and in waile ihady places. The herb
is of a bluilh green colour; the root of a deep red ;
and both contain a gold-coloured juice : their fmell is
difagreeable, the tafte fomewhat birterilh, very acrid,
burning and biting the mouth ; the root is the moft
acrid. The juice takes off warts ; cures tetters,
ring-worms, and the itch ; and, diluted with milk,
it confumes opake white fpots on the eye.—Horfes,
cows, gOats, and fwine, refufe to eat the herb.
CHELIDONIUS lapis, in natural hiftory, a ftone
faid by the ancients to be found in the ftomachs of
young fwallows, and greatly cried up for its virtues
in the falling-ficknefs; but, from their defcription, it
appears to be only a fpecies of lycodontes, or bufo-
nitie. See Lycodontes, and Bufonit®.
CHELM, a town of Poland, capital of a palatinate
of the lame name. It is fituated in the province of
C H E M
Definition. TWfAY be defined, The ftudy of fuch phenomena
XVJL or properties of bodies as are difcovered by
varioufly mixing them together, and by expofing
them to different degrees of heat, alone, or in mix¬
ture, with a view to the enlargement of our know¬
ledge in nature, and to the improvement of the ufeful
arts: or, It is the ftudy of the effetfts of heat and mix¬
ture upon all bodies, whether natural or artificial, with
a view to the improvement of arts and natural know-
2 ledge.
Antiquity. The fcience of cltemiftry is undoubtedly of very
high antiquity; and, like moft other fciences, its origin
cannot be traced. In fcripture, Tubal Cain, the S111
from Adam, is mentioned as the father or inftrutftor
of every artificer in brafs or iron. This, however,
does not conftitute him a chemift, any more than a
founder or blackfmith among us has a right to that
title. The name of chemift could only belong to him,
whoever he was, who firft difcovered the method of
extracting metals from their ores; and this perfon
muft neceffarily have lived before Tubal Cain, as eve¬
ry blackfmith or founder muft have metals ready pre-
Red Ruflia. E. Long. 23. 30. N. Lat. Jl. 25. Chelmsford
CHELMSFORD, the county town of Effex, fitua- U ,
ted on the river Chelmer, in £. Long. 30. N. Lat. chemife.
51. 40. It fends two members to parliament.
CHELONE, in botany, a genus of the angiofper-
mia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of plants.
There are three fpecies, viz. the Glabra, the Hirfuta,
and the Penftemon. . They are natives of North Ame¬
rica ; and are herbaceous flowery perennials, with
upright ftalks two feet high, decorated with fpear-
fliaped leaves, and beautiful fpikes of monopetalous,
ringent flowers, red, rofe-coloured, blue, and purple.
They flower from' September to November, and
are fometimes fucceeded by ripe feeds in this coun¬
try. They are very hardy plants, and may be pro¬
pagated by feeds fown in any foil or fituation ; but
the two firft multiply fo faft by their creeping roots,
that the feeds are feldom regarded.
CHELSEA, a fine village fituated on the northern
bank of the river Thames, a mile weftward of Weft-
minfter, remarkable for a magnificent hofpital of in¬
valids and old decrepit foldiers ; and a plealure-houfe,
called Ranelagh, to which a great deal of fine com¬
pany refort in fummer.
CHELTENHAM, or Chiltenham, a market-
town of Gloucefterfhire, feven miles north-eaft of
Glouceiter. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 51. 50. It is
chiefly remarkable for its mineral waters, of the fame
kind with thofc of Scarborough. See Scarborough.
CHEMISE, in fortification, the wall with which a
baftion, or any other bulwark of earth, is lined for
its greater fupport and ftrength : or it is the folidity
of the wall from the talus to the ftone-row.
Firi-Ca emise, a piece of linen cloth, fteeped in a
compofition of oil of petrol, camphor, and other 90m-
buftible matters, ufed at fea, to fet fire to an enemy’s
veffel.
I S T R Y
pared to their hand. Neverthelefs, as Tubal Cain
lived before the flood, and the fcience of chemiflry
muft have exifted before his time, fome have con¬
jectured, that the metallurgic part of chemiftry, on
account of its extreme ufefulnefs to mankind, was re¬
vealed to Adam by God himfelf. 3
Be this as it will, Siphoas, an Egyptian, is confide- Science
red by the chemifts as the founder of their fcience. founded.
He was known by the Greeks under the name of
Hermes, or Mercurius Trifmegijlus ; and is fnppofed
to have lived more than 1900 years before the Chri-
ftian sera. A numerous lift of this phiiofopher’s works,
is given by Clemens Alexandrinus; but none of them
are now to be found, nor do any of them appear to
have been written profeffedly on chemiftry.
Two illuftrious Egyptians, of the name of Hermes,
are recorded by ancient authors. The elder fuppofed
to be the fame with Mizraim, the grandfon of Noah,
the Hermes of the Greeks, and Mercury of the Ro¬
mans. The younger Hermes lived a thoufand years
afterwards, and is fuppofed to have reftored the fci¬
ences after they had fallen into oblivion, in confe-
quence
Hiftory. CHEMISTRY. 1805
quence of an inundation of the Nile. No lefs than
36,000 books are faid to have been written under the
name of Hermes; but, according to Jamblichus, a cu-
ftom prevailed of infcribing all books of 1'cience with
the name of Hermes. Some authors deny the exift-
ence of Hermes, and maintain that his hiftory is alie-
4 gorical.
Mofes fup- As the fcience of chemiftry is fuppofed to have been
pofed to be well known to the Egyptians, Moles, who was (killed
(killed in jn t]iejr wifdom, is thence ranked among the number
chemi ry. cjieinj^s . a proof 0f whofe fldll in this fcience is
thought to be, his diflblving the golden calf made by
the lifaelites, fo as to render it potable.
Of all the Greeks who travelled into Egypt, in or¬
der to acquire knowledge, Democritus alone was ad¬
mitted into their myfteries. The Egyptian priefts are
faid to have taught him many chemical operations ;
among which were the art of foftening ivory, of vi¬
trifying flints, and of imitating precious ftones.
Very little, however, can be gathered from any
of the more ancient authors concerning the progrefs
of this fcience ; but as there is no inftance of any na¬
tion in the world which was totally deftitute of me¬
tals, we are allured that the metallurgic part of che¬
miftry muft have been known to fome perfons in eve¬
ry age, and every nation ; nor have we the leaft rea-
fpn to imagine that the knowledge of metallurgy, in
thefe early ages, was at all inferior to what it is at
prefent. In the facred writings, allufions are very
frequently made by the prophets to the methods of re¬
fining lilver, and particularly to the blowing of bel¬
lows upon the furface of it, in order to drive off the
bafer metals fcorified, and reduced to a calx by the
violent adtion of the heat. By the manner in which
thefe things are fpoken, it would feem that the know¬
ledge of them was pretty general, as much indeed as
5 it is juft now.
Alchemy. In the fourth and fifth centuries, fome of the Greek
writers fpeak of an art, as then generally known, of
tranfmuting the bafer metals into gold ; and, in the
end of the I qthcentury, when the learning of the
eaftern countries was brought into Europe by the Ara¬
bians, the pretenfions to a knowledge of tranfmuta-
tion of metals began likewife to fpread into this quar¬
ter of the world. The art itfelf, called Alchemy, is
fuppofed to have been of Egyptian original ; and it
is probable, that when the ancient Greek philofophers
travelled into Egypt, they brought back fome of the
allegorical language of the Egyptian art ill underftood,
which afterwards paffed into their mythology.
The fcience of alchemy feems to have been the ear-
lieft branch of philofophic chemiftry, as being origi¬
nally fpeculative; whereas, in -all other parts of che¬
mical knowledge, fadts feem to have preceded rea-
foning. Succefs in alchemy was thought impoffible,
without a previous knowledge of the nature, eftence,
and principles of metals; whence they are produced
in the mines, whence they received their increafe, ice.
The general principles of metals were fuppofed to
have been two, viz. mercury and fulphur ; of both
which, particularly of the latter, there were different
kinds. In gold it was pure, red, fixed, and incom-
buftihle ; but of different qualities in the other metals.
The principles of gold they imagined to be fcattered
in certain other bodies; and thefe they laboured to
collect and unite, in order to the compofition of t he
precious metal. The alchemifts did not ftop here;
they pretended to a product of a higher order, called
the elixir, the medicine for metals, the tindurc, the phi-
lojlpher s Jlane; which by being projected on a large
quantity of any of the inferior metals in fufion, fliould
change them into pure gold ; being laid upon a plate
of iilver, copper, or iron, and moderately heated, Ihould
change into gold all the places to which it was appli¬
ed ; and on being properly treated with pure gold,
ftiould change it into a powder of the fame virtue and
efficacy with itfelf; and which, by continued coiftion,
Ihould have its virtue more and more exalted, fo as at
laft to be able to change into pure gold 272,330 parts
of bale metal.
Pretenfions of this kind carry along with them fuch
an air of abfurdity, that' it is not at prefent worth while
to fay any thing further concerning them, than that
they have at laft fallen into univerfal diferedit, though
not fooper than the laft century. 0
In the fixteenth century, chemiftry was firft intro- chemiftry
duced into phyfic by Paracelfus, who added a new introduced
fpecies of folly to that of his predeceflbrs. This was medi¬
an imagination, that by alchemy an univerfal medi- *^att
cine might be diicovered, by which the human life rem'edy2;-
could be prolonged to any length of time whatever, magined.
But, though Paracellus, and his difciple Van Helmont,
both pretended to have been in poffelfion of this re¬
medy, the one died at the age of 48, and the other at
that of 63 years.
This notion of an univerfal remedy, abfurd as it
was, found many partifans ; and the books of the che-
mifts were now filled with receipts for making po¬
table gold, elixirs of life, panaceas, ire. but written in
unintelligible language.
Happily the tafte for knowledge, which at laft be¬
gan to fucceed the jargon and ignorance of preceding
ages, awakened men to inquiries concerning the molt
important and eflential operations of chemiftry.
Agricola is one of the firft and beft authors on the chemiftry
fubjeift of metallurgy. Being born in a village in Mil’- emerges
nia, a country abounding in mines and metallurgic from its ob-
works, he deferibed them exactly and copioufly. He fcu)ky-
was a phyfician, and cotemporary with Paracellus, but
of a char after very different. His writings are clear
and inltruftive, as thole of Paracelfus are obfeure. and
ufelefs. Lazard, Efker, Schinder, Schlutter, Henkel,
ire. have alfo written on metallurgy, and deferibed
the art of ellayitig metals. Anthony Nevi, Dr Mer-
ret, and the famous Kunkel, (who dilcovered the phof-
phorus of urine) have deferibed very fully the arts of
making glafs, enamels, imitations of precious ftones,.
ire.; but their writings, as well as thole of fucceed-
ing chemifls, are not fret from the illufions of alchemy;
fo true it is, that an obftinate and inveterate malady
never difappears at once, without leaving traces be¬
hind. Soon after, however, the alchemical phrenzy
was attacked by many powerful antagonifts, who con¬
tributed to refeue the fcience of chemiftry from an e-
vil which at once difgraced it, and retarded its pro¬
grefs. Among thefe, the moft diftingniftted are Kir-
cher a Jefuit, and Conninghis a phyfician, who wrote
witipmuch fuccefs and reputation.
About
8o6
Part I,
CHEMISTRY.
About the middle of the laft age, feveral of the parts
of chemiltry began to be collected, examined, and
compared, with a view to difcover their principles,
and obferve their relations, fo as to unite them into
one body of rational dodrine. This, which we may
confider as the foundation of chemiftry, confidered as
a feience, was firft begun by James Barrier, phylician
to the king of Poland, who arranged into order the
principal chemical experiments, and added rationalex-
planations. His work is intitled Philofophical Chemi-
flry. The phenomena of this fcience are there re¬
ferred to the fyftem of alkalis and acids, eftablilhed by
Tachenius, but abufed by being too far extended. A
valuable treatife on chemiftry was alfo publifhed by
Bohnius, profeflbr at Leipfic; and Recher, principal
phylician to the electors of Mentz and Bavaria, has
laid dowm the moft fatisfacftory theory ever publifhed;
and which has been adopted by almoft all lucceeding
philofophical chemifts, particularly Stahl, who has fhewn
it to be the moft enlightening, and the moft; conform¬
able to the phenomena of chemiftry of anything of
the kind ever publifhed.
From this time the fcience of chemiftry has advan¬
ced prodigioufly. A true theory, arifing from expe¬
riments already made, has led to numberlefsnew ones}
and the labours of the learned Boerhaave, Boyle,
Newton, ire. have contributed to lay a foundation for
the improvements made by the celebrated chemifts of
the prefent time, from whofe new difeoveries it is to
be hoped, that the fcience will ftill continue to ad¬
vance, many ufeful arts to be improved, and the ope¬
rations of nature to be more and more underftood.
PartI. THEORY of CHEMISTRY.
A Ccoruing to the definition we have given of
what*1^* Jc this fcience, the theory of it ought to confift in a
thorough knowledge of all the phenomena which refult
from every poffible combination of its objects with one
another, or from expoling them in all poflible ways to
thofe fubftances which chemifts have found to be the
moft atftive in producing’ a change. So various, how¬
ever, and fo widely extended are the objefts of che¬
miftry, (comprehending all terreftrial bodies what¬
ever), that a knowledge of this kind is utterly unat¬
tainable by man. The utmoft that can be done in
this cafe is, to give feme account of the phenomena
which accompany the mixtures of particular fubftan¬
ces, or the appearances they put on when expofed to
heat, which have been already fo well afeertained
that they may now be laid down as rules, whereby
we may, with a good deal of certainty, judge of the
event of our experiments, even before they are made.
Objects of Here we mult obferve, that though the objects of
Chemiftry, chemiftry are as various as there are different 1'ubftan-
what. ces in the whole fyftem of nature, yet they cannot all
be examined with equal eafe. Some of thefe fub¬
ftances a<ft upon others with great violence; and the
greater their activity, the more difficultly are they
themfelves fubjefted to a chemical examination. Thus,
fire, which is the moft active body in nature, is fo
little the fubject of examination, that it hath hitherto
baffled the ingenuity of the greateft philofophers to un-
derftand its compofition; (fee Fire.) This fubftance
therefore, though it be the principal, if not the only a-
gent in chemiftry, is not properly an objeff of it, becaufe
I0 it cannot be made a fubjeft of any chemical operation.
Stippofition It hath been cuftomary to confider all bodies as
of elements compofed of certain permanent and unchangeable
t!ie “ngm parts, called elements; and that the end of chemiftry
o alchemy. was to ref0lve bodies into thefe elements, and to re-
compofe them again by a proper mixture of the ele¬
ments when fo 1'eparated. Upon this feppofition the
alchemifts went; who, feppofing that all bodies were
compofed of fait, fulphur, and mercury, endeavoured
to find out the proportions in which thefe exifted in
gold, and then to form that metal by combining them
in a fimilar manner. Had they taken care to afeer-
tain the real exiftence of their elements, and, by mix¬
ing them together, compofed any one body whatever^
though but a grain of lead, the leaft valuable of all me¬
tals, their pretenfions would have been very rational
and well founded ; but as they never afeertained the
exiftence of fuch elementary bodies, it is no wonder
that their labours were never attended with fuccefs. It
Another fet of elements which were as generally Mr Boyle’s
received, and indeed continue to be fo in feme mea- opinion,
fure to this day, are fire, air, earth, and water.—
This doctrine of elements was ftrenuoufly oppofed by
Mr Boyle ; who endeavoured to prove, that fire was
not an element per fe, but generated merely from
the motion ef the particles of terreftrial bodies among
one another, (fee Fire); that air was produced from
the fubftance of moft folid bodies; and that water, by
a great number of diftillations ; was converted into
earth. His arguments, however, concerning fire
were not at all conclufive ; nor does the expullion of
air from fixed bodies prove that any of their 1'olid
parts were employed in the compofition of that air,
as later difeoveries have fliewn that air may be
abforbed from the external atmofphere, and fixed in
a great number of folid fubftances. His allertion con¬
cerning water deferves much confideration, and the
experiment is well worth repeating; but it does not
appear that he, or any other perfon, ought to have re¬
lied upon the experiment which was intended to
prove this tranfmutation. The fadl was this. Having
defigned to try the poffibility of reducing water to
earth by repeated diflillations, he diftilled an ounce of
water three times over himfelf, and found a fmall
quantity of earth always remaining. He then gave
it to another, who diftilled it 197 times. The a-
mount of earth from the whole diftillations was fix
drachms, or - of the quantity of water employed;
and this earth was fixed, white, and infeluble in wa¬
ter.—Here it is evident, that great fufpicions muft
lie againft the fidelity of the unknown operator, who
no doubt would be wearied out with fuch a number
of diftillations. The affair might appear trivial to
him; and as he would perhaps know to which fide Mr
Boyle’s opinion inclined, he might favour it, by mixing
feme white earth with the water. Had the experi¬
ment been tried by Mr Boyle’s own hand, his known j2
character would have put the matter beyond a doubt. Exiftence of
Even the exiftence of earth as an element, appears elements
as dilputed.
Parti. C H E M
Theory. as dubious as that of the others ; for it is certain that
 there is no fpecies of earth whatever, from which we
can produce two diliiiiiilar bodies, by adding their o-
ther component parts.—Thus, the earth of alum has
all the characters of fimplicity which we can defire
in any terreltrial fubftance. It is white, infipid, ino¬
dorous, and perfectly fixed in the fire ; neverthelefs,
it feems to be only an element of thar particular body
called alum : for though alum is compofed of a pure
earth and vitriolic acid joined together, and Epfom
fait and felenite are both compofed of a pure earth
combined with the fame acid ; yet by adding oil of
vitriol to the earth of alum, in any poflible way, we
lhall never be able to form either Epfom fait or fele¬
nite. In like manner, though all the imperfeft me¬
tals are compofed of inflammable matter joined with
an earthy bafis; yet by adding to earth of alum any
proportion we pleafe of inflammable matter, we lhall
never produce a metal; and what is Hill more mortify¬
ing, we can never make the earthy bafis of one metal¬
lic fubftance produce any other metal than that which
j, it originally compofed. See Earth.
Elements A fiule confideration upon the fubjetft of elements
neceflarily will convince us, not only that no fuch bodies have
invifible. ever yet been difcovered, but that they never will;
and for this plain reafon, that they mult be in their
own nature invifible.—The component parts of any
fubftance, may with propriety enough be called the
elements of that fubftance, as long as we propol'e car¬
rying the decompofition no farther; but thefe ele¬
ments have not the leaft property refembling any fub¬
ftance which they compofe. Thus, it is found that
the compound fait called fal ammoniac is formed by
the union of an acid and an alkali: we may therefore
properly enough call thefe two the elements of fal am¬
moniac ; but, taken feparately, they have not the leaft
refemblance to the compound, which is formed out of
them. Both the acid and alkali are by themfelves fo
volatile as to be capable of diffipation into an invifible
vapour by the heat of one’s hand; whereas, when
joined together, they are fo fixed as almoft to endure
a red heat, without going off. If, again, we were
to feek for the elements of the acid and alkali, we
muft not expe<5t to find them have any properties re¬
fembling either an acid or an alkali, but others quite
different; and if we could difcover any thing which was
the common element of tf//bodies, we behoved to find
a fubftance w'hich had no property in common with
any other in the whole fyftem of nature, and conie-
quently behoved to be imperceptible.
*4 To the above mentioned four elements, viz. fire,
concerning a'r> earth, and water, a kind of fifth element has ge-
phlogifton. nerally been added, but not ufually diftinguifhed by
that name, though it has apparently an equal, if
not a greater, right to the title of an element than
any of the others. This fubftance is called the phhgi-
flon, or inflammable principle ; on which the ignition
of all bodies depends. Some have imagined this fub¬
ftance to be the fame with fire, or the matter of heat
and light ; but very abfurdly : for the phlogifton is al¬
ways difplaced, and to appearance deftroyed by fire ;
which it could not he if itfelf were either heat or light.
See Phiogiston.
Before we proceed to give a general theory of the
I S T R Y. 1807
changes which happen upon the mixtures of different Theory.
bodies together, or expofing them fingly to heat, we —*
muft obferve, that all of them depend on certain qua- ebemfeal
lities in bodies, by which fome of them are apt to join attradtion.
together and to remain united while they have an op¬
portunity. The caufe of thefe qualities is totally un¬
known ; and therefore, philofophers, after the example
of Sir Ilaac Newton, have expreffed the apparent ef¬
fect of this unknown caufe by the word attrattion.
From them the word has been adopted by the che-
mifts; and is now generally ufed in fpeaking of the
phenomena which are obferved in the mixture of dif¬
ferent fubftances.
This attraction is not equally ftrong between all
fubftances; in confequence of which, if any body is
compounded of two others, and another is prelfented
to it which has a greater attraction for one of the com¬
ponent parts than they have for one another, the fub¬
ftance will be decompounded. A new compound is then
formed by the union of that third fubftance with one of
the component parts or elemetits (if we pleafe to call
them fo) of the firlt. If the attraction between the
body fuperadded, and either of the component parts of
the other, is not fo ftrong as that between themfelves,
no decompofition will enfue ; or if the third fubftance
is attracted by both the others, anew compofition will
take place by the union of all the three. ,5
The objeCts of chemiftry, as we have already ob- ObjeAs of
ferved, are fo various, that an enumeration of them chemiftry,
all is impoflible. To eafe the mind therefore, when |low cla1'
fpeaking of them, and render more ufeful any thing e
that is faid or wrote on chemiftry, it is necelfary to
divide them into different claffts, comprehending in
each clafs thofe bodies which have the greateft relem-
blance to one another, and to which one common rule
applies pretty generally.—The divilion formerly ufed,
was that of vegetables, animals, and minerals; but
this has been thought improper, as there are many
fubftances in each of thofe kingdoms which differ very
widely from one another, and which are by no means
fubjeCt to the fame laws. The moft approved me¬
thod, at prefent, of arranging the objeCts of chemiftry
is into Salts; earths; metals; inflammable fubftances j
waters; animal, and vegetable, fubftances.
Sect. I. Salts.
I. Salts are either fufible, that is capable of abiding gaits,
the fire, and mdting in a ftrong heat, without being
diflipated; or volatile, that is, being difperfed in va¬
pour with a fmall heat. Their other properties are,
that they are foiuble in water ; not inflammable, un-
lefs by certain additions; and give a fenfation of tafie,
when applied to the tongue.
The moft general charaCleriftic of falts is, that they
are all foluble in water, though fome of them much
more difficultly than others. Moft of them have like-
wife the property of forming themfelves, in certain
circumftances, into folk! tranfparent maffes of regular
figures, different according to the different fait made
ufe of, and which are termed cryftals of that fait. In
this ftate they always contain a quantity of water; and
therefore the utmoft degree of purity in which a fait
can be procured, is when it has been well cryftal-
lized, and the cryftals are freed of their fuperfluous
moifture
i8o8
CHEMISTRY.
Part I.
Theory, moifture by a gentle heat. They generally appear
then in the form of a white powder.
Phenomena in the folution of falts in water, the firil thing ob-
attending fervable is, that the water parts with the air con-
theirfolu- tained in it; which immediately riles to the top, in
tlon‘ the form of bubbles. This, however, is moil: remark¬
able when the fait is in the dry form we have juft now
mentioned, becaufe there is always a quantity of air
entangled among the interftices of the powder, which
rifes along with the reft ; and this difcharge of air is
fometimes fo great, as to be miftaken for an effervef-
cence. From this however, it is eflentially dift’erent.
See Effervescence.
Another thing obfervable in the folution of falls is,
that a confiderable change happens in the temperature
of the water in which they are dillblved ; the mix¬
ture becoming either a good deal warmer or colder
than either the fait or the water were before. In ge¬
neral, however, there is an increafe of cold, and
fcarce any fait produces heat, except when it has been
made very dry, and deprived of that mnifture which
it naturally requires; and thus the heating of falls by
being mixed with water may be explained on the
fame principle with the heat produced by quick-lime.
See Quicklime.
After fait has been dilfolved in a certain quantity by
water, no more of that fait will be taken up, unlel’s
the water is heated ; and as long as the heat continues
to increafe, the fait will be diffolved. When the wa¬
ter boils, at which time it has attained its greateft
heat, and will take up no more fait, it is then,laid to
be faiurated with that fait. This, however, does
not prevent it from taking up a certain quantity of
another fait, and after that perhaps of a third, or fourth,
without letting go any of the firft which it had diflbl-
ved. How far this property of water extends, has
not yet been afeertained by experiments.
To the above rule there is only one exception known
as yet; namely, common fea-falt: for water dilfolves
it in the very fame quantity when cold, as when boil¬
ing hot. It has been faid by Come, that all deliquef-
cent falls,, or thofe which grow moift on being expo-
fed to the air, had the fame property: but this is found
19 to be a miftake.
antTfe^ara ^ll‘s ProPerty of folubility, which all the falls pof-
ttonoffalts! m cornmon> fenders them ealily mifcible together;
and the property by which moll of them flioot into
cryftals renders thofe ealily feparable again which
have no particular attraction for one another. This is
likewife rendered ftill more eafy by their requiring
different proportions of water, and different degrees
of heat, to fufpend them; for by this they cryftallize
at different times, and we have not the trouble cf
picking the cryftals of one out among thofe of the
20 other.
Hypothefis The manner in which the folution of falls in water
the foluticfn 'S ^ equally unaccountable with moft of the
of falu. other operations of nature. Sir Ifaac Newton fup-
pofed that the particles of water got between thofe
of the fait, and arranged them all at an equal diftance
from one another : and from this he alfo accounts for
the regular figures they affume on palling into a cry-
ftalline form ; becaufe, having been once arranged in
an orderly manner, they could not come together in
diforder, unlefs fomething was to difturb the water in Theory.
which they were fufpended ; and if any fuch difturb-
ance is given, we find the cryftals are by no means
fo regular as otherwife they would have proved.
Others have thought that thefe figures depend on a
certain polarity in the very finall particles into which
the fait is refolved when ih a ftate of folution. Thefe
things," however, are merely conjebtural; neither is
it a matter of any confequence to a chemift whether
they are right or wrong. 21
Though folution is that operation which falls under- Salts de-
go the moft eafiiy, and which Ihould feem to affect hri'ft'Mc
them the leaft of any, a repetition of it proves never-
thelefs very injurious to them, efpecially if it is fol¬
lowed by quick evaporation ; and the fait, inftead of
being cryftallized, is dried with a pretty ftrong heat.
Newman relates, that a pound of fea-falt was redu¬
ced by 13 folutions, and exficcations, to half an ounce ;
and even that was moftly earth. Where folution is
required, therefore, it ought always to be done in clofe
veflels, in which alfo the lubfequent evaporation Ihould
be performed, (fee Evaporation) ; and in all cafes
where cryftallization is practicable, it ought to be
preferred to violent exficcation. 22
The two great divifions of falls are into acids and Acids,
alkalies. The firft of thefe are known by their pecu¬
liar * tafte, which is called acid, or four. They are
not found in a folid form ; neither are any of them,
except the acids of vitriol, of tartar, of phofphorus,
and of borax, capable of being reduced to folidi-
ty. The others, when highly concentrated, that is,
brought to the utmoft degree of ftrength of which
they are capable, always become an inviiible vapour,
permanently elaftic, until it comes in contact with wa¬
ter, or borne other lubftance with which they are ca¬
pable of uniting. For fuch acids the name of falts
feems lefs proper, as we can fcarcely fay that a va¬
pour, which is already much more fluid than water,
can be dijfolved in that element.
The acids are divided into the mineral, the vege¬
table, and the animal ; expreffing their different ori¬
gin, or where they are moft commonly to be found.
The mineral acids are commonly reckoned three; the
vitriolic, the nitrous, and the marine. To this the
acid of borax ought to be added ; but its weaknefs
makes it much lei’s taken notice of as an acid than the
others. A Swedilli chemift, however, Mr Scheele,
hath lately added a new acid to the number of the mi¬
neral ones, under the name of the fluor acid.
The vegetable kingdom affords only two diftinft
fpecies of acids. The one appears fluid, and when
concentrated to the utmoft degree becomes an invi-
fible vapour. This is produced from fermented li¬
quors, under the name of vinegar. An acid fimilar
to this, and which is thought not to be effentially dif¬
ferent from it, is found in the juices of certain fruits,
as lemons, ire. and is extracted from moft vegetables
by diftillation with a ftrong fire. The other is like¬
wife a confequence of fermentation ; and crufts on
the bottom and fides of calks in which wine is put to
depurate itfelf. In its crude ftate it is called tartar }
and when afterwards purified, is called the cream, or
cryftals, of tartar.
The animal acids, which have hitherto been difep-
vered.
Part I. C H E M I
Theory, vered, are only two; the acid of ants, and that of
   urine, which is alfo the acid of phofphorus. The firft
of thefe is volatile; and confequently mufl be fuppo-
fed a vapour; when in its ftrongeft Itate: the other is
exceedingly fixed; and will rather melt into glafs, than
rife in vapours. Befides thefe, it is faid an acid is con¬
tained in blood ; in walps, bees, ire. : but no experi¬
ments have as yet been made on thefe to determine
23 this matter with any degree of precifion.
Alkalies. The alkalies are of two kinds; fixed and volatile.
The fixed kind are fubdivided into two; the vegetable,
and mineral or follile alkali. The vegetable is fo cal¬
led, becaufe it is procured from the alhes of burnt ve¬
getables ; the foffile, becaufe it is found native in
forne places of the earth, and is the bafis of fea-falt,
which in fome places is dug out of mines in vaft quan¬
tity. They are called fixed, becaufe they endure a
very intenfe degree of heat without being diflipated
in vapour, fo as even to form a part of the compofi-
tion of glafs. The volatile alkali is generally obtain¬
ed by diftillation from animal fubftances. In its pure
Hate this alkali is perfedlly invifible ; but affedls the
fenfe of fmelling to fuch a degree, as not to be ap-
24 preached with fafety.
Different The acids and alkalies are generally thought to be
of entirely oppolite in their natures to one another. Some,
acids 65 and k°wever> imagine them to be extremely fimilar, and
to be as it were parts of one fubftance violently ta¬
ken from each other. Certain it is, that when fepa-
rated, they appear as oppofite to one another, as heat
and cold. Their oppofite adlion indeed very much
refembles that of heat and cold, even when applied to
the tongue ; for the alkali has a hot, bitter, burning
tafte, while the acid, if not confiderably concentrated,
always gives a fenfation of coldnefs. In their action
too upon animal ’fubftances, the alkali diftblves, and
reduces the part to a mucilage ; while the acid, if not
very much concentrated, tends to preferve it uncor-
25 rupted.
Neutral If an alkaline fait, and moderately ftrong acid in a
falts. liquid rtate, be mixed together, they will immediately
unite ; and, provided the alkali has not been deprived
of its fixed air, their union will be attended with a ve¬
ry confiderable effervefcence: (feeAir,n° 13). Ifthe
alkali has been deprived of air, no effervefcence will
enfue, but they will quietly mix together; but if a
due proportion of each has been added, the,liquor will
neither have the properties of an acid nor an alkali,
but will be what is called neutral. The bringing the
liquor into this ftate, is called fiaturating the acid, or
alkali, or combining them to the point of faturation.
If the liquor after fuch a faturation be gently eva¬
porated, a faline mafs will be left,, which is neither an
acid nor an alkali, but a new compound formed by
the union of the two, and which is called a perfeft
neutral fait. The epithet perfefi is given it, to make
a diftindlion between the falts formed by the union of
an acid and an alkali, and thofe formed by the union
of acids with earthy or metallic fubftances ; for thefe
will likewife unite with acids, and fome of the com¬
pounds will likewife cryftallife into regular figures;
but, becaufe of their weaker union with thefe fub¬
ftances, the falts refulting from combinations of this
kind are called imperfett.
Vol. III.
S T It Y. 1809
All acids, the volatile fulphureous one excepted, Theory.
change the blue infulions of vegetables, fuch as violets, ^
to a red ; and alkalies, as well as fome of the imperfect Vegetable
neutrals, change them green. This is the niceft teft colours
of an acid or alkali abounding in any fubftance, and changed by
feems the moft proper method of determining whe-
ther a folution intended to be neutral really is fo or not. 27 •
Though between every acid and alkali there is a Differences
a very ftrong attraction, yet this is far from being the in the de¬
fame in all; neither is it the fame between the fame grecs °f Et-
acid and alkali in different circumftances of the acid.
When the acids are in a liquid ftate, and as free as and alkalies,
poflible of inflammable matter, between which and
the nitrous and vitriolic acids there is a very ftrong
attraciion, the vitriolic acid will expel any of the relt
from an alkaline bafis, and take its place. Thus, if
you combine the acid of fea-falt, or marine acid, to
the point of faturation, with the folfile alkali, a neu¬
tral fait will be formed, which has every property of
common fait : but, if you pour on a certain propor¬
tion of the vitriolic acid, the acid of- fea-falt will im¬
mediately be expelled ; and the liquor, upon being e-
vaporated, will contain not the neutral fait formed by
an union of the marine acid with the alkali, but ano¬
ther confifting of the vitriolic acid joined with that al¬
kali, and which has quite different properties from the
former.
When the acids and alkalies are applied to one ano¬
ther in a liquid ftate, the vitriolic acid always Ihews
itfelf to be the moft powerful; but when applied in a
folid form, and urged with a violent heat, the cafe is
very much altered. Thus, the acid of borax, com¬
monly called fialfiedativus, is fo weak as to be difen-
gaged from its bafis by every acid applied in a liquid
form, that of tartar alone excepted; but if even the
vitriolic acid combined with an alkali be mixed with
this weak acid, then exficcated, and at laft urged
with a vehement fire, the vitriolic acid will be dif-
engaged from its bafis, and rife in vapours, leaving
the weaker acid in poffeflion of the alkali. The fame
thing happens on adding the phofphorine or urinous
acid, to combinations of the vitriolic or other acids
with alkaline falts.—When the acids are in a liquid
ftate, then, the moft powerful is the vitriolic; next,
the nitrous; then the marine ; then vinegar ; acid of
ants; and laftly the fal fedativus and tartar, which
feem t<* be nearly equal in this refpetft. As for the
fluor acid, no great number of experiments have as
yet been made upon it, and Dr Prieftley hath render¬
ed it very probable that this new acid is no other than
the vitriolic.—If they are applied in a folid form, the
moft powerful are the fal fedativus, and phofphorine
acid ; -then the vitriolic, nitrous, marine, and vege¬
table acids.
When they are reduced to vapour, the cafe is ex¬
ceedingly different; for then the marine acid appears
to be the moft powerful, and the vitriolic the leaft fo
of any. It is impoflible, however, to preferve the
vitriolic acid in the form of vapour, without combin¬
ing it with a certain quantity of inflammable matter,
which muft neceffarily deftroy its ftrength. Dr Prieft¬
ley, however, found, that the marine acid, when re¬
duced to vapour, was capable of difuniting the nitrous
acid from a fixed alkali.
10 U
The
i8io
Theory.
28
Acids with
phlogiHon.
29
With me-
tals and
earth.
Eieftive
attraitions.
3i
Detonation
of nitre.
32.
Exceptions
to the above
rules.
C H E M
The acids have the property of uniting themfelves
to many other fubftances belides fixed alkalies, and
forming neutral compounds with them. Of thefe the
chief is the principle of inflammability, or phlogifton.
In the vitriolic, nitrous, and phol'phorine acids, the
attraction for this principle is very ftrong ; fo great,
that the two former will even leave a fixed alkali to
unite with it. In the marine acid it is lefs percep¬
tible ; in the liquid vegetable or animal acid ftill lefs ;
and in the acid of tartar, and fal fedativus, not at all.
Befides this, all acids will diflolve metallic and ear¬
thy fubflances: with thefe, however, they do not in
general unite fo firmly as with alkaline lalts; nor do
they unite fo ftrongly with metals as with earths.
In general, therefore, we may expeCt, that after
having diffolved a metal in any acid whatever, if we
add an earthy fubftance to that folution, the acid will
quit the metal which it had before diflblved, to unite
with the earth. In this cafe the folution will not be
clear, as before ; but will remain muddy, and a quan¬
tity of powder w'ill fall to the bottom. This powder
is the metalline fubltance itfelf, but deprived of one
of its component parts ; and in this cafe it is faid to
precipitate in the form of a calx.
If to this new folution of the earthy fubftance in an
acid liquor, a volatile alkaline fait, not deprived of its
fixed air, is added, the acid will quit the earth, and
unite with the alkaline fait. The earth thus difen-
faged will again precipitate, and lie at the bottom in
ne powder, while the volatile alkali and acid remain
combined together, and the liquor again becomes
clear.
The attraction between volatile alkalies and acids
is confiderably lefs than between fixed alkalies and the
fame acids. If, therefore, a fixed alkali be now ad¬
ded to the liquor, the volatile alkali will be feparated,
and the acid will unite with the fixed alkali. The
volatile alkali indeed, being perfectly foluble in wa¬
ter, cannot precipitate, but will dilcover its fepara-
tion by the pungent fmell of the mixture ; and upon
evaporating the liquor, the volatile alkali will be dif-
fipated, and a faline mafs conlifting of the acid and
fixed alkali will remain.
Laftly, if the acid employed was the nitrous, which
has a ftrong attraction for the principle of inflamma¬
bility, if the faline mafs be mixed with a proper
quantity of inflammable matter, and expofed to a
ftrong heat, the acid will'leave the alkali with vaft ra¬
pidity, combine with the inflammable matter, and be
deflroyed in flame in a moment, leaving the alkali
quite pure.
Though the above-mentioned effeCts generally hap¬
pen, yet we are not to expeCt that they will invari¬
ably prove the fame, whatever acid is made ufe of;
or even that they will he the fame in all poffible va¬
riety cf circumflances in which the fame acid can be
tiled.—The acid of tartar is one exception, where the
general rule is in a manner reverfed; for this acid
will quit a fixed alkali for an earth, efpecially if calci¬
ned, and even for iron. If lead, mercury, or filver,
are diffolved in the nitrous acid, and a fmall quantity
of the marine acid is added, it will feparate the ftrong-
er nitrous acid, and fall to the bottom with the me¬
tals, in form of a white powder The vitriolic add,
I S T R Y. Part I.
by itfelf, has a greater attraction for earthy fubftances Theory.
than for metals; and greater ftill for fixed alkaline  
falts than for either of thefe: but if quickfilver is dif¬
folved in the nitrous acid, and this folution is poured
into a combination of vitriolic acid with fixed alkali,
the vitriolic acid will quit the alkali to unite with the
quickfilver. Yet quickfilver by itfelf cannot eafily
be united with this acid.
Sect. II. Earths. ^
These are divided into five dalles : 1. Abforbent, General dl-
alkaline, or calcareous earths. 2. Argillaceous earths, vifion.
or clays. 3. The flinty. 4. The fulible earths; and,
5. The talcs.
1. The firft clafs comprehends all thole that are ca¬
pable of being converted into lime. They are found
of various degrees of hardnefs ; but none of them are
capable of totally refilling the edge of a knile, or
ftriddng fire with fteel. They are found to confiit of a
very friable earth, joined with a large quantity of air,
and fome water. They effervefee with an acid when
poured on them ; by which they are diftinguilhed from
all other kinds of earth, except the argillaceous.
When calcined by a ftrong fire, they part with the
water and air which they contained, and then acquire
a great degree of caullicity, lofe their power of ef-
fervefeing with acids, and become what is called 34
quicklime. They are foluble in acids, but not equal- Quicklime,
ly fo in all. The vitriolic and tartareous acids form
compounds with them very difficultly foluble; the fe-
lenites, formed by the vitriolic acid and calcareous
earth, requiring, according to Mr Beaum'e, an ounce
of water to dillolve a fingle grain of it. ' The folubi-
lity of the tartareous felenite, hath not yet been de¬
termined.—With the other mineral acids, the calca¬
reous earths become eafily foluble ; and by proper ma¬
nagement form concretes which appear luminous in
the dark, and are called phofphori. ^
2. The argillaceous earths differ from the calcare- Argillace¬
ous, in not being convertible into quicklime. When ous*
mixed into a palte with water, and expofed to the
fire, they flirink remarkably, crack in many places,
and become excelfively hard. By being gently dried
in the open air before they are turned, they do not
crack, and thus may be formed into velfels of any
fliape. Of this kind of earth are formed all the brown
fort of earthen ware. The pureft kind of argilla¬
ceous earth naturally found, is that whereof tobacco-
pipes are made.
All the argillaceous earths are foluble in acids.
With the vitriolic they dilfolve into a gelatinous tough
liquor very difficultly cryllallizable ; but which, on the
addition of fome fixed or volatile alkali, may be fliot
into cryflals of the fait called alum. With the other
acids they form aftringent falts of a fimilar nature.
The attradlion between the argillaceous earths and
acids is very weak, yielding not only to alkaline falts
both fixed and volatile, but even to fome metals, par¬
ticularly iron; but thefe earths have as yet been but
little the fubjedl of chemical examination in this way.
They have a remarkable property of abforbing the
colouring matter of cochineal, Bralil-wood, ire. as
have alfo the calces of fome metals. See Lake.
Both the calcareous and argillaceous, and indeed all
earths
Part I.
Theory, earths when pure, refill the utmofl violence of fire ;
  but when mixed together will readily melt, efpecial-
ly if in contact, with the burning fewel. Dr Lewis
having made covers to fome crucibles of clay and
chalk mixed together, found, that they melted into a
yellow glafs, before the mixtures in the crucibles were
fufed in the leaft. But though they melted thus rea¬
dily when in contact with the fewel, it was with
great difficulty he could bring them to a tranfparent
glafs when put into a crucible. See Glass.
The other fpecies of earths, viz. the flinty, fufible,
and talcy, being no other way the fubjeffis of che-
- miftry than as they are fubfervient to the making of
glafs, all that can be faid of them will moll properly
come under that article. For their different fpecies,
36 fee Mineralogy.
Anomalous Befides the above mentioned fpecies of earths, their
earths. are others which may be called anomalous, as having
fome refemblance of the calcareous and argillaceous,
and yet being eflentially different from them. Thef'e
are the white earth called magnejia alba, the earth
of burnt vegetables, and that produced from burning
37 animal fubftances.
Magnefia. Magnefta alba was at firft prepared from the thick
liquor remaining after the cryflallization of nitre;
and is now found to be contained in the liquor called
bittern, which is left after the reparation of common
fait from fea-water. In the former cafe it was united
with the nitrous, in the latter with the vitriolic, acid.
It is alfo found naturally in the foft kind of ftone cal¬
led fleatites or “ foap-floneand in the concrete ufed
for taking fpots out of cloaths, called French chalk. It
differs from the calcareous earths, in not acquiring any
caufticity when deprived of its air, of which it con¬
tains fo large a quantity as to lofe two-thirds of its
weight when calcined. From the argillaceous it dif¬
fers in not burning hard when mixed with water, nor
forming a tough du&ile paffe. It is ealily foluble in
all the acids, even the vitriolic; with which it forms
the bitter purging fait commonly called Epfom fait,
from its being flrit difcovered in the waters of Epfom.
With all the other acids it likewife forms purgative
compounds, which are either very difficultly or not
at all cryftallizable.—Like other pure .garths, it can¬
not be melted by itfelf; but, on proper additions, runs
33 into a beautiful green glafs.
Vegetable The earth of burnt vegetables is thought by Dr
and animal Lewis to be the fame with magnefia alba; but on try-
earths. ing the common wood allies, they were found to be
very different. This kind of earth is fufible, by rea-
fon of the alkaline falts contained in it. Animal earth
is both very difficult of folution in acids, and impof-
fible to be melted in the ftrongeft fire. It dilfolves,
however, in acid liquors, though llowly ; but the na¬
ture of the compounds formed by fuch an union are as
yet unknown. The fofter parts of animals, fuch as
blood, flelh, ire. are faid to yield a more foluble earth
than the others.
Sect. III. Inflammable Subflances
Phenomena These comprehend all vegetable,animal,and fome
on burning, mineral fubftances. They are diftinguflied from all
others, by emitting a grofs thick fmoke and flame,
l8ll
when a certain degree of heat is applied. To this, Theory.
however, fpirit of wine and all preparations from it ‘
are exceptions. They b(urn without the leaft fmoke ;
and if a glafs bell is held over the burning fpirit, no
foot is formed, only a quantity of water is found con-
denfed on its fides. Even the grofler oils, if flowly
burnt with a very fmall flame, will yield no foot; and
an exceeding great quantity of water, fully equal in
weight and bulk to the oil employed, may be obtained
from them. We can fcarcely, however, credit that
fuch a quantity of water comes from the oil; as this
would be a real tranfmutation; and we know, that, be¬
fides water, the oils contain alfo fome quantity of fix¬
ed air, as well as earth. It is probable, therefore,
that, as it is impoffible to fuftain flame without a de-
compofition of that part of the air which rulhes in to
fupport it, great part of the water in this tale comes
from the air, which always contains moifture in abun¬
dance.
Inflammable matters, on being burnt, generally leave
behind a .fmall quantity of earthy matter called ajhes ;
but to this, fpirit of wine, camphor, the more volatile
oils, and the mineral oil called naptha, are excep- on diflilla-
tions. Vegetable fubftances when diftilled in dole tion.
veflels give out a quantity of air, fome acid, and an
empyreumatic oil, leaving behind a black fpongy maffs
called charcoal. To this too there are a few excep¬
tions, viz. fpirit of wine, and the prepartions from it,
camphor, and perhaps fome of the more volatile oils,
or naphtha. Animal fubftances yield only a very fetid
empyreumatic oil, and volatile alkali. 4r
In genera], all inflammable matters are adled upon Treated
with lome violence by the vitriolic and nitrous acids, with dilfe-
excepting only camphor and naphtha. With the vi- rent acids’
triolic acid, when in a liquid ftate, they render it vola¬
tile and fulphureous ; if in a dry ftate, they form ac¬
tual fulphur. With the nitrous, they firft impart a high
colour and great degree of volatility to the acid; then
a violent flame enfues, if the matter is attempted to
be dried. With fpirit of wine the effedis are confi-
derably different; and very volatile compounds are
formed, which are called ether, on account of their ex¬
ceeding great difpofition to rife in vapour. Similar
compounds are likewife produced, but with more dif¬
ficulty, from the marine acid and concentrated vine¬
gar. The fal fedativus of borax mixes with fpirit of
wine, and caufes it burn with a green flame; but does
not feem to produce any other change upon it. How
the acid of tartar, of phofphorus, and of ants, adl upon
fpirit of wine, is not known. With any other inflam¬
mable matter, the phofphorine acid reproduces phof¬
phorus. 42
There are two fingularities obferved among the in- Singular
flammable fubftances. One is that bituminous matter produfti-
called amber, which yields a volatile fait of an acid ons'
nature on diftillation : When combined with alkalies,
this acid is found to yield compounds fimilar to thole
made with the acetous acid and alkali. The other is, that
gum called benzoin, which is ufed as a perfume, and
yields by fublimation, a kind of volatile fait in fine Alin¬
ing cryftals like fmall needles, and of a moll grateful
odour. Thefe dilfolve very readily in Ipirit of wine ;
but not at all in water, unlefs it is made very hot; fo
that they feem to contain more oily than faline matter.
10 U 2 Neither
CHEMISTRY.
l8l2
CHEMISTRY.
Part I.
Theory. Neither the nature of thefe flowers, however, nor
* that of the fait of amber, is fully known.
Sect. IV. Metalline Subjlances.
These are diflinguifhed from all other bodies by
their great fpecific gravity, exceeding that of the molt
denfe and compact llones. The heavieft of the latter
do not exceed the fpecific gravity of water in a great¬
er proportion than that of 4 to i ; but tin, the lighteft
of all the metals, exceeds the fpecific gravity of water
in the proportion of 7 to 1. They are alfo the molt
opaque of all known bodies, and reflect the rays of
light moll powerfully.
Metals fo- Metallic bodies polfefs the quality of diflblving in
luble in a- and uniting with acid fairs, in common with earths
cids; and alkalies ; but, in general, their union is lefs per-
fedt, and they are more ealily feparable. They ef-
fervefce with acids, as well as calcareous earths and
alkalies ;.but their effervefcence is attended with very
different appearances. In the effervefcence of acids
with alkalies, or with calcareous earths, there is a dif-
charge of the fluid called fixed air, which is fo far from
being inflammable, that it will immediately extinguiflt
a candle, or other fmall flame immerfed in it. The
mixture alfo is notably diminiflied in weight. When
a metallic fubflance is diflblved in an acid, the weight
of the mixture is never very much diminiflied, and
fometimes it is increafed. Thus, an ounce of quick-
filver being flowly dropped into as much aqua fortis as
was fuificient to diffolve it, and the folution managed
fo as to take up almoft a whole day, the whole was
found to have gained 7 grains. There is alfo a re¬
markable difference between the nature of the vapour
difcharged from metals, and that from alkalies; the
former, in moil: cafes/taking fire and exploding with
violence; the latter, as already obferved, extinguifliing
44 flame.
Their com- The metallic fubftances, at leaft fuch as we are able
pofition. to decompound, are all compofed of a certain kind of
earth, and the inflammable principle called phlogtfion.
The earthy part by itfelf, in whatever way it is pro¬
cured, goes by the name of calx. The other principle
hath never yet been feen by itfelf. When thefe two
45 principles are feparated from one another, the metal
Calcination is then laid to be calcined. The calx being mixed
and revivi- with any inflammable fubltance, fuch as pow’dered
Scation. charcoal, and urged with a ftrong fire, melts into
metal again; and it is then laid to,be reduced, or re-
vificated : and this takes place whether the metal has
been reduced to a.calx by dilfolution in an acid, or by
being expofed to a violent fire. If, however, the cal¬
cination by fire has been very violent and long conti¬
nued, the calx will not then fa readily unite with the
phlogifton of the charcoal, and the reduction will be
performed with more difficulty. Whether, by this
means, viz. a long continued and violent calcination,
metallic earths might entirely lofe their property of
combining with phlogillon, and be changed into thofe
of another kind, deferves well to be inquired into.
Calcination When a metallic fubflance is diflblved in any kind of
and in- acid, and an alkali or calcareous earth not deprived
ereafe of 0f its fixed air is added, the alkali will immediately
weight by ke attra<51ed by the acid, at the fame time that the fix-
acl s" ed air ct.itained in the alkali is difengaged, and the
calx of the metal, having now no acid to keep it dif- theory..
folved, immediately joins with the fixed air of the al- ‘
kali, and falls to the bottom. Something fimilar to this
happens when metals are calcined by fire. In this cafe,
there is a continual decompolition of the air which en¬
ters the fire; and the fixed air contained in it, being, by
this decompofition, fet ioole, combines with the calx ;
whence, in both cafes, there is a conliderable increafe
of weight. If the air is excluded from a metal, it can¬
not be calcined even by the moll violent fire.
When a metal is precipitated by a mild alkali, or by
an uncalcined calcareous earthy the reafon of the in- the increafe
creafe of weight is very evident; namely, the adhe- of weight in
lion of the fixed air to the metalline calx : but, though metalline
it is not fo much increafed when precipitated by cau- cafi'es’
flic alkali, or by quicklime, there is neverthelefs a very
evident increafe, which is not fo eaiily accounted for.
M. la Voilier, has mentioned fome experiments made
on mercury and iron diflblved in aqua fortis, which
deferve to be taken notice of, as in a great meafure
accounting for the phenomenon already mentioned of
the folution of metalline fubftances gaining an addi¬
tion of weight; and likewife ffiew the proportion of
increafe of weight with the mild, or calcined calcar¬
eous earth. ^
M Exactly 12 ounces of quickfilver,” fays he, “ were jyg ja y0;.
put into a matrafs, and 12 ounces of fpirit of nitre fier’s expe-
poured on it. Immediately a fpontaneous effervef- riments.
cence enfued, attended with heat. The red vapours of
the nitrous acid arofe from the mixture, and the liquor
alfilmed a greenilh colour. I did not wait till the fo¬
lution was entirely accompliflied, before I weighed it;
it had loft one drachm, .18 grains. Three hours after,
the mercury was nearly all diflblved: but having again
weighed the Iblution,! was much aftonilhed to perceive,
that it had increafed inftead of being diminilhed in
weight; and that the lofs, which was one drachm, 18
grains,, at firft, was now only 54, grains. The next
day the Iblution of the mercury was entirely finiffied,
and the lofe of weight reduced to 18 grains; fo that in
12 hours the lbkition,thoughconfinedin a narrow neck¬
ed matrafe, had acquired an augmentation in weight
of one drachm. I added fonte diltilled water to my Ib¬
lution, to prevent it from cryftallizing; the total weight
of it was then found to be 48 ounces, one drachm, and
18 grains.
“ I weighed feparately, in two velfels, 8 ounces
15 grains of the above foiution,. each of which por¬
tions, according to the preceding experiment, ought
to contain 2 ounces of nitrous acid, and 2 ounces of
quickfilver. On the other fide, I prepared 6 drachms
36 grains of chalk, and 4 drachms ; 36 grains of lime
thei'e proportions having been found, by former ex¬
periments, juft neceflary to faturate two ounces of ni¬
trous acid. I put the chalk in the one veflel, and the
lime in the other.
“ An effervefcence attended the precipitation by
chalk, but without heat ; the.mercury precipitated in
a light yellow powder; at the fame time, the chalk
was diflblved in the nitrous acid. The precipitation
by the lime was effe»fted without effervelcence, but
with heat; the mercury was precipitated in a browniffi
powder. When the precipitates were well fubfided,
I decanted off the liquors from them, and carefully
edulcorated
Parti. CHEMISTRY. 1813
Theory, edulcorated them. After which, I caufed them to be
   dried in a heat nearly equal to that in which mercury
boils.
“ The precipitate by the chalk weighed 2 ounces,
2 drachms, 4J grains; that by the lime, weighed 2
ounces, 1 drachm, 45 grains.
“ Sixteen ounces of the nitrous acid, the fame as
employed in the former experiments, were placed in
a matrafs, and fome iron filings gradually added. The
effervefcence was brilk, attended with great heat, red
vapours, and a very rapid difcharge of elaflic fluid:
the quantity of iron neceflary to attain the point of
faturation, was two ounces, four drachms; after which,
the lofs of weight was found to be 4 drachms, 19
grains. As the folution was turbid, 1 added as much
diltilled water as made the whole weight of the folu¬
tion to be exactly 6 pounds.
“ I took two portions, each weighing 12 ounces of
the above folution, and containing 2 ounces of nitrous
acid, and 2 drachms 36 grains of iron filings. 1 pla¬
ced them in two feparate veflels : to one were added
6 drachms'36 grains of chalk; and to the other, 4
drachms 36 grains of flacked lime, being the quanti¬
ties necellary to faturate the acid.
“ The precipitation was effected by the chalk with
effervefcence and tumefaction; that by the lime, with¬
out either effervefcence or heat. Each precipitate
was a yellow brown ruft of iron. They were waffl¬
ed in feveral parcels of diftilled water, and then dried
in an heat fomewhat fuperior to that ufed in the laft
experiment.
“ The precipitate by the chalk, when dried, was a
greyifh ruft of iron, inclining even to white by veins ;
it weighed 6.drachms, 35 grains: that by the lime
was rather yellower; and weighed 4 drachms, 69
49 grains.
Confequen- “ The refults of thefe experiments,” fays M. la
ees from his Voifier, “ are, 1. That iron and mercury diffolved
expen- in the nitrous acid, acquire a remarkable increafe of
merits. weight, whether they be precipitated by chalk or by
lime. 2. That this increafe is greater in refpeiT to
iron than mercury. 3. That one reafon for thinking
that the elaftic fluid contributes to this augmentation
is, that it is conffantly greater when an earth is em¬
ployed, faturated with elaftic fluid, fuch as chalk, than
when an earth is ufed which has been deprived of it,
as lime. 4. That it is probable that the increafe of
weight, which is experienced in the precipitation of
lime, although not fo great as that by chalk, proceeds
in part from a portion of the elaftic fluid which re¬
mains united to the lime, and which could not be fe-
parated by the calcination.”
Not ^ell ^ut t^ougk we are naturally enough inclined to
founded. think that the increafe of weight in the precipitates
formed by lime proceeded from fome quantity of ela¬
ftic fluid or fixed air which remained combined with
the lime, it is by far too great to be accounted for in
this way, even according to the experiments menti¬
oned by M. la Voifier himfelf, and which, from the
manner in which they are told, appear to have been
performed with the greatefl accuracy. He found,
that 1 ounce 5 drachms and 36 grains of flaked lime
contained 3 drachms and 3 quarters of a grain of wa¬
ter, and only 16 grains and an h df of elaftic fluid
were feparable from it. In the experiments above Theory,
related, where only 4 drachms and 36 grains were
employed, the quantity of elaftic fluid could not ex¬
ceed 6 or 8 grains. "Yet the calx was inereafed in
mercury, by no lets than 105 grains; and in iron, by
203 grains; a quantity quite unaccountable from the
elaftic fluid, or fixed air, which we can fuppofe to be
contained in the lime made ufe of.
It is much to be regreted, that the ingenious au¬
thor of thefe experiments did not make ufe of the cal¬
ces of metals obtained by lime, when trying to expel
air from fuch fubftances by violent heat. This would
have been the experimentum crucis in this cafe; and
could an elaftic fluid, fimilar to fixed air, be extrac¬
ted from a metalline calx, precipitated by a fubftance
which could communicate none to it, it would be as
ftrong a proof of the generation of fuch air, as Dr
Prieftley’s extraction of pure air from metalline calces
and fpirit of nitre is a proof of the original produc¬
tion ov generation of air from thefe fubftances.
That the increafe of weight in metalline calces pre¬
pared by fire is owing to an adhefion of air to them,
is put beyond a doubt, becaufe that air can be expel¬
led from them. That the increafe of weight in the
calces prepared from metals diffolved in acids and pre¬
cipitated by quicklime is owing to the fame caufe,
hath not been proved, becaufe nobody hath tried
whether air can be expelled from them or not; at
leaf! we have not met with an account of any expe¬
riments where fuch calces were made ufe of. Hence
there is as yet an uncertainty in this fubjeCl ; and dif¬
ferent theories have been invented to explain it. The
moft remarkable is the following- , ^ ri2,
Metals are found to be compounded of a kind of p0fitive ie~
earth mixed with the inflammable principle or phlo- vity of tha
gifton. The latter is a fubftance fo volatile, and which phlogiftoa.
fo much eludes our moft accurate fearch, that.it is
thought to be a principle fomewhat like that known
in former, ages by the name oi pefitive levity. This
principle is not only thought to have no tendency to¬
wards the earth, or not to be a died upon by the caufe
of gravitation, but to have a natural tendency up¬
wards. Hence, in proportion as any body contains
more of the phlogifton, and lefs of other principles, it
is fo much lighter, by reafon of the tendency of the
inflammable principle upwards, which forms fome kind
of counterpoife to the aeftion of the caufe of gravity on
the other principles. The confequence of,this is, that
when any fubftance is deprived of its inflammable prin¬
ciple, it ought to be rendered heavier, and actually is
fo ; (fee Fire). When a metal, therefore,, is depri¬
ved of its phlogifton, we ought not to impute the in¬
creafe of weight to any thing elfe than trse want of
the phlogifton, which formerly balanced in fome mea-
fure the adtion of gravity upon the metalline calx.
In fupport of this theory, the increafe of weight in
a metalline folution of qnickfilver, for inftance, has
been urged : but the experiments adduced in this way
are now found to be fallacious.
Another argument made ufe of in fupport of this theo¬
ry is, that metalline calces, though they are inereafed in
abfolute weight, are neverthelefs very deficient in fpe-
ciftc gravity. This, however, feems fo far from the pur-
pofe, that it appears to us to prove the diretft contrary of
what.
1814 C H E M
Theory, what is intended. If the phlogifton is a principle of
politive levity, and whatever fubitance contains the
largeft proportion of it is the lighted; then it fol¬
lows, that the metalline calces, being deprived of this
principle of levity, ought to be fpecihcally heavier than
after they are combined with it, and aifume the me¬
talline form ; but as the metals themfelves are always
found fpecifically heavier than their calces, we are al¬
together at a lot's for any folk! argument in favour of
the poiitive levity of the phlogifton. It is true, if two
metals are mixed together, the compound fometimes
53 turns out Ipecitically heavier than either of them ta-
Metallic ken feparately. This no doubt is a curious fact; but
compounds js no more extraordinary than that a quantity of fait
heavier165 ^lou^ dilfolve in water without increafing its bulk,
than The (^ee Fluidity), and fo render it fpecifically heavier
heavieft of than before, by more than the difference between the
the ingredi-fpecific gravity of water and of fait. Thus, fuppofe
ents. the fpecific gravity of fait to water as 2 to 1. A cu¬
bic inch of lalt then, diffolved in 5 cubic inches of wa¬
ter, ought to increafe the bulk to 6 cubic inches, and
render the water \ fpecifically heavier than before.
But if we fuppofe the quantity of water capable of re¬
ceiving a cubic inch of fait, without any addition to its
bulk, the fpecific gravity of the fluid will then be in-
crealed by In like manner, if a cubic inch of fil-
ver, the fpecific gravity of which is as it, receives
half a cubic inch of mercury, the fpecific gravity of
which is as 14, without increafing its bulk, the fpecific
gravity of the mixture will be as 18 ; and mixtures of
thefe two metals are found to be of confiderably great¬
er fpecific gravity than either the filver or mercury
by themfelves.
In this cafe, however, we mix two gravitating bo¬
dies together, and, by fomething refembling a penetra¬
tion of dirnenfions, they become fpecifically heavier;
but if we mix a gravitating fubftance with one which
does not gravitate at all, we can never make a com¬
pound fpecifically heavier than before. If, inftead of
a fubftance which barely does not gravitate, we take
one which is foft'rdcly light, we will be fo far from
making a compound fpecifically heavier than the ori¬
ginal fubftance was, that it muft neceffarily be lighter,
let us do as we will. The decreafe of fpecific gra¬
vity, therefore, in metalline calces, undeniably proves,
that along with the diflipation of the phlogifton, there
is fomething added, which, by itfelf, is fpecifically
lighter than the metal originally was, and to which the
decreafe of fpecific gravity in the whole is owing.
What me- Though all metallic bodies, gold, filver, and platina
tals are cal- excepted, are capable of being reduced to a calx by
cinable, & the aktion of heat alone, yet very different degrees
with what 0f p are required for calcining them. Lead and tin
heat.665 begin to calcine as foon as they are melted, long be¬
fore they are made red-hot. The fame happens to
the femimetals bifmuth and zinc; the latter indeed,
being combuftible, cannot bear a greater heat in open
velfcls than that which is barely fufficient to melt it.
Iron and copper require a red heat to calcine them ;
though the former may be made partly to calcine by
being frequently wetted in a degree of heat confider-
5j ably below that which is fufiicient to make it red.
Rutting of Moft metals undergo a kind of fpontaneous calcina-
metals. tion in the open air, which is called their rujling; and
I S T R Y. Part I.
which has given occafion to various conje&ures. But Theory.
M. la Voifier has (hown, that this arifes from the fix-
able part of the atmofphere attaching itfelf to their
earthy part, and difeharging the phlogifton. Accord¬
ing to him, no metallic body can ruft but where
there is an abforption of air ; and confequently metals
can be but imperfectly rufted when kept under a re¬
ceiver. 5fi
If two metals are mixed together, the compound Fufbility
generally turns out more fufible than either of them of metal-
was before the mixture. There are indeed great be corn-
differences in the degrees of heat requifite to melt Pounds*
them. Thus, lead and tin melt below that degree of
heat which is required to make quickfilver or linfeed-
ofi boil. Silver requires a full red heat, gold a low
white heat, copper a full white, and iron an ex¬
treme white heat to make it melt. The femimetal
called bifmuth melts at about 460° of Fahreinheit’s
thermometer; and tin at about 4220. When mixed
in equal quantities, the compound melted at 283°.
When the tin was double the bifmuth, it required 3340
to melt it; with eight times more tin than bifmuth,
it did not melt under 3920. If to this compound lead
is added, which by itfelf melts in about 5 40°, the fu-
fibility is furprilingly increafed. Mr Homberg pro-
pofed for an anatomical injection a compound of lead,
tin, and bifmuth, in equal parts; which he tells us
keeps in fufion with a heat fo moderate that it will
not finge paper. Sir Ifaac Newton contrived a mix¬
ture of the above mentioned metallic fubftances, in
fuch proportions that it melted and kept fluid in a heat
ftill fmaller, not much exceeding that of boiling wa¬
ter. A compound of two parts of lead, three parts of
tin, and five of bifmuth, did but juft ftiffen at that very
heat, and fo would have melted with very little more ;
and when the lead, tin, and bifmuth, were to one ano¬
ther in the proportions of 1, 4, and y, the compound
melted in 246°. We have feen, however, a piece of
metal compounded of thefe three, the proportions un¬
known, which melted, and even underwent a flight
degree of calcination, in boiling water, and barely ftif-
fened in a degree of heat fo gentle that the hand could
almoft bear it.
A flight degree of calcination feems to give the Soiubn;ty
acids a greater power over metalline fubftances ; a of metal*
greater makes them lefsfoluble; and if long and vio- increafed
lently calcined, they are not adted upon by acids at calcina-
all. Of all the acids the marine has the greateft at- tlon‘ '
traktion for metallic calces, and volatilizes almoft eve-
.ry one of them.
Sulphur readily unites with moft metals, deftroys Efre(?^ of
their malleability, and even entirely dilfolves them. fuiphureo*
On gold and platina, however, it has no effetft, till metals,
united with a fixed alkaline fait, when it forms the
compound called hepar fulphuris ; which is a very
powerful folvent, and will make even gold and pla-
tin'a themfelves foluble in water, fo as to pafs the
filter. This preparation is thought to be the means
by which Mofes diffolved and gave the Ifraelites to
drink the golden calf which they had idolatroufly let
up.
When a metal is dilfolved in an acid, it may be
precipitated, not only by means of calcareous earths
and alkalies, but alfo by fome other metals : for acids
do
Part I.
Theory.
Di vifion in.
and femi-
60
Properties
of arfenic.
CHEMISTRY.
do not attraiSl: all metals with equal ftrength ; and it
is remarkable, that when a metal is precipitated by
another, the precipitate is not found in a calcined ftate,
but in a metallic one. The reafon of this is, that the
precipitating metal attracts the phlogiiton which is
expelled from that which is dilfolving, and immedi¬
ately unites with it, fo as to appear in its proper
form. The various degrees of attraciion which acids
have for the different metals is not as yet fully deter¬
mined. The beft authenticated are mentioned in the
Table of Affinities or Eledive Attractions, (Sed.Vll.)
Metalline i'ubffances ate divided into metals and fe-
mimetals. The metals, which are diftinguifhed from
the femimetallic fubllances by their malleability or
ftretching under the hammer, are in number feven ;
gold, filver, copper, iron, lead, tin, and platina. To
thefe is added qiltckfilvfer ; which Mr Brown’s expe¬
riments have fhewn to be a real malleable metal, as
well as others, but requiring fo little heat to keep it
in fufion, that it is always found in a liquid liate. The
femimetals are bil'muth or tin-glafs, zinc, regulus of
antimony, and cobalt, nickel, and arfenic. This laft
fub fiance is of a lingular nature, and fee ms to poffefs
a kind of middle nature between the metalline fub-
flances and falls. In common with the femimetals, it
is capable of being united with the phlogtllon in large
quantity, when it aflumes a fplendid metalline form,
but wants the duClility of a true metal; fo can only
be reckoned, even then, among the femimetals. It
likewife unites with fulphur, with which it forms a
compound of a red or yellow colour, according as
more or lefs fulphur is ufed. This compound is eafily
fufible ; though the arfenic, by itfelf, is fo volatile as
to go all off in vapour rather than melt. In common
with the falts, it pofleffes the properties of diffolving
in water, and uniting itfelf to alkalies. Water will
diffolve about —r— of its weight' of pure arfenic ; but
if arfenic is boiled in a ftrong alkaline lixivium, a
much greater proportion will be diffolved. Indeed
ftrong alkaline lixivia will diflblve a part of almoft
every metalline fubftance, except gold, filver, and
platina ; but, excepting copper, which may be formed
into cryftals by means of the volatile alkali, none of
them will alfume a cryftalline form when united with
alkalies. Arfenic, on the contrary, unites very readily
with fixed alkalies, and Ihoots with them into a neu¬
tral fait. If it is mixed with nitre, it unites itfelf to
the alkaline bafis of that fait, and expels the acid in
very volatile fumes, which are difficultly condenfed
into a blue liquor. The reafon of this is probably the
great attraction between the nitrous acid and phlo-
gifton, which are always difpofed to unite when a
proper degree of heat is applied. Was the phlogillon
contained in large quantity in the arfenic, and the
beat fufficiently great, a violent deflagration would
enfue ; but as the arfenic attradls the alkaline part of
the nitre, at the fame time that the acid attracts the
phlogifton, a double decompofition enfues, in a lefs
degree of heat than would otherwife be neceffary ;
and the nitrous acid arifes in a very volatile ftate, as
it always is when combined with phlogifton, which
is the occafion of the bluenefs in aqua fortis fo pro¬
duced. The arfenic is alfo decompofed in part, by
being deprived of its proper quantity of phlogifton ;
in confequence of which it attaches itfelf fo ftrongly
to the fixed alkali of the nitre, that the fait formed by
their union cannot be decompofed by the ftrongeft acids.
The only method is to prelent to this lalt a metallic fub¬
ftance, which the arfenic unites with in preference to
the alkali. The common arfenical falts made with
arfenic having its due proportion of phlogifton and al¬
kali, may be decompounded by acids. For the extrac¬
tion of metallic fubftances from their ores, and the va¬
rious methods of refining them, fee Metallurgy.
Sect. V. Waters.
The pure element of water, like that of fire>
is fo much an agent in moft chemical operations,
as to be itfelf very little the cbjctt of pradtical
chemiftry 5 no method being hitherto known of
compounding or decompounding it. Waters, there¬
fore, can only be the objects of chemiftry in con¬
fequence of the impurities' they contain : and, as
thefe impurities are moft commonly of the faline
kind, it is impoflible that any general theory can be
given of waters, diftindl from that of the falts con¬
tained in them ; which all depend on the general pro¬
perties belonging to halts, and which we have already
mentioned. Any thing that can be faid with regard
to waters, then, muft be poftponed to the particular
confideration of the properties of each of the faline bo¬
dies with which water is capable of being adulterated.
We fhall therefore refer entirely to the article Water
for what can be faid on this fubjeft.
Sect. VI. Animal and Vegetable Subftances.
The general chemical properties of thefe have been
already taken notice of under the name of inflammable
fubftances. They agree in giving out a very thick
foetid oil, when diftilled by a ftrong fire; but in other
refpetfts they differ very confiderably. Moft kinds of
vegetables give out an acid along with the oil; but
all animal fubftances (ants, and perhaps fome other
infecfts, excepted) yield only a volatile alkali. Some
kinds of vegetables, indeed, as muftard, afford a vo¬
latile alkali on diilillation, fimilar to that from animal
fubftances; but inftances of this kind are very rare, as
well as of animals affording an acid. Both animal
and vegetable fubftances are fufceptible of a kind of
fermentation, called putrefaftion, by which a volatile
alkali is produced in great plenty : there is, however,
this remarkable difference between them, that many
vegetable fubftances undergo two kinds of fermenta¬
tion before they arrive at the putrefactive ftage. The
.firft is called the v'mous, when the ardent jpirits are
produced, which we have already mentioned when
fpeaking of inflammable fubftances. This is fucceed-
ed by the acetous-, wherein the vegetable acid called
vinegar is produced in plenty : and laftly, the putre¬
factive ftage fucceeds when a volatile alkali is only
produced ; not the fmalleft veftige either of ardent
fpirits or of vinegar remaining. On the other hand,
animal fubftances feem fufceptible only of the putre¬
factive fermentation ; no inftance having ever occur¬
red where there was the leaft drop, either of ardent
fpirit or of vinegar, produced from a putrified animal
fubftance. (See Fermentation and Putrefac¬
tion.)
Sect.
1815
Theory.
6r
Water, how
far an objeft
of chemi¬
ftry.
62
Chemical
properties.
i8i6
C H E M I
Theorv.
63
Invention
of marks
or charac¬
ters.
64
Of tables
affinities.
Sect. VII. Of the Chemical Characters, and
Tables of Elective Attraction.
The different t/iarks or charaBers by which the
ancient chemids ufed to denote many different fub-
itances, were invented rather from a fuperditious and
fantaftical principle than from any real neceffity ; or,
perhaps, like the tenigmatical language ufed by the
alchetnills, they have thereby fought to conceal their
myfteries from the vulgar. In contriving tliefe marks,
they affected a great deal of ingenuity ; intending
them as fymbols of the qualities poded'ed by each of
fhe different fubdances. A circle being fuppofed the
mod perfetd figure, was therefore ufed to reprefent
the mod perfect metal in nature, that is, gold. Silver
being likewife a perfect and indedrudtible metal, is
placed next to gold ; but, on account of its inferiority,
is expreffed only by a crefcent, as if but half gold. A
circle was likewife ufed to denote fait of any kind, as
being fomething elaborate and perfect. A crofs was
ufed to denote acrimony of any kind, and confequent-
ly employed for the acrimonious falts of vitriol, alka¬
li, ire. Hence, all the inferior metals have the crols
fome-how or other combined with the marks defigned
to reprefent them. Thus, the mark for quickfilver de¬
notes, that it hath the fplendor of diver, the weight
of gold, but its perfeedion is hindered by an acrimony
reprefented by the crofs at bottom, iic. fire is re-
prefented by an equilateral triangle, having one of
its angles uppermod. This may be confidered as a
rude reprefentation of flame, which is always pointed
at top. Water, again, is reprefented by a triangle,
with an angle downwards, fliewing the way in which
that element exerts its drength, ire. All thefe marks,
however, as they were of no real ufe at fird, fo they
are now becoming every day more and more ne-
gle<ded. Such of them, however, as may mod rea¬
dily occur in chemical books are reprefented and ex¬
plained on Plate LXXVI.
of Tables of affinities, or eleCHvs atraClions, are but of
late invention. They are confequences of an impro¬
ved date of chemidry, when the different fubdances
were found to acd upon one another in mod cafes ac¬
cording to a fixed and fettled rule. The mod appro¬
ved table of this kind for a long time was that compo-
fed by Mr Geoffrey. It was however found to be
very incomplete, not only as to its extent, but like-
ways as heat and fome other circumdances were
found to vary the attradlions confiderably, and fome-
times even to reverfe them. Other tables have been
condrudted by Mr Gellert, ire. but none hath yet ap¬
peared fo complete but that many additions may be
made to it. The following is that at prefent exhibi¬
ted by Dr Black in his courfe of chemidry:
I. Vitriolic Acid.
Phlogidon
Fixed alkali
Calcareous earth
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Copper
Quickfilver
Silver
Volatile alkali
Magnefia
Earth of alum.
2. Nitrous Acid.
Phlogidon
Fixed alkali
Calcareous earth
Zinc
Iron
S T R Y.
Lead
Tin
Copper
Quickfilver
Silver
Volatile alkali.
3. Marine Acid.
Fixed alkali
Calcareous earth
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Tin
Copper
Regulus of antimony
Quickfilver
Silver
Spirit of wine
Volatile oils
Gold.
4. Sulphur.
Fixed alkali
Calcareous earth
Iron
Nickel
Copper
Lead
Tin
Silver
Regulus of antimony
Quickfilver
Arfenic.
5. Hepar Sulphuris is
partially decompounded
. b7
Quickfilver
Solution of fixed alkali
Lime-water
Volatile alkali.
6. Fixed Air.
Calcareous earth
Fixed alkali
Magnefia
Volatile alkali.
7. Alkaline Salts.
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Marine acid
Acetous acid
Volatile vitriolic acid
Sedative fait
B'ixed air
Sulphur
Exprefled oils.
8. Calcareous Earth.
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Marine acid
Acid of tartar
Acetous acid
Sulphureous acid and fe-
dative fait
Sulphur.
9. Metallic Substan¬
ces, Lead and Regulus
of Antimony excepted.
Marine acid
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Sulphur and acetous acid.
10. Lead.
Vitriolic acid
Marine acid
Nitrous acid
Acetous acid
Expreffed oils.
11. Regulus of Anti¬
mony.
Vitriolic acid
Nitrous acid
Marine acid
Acetous acid.
12. Arsenic.
Zinc
Iron
Copper
Tin
Lead
Silver
Gold.
13. Regulus of Anti¬
mony with Metals.
Iron
Copper
Tin
Lead
Silver
Gold.
14. Quicksilver.
Gold
Lead and tin
Copper
Zinc, bifmuth, and regu¬
lus of antimony.
15. Silver.
Lead
Copper
Iron.
16. Water.
Fixed alkali
Spirit of wine
Mild alkaline falts, and
fome neutrals.
17. Spirit ofWiNE.
Water
Oils and refms.
In
Part I.
Theory.
TLafe l.XW'I.
A Table of ( IIKMlCAi. ClfABACTEKS.
■£L JLfkcs.
B ABatk
Jf<7far bath.
AB Sand bath.
Vapor bath.
HLAnlfonr
6, LVqy.
Cj). iOOgllt.
W^,AM>nrh.
~;S.' Amalgam.
6\>3gfcJJiJblL
"S2z. -lo Sublime.
=^: ‘lo Precipitate.
C?\ATutort
XX- An * ilemhc.
^tlCruaU-
SSS, Stratum Super
Stratum.
C.C Corivu Cervi
Hartshorn.
W^ABott/r.
gt'.L/t6rraui.
S).isd. Scruple.
ASDrarv.
An Ounce.
ibi. A Bound.
(JwtiA YeitmaveAtt.
A Fin .
A, Hr.
V Water.
^ Bart/.
£ A Fixa/L’ Air.
m. tSMfh tic Air.
^(’IU}A
tOyft/um.
Y- C^ ( a boa? 'eourBart/i
Quielditno.
S) litri/'iab/o, or
S iliceous JSarlhs.
Fluors, or
Fr i ji bh Barths.
^s^'Fab/c.
Magfie/i'a.
@ Fartho/Alw.
Sand.
O 6^^/.
3; ^ '.Silver.
(^) Copper.
r2\. din.
t\ Bead.
^ Heronry'.
OS Iron.
2$ Fine.
B SK'Jjt mm th.
&A/1 timony\
die genius op ‘
Antimonie
0~C)A r/cnic.
^ lieg'ulnj- opArpn u \
K Cobalt.
X .Ado/rel
S.M^ Metedho Sul/ta/iees
C. Cabr.
0=0 Orpiment.
Cinnabar.
c.0A
X£jlFotti/k.
Hh Acids.
^ Hncgar.
Vitriolic Aiil.
OH-®! WtivtisAid.
Q+tQ. dfai me Acid.
F;F; Aquafortis.
A£:A\.'A‘pfaIiegli.
VldSidf InireotisAcid.
L .C Alapis Calarmnans, Ark o .sphoncAcid.
® Flip : V #7//^.
® JVtrwl.
0; @;Sea Salt.
8; Sal Cem.
Qb.CAfre.
\Fh;Ch;Fora.e.
| S.S. Sedative Salt
. X, Sal Ammoniac.
lQ±b; Allum.
IJ Tartar
S % Allcall.
Qwdflrod Allah.
0^; Co laldeAllcall
m.0V Mill fired Alkali.
C .0V / au/hcfired.
Alkali.
mQ^JHd vo lAlkali.
Spirit of rtCne.
PecfeZ Sf.
f£j Bthei:
'W Time mtev
□ Trine.
°o;©; ^;l>; Oil.
-.AE.o°o lE/senhal Oil.
^7 Fixed Oil.
Ip Snlp/ur.
KA^Hepar of Sulphur.
%s.Flo/ph o? vs.
Ap Chief thnn
O Soap.
© Trdvrifc.
>0 Claf y.
© CaputIMortimtn.
Part
Theoi
G H E M I
In confequence of heat, fedative fait decompounds
• vitriolated tartar and fea-falt.—Phofphorine acid de¬
compounds vitriolated tartar, nitre, and fea-falt.
Double Ele&ive Attradlions; which, in fome
cafes, may be confidered as exceptions to the
foregoing table.
I. Thofe which happen in mixtures of watery fub-
ftances.
(~ Acids Volatile alkali
l. ^ Calc, earths, or me- Fixe(j air>
( talhc lubltances
~ Vitriolic or marine a-
' cids
' Alkalies or earths
" Lead
? Nitrous, marine,
J acetous acids
Mercury, filver, or lead
Nitrous or acetous acids.
Vitriol acid
Alkalies, earths, or
M. S.
f' Silver Marine acid
4. Vitriolic, nitrous, or Alkaline falts, earths, or
/ acetous acids M. S.
C Volatile alkali Fixed air
^ Acids Fixed alkali.
r Nitrous, marine, or Volatile alkali, magne-
6. acetous acids fia, or earth of alum
£ Calcareous earths Vitriolic acid.
II. Thofe which happen in diftillations or fublima-
tions, and require heat.
C Vol. alkali Fixed air
1' £ Acids Calcareous earths.
Nitrous, marine, or ace¬
tous acids
Fixed alkali.
’ Vol. alkali Acetous acid
' Nitrous, marine, or Fixed alkali, or abfor-
vitriolic acids bent earths.
C Reg. of antimon.
£ Sulphur
Marine acid
Quickfilver.
111. Thofe which happen in mixtures by fufion.
C Tin
‘ £ Silver
C Copper
' ? Gold
Iron
Lead.
Sulphur
Lead.
C M. S.
3- l Gold
Sulphur
Reg. of ant.
The firft of thefe tables requires very little expla¬
nation. The names printed in fmall capitals, are thofe
of the fubllances which have the affinity with or at-
traiSi thofe below them. Thus, vitriolic acid attracts
moft powerfully the phlogifton, or inflammable prin¬
ciple ; next, fixed alkali; then, calcareous earth ; and
fo on, in the order in which they are marked.—The
tables of double elective attractions cannot be made
quite fo diftindl; though an explanation of one ex¬
ample will make this likewife eafy to be underflood.
Thus in Table I. the firft cafe is, “ If a combination of
acids with calcareous earths or metallic fubftances is
mixed with a combination of volatile alkali and fixed
Vol. III.
S T R Y. 1817
air, the acids will unite themfelves to the volatile al- Theory-
kali, and the fixed air to the calcareous earth or me- ’
tallic fubftance.
Sect. VIII. Of the different Operations in Prac¬
tical Chemiflry, and the proper Jnflruments for
performing each. ^
The moft remarkable operations in chemiftry, and Operations
by which the greateft changes are made upon thofe in chemi-
bodies which are the objetfls of that fcience, may be
comprehended under the following names. 1. Solu¬
tion. 2. Filtration. 3. Precipitation, or coagulation.
4. Evaporation. 5. Cryftallization. 6. Diftillation.
7. Sublimation. 8. Deilagration. 9. Calcination, xo. Fu¬
fion. xi. Maceration, or digeftion. To which we
may add, 12. Trituration, or levigation.
Before we proceed to a particular account of each chemifts,
of thefe operations, it is neceffary to take notice, that how divid-
there are two different things propofed by thole who e<h
enter on the practice of chemiftry. Some have no¬
thing farther in view than the enlargement of their
knowledge, or making improvements in arts which
are to be pradtifed by others for their own advantage.
Others defign to follow chemiftry as a trade, by which
they hope to enrich themfelves, or to get a comfor¬
table livelihood. But the apparatus and utenfils necef¬
fary for performing the very fame operations are ex¬
ceedingly different when experiments only are to
be made, from what they muft be when thefe opera¬
tions ai-e performed with a view to profit ; and fo
great is this difference, that thofe who purfue che¬
miftry with a view to advantage, will always find
themfelves very cbnfiderable lolers if they follow the
plan of an apparatus or a laboratory defigned only
for making experiments. Along with the apparatus,
therefore, which is commonly defcribed in chemical
books, and proper only for experiments, we fhall alfo
give that which is neceflary for preparing great quan¬
tities of any chemical article in the way of trade.
In general, thofe who pradlife chemiftry merely Glafs ve£
with an experimental view, ought, as much as pof- fels, when
fible, to make ufe of glafs velfels, as not being liable t0 be ufe<1*
to be corroded by the moft powerful folvents ; and,
by their tranfparency, giving an opportunity of ob-
ferving what paffes within them during the operation.
But, by thofe who pradlife chemiftry with a different
view, thefe veffels ought, with equal care, to be a-
voided, on account of their expence, and brittlenefs.
This laft quality, indeed, is poffefled by glafs in fo
eminent a degree, that glafs veffels will fometimes
fly to pieces, and that with confiderable violence, when
Handing by themfelves, and nothing touching them.
The principal objedls which a chemift ought to have
in view, in performing his operations, ought to be
to fave time and fuel, efpecially the firft ; and for this
purpofe, he would find himfelf a confiderable gainer,
though he fhould be at much greater expence in his
apparatus than he would otherwife have occafion for.
We fhall now proceed to a particular defcription
of each of the operations above mentioned j and firft
of 68
Solution. By this is underftood the diffolving a Solution,
folid fubftance in a fluid, fo as that the folid fhall totally
difappear, and become part of a tranfparent liquor.
10 X This
l8iS CHEMISTRY. PartL
Theory. This operation applies particularly to fairs, earths, and
   metals; as well as to feveral urArums and inflammable
fubftances. For performing this operation in a fmall
way, common vials are in many cafes fufficient. Where
the folution is attended with effervefeence and a dif-
charge of vapours, the long-necked glades called
Plate matrajfes, or bolt-heads, (fig. 5.), are neceffary. Flo-
LXXVII. rence flafks are indeed exceedingly well adapted for
this operation, as being of the proper fhape, and ca¬
pable of bearing heat fo well, that they may be filled
with any fluid, and fet on a common fire like a me¬
talline veflel. Solution is much promoted by agitating
the veflel,and by heat. In fome cafes, indeed, it will
not take place till the mixture becomes very hot; and
in fuch cafes it will be proper to make the fluid boil¬
ing hot by itfelf, and then llowly to add the fubftance
to be diflolved.
When large quantities of faldne matter are to be
diffolved, metalline vellels muftbe ufed: but before any
are made ufe of for this purpofe, it will be neceflary
to make an experiment whether the fait receives any
impregnation from the metal of which the veflel in¬
tended to be made ufe of is formed ; and if this is
found to be the cafe, it muft not be ufed. The me¬
tals moft liable to be corroded by faline bodies, are
iron and copper; and indeed, unlefs it be for the fmgle
purpofe of dilfblving fixed alkaline falts, iron veffels
feeqaptally unfit for faline folutrons of any kind. Cop¬
per vpflels are alld very liable to be corroded, and to
communicate very mifchievous qualities to the liquors
which corrode them ; for which reafon, they ought
never to he made ufe df for the purpofes of folution.
The metal leaft liable to be corroded, next to gold and
filver, is lead ; and therefore a chemift ought rather
to provide himfelf with leaden veffels than thofe of
any other metal. But though lead is not apt to be
corroded by many kinds of falls, there are fome which
are found to aA upon it, and to form therewith a very
dangerous poifon. The vegetable acid of vinegar is
particularly apt to receive a dangerous impregnation
from this metal, and therefore no folution of any fait
containing this acid ought to be made in leaden vef-
fAs. It appears to be very little affeAed by the vi¬
triolic or marine acids, and therefore any f’aline fub-
flance containing either of thefe adds may be fafely
enough diflblved in veflels made of lead.
In order to fave time in making folutions, the vef¬
fels ought to be as large as pofiible ; though even in
this there muft be a certain limit: for two fmall vef¬
fels filled with water willlboner acquire the neceflary
degree of heat than one large one ; and in proportion
as the veflel is made more capacious, the fides and bot¬
tom muft be thicker# which confiderably increafes the
expence. Fifteen or twenty Englifh gallons is the
ntmoft capacity of which they ever will be required ;
and is rather above what will on moft occafions be
neceflary. They ought to be of a conical figure,
round at the bottom ; and to have a cover of thick
pkte-iron all around that part which is e^pofed to the
aAion of the fire, that the lead may not bend on the ap¬
plication of heat, which it would otherwife be very
apt to do. When the folution is to be made, the leaden
veflel is firft to be filled up with water fo far as to have
room for the quantity of fait intended to be diflblved :
a fire is then to be applied fo as to make it boil: and Theory.
then the fait is to be added flowly, fo as fcarcely to
hinder the boiling ; for if a great quantity was thrown
in at once, fo as to cool the liquor very much, great
part of the fait would concrete on the bottom, in fuch
a manner as not only to be very difficultly foluble, but
even to endanger the melting of the veflel. It is of
fome confequence alfo to avoid the hot fleam which
proceeds from the boiling water, and which iflues with
great force from a narrow-mouthed veffel fuch as we
have been deferibing. That the operator may be out
of the reach of this, and likewife diffolve the ialt in a
regular and gradual manner, without any danger of
its concreting on the bottom, it will be proper to
have a leaden, or even a wooden, veflel, with a long
handle ; which is to be filled with the fubftance to
be diflblved, then immerfed in the boiling liquor,
and fhaken about in it, till the fait is made into a kind
of thick pap, which will be in no danger of concre¬
ting. It will alfo be proper not to faturate the water
pert'eAly with fait; for it will in that cafe be impof-
fible to hinder part of it from fettling on the bottom,
where it foon acquires fuch a degree of heat as to
melt the lead. Before any faline fubftance is put into
water for folution, it ought to be pounded and lifted
through a hair fieve.
Where large quantities of metaj are to be diflblved
in acids, efpecially the nitrous acid, glafs veflelsare in
a manner indifpenfible ; although the common ftone-
ware bottles, elpecially tbofe made in Holland, will
anfwer the purpofe very well, as not being liable to
corrolion, and not fo apt to break as the glafs veflels
are. They may be got of fuch a fize as to hold 3 or
4 gallons: but no veflel in which metalline folutions are
made, ought ever to be above half full.
In folutions of oily and inflammable fubftances, call
iron veflels are perhaps the moft proper of any; tho’
copper ones are generally preferred. The copper is
exceflively foluble in oil, efpecially if it is left to cool
in fuch a veflel; but iron is not foluble in any inflam¬
mable matter except fulphur. Copper has however
this advantage over iron, that it is fooner cooled, as
the veflels made of copper are thinner than they can
be made of call iron : fo that if too great heat is appli¬
ed to a copper veflel, it may be eafily remedied by
taking it off the fire; but in a caft iron veflel the heat
continues fo long as Jhay famcrimes produce dangerous
confequences, even after the fire is removed. ^
2. Filtration. This operation is generally the Filtration,
attendant of folution: very few {ubfta-nces, of thefaline
kind eipecially, are capable of being diflblved without
leaving fome impurities, from which they muft be
freed ; and the doing of this, fo as to render the Ib-
lution perfeAly tranfparent, is what is underftood by
the word filtration.
For pttrpofes merely experimental, a glafs funnel
and piece of paper are generally fufficient. The pa¬
per is fonned into a conical cap, which being placed in
the funnel with its point downwards, the funnel is then
placed in the mouth of a vial; and the folution or
other liquor to be filtered is poured into the paper cap,
through which the liquor pafies tranfparent, leaving its
impurities on the paper. For the purpofe of filtration,
paper has come into fuch general ufe, that a particular
kind
Fart I. C H E M I S
Theory, kind of it is prepared under the name of filtering pa-
————per. This is of a reddifh colour ; but Dr Lewis pre¬
fers the whitiih grey paper which comes from Hol¬
land about the pill boxes, as not giving any colour to
the folutions which pafs through it.
This operation, though apparently fo fimple and
eafy, is neverthelefs attended with very troublefome
circumftances, on account of the great time it takes
up. Even where very fmall quantities of liquor are to
be filtered, merely for experiment’s fake, the impuri¬
ties frequently fettle on the paper fo foon, and obftrudt
its pores to fuch a degree, that the operator is often
quite wearied out: often, too, the paper breaks; and thus
the whole is fpoiled, and the operation mull be begun
over again.
To avoid thefe inconveniencies, another method of
filtration hath been propofed ; namely to ufe a num¬
ber of cotton threads, the ends of which are to be im-
merfed in the liquor, and the other ends are to hang
over the fide of the vefiel which contains it, and to
hang lower than the fufface of the liquor. By this
means they will adl as' fo many capillary fyphons,
(fee Syphon) ; the liquid will arife in them quite
pure, and be difcharged from their lower extremities
into a veffel placed to receive it. That the liquor
may flow freely into the cotton, it will be proper to
wet the threads before they are ufed.
In point of efficacy, no doubt, this method excells
every other ; and where the operator has abundance
of time and patience, may be proper for experiments:
but, in the way of trade, fuch a contrivance is evi¬
dently ufelefs. For filtering large quantities of liquor,
therefore, recourfe has been had to large funnels;
earthern cullenders, or bafons full of holes in the bot¬
tom, lined with filtering paper; and to conical bags of
flannel or canvas.
The inconveniences attending funnels, when ufed
only in the way of experiment, are much greater
when they are employed for filtering large quantities
of liquor ; and therefore they are generally laid afide.
The earthen cullenders, too, do not anfwer any good
purpofe ; nor indeed does filtration through paper in
eneral fucceed well. The conical flannel or canvas
ags are greatly preferable: but they have this in¬
convenience, that the preffure of the liquor is directed
chiefly againft one particular-point, or a fmall part of
the bottom, and therefore the impurities are forcibly
driven into that place ; and thus the operation be¬
comes infufferably tedious.
The belt method of obviating the inconveniencies
of filtration feems to be the following. Let a wooden
frame of about three feet fquare be made, having
four holes, one in each corner, about three quarters of
an inch in diameter. This frame is to be fupported
by four feet, the ends of which muft project an inch
or two through the holes. Thus the whole may be
occafionally fet up and taken down, fo as to go into
very little compafs ; for if the feet are properly plac¬
ed, each with a little projedlion outwards, there will
be no danger of its falling. A fquare piece of can¬
vas mult alfo be procured, fomewhat lefs than the
wooden frame. On each corner of it there muft be
a very ftrong loop, which flips on one of the projetH;-
ing ends of the feet, fo that the canvas may hang a
TRY. 1819
little flack in the middle of the frame. The liquor to Theory.
be filtered is now poured into the canvas, and a vef- 
fel placed underneath to receive-'it. At firft it will
pafs through very foul ; but, being returned two or
three times, will become perfedlly tranfparent, and
will continue to run with great velocity, if the filter
is kept conftantly full. A filter of the fize juft now
mentioned will contain ten gallons of liquid; which is
a very great advantage, as the heat of fuch a quanti¬
ty of liquor is not foon diffipated, and every folution
filters much fafter when hot than when allowed to
cool.
The advantages of a filter of this kind above others
arife from the preffure of the liquor being more equal¬
ly diffufed over a large fpace, by which the impuri¬
ties are not forced fo ftrongly into the cloth as to flop
it up entirely. Yet even here, where large quanti¬
ties of liquor require filtration, the cloth is apt to be
flopped up fo as to make the operation not a little te¬
dious and difagreeable. It will be proper therefore
to have feveral cloths, that one may be applied as
Icon as another is taken off.
To promote the operation of filtration, it is very
proper to let the liquors to be filtrated fettle for feme
time; that fo their groffer feculencies may fall to the
bottom, and thus there will be the fewer to retard the
laft part of the operation. Sometimes, however, thefe
feculencies refufe to fettle till after a very long time ;
and where this happens to be the cafe, a little pow¬
dered quicklime thrown into the boiling liquor remar¬
kably promotes the feparation. This, however, can
only be ufed in certain cafes. 70
In fome cafes, the difeovery of a ready way of fil- Schemes
tering a large quantity of liquor would be a matter of |°r f’lten,,S
great confequence ; as where a town is fupplied with tkeTof^a-
river-water, which is generally far from being clear, ter.
and often imparts a difagreeable colour to clothes
walhed with it. Some years ago, a fcheme was pro¬
pofed by a chemift for filtering muddy water in any
quantity. His method was, to have a large calk co¬
vered over in the bottom with ftraw to the depth of
fome inches, and then filled up with fand. This calk
was entirely open at one end, and had a hole in the
other, which, by a means of a leaden pipe, commu¬
nicated with a large refervoir of the water to be fil¬
tered, and which ftood confiderably higher than the
calk. The water which defeended through the pipe
into the calk, having a tendency to rife up to the fame
level with that in the refervoir, would prefs violently
againft the fand, and, as he thought, run over the
mouth of the calk perfetflly filtrated, and free from its
impurities. By this contrivance, indeed, a very vio¬
lent preffiire was occafioned, if the height of the re¬
fervoir was confiderable : but the confequence was,
not a filtration, but a greater of impurity in the wa¬
ter ; for the fand was forced out of the calk along
with it, and, however confined, the water always role
as muddy as it went in.
Where water is to be filtered in large quantity, as
for the purpofes of a family, a particular kind of foft
fpungy Hones, called filtering Jlcne:, are employed.
Thefe, however, though the water percolates through
them very fine, and in fufficient quantity at firft, are
liable to be obltnufted in the fame manner as paper,
10 X 2 and
1820 CHEMISTRY. Part L
Theory, and are then rendered ufelefs. A better method feems
to be, to have a wooden veffel, lined with lead, three
or four feet wide at top, but tapering fo as to end in a
finall orifice at the bottom. The under part of the
velfel is to be filled with very rough fand, or gravel,
well freed from earth by walhing. Over this, pretty
fine fand may be laid to the depth of 12 or 14 inches,
hut which mull: likewife be well freed from earthy
particles. The veflel may then be filled up to the top
with water, pouring it gently at firfl, left the fand
fhould be too much difplaced. It will foon filter thro’
the'fand, and run out at the lower orifice exceeding¬
ly tranfparent, and likewife in very conliderable quan¬
tity. When the upper part of the fand begins to be
flopped up, fo as not to allow a free paffage to the
water, it may occafionally be taken off, and the earthy
matter wafhed from it, when it will be equally fer-
71 viceable as before.
Piecipita- 3. Pxecipitation, or Coagulation. This o-
t,on‘ peration is the reverfe of folution, and is the bringing
a body fuddenly from a fluid to a folid (late. It differs
from cryftallization, in that it generally requires lefs
time, and in cryftallization the fubftance allumes re¬
gular figures, whereas precipitates are always in the
form of powders.
Precipitation is generally preceded by folution and
filtration : it is ufed for feparating earths and metals
from the acids which had kept them fufpended. When
a precipitation is made of the more valuable metals,
glafs vefftls are to be ufed. When earths, or the
imperfeft metallic fubftances, are to be precipitated in
large quantity, wooden ones anfwer every purpofe.
If a metal is to be precipitated by an alkali, this fait
muft firft be diffolved in water, then filtered, and
gradually added to the metallic folution. If particular
circumftances do not forbid, the fait for precipitation
fhould be chofen in its cauftic ftate, or deprived of its
fixed air, becaufe then a very troublefome effervef-
cence is avoided. To promote the operation alfo,
the mixture, if contained in a glafs, is to be fhaken ;
or if in any other veffels, to be well ftirred after eve¬
ry addition of alkali. If an earth is employed to pre-
cipipate a metal, the mixture muft be in a manner
conftantly ftirred or fliaken, in order to promote the
precipitation ; and if one metal is to be precipitated
by another, that which is ufed as a precipitant muft be
beaten into thin plates, that fo they may be frequent¬
ly cleaned from the precipitating metal, which would
otherwife very foon totally impede the operation.
Sometimes a precipitation enfues on the addition of
water, or fpirit of wine : bur, in moft cafes, care muft
be taken not to add too much of the fubftance which
is ufed to precipitate the other; becaufe, in fuch a
cafe, the precipitate may be diffolved after it has been
thrown down. Thus, though volatile alkali will fe-
parr.te copper from aqua fortis, it will as effectually
diffolve the precipitate if too much of it is ufed, as the
acid itfelf. It is proper, therefore, to proceed cauti-
fcufly, and examine a fmall quantity of the liquor from
time to time. If an addition of the precipitant throws
down any more, it will bfe proper to add fome more
72 to the whole folution.
Kdukora- jt js feldom or never that precipitation can be per-
lu“' formed fo perfectly, but that one or other of the in¬
gredients will prevail; and though they fhould not, a Theory.
new compound, confifting of the acid united with the ' ‘
alkali, or other fubftance ufed for precipitation, is
contained in the liquor through which the precipitate
falls. It is proper, therefore, to wafh all precipitates;
otherwife they can never be obtained perfectly pure,
or free from a mixture of faline fubflances. This is
beft done by pouring the whole into a filter, and let¬
ting the fluid part run off, as long as it will drop, with¬
out fhaking the cloth. Some water is then -to be cau-
tioufly poured all over the furface of the precipitate,
fo as to difturb it as little as poflible. This water will
pufh before it the faline liquor which is mixed with
the powder, and render it much purer than before.
A fecond, or third quantity of water may be ufed, in
order to wafli oil’ all the faline matter. This is called
edulcorating the precipitate. ^
4. Evaporation. This operation confifts in diffi- Evapora-
pating the moft fluid or volatile parts of any fubftance tion.
by means of heat. It moft generally fucceeds folu¬
tion and filtration, being a preparatory for the opera¬
tion of cryftallization.
For the evaporation of faline folutions, which have
been already filtered, and which it is of confequence
to preferve from even the leaft impurities, diftilling
veifels are unqueftionably the moft proper; both as,
by their means, the folution will be kept perfectly
free from dull, and as the quantity of liquor evaporated
.can be known with certainty by meafuring that which
comes over. This alfo is probably the moil expediti-
ousmethod of evaporating, and which requires the leaft
fewel. (See the detached articles Evaporation and
Distillation). With regard to velfels for evapora¬
tion, the fame thing mnft be applicable which was men¬
tioned above under Solution. No faline liquor muft be
evaporated in a veffel which would be corroded by it;
and hence iron veffels are abfolutely improper for eva¬
porations of any kind of faline liquor whatever.—
Lead is in this cafe the metal moft generally ufeful. It
muft only be ufed, however, where the evaporation
is not carried to drynefs ; for, on account of the great
fufibility of this metal, nothing could be exficcated in
it without great danger of its melting. Where a fa¬
line liquor therefore is to be perfedfly exficcated, the
evaporation, if performed in lead veffels, muft be car¬
ried on fo far only as to form a faline pellicle on the
furface of the liquor. It is then to be drawn off; for
which purpofe, all evaporating vefiels fhould have a
cock near the bottom. The liquor muft now be put
into a number of Ilpne-ware bafons, fet on warm
fand, where the exficcation may be finifhed. 74
5. Crystallization. This, though commonly ac- Cryftalliza-
counted one of the proceffes in chemiftry, is in reali- tlon• -
ty only a natural one, and which the chemift can on¬
ly prepare for, leaving the operation entirely in the
hands of nature.—By cryftallization is meant the fe-
paration of a fait from the water in which it has been
diffolved, in tranfparent maftes regularly figured, and
differently formed, according to the different nature
of the falts.
This procefs depends upon the conftitution of the
atmofphere more than any other; and therefore.is
difficult to be performed, nor does it always fucceed
equally well; neither have there yet been laid down
any
Part I.
CHEMISTRY.
1821
Theory, any rules whereby beautiful and regular cryftals can
with certainty be formed at all times.
As the different falls aflume very different figures
when cryftallized, they are not fubjeft to the fame
general rules in cryftallization. Nitre, Glauber’s fait,
vitriol of iron, and many others, cryftallize beft on
having their folutions fet in a cold place after proper
evaporation. Sal polychreft, and common fait, require
the folution to be kept as hot as the hand can bear it
during the time of cryflallizing. Soluble tartar too,
and other deliquefcent lalts, require to be kept warm
while this operation is going on ; and there are many
faline. fubffances, fiuch as the combinations of calcare¬
ous earths and magnefia with acids, which can fcarce-
ly be cryftallized at all.
Mr Beaume has difeove'red, that when two or more
falts are diffolved in the lame quantity of water, when
one cryftallizes, the cryltals of that fait will not con¬
tain the leaft quantity of any of the others ; neither,
although the liquor was acid or alkaline, will the
cryllals for that reafon be either acid or alkaline, but
will remain perfectly neutral; and the acid or alka¬
line liquor which adheres to the outfide of the cryftals
may be abforbed by merely fpreadirrg them on filter¬
ing paper.—Hence we are furnifhed with a better
method of fhooting falts into large and well formed
cryftals than merely by diffolving them in water ;
namely, by adding to the folutions when fet to cry¬
ftallize, a certain quantity of acid or alkaline liquor,
according to the nature of the falls themfelves. Thefe
additions, however, are not equally proper for all
falts; and it is not yet determined wdiat kinds of falts
. ought to be cryftallized in alkaline, and what in acid,
liquors.—Soluble tartar and Seignette’s fait cryftal¬
lize beft when the liquor is alkaline. Sal fedativus,
fal Glauberi, and fal polychreft, require an acid if cry¬
ftallized in the cold ; but fal polycreft forms into ve¬
ry fine and large cryftals when the folution is alkaline,
and kept as hot as the hand can eaftly bear.
The beft general dirstftion that can be given U’ith
regard to the regular cryftallization of falts is, that they
ought to be fet to cryftallize in as large a quantity at
once as polhble; and this, as far as we have obferved,
w ithout any limit; for by this means, the cryftals are
formed much larger and better figured than they pof-
fibly can be by any other method hitherto known.—
As to the form of the vefl’els in which falts are to be
cryftallized, little can be faid with certainty. They
are generally fiat, and wider at top than at the bot¬
tom. The only proper material, in the large way, is
y j lead.
Riftilla- 6. Distillatiok. This is a kind »f evaporation ;
don. only in fuch a manner, that the part of the liquor eva¬
porated is not diffipated in the air, but preferved, by
making the fteam pafs through a fpiral pipe, which
goes tin ough a large veflel full of cold water, or into
cold glafs receivers.'
This is one of the moft common chemical operati¬
ons ; and as there are a variety of fubjeifts Which re¬
quire to be diftilled^^ihere is confequently a coniider-
able variety both in the form of the diftilling veflels to
be ufed on different occafions, and likewife m the ma¬
terials of which they are made, as well as the ma¬
nagement of the fire during the lime of the operation.
The moft fimple and eafily performed diftillation Theory.
is that by the common copper ftill, (fig. 3). It con- piatelxxvii»
fifts of two parts; one called the body, and the other
the bead. The body is a cylindrical veffel of cop¬
per, which is fometimes tinned over in the infide;
but where diftillation is performed without any re¬
gard to the refiduum, the tinning is ufelefs. The up¬
per part of the body terminates in a kind of arch, in
the middle of which is a circular aperture, about one
half, or fomething lefs, in diameter, of the breadth of
the whole body.—Into this aperture, a round head,
made likewife of copper, is fitted, fo as to be remove¬
able at pleafure. In the top, or fometimes in the fide
of the head, is inferted a pewter pipe, which commu¬
nicates with a fpiral one of the fame metal, that pafies
through a large wooden velfel, called the refrigeratory,
filled with cold water ; each of its ends projecting a
little above and below. The ftill is to be filled two
thirds full of the fubftance to be diftiiled, the head put
on, and the junttures w'ell ciofed with a mixture of
lintfeed meal and water, or common flour or chalk and
water will anfwer the lame purpofe. This mixture
is called the luting, or lute. A fire being kindled un¬
der the ftill, the vapours will arife; and, being con-
denied by the cold water through which the .fpiral
pipe called the worm paffes, -will run in a ftream
more or lefs ftrong as the fire is more or lefs haftiiy
urged, and is-catched in a receiver fet underneath.
This kind of diftilling veffels is proper for procuring
the eflential oils of "vegetables, vinous fpirits from fer¬
mented liquors, aud for the rectification of thefe after
they are once diftilled. Even the acetous acid may
be very conveniently diftilled in a copper veffel, pro¬
vided the worm and all the defcending parts of the
pipe which communicates with it be of pewter, other-
wife a mifchievous impregnation of copper would be
communicated to the diftiiled vinegar. The reafon
of this is, that copper is not diffolved by vinegar, or
in very fmall quantity, when that acid is boiled in it;
but if the metal is expofed to the action of the acid
when cold, or to its vapours, a confulerable diffoluti-
on takes place. For this reafon, too, the ftill mu ft be
walhed out after the operation while it continues hot,
and muft be very carefully freed from the leaft re¬
mains of acid, otherwife it will be much corroded.
Copper-ftiils ought to be of as large a fize as pof-
fible : but Dr Lewis veryjuftly obferves, that, in com¬
mon ones, the width of the worm is by no means pro¬
portionable to the Capacity of the ftill; hence the va¬
pour which iffties from a large furface being violently
forced through a finall tube, meets with fo much re-
fiftance as fometimes to blow off the ftill-head. This
inconvenience is ridicuhnifly endeavoured to be pre¬
vented by ftrongly tying or otherwife forcing down
the head ; by which means, if the worm fhouid
happen to be choaked up, a terrible explofien would
enfue: for no ligatures, or apy other obftacle what¬
ever, have yet been found ftrong enough to reftft the
elaftic force of fteam ; and the gt eater obftacle it has
to overcome, the greater would the explofton be.—
Dangers of this-kind might be totally avoided by ha¬
ving the worm of a proper degree ofwidenefs. yg,
Sometimes, however, matters are to be diftilled, Mineral a-
fuch as mineral acid fpirits, which would corrode any cids, how
kind
1822 C H E M
Theory, kind of metalline veflels; and for thefe only earth, or
   the clofelt kind of llone-ware, can be ufcd. Thele
are more ealily condenfed than the fleams of aqueous
or vinous liquors, and therefore do not require to be
paired through a pipe of fuch a length as is ufed for
condenling the fleams from the common flill. In thefe
cafes, where a violent heat is not r.ecellary, and the
77 diflillation is to be performed in glafs veffels, the re-
Retort. tort is ufed (fig, 4.) When a fluid is to be put into
this vcffel, the retort mufl be laid upon its back on
land, or any other foft matter that will fupport it
without breaking. A funnel muft alfo be procured
with a long Item, and a little crooked at the extremi¬
ty, that the liquor may pals at once into the belly of
the retort, without touching any part of its neck; o-
therwjfe the quantity which adhered to the neck
would pafs into the receiver when the retort was pla¬
ced in a proper fituation for diflilling, and foul the
produce. When the veffel is properly filled, which
•ought never to be above two thirds, it is to be fet in
a land bath ; that is, in an iron pot, of a proper thick-
nefs, and covered over in the bottom, to the depth
of one or two inches, with dry fand. When the re¬
tort is put in, fo as to ftand on its bottom, the pot is to
be filled up with fand, as far as the neck of tire retort.
A glafs receiver is then to be applied, which ought to
be as large as poffible, and likewife pretty ftrong, for
which reafon it will be proper not to let the capacity
of it be above what is neceffary to hold ten gallons.
In the hinder part of it fhould be drilled a fmall hole,
which may be occafionally fhut by a fmall wooden peg.
The mouth of the receiver ought to be fo wide as to
let the nofe of the retort enter to the middle of it, or
very near it; for if the vapours are difcharged very
near the luting, they will aft upon it much more
ftrongly than when at a diflance. It is likewife pro¬
per to have the neck of the retort as wide as may be;
for this has a very great effeft in the condenfation,
by prefenting a larger fur face to the condenfing va-
78 pour.
* fPr The luting for acid fpirits ought to be very diffe-
ac pints. rent from tpat ufe(j jn other diltillations ; for thefe will
penetrate the common lutes fo as to make them liquid
and fall down into the receiver. Some have ufed re¬
torts, the necks of which were ground to the recei¬
vers with emery; but thefe are very difficult to be
procured, and are expenfive, and confequently have
never come into general ufe. Various kinds of lutes
have been propofed, but the preference feems due to
a mixture of clay and land. We are not to under-
Iland, however, that every kind of clay is fit for this
purpofe : it muff: only be fuch as is not at all, or very
little, affefted by acids ; and this quality is only poffef-
fed by that kind of which tobacco-pipes is made. Trial
ought to be made of this before the diflillation is be¬
gun, by pouring a little nitrous acid on the clay in¬
tended to be made ufe of. If a violent effervefcence
is raifed, we may be fure that the clay is unfit for the
purpofe. Finely powdered alabafler would anfwer
extremely well, had it the duftility of clay. As this
kind of lute remains foft for a confiderable time, it
ought to be farther fecured by a bit of rag fpread with
fome flrong cement, fuch as quicklime mixed with
the white of an egg, i?c. Matters, however, ought
I S T R Y. Part I.
to be managed in fuch a manner, that the luting may Theory.
give way, rather than the veffels bur ft.; which would "
not only occafion a certain lofs of the materials, but
might endanger the perfons who were Handing by.
The iron pots commonly ufed for diflillations by the 79
fand-hath, or balneum arena, are commonly made very Bain?™*
thick; and are to be fold at large founderies, under aren*'
the name offand-pots. The fiiape of thefe, however,
is by no means eligible : for, as they are of a figure
nearly cylindrical, if the retort is of fuch a fize as al-
mofl to fill their cavity, it cannot be put into them
when full, and often pretty heavy, without great dan¬
ger of touching the fides of the pot; and in this cafe,
touching and breaking are fynonimous expreflions. It
is much better, therefore, to have them in the figure
of a punch-bowl; and the common call-iron kettles,
which may be had much cheaper than the land-pots
ufually fold, anfwer extremely well. If the diflilling
veffel is placed in a pot filled with water, the.diflilla¬
tion is fa id to be performed in a water-bath, or bal¬
neum maria.
When the matter to be condenfed is very volatile,
a number of open receivers with two necks, called 80
adapters, (fig. 7.) may be ul'ed, with a dole receiver Adoptersor
at the end. Each of thefe adopters mufl be luted with alu^e*s-
as much care as when only a fingle receiver is made
ufo of.' VefTtls of a fimilar kind were formerly much
ufed by chemifls for particular fublimations, under the
name of aludels.
Formerly, inftead of retorts, a veflelcalled a cucurbit,
(fig. 5, and 6.) with a head like the common ftill, called
an alembic, were ufed; but the more fimple figure of
the retort gives it greatly the preference. It is but
feldom that veffels of this kind are ufeful, which will,
be taken notice of when defcribing the particular ope¬
rations ; tfnd if at any time an alembic head fhould be
neceffary, its ule may be fuperfeded by a crooked
glafs tube, which will anfwer the purpofe equally
well.
Sometimes a very violent fire is required in diflil¬
lations by the retort. Here, where it is pofiible, glafs
or earthen veffels fliould be avoided, and iron pots fub-
flituted in their Head. The hardefl and belt call iron,
however, will at lafl melt by a vehement heat; and
therefore there is a neceflity for ufing earthen ware,
or coated glafs. This lafl is better than moll kinds
of earthen ware, as being lefs porous; for when the
vefl’el is urged by a very intenfe heat, the glafs melts,
and forms a kind of femivitreous compound with the
infide of the coating, fo that its figure is flill prefer-
ved, and the accidental cracks in the luting are filled
up. 81
For coating of glaffes, mixtures of colcothar of vi- Coating of
triol, fand, iron filings, blood, chopped hair, &c. have
been recommended. We cannot help thinking, how¬
ever, that the fimple mixture of tobacco-pipe clay and
fand is preferable to any other ; efpecially if, as Dr
Black direfts, that part next the glafs is mixed with
charcoal dull.
The proportions recommended by the Doftor for
luting the joints of veffels, are, four parts of fand, and
one of clay; but, for lining the infides of furnaces, and,
we fliould think, likewife for coating glafs veffels, he
direfts 6 or 7 of fand to 1 of clay ; that the contrac¬
tion
Parti. C H E M
Theory, tion of the clay in drying may thereby be the more
   effe&ually prevented. Befides this, he diredls a mix¬
ture of three parts of charcoal-dult with one of clay,
to be put next the furnace itfelf, as being more apt to
confine the heat; but poflibly the firit compolition
might be fufficient for glafles.
The coating of large glafles muft be a very trouble-
fome and tedious operation; and, therefore, coated
glafs is never ufed but in experiments. When'lafge
diftillations are to be performed in the way of trade,
recourfe muff be had either to iron pots, or to earthen
ware. Of the moft proper kinds of earthen ware for
refilling violent heats, we lhall take notice under the
article Fufion.
In all dillillations by the retort, a confiderable quan¬
tity of air, or other incondenfible vapour, is extrica¬
ted ; and to this it is abfolutely neceflTary to give vent,
or the veflels would be burft, or the receiver thrown
, off. For this purpofe, Dr Lewis recommends an open
pipe to be inlerted at the luting, of fuch an height as
will not allow any of the vapour to efcape ; but this
we cannot approve of, as by that means a conftant
communication is formed between the external atmo-
fphere, and the matters contained in the retort and
receiver, which is at all times to be avoided as much
as poffible, and in fome cafes, as the diftillation of phofi-
phorus, would be very dangerous. The having a
fmall hole drilled in the receiver, which is to be now
and then opened, mull anfwer the purpofe much bet¬
ter, although it takes more attendance ; but if the ope¬
rator is obliged to leave the veifels for fome time, it
will be convenient either to leave the little,hole open,
or to contrive it fo that the wooden peg may be.pulh-
ed out with lefs force than is fufficient to Break the
g lute.
SuMima- 7. Sublimation. This, properlyfpeaking, is only
tion. the dillillation of a dry fubftance ; and therefore, when
volatile matters, fuch as fait of hartlhorn, are to be
fublimed, -the operation is performed in a glafs retort
fet in a fand bath, and the fait pafles over into the re¬
ceiver. The cucurbit and alembic were formerly
much in ufe for this purpofe ; and a blind head, with¬
out any fpout, was applied. A much fimpler ap¬
paratus, however, is now made ufe of. A globe
made <Tf very thin glafs, or an oblong veffel of the
fame kind, anfwers the more common purpofesof fub-
limation. For experiments, Florence ffalks are ex¬
cellent ; as being both very cheap, and having the ne-
ceffary lhape and thinnel's requifite for bearing the
heat without cracking. The matter to be fublimed
muff not, on almoft any occafion, take up more than
' a third part of the fubliming veffel. It is to be fet in
a fand-bath, that the heat may be more equally appli¬
ed than it could otherwife be. The heat muff be no
greater, or very little, than is neceflary for fublima-
' tion, or it will be in danger of flying out at the mouth
of the fubliming veffel, or of choaking it up fo as to
burft. The upper part of the veflel, too, muff by no
means be kept cool, but {lightly covered with fand,
that the matter may fettle in a kind of half-melted
{late, and will thus form a compact, hard cake, which
is the appearance fublimates are expected to have.
Hence this operation requires a good deal of caution,
and is not very eafily performed.
I S T R Y. 1823
8. Deflagration. This operation is always per- Theory.
formed by means of nitre, except in making the ^
flowers of zinc. It requires open veflels of earth, or Deflagra-
iron; the latter are very apt to be corroded, and the tion.
former to imbibe part of the matter. To perform
this procefs with fafety, and without lofs, the nitre
ought to be mixed with whatever matter is to be de¬
flagrated with it, and thrown by little and little into
the veflel previoufly made red-hot. If much is put in
at once, a great deal will be thrown out by the violent
commotion; and to perform this operation in clofe
veflels is in a manner impoflible, from the prodigious
quantity of elaffic vapour generated by the nitre. Care
muft alfo be taken to remove the whole mixture to
fome diftance from the fire, and not to bring back any
fpark from the quantity deflagrating, with the fpoon
which puts it in ■, otherwife the whole would irreme¬
diably be confumed at once. 84
9. Calcination. This is the fubje&ing any matter Calcination*
to a heat ib violent, as to diflipate fome part of it,
without melting what remains. It is often pradlifed
on metallic fubftances, particularly lead, for obtaining
the calx of that metal called minium, or red lead.
This operation, as indeed all other chemical ones,
is bell performed in large quantities, where a parti¬
cular furnace is conftnufted on purpofe, and a fire kept
on day and night without interruption. The flame is
made to play over the furface of the metal, and it is
continually Itirred fo as to expofe different parcels of
it to the action of the heat.
10. Fusion. This is when a folid body is expofed FufioH*
to fuch a degree of heat as makes it pal’s from a folid
to a fluid ftate; and as different lubllances are pof-
fefled of very different degrees of fufibility, the de¬
grees of melting heat are very various.
Befides the true fufion, there are fome kinds of fairs
which retain fo large a proportion of water in their
cryftals, as to become entirely fluid upon being expo-
fed to a very fmall degree of heat. This is commonly
called the matery fufion ; but is really a folution of the
fait in that quantity of water retained by it in its
cryftaffine form : for fuch falls afterwards become fo¬
lid by the evaporation of the water they contained ;
and then require a ftxong red heat to melt them tho¬
roughly, or perhaps are abfolntely unfufible.
Of all known fubftances, umffnous and inflammable
ones become fluid with the lead heat; then come the
more fufible metals, lead, tin, and antimony; then
fome of the more fufible faks; and then the harder
metals, filver; gold, copper, and iron ; then the mix¬
tures for making glafs; and laft of all, the metal cal¬
led ptatina, which has hitherto been incapable of fu¬
fion, except by the violent action of the fan-beams in
the focus of a large burning glafs. This firbftance
feems to be the moft refractory of all others, even the
hardeft flirits melting into g|afs long before it. (See
Platina.)
Fufion of fmall quantities of matter is ufually per¬
formed in pots called Crucibles; which, as they are re¬
quired to Hand a very violent heat, muft be made of
. the moft refraCtory materials poflible. ,
The making of crucibles belongs properly to the Cmcitles,
potter; but as a chsmift ought to be the judge of their proper ma-
compofition, we lhall here give fome account of the leriilis f°r*
different
1824
Theory, different attempts to make thefe veflels of the necef-
  1'ary ftrength.
All earthen veffels are compofed, at leaft partly, of
that kind which is called the argillaceous earth or clay,
becaufe thefe only have the neceflary dudlility, and
can be formed into veffels of the proper form. Pure
clay is, by itfelf, abfolutely unfufible; but is exceed¬
ingly apt to crack when expofed to hidden changes of
heat and cold. It is alfo very apt to melt when mix¬
ed with other fubftances, fuch as calcareous earths, foe.
When mixed in a certain proportion with other
materials, they are changed by violent heat into a
kind of half-melted fubltance,.fuch as our ftone-bottles.
They cannot be melted completely, however, by al-
mofl: any fire ; they are alfo very compadt, and will
contain the moft fufible Yubftances, even glafs of lead
itfelf; but as they are very apt to crack from fudden
changes of heat and cold, they are not fo much ufed ;
yet, on particular occafions, they are the only ones
which can be made ufe of.
The more dehfe any kind of veffels are, the more
apt they are, in general, to break, by a fudden appli¬
cation ofvheat, or cold : hence crucibles are not, in
general, made of the greatefl denfity poflible; which
is not at all times required. Thofe made at Heffe, in
Germany, have had the beft reputation for a long
time. Mr Pott, member of the academy of fciences
at Berlin, hath determined the compofition of thefe
crucibles to be, one part of good refradtory clay, mix¬
ed with two parts of fand, of a middling finenefs, from
which the fineft part has been fifted. By fifting the
finer particles from the fand, too great compadlnefs is
avoided: but at the fame time this mixture renders
them apt to be corroded by vitrifying matters kept a
long time in fufion ; for thefe do not fail to adt upon
the fand contained in the compofition of the crucible,
and, forming a vitreons mafs, at la ft run through it.
This inconvenience is prevented, by mixing, inftead
of fand, a good baked clay in grofs powder. Of a
compofition of this kind are made the glafs-houfe pots,
which fometimes fuftain the violent heat employed in
making glafs, for feveral months. They are, how-
ever, gradually confumed by the glafs, and become
g7 conftantly more and more thin.
Platina, a As the containing veflel, however, muft always be
defirable expofed to a more violent heat than what is contain-
matenal. e{j in jt) cruciij]es OUght to - be formed of fuch mate¬
rials as are not vitrifiable by any heat whatever. But,
from the attempts made to melt platina, it appears,
that of all known,fubftances it would be the moft de-
firable for a melting-velfel. Heffian crucibles, glafs-
houfe pots, Sturbridge-clay, in ftiort every fubftance
which could be thought of to refift the moft violent
heat, were melted in fuch a manner as even to flop
up the pipes of large bellows, while platina was not
altered in the leaft; and Meffrs Macquer and Beaume
have fhewn, that though platina cannot be melted fo
as to call veflels of it, it may neverthelefs be cupelled
with lead fo as to become malleable, and thus veflels
might otherwife be made from that fubftance.
The extreme fcarcity of this mineral, however,
leaves no room to hope any thing from it; and Mr
Pott has made fo many experiments upon clays mixed
with different fubftances, that he has in a manner ex-
Part I.
haufted the fubjeeft. The bafts of all his compofitions Theory.
was clay. This he mixed in different proportions
with metallic calces, calcined bones, calcareous earths,
talcs, amianthus, afoeftus, pumice-ftones, tripoli, and
many others ; but he did not obtain a perfedl compo¬
fition from any of them. Tbe~beft Crucibles, accord¬
ing to Scheffer, cannot eaftly contain metals diflblved
by fulphur, in the operation of parting by means of
fulphur. They may be made much more durable and
folid, by fteeping them a few days in linfeed-oil, and
ftrewing powdered borax upon them before they are
dried. gg
The refults of Mr Pott’s experiments are. 1. Cru- Mr Pott’s
cibles made of fat clays are more apt to crack when directions,
expofed to fudden heat, than thofe which are made of
lean or meagre clays. Meagre clays are thofe which
contain a confiderable quantity of fand along with the
pure argillaceous earth : mAfat clays are thofe which
contain but little. 2. Some crucibles become porous
by long expofure to the fire, and imbibe part of the
contained metals. This may be prevented, by glazing
the internal and external furfaces; which is done, by
moiftening thefe with oil of tartar, or by ftrewing up¬
on them, when wetted with water, powdered glafs of
borax. Thefe glazings are not capable of containing
glafs of lead. 3. Crucibles made of burnt clay grofsly
powdered, together with unburnt clay, were much
lefs liable to crack by heat than crucibles made of the
fame materials where the burnt clay was finely pow¬
dered, or than crucibles made entirely of unburnt clay.
4. If the quantity of unburnt clay be too great, the
crucible will be apt to crack in the fire. Crucibles
made of 10 ounces of unburnt clay, 10 ounces of grofs¬
ly powdered burnt clay, and three drachms of calcined
vitriol, are capable of retaining melted metals, but are
pervaded by glafs of lead. The following compofition
is better than the preceding : Seven ounces of un burnt
clay, 14 ounces of grofsly powdered burnt clay, and
one drachm of calx of vitriol. Thefe crucibles may
be rendered more capable of containing glafs of lead,
by lining their internal furfaces, before they are ba¬
ked, with unburnt clay diluted with water. They may
be further ftrengthened by making them thicker than
is ufually done; or by covering their external furfaces
with fome unburnt clay, which is called arming them. „
5- The compofition of crucibles moft capable of con- Materials
taining the glafs of lead, was 18 parts of grofsly pow- moft capa-
dered burnt clay, as much unburnt clay, and one part bleofrelift-
of fufible fpar. Thefe crucibles muft not, however, !nS g^fs of
be expofed too fuddenly to a violent heat. 6. Cruci- lea<**
bles capable of containing glafs of lead very well, were
made of 24 parts of unburnt clay, four parts of burnt
clay, and one part of chalk. Thefe require to be ar¬
med. 7. Plume alum powdered, and mixed with
whites of eggs and water, being applied to the inter¬
nal furface of a Heflian crucible, enabled it to retain
for a long time glafs of lead in fufion. 8. One part
of clay, and two parts of Spanilh chalk, made very good
crucibles. The fubftance called Spanifh chalk is not
a calcareous earth, but appears to be a kind of fteati-
tes. 9. Two parts of Spanilh chalk, and one part of
powdered tabacco-pipes, made good lining for common
crucibles. 10. Eight parts of Spanilh chalk, as much
burnt clay, and one part of litharge, made folid cruci-
CHEMISTRY.
Parti. C H E M I
Theory. Wes. rr. Crucibles made of Wack lead are fitter than
   — Helfian crucibles for melting metals; but they are fo
porous, that fufed falts pals entirely through them.
They are more tenacious than Heffian crucibles, are
not lb apt to burft in pieces, and are more durable.
12. Crucibles placed with their bottoms upwards, are
lei's apt to be cracked during the baking, than when
placed differently. 13. The pafle of which crucibles
are made, ought not to be too moift ; elfe, when
dried and baked, they will not be fufficiendy com-
pabl: hence they ought not to be lo moift as to be
capable of being turned on a potter’s lathe ; but they
mull be formed in brafs or wooden moulds.
Dr Lewis’s On this fubjedl Dr Lewis hath alfo made feveral
obferva- obl'ervations, the principal of which are, 1. Pure clay
tions. Ibftened to a due confidence for being worked, not
only coheres together, but fticks to the hands. In
drying, it contracts r inch or more in 12 ; and hence
it is very apt to crack, unlefs it is dried exceeding
flowly. In burning, it is fubjedl to the fame incon¬
venience, unlel's very flowly and gradually heated.
When thoroughly burnt, if it has efcaped thole imper¬
fections, it proves folid and compaCt; and fo hard as
to ftrike fire with fteel. Veffels made of it are not
penetrated by any kind of liquid.; and refift falts and
glafles brought into the thinneft fufion, excepting thofe
which by degrees corrode and diflblve the earth itfelf,
as glafs of lead; and even this penetrating glafs, is re¬
filled by it better than by almoft any other earth ; but,
in counterbalance to thefe good qualities, they cannot
be heated or cooled, but with fuch precautions as can
rarely be complied with in the way of bufinefs, with¬
out cracking, or flying in pieces.
2. Clay that has been once expofed to any confi-
derable degrees of hear, and then powdered, has no
longer any tenacity. Frelh clay, divided by a due
proportion of this powder, proves lefs tenacious than
by itfelf; not flicking to the hands, though cohering
fufficiently together. It fhrinks lefs in drying, is lefs
apt to crack, and lefs fufceptible of injury from altera¬
tions of heat and cold; but at the fame time is lefs folid
and compaCl. Coniiderable differences are obferved in
thefe refpeCts ; not only according to the quantity of
dividing matter, but according as it is in finer or coar-
fer powder.
3. Veflels made with a moderate proportion of fine
powder, as half the weight of the clay, are compaCt
and folid, but ftill very apt to crack, from hidden heat
or cold : thofe with a larger proportion, as twice or
thrice the quantity of the clay, are free from that im¬
perfection, but fo friable as to crumble between the fin¬
gers. Nor does there appear to be any medium be¬
tween a difpofition to crack, and to crumble ; all the
compounds made of clay and fine powders having the
one or the other, or both imperfeClions. Coarfer
powders of the fize of middling fand, form, with an
equal weight of clay, compounds fufficiently folid,
and much lefs apt to crack than the mixtures with
fine powders. Two parts of coarfe powder, and
one of clay, prove moderately folid, and but little
difpofed to crack; a mixture of three parts and one,
though Jpeated and cooled fuddenly, does not crack
at all, but fuffers very fluid fubftances to tranfude
through it; folidity, and refiftance to quick vicifli-
VOL. III.
S T R Y. 1825
tudes of heat and cold, feeminghere alfo to be incom- Theory.
patible.
4. Pure clay, mixed with pure clay that has been
burnt, is no other than one fimple earth ; and is nei¬
ther to be melted, nor foftened, nor made in any de¬
gree tranfparent, with the moft intenfe fires.
5. Mixtures of clay with gypfeous earths bum
whiter than clay alone ; in certain proportions, as two
parts of clay to three of gypfum, they become, in a
moderate fire, femi-tranlparent, and in a ftrong one
they melt.
6. Calcareous earths in fmall proportion bake tole¬
rably compadt and white; and added to other com-
pofitions, feem to improve their compa<5lnefs. If the
quantity of the calcareous earth nearly equals that of
the clay, the mixture melts into a yellow glafs; if it
confiderably exceeds, the produft acquires the quali¬
ties of quicklime.
7. Velfels made from clay and fand, in whatever
proportion, do not melt in the ftrongeft fire ; but they
fometimes bend or foften, lb as to yield to the tongs.
Glafles in thin fufion penetrate them by dilfolving the
fand. If gypfeous or calcareous earths are urged in
fuch crucibles with a vehement heat, the veflels and
their contents run all into one mafs. In moderate
fires, thefe veflels prove tolerably compaft, and retain
moft kinds of falts in fufion: but they are liable to *
crack, efpecially when large ; and do not long fuftain
melted metals, being burft by their weight. Such are
the Heflian crucibles.
8. Mixtures of clay and black-lead, which feems a
fpecies of talc, are not liable to crack from alterna¬
tions of heat and cold; but are extremely porous.
Hence black-lead crucibles anfwer excellently for the
melting of metals, and Hand repeated fufions; whilft
falts flowing thin, tranfude through them almoft as
water through a fieve ; fulphureous bodies, as antimo¬
ny, corrode them.
9. Pure clay, foftened with water, and incruftated
on earthen velfels that have been burnt, does not ad¬
here to them, or fcales off again upon expofure to
the fire ; applied to unburnt veflels, it adheres and in¬
corporates. Divided clay unites with them in both
Hates. Vitreous matters, melted in veflels of pure
clay, adhere fo firmly as not to be feparated; from
velfels of divided clay they may be knocked off by a
hammer.
10. The faline fluxes which promote the fufion of
clay, befides the common ones of all earths, alkali and
borax, are chiefly arfenic fixed by nitre, and thefufible
fait of urine, both which have little effedl on the other
earths though mixed in a large proportion. Nitre
which readily brings the cryftalline earths into fufion,
and fal mirabile and fandiver, powerful fluxes for the
calcareous earths, do not perfedlly vitrify with clay.
Burnt clay does not differ in thefe refpe&s from fuch
as has not been burnt; nor in that Angular property
of vitrifying with gypfeous or calcareous earths, U'i:h-
out any faline or metallic addition ; the utmoft vehe-
mence of fire feeming to deftroy only its ductility, or
that power by which it coheres when its parts are
moiftened with water.
But, though it feems impoflible to make perfect
veflels from mixtures of day in its two different Hates,
16 Y of
1826
C H E M 1 S T R Y.
Part I.
Theory, of burnt and unburnt, more is to be hoped from the
   mixtures which are employed in making porcelain. Ma-
More per- nufadlories of this kind of ware have been attempted
fedt veffels indifferent countries, (fee Porcelain) ; and in fome
to be hoped places the qualities requifite for chemical veffels have
for from been given to it in a very furprifing degree. The count
porce air. ^ Lauraguais, a French nobleman, and member of the
academy of fciences, has diftinguifhed himfelf in a
very eminent manner by attempts of this kind. The
tranflator of the chemical dictionary affures us, that he
had it from a gentleman of undoubted veracity, that
this nobleman having heated a piece of his porcelain
red hot, threw it into cold water, without breaking
<j2 or cracking it.
Mr Reau- The moft ufeful attempt, however, for the purpofes
muFs por- of chemiftry, feems to be the difcovery by Mr Reau-
celain. mur of converting common green glafs into porce¬
lain. This was publifhed fo long ago as the year
1739 ; yel: we have not heard of any chemift, no not
Dr Lewis himfelf, who has made trial of chemical
veffels formed of this fort of porcelain, although the
very ufe to which Mr Reaumur thought this prepara¬
tion could be applicable was that of bringing chemical
veffelsto a degree of perfection which could not other-
wife be done. The following is the refult of Mr
Reaumur’s experiments.
Green glafs, fufrounded with white earthy matters,
as white land, gypfum, or plalter of Paris, ire. and
expofed to a conliderable heat not Itrong enough to
alter irs figure, as that of a potter’s furnace, acquires
different lhades of blue, and by degrees begins to
grow white. On breaking the glafs, the white coat
appears to be compofed of fine, white, glofly, fatin¬
like fibres, running tranfverlly, and parallel to one ano¬
ther ; the glafs in the middle being fcarcely altered.
On continuing the cementation, the change proceeds
further and further, till at length the white fibrous
parts from both Tides meet in the middle, and no ap¬
pearance of glafs remains. By this means, entire vef-
1'tls of glafs may be changed into porcelain.
The fubltance into which glafs is thus converted, is
opaque, compact; internally of great whitenefs, equal
to that of the fineft china-ware ; but, externally, of a
much duller hue. It is confiderably harder than glafs,
much lefs fufible in the fire, and fuftains alterations of
heat and cold without injury. VefTels of it, cold, bear
boiling liquors; and may be placed on the fire at once,
without danger of their cracking. “ I have put a vef-
fel of this porcelain (fays the author) into a forge,
fiurrounded it with coals, and kept vehemently blow¬
ing for near a quarter of an hour; I have melted
glaf’s in this veflel, without its having fuffered any in¬
jury in its figure.” If means could be found of giving
the outlide a whitenefs equal to the internal part, glafs
veffels might thus be converted into a valuable kind
of porcelain, fuperior to all that have hitherto been
made. Chemiftry, fays he, may receive from this
difcovery, in its prefent ftate, fiich veffels as have been
long wanted ; veffels which, with the compactnefs
and impenetrability of glafs, are alfo free from its in¬
conveniences.
The common green glafs bottles yield a porcelain
of tolerable beauty; window-glafles, and drinking-
glaffes, a much inferior one ; while the finer kinds
of cryftalline glafies afforded none at all. With re- Theory.
gard to the cementing materials, he found white fand —.
and gypfum, or rather a mixture of both, to anfwer
beft. Coloured earths generally make the external
furface of a deeper er lighter brown colour ; foot and
charcoal, of a deep black, the internal part being al¬
ways white.
The account of this kind of porcelain given by Mr Dr Lewis’*
Reaumur, induced Dr Lewis, who had alf'o obierved «Teri-
the fame changes on the bottom of glafs-retorts ex- nlents•
pofed to violent heat in a fand-bath, to make further
experiments on this matter, an account of which he
has publifhed in his Fhjlofophical Conimercs of Arts.
The refults of his experiments were, 1. Green glafs,
cemented with white land, received no change in a
heat below ignition. 2. In a low red heat, the change
proceeded exceeding llowly ; and in a ftrong red heat,
approaching to white, the thickeft pieces of glafs
bottles were thoroughly converted in the {pace of
three hours. 3. By continued heat, the glals luffered
the following progreflive changes : firft, its furface
becanre blue, its tranfparency was diminifhed, and a
yellowifh hue was obfervable when it was held be¬
tween t(ie eye and the light. Afterwards it was
changed a little way on both Tides into a white fub-
ftance, externally ftill bluifh ; and, as this change ad¬
vanced ftill further and further within the glals, the
colour of the vitreous part in the middle approached
nearer to yellow : the white coat was of a fine fi¬
brous texture, and the fibres were difpofed nearly
parallel to one another, and tranfverfe to the thick-
nefs of the piece: by degrees the glafs became white
and fibrous throughout, the external bluifhnefs at the
fame time going off, and being fucceeded by a dull
whitifh or dun colour. By a ftill longer continuance
in the fire, the fibres were changed gradually from
the external to the internal part, and converted into
grains; and the texture was then not unlike that of
common porcelain. The grains, at firft fine and
fomewhat glolfy, became by degrees larger and dul¬
ler ; and at laft the fubftance of the glafs became po¬
rous and friable, like a mafs of white fand flightiy co¬
hering. 4. Concerning the qualities of this kind of
porcelain, Dr Lewis obferves, that, while it remain¬
ed in the fibrous ftate, it was harder than common
glafs, and more able to refift the changes of heat and
cold than glafs, or even porcelain ; but, in a mode¬
rate white heat, was fufible into a fubftance not fi¬
brous, but vitreous and fmooth, like white enamel :
that when its texture had become coarfely granulated,
it was now much fofter and unfufihle : and laftly, that
when fome coarfely granulated unfufible pieces, which,
with'the continuance of a moderate heat, would have
become porous and friable, were fuddenly expofed to
an intenfe fire, they were rendered remarkably more
compadl than before ; the folidity of fome of them
being fuperior to that of any other ware.
It feems furpriling that this able chemift, who, on This fub-
other occafions, has the improvements of the arts fo jeft ftill
much at heart, did not put fome veffels of this kind imperfeft,
of porcelain to other fevere trials, befides attempting
to fufe it by itf’elf with a violent fire : for though
pieces of it were abfolutely unfufible, we ar^ not fure
but they might have been corroded by alkaline fairs,
acids.
Part I.
Theory.
95
Stone-ware
veiPels cor¬
roded.
96 .
Maceration,
Levigation
CHEMISTRY.
1827
acids, calcareous earths, or glafs of lead ; nay, it ftiould
1 feem very probable that they would have been fo,
in which cafe they would not be much fuperior to the
velfels made from earthy materials. When a firft-
rate chemilt publiflies any thing in an imperfeft ftate,
inferior ones are difcouraged from attempting to finifh
what he has begun ; and thus, notwithitanding that
tliefe' experiments have been fo long publifhed, no¬
body has yet attempted to inveftigate the properties
of this kind of porcelain, by getting chemical velfels
made of it, and trying how they aniwer for crucibles,
or retorts.
All that has been faid concerning the proper mate¬
rials for crucibles, mull likewife be applicable to the
materials for retorts, which are required to Hand a
very violent heat. Mr Reaumur’s porcelain bids faireft
for anfwering the purpofe of retorts, as well as cru¬
cibles. The great difadvantage of the common earthen
ones, is, that they fuffer a quantity of volatile and
penetrating vapours to pal’s through them. This is
very obfervable in the diftillation of phofphorus ; and
though this fubltance has not hitherto been ufed for
any purpofe in medicine, and very little in the arts,
its acid only being fometimes ufed as a flux, if velfels
could be made capable of confining all the Hearns, and
at the fame time bearing the heat necelfary for its
diftillation, phofphorus, perhaps, might be obtained in
fuch quantity, as to Ihew that it is a preparation not
altogether ufelefs.
With regard to ftone-ware velfels, and all thofe in
which the compofition of land or flint enters, we lhall
only further obferve, that they will be corroded by
fixed alkaline falts, efpecially of the cauftic kind, in a
very moderate heat. Dr Black, having evaporated
fome cauftic ley in a ftone-ware bafon, and then
melted the dry fait in the fame velfel, found it fo
corroded, as afterwards to be full of fmall holes ; and
he found nothing to refill the adtion of this (alt fo well
as filver.
11. Maceration, or Digestion. This is the
mixing two bodies, generally a folid and a fluid, toge¬
ther, and then expofing them to a moderate degree
of heat for a confiderable length of time, that fo they
may have the better opportunity of acting upon one
another. Digeftion is ufually performed in the glalfes
already mentioned, called i/iatra^fes or bolt-heads;
and is done in a fand heat. When any of the fub-
ftances are very volatile, as fpirit of wine, or the
matter requires to be heated fo confiderably that a
quantity of vapour will be railed, the necks of the
bolt-heads ought to be pretty long ; ok a tin pipe
may be inferted, of fufficient length to prevent the
efcape of any part of the fleam.
, 12. Levigation. This is the reducing any body
to a very fine powder, which lhall feel quite foft be¬
tween the fingers or when put into the mouth. It
is performed by grinding the fubftance upon a flat
marble ftpne, with fome water, or by rubbing it in a
marble mortar. In the large way, levigation is per¬
formed by mills drawn by horfes, or driven by water;
fome of them are fo fmall as to be turned by the hand.
They confift of two fmooth Hones, generally of black
marble, or forae other Hone equally hard, having fe-
veral grooves in each, but made to run in contrary di-
redlions to one another when the mill is fet in mo- Theory.
tion. The matter being mixed with water, is put in
by a funnel, which is fixed into a hole in the upper
Hone, and turns along with it. The under milltone
has round it a wooden ledge, whereby the levigating
matter is confined for fome time, and at length dii-
charged, by an opening made for that purpofe, when
it has accumulated in a certain quantity.
In this operation, when the matters to be levigated
are very- hard, they wear off a part of the mortar, or
Hones on which they are levigated ; fo that a fuh-
itance perfectly hard, and which could not be worn
by any attrition, is as great a defideratum for the
purpofes of levigation, as one which could not be
melted is for thole of fufion. Dr Lewis propofes the
porcelain of Mr Reamur as an improvement for levi¬
gating planes, mortars, ire. becaufe, while in its fi¬
brous ftate, it is confiderably harder than glafs, and
confequently much lefs liable to abrafion by the har¬
der powders.
In many cafes levigation is very much accelerated
by what is called elutriation. This is the method by
which many of the painters colours are prepared of
the requifite finenefs; and is performed by mixing any
fubftance, not totally reduced to the necefiary degree
of finenefs, with a fufficient quantity of water, and
ftirring them well together. The finer parts of the
powder remain fome time fufpeftded in the water,
while the grofler particles fall to the bottom. The
reparation is then eafily made, by pouring off the
water impregnated with thefe fine parts, and com¬
mitting the reft to the levigating mill, when it may
again be wafhed ; and this may be repeated till all
the powder is reduced to the utmoft finenefs. Sub-
ftances foluble in water cannot be levigated in this
manner.
Of Chemical Furnaces.
The two general divifions we have already men¬
tioned of thoie who pra&ife chemiftry, namely, thole
who have no other view than mere experiment, and
thofe who wifh to profit by it, render very different
kinds of furnaces neceffary. For the firft, thofe fur¬
naces are neceffary which are capable of ailing upon
a fmall quantity of matter, yet fufficient for all the
changes which fire can produce, from fimple digeftion,
to the moft perfedt vitrification. For the others, thofe
are to be chofen which can produce the fame changes
upon very large quantities of matter, that as much
may be done at once as poffible. 98
To avoid the trouble and expence of a number of Portable
furnaces, a portable one hath long been a defideratum fumace.
among thoie chemifts who are foqd of making ex¬
periments. One of the heft of thofe, if not the very
beft, that hath yet appeared, is that deferibed in
Shaw’s edition of Boerhaave’s chemiftry, and repre-
fented fig. 1. Plate
This furnace is made of earth ; and, as the work- LXXVII.
manfhip of a furnace requires none of the neatnefs or
elegance which is required in making potters veffels,
any perfon may eafily make a furnace of this kind for
himfelf, who has time and patience for fo doing. With
regard to the moft proper materials, all that we have
faid concerning crucibles and retorts niuft be appli-
10 Y 2 cable
1828 C H E M I
Theory, cable to the materials for conftruiting a furnace ; only
here we need not care fo much for the porofity, or
difpofition to crumble, as when crucibles or other
diftilling veflels are to be made.
Plate-iron is commonly directed for the outfide of
portable furnaces; but vve cannot help thinking this
is a very needlefs expence, feeing the coating which
it neceflarily requires on the inlide may be fuppofed
to harden to fuch a degree as foon to iupport itlelf,
without any afliftance from the plate-iron. This will
be the lels neceflary, if we confider, that, for the
thicknefs of the walls of any furnace where a conlide-
rable heat is wanted, two or three inches are by no
means fufficient. When the infide of a furnace is
heated, the walls, if very thin, are foon penetrated
by the heat, and great part of it by this means dilli-
pated in the air. If they are of a lufficient thicknefs,
the heat cannot penetrate fo eafily; and thus the inner
part of the furnace preferves the heat of the fuel, and
communicates it to the contained veifel. In the con-
ftru&ion of a portable furnace, therefore, it will be
convenient to have all parts of it fix inches thick at
lead. This will allb give it a fufficient degree of
ftrength ; and, as it is formed of feveral different
pieces, no inconvenience can follow from the weight
of each of them taken feparately.
In Boerhaave’s chemiftry, this furnace is reprefent-
ed as narrower at bottom than at the top ; but we
cannot fuppofe any good reafon for fuch a form, fee¬
ing a cylindrical one behoved to anfwer every purpofe
much better, as allowing a larger quantity of air to
pafs through the fuel, and likewife not being fo apt
to be overturned as it neceffarily muff be where the
upper part is confiderably heavier than the lower. We
have, therefore, given a reprefentation of it as of a
cylindrical form.
The furnace confifts of five, or more parts. C, re-
prefents the dome, or top of the furnace, with a ffiort
earthen funnel E for tranfmitting the fmoke. B, B, B,
are moveable cylinders of earth, each provided with
a door D, D, D. In Boerhaave’s chemiftry thefe doors
are reprefented as having iron hinges and latchets;
but they may be formed to more advantage of fquare
pieces of earth, having two holes in the middle, by
which they may be occafionally taken out, by intro¬
ducing an iron fork. In like manner, the domes and
cylinders, in Boerhaave’s chemiftry, are reprefented
with iron handles; but they may be almoft as eafily
taken off by the cheaper contrivance of having four
holes in each, two directly oppofite to one another,
into which two ffiort forks may be introduced when
the parts are to be feparated.
In the lowermoft cylinder is to be placed an iron-
grate, a little below the door, for fupporting the
fire. In the under part is a fmall hole, big enough
for introducing the pipe of a pair of good perpe¬
tual bellows, when the fire is to be violently ex¬
cited. Dr Lewis prefers the organ-bellows to any
other kind.
When the bellows is ufed, the whole muft ftand
upon a clofe cylinder A, that the air may be confined,
and made to pafs through the fuel. By having more
bellowfes, the fire may be excited to a moft intenfe
degree. In this cafe, the pipe of every one of them
S T R Y. P^rtl.
muft enter the cylinder B. Theory.
Each of the cylinders ffiould have, in its upper part,   
a round hole, oppofite to its door, for carrying off
the fmoke, by means of a pipe inferted into it, when
the furnace is ufed for diftillations by the fand-bath.
Each cylinder ought likewife to have a femicircular
cut in the oppofite fides, both above and below, that
when the under cut of the upper cylinder is brought
diredtly above the upper cut of the lower one, a per-
fedt circle may be formed. Thefe are for giving a
pafi’age to the necks of retorts, when diftillation by
the retort is to be performed. The holes may be
occafionally filled with floppies made of the fame ma¬
terials with the body of the furnace.
The moft convenient fituation for a furnace of this
kind would be under a chimney ; the vent of which
might be eafily flopped up by a broad plate of iron,
in which a hole ought to be cut for the reception of
the earthen tube of the dome. By this means the
ufe of a long tube, which at any rate muft be very
troublefome, might be eafily avoided, and a very
ftrong blaft of air would pals through the fuel. If it
is found convenient to place the furnace at fome di-
ftance from the chimney, a plate-iron pipe, muft:
be procured to fit the earthen pipe of the dome, and
carry the fmoke into the chimney. This pipe will
alfo be of ufe, when the furnace is ufed for diftilla¬
tions by the fand-bath ; it muft then be inferted into
the hole oppofite to the door of any of the cylinders,
and will convey away the fmoke, while the mouth of
the cylinder is totally covered with a fand-pot. ^
For portable furnaces. Dr Lewis greatly recom- Dr Lewis's
mends the large black crucibles, marked n° 60, ’on portable
account of their refilling a violent heat, and being hnnaces.
very eafily cut by a knife or faw, fo that doors, ire.
may be formed in them at pleafure. The bottom
of one of thefe large ones being cut out, a grate is to
be put into the narrow part of it. For grates, the
dodlor recommends call-iron rings, having each three
knobs around them. Thefe knobs go into correfpon-
ding cavities of the outer rings, and the knobs of the
outermoft reft on the crucible, which is to be indented
a little to receive them, that fo the grate may reft
the more firmly, and the furnace not be endangered
from the Iwelling of the iron by heat. When this
is to be made ufe of as a melting-furnace, and a vio¬
lent heat to be excited, another crucible muft be in¬
verted on that which contains the fuel, which ferves
inltead of the dome of the laft mentioned furnace Land
as whatever is faid of it muft likewife be applicable
to the two crucibles when placed above one another,
we need give no farther defeription of the doctor’s
portable furnace. T0Q
No doubt, the great experience of Dr Lewis in objeftion
chemical matters muft give very conliderable weight to their ufe
to any thing he advances ; and the warmth with which in f°me
he recommends thefe furnaces muft convince us, that cafes‘
he has found them abundantly anfwer the purpofes of
experiments. We cannot help thinking, however,
that vffiere a very great and lafting heat is to be given,
the thinnefs, and even the form, of thefe crucibles, is
fome objedlion to their ufe. It is certain that fuch a
. permanent, or, as the workmen call it, a [olid heat,
can never be given where the walls of a furnace are
CHEMISTRY,
Part I.
Theory, thin, as when they are of fufficient thicknefs. They
  are alfo very apt to burlt with great heat ; and, for
this reafon. Dr Lewis defires his furnace to be
ftrengthened with copper hoops. This difpofition to
buril proceeds from the inner parts, which are more
intenfely heated than the outer, expanding more than
thefe do, and confequently burfting them. Hence
the dodtor defires his furnace to be itrengthened alfo
by putting it within another crucible of a larger fize,
and the intermediate fpace to be filled up with a mix¬
ture of lifted allies and water. For moll chemical
procefles, where only a fmall degree of heat is requi-
fite, thefe furnaces anfwer beyond any thing that has
hitherto been attempted. The whole is to be fup-
joi ported by an iron ring with three feet.
Melting When furnaces are ufed in the large way they are
furnace. always built of brick, and each particular operation
fig. 2. has a furnace alloted'for itfelf. The melting-furnace,
where very large quantities of matter are not to be
melted at once, requires only to be built of brick in
fuch a form as we have already deferibed ; only,
as it would perhaps be troublefome to procure a
dome of the proper figure, the forepart of it may be
left entirely open for the admilfion of melting velfels.
The opening may be doled up with bricks and earth,
during the operation. There is no necelfity for ha¬
wing the infide of a circular form ; a fquare one will
anfwer the purpofe equally well. According to the
author of the Chemical Didionary, when the internal
diameter D C of fuch a furnace is 12 or 15 inches, the
diameter of the tube G I, 8 or 9 inches, and its height
18 or abfeet, and when the furnace is well fuppliedwith
fuel, an extreme heat is produced ; in lefs than an
hour the furnace will be white and dazzling like the
fun ; its heat will be equal to the flxongell glafs-houfe
furnace ; and in lefs than two hours will be melted
whatever is fufible in furnaces. The hottell part is at
H F, 4 or 6 inches above the grate. A plate-iron tube
may be advantageoufly fupplied by a ihort chimney of
bricks, built under a pretty high vent, fo as the whole
may eafily be flopped, except that paffage which
tranfmits the fmoke of the furnace. By this means
a very flrong current of air will be made to pafs
through the fuel.
Chemifts have generally believed that a wide and
high afh-hole greatly increafes the power of a melting
furnace ; but this advantage is found to be merely
imaginary, as well as that of introducing the air through
a long tube to the alh-hole ; unlefs where the furnace
is placed in a clofe room, fo that it is neceffary to fur-
nilli a greater blall of air than can ofherwife have ac-
cefs.
For the form of the furnaces neceflary in eflaying
and fmelting of ores, or making glafs, fee Essaying,
,02 Glass, and Smelting.
Stills, fand- When large ftills, fand-pots, ire. are to be fixed,
pots, &c. with a view to daily ufe, it is a matter of no fmall
how to fet. COnfequence to have them put up in a proper manner.
The requifites here are, 1. That the whole force of the
fire (hould be (pent on the diddling vt flel or fand-pot,
except what is neceffarily imbibed by the walls of the
furnace. 2. That the veffels fliould be fet in fuch a
manner as that they may receive heat even from the
furnace walls: for a dill which contains any liquid,
can never be made fo hot as a piece of dry brick. Theory.
3. It is abfolutely neceffary that the force of the fire be
not allowed to colledt itfelf upon one particular part of
the veflel; otherwife that part will foon be dedroyed.
4. The draught of air into furnaces of this kind ought
to be moderate; only fo much as will prevent fmoke.
If a drong blad of air enters, not only a great part of
the heat will be waded by going up the chimney, but
the outfide of the vedel will be calcined every time
the fire is kindled, and thus mud be foon rendered
unfit for ufe.
There are few of the common workmen that are
capable of building furnaces properly ; and it is very
neceffary for a chemid to know when they are pro¬
perly done, and to make the workmen adl according
to his directions. As the dill, or Whatever velfel is to
be fixed, mull have a fupport from the furnace on
which it is built, it is evident the whole of its furface
cannot be expofed to the fire. For this reafon many
of thefe veflels have had only their bottom expofed to
the fire ; no more fpace being left for the aCtion of
the heat, than the mere circular area of the dill bot¬
tom ; and the fire, paffing direClly through a hole in the
back part of the building, which communicated with
a chimney, and confequently had a drong draught,
darce fpent any of its force on the dill, but went fu-
rioufly up the chimney. By this means an extraordi¬
nary wade of fuel was occafioned ; and that part of
the dill-bottom which was next the chimney receiving
the whole force of the flame, was foon dedroyed.
Attempts were made to remedy this inconvenience,
by putting the fire fomething forward, that it might
be at a greater didance from the chimney, and con¬
fequently might not fpend its force in the air. This
too was found to avail very little. A contrivance was
then fallen upon to make the vent pafs round the body
of the dill in a fpiral form. This was a confiderable
improvement; but had the inconvenience of making
the fire fpend itfelf ufelefsly on the walls of the fur¬
nace, and befides w'aded that part of the dill which
touched the under part of the vent. A much better -
method is to build the back part of the furnace entire¬
ly clofe, and make the fire come out through a long
narrow opening before, after which it pafles out
through a flue in the back and upper part of the fur¬
nace, into the chimney.
The only inconvenience of this form is, that the
vent mud either be very wide, or it is apt to choak
up with foot, which lad is a very troublefome circucn-
dance. If the vent is made very wide, a prodigious
draught of air rulhes through the fuel, and increafes
the heat to fuel) a degree as to calcine the metal of
which the dill is made ; and, on the other hand, no¬
thing can be more difagreeable than to have the vent
of a furnace dopped up with foot. Thefe inconve ¬
niences, however, are totally avoided by making two
fmall vents, one on each fide of the diddling veflel,
which may communicate with a chimney, by means of
two tubes either of plate-iron, or formed with clay
or bricks, which may be occafionally taken off if they
happen to be choaked up. The velfel is to be fu-
fpended by three trunnions, lb that the whole furface
may be expofed to the fire, excepting a ring the thick¬
nefs of a brick all round; fo that a very llrcng heat
wilt
1830 C H E M 1
Practice* will be communicated, although the furnace draws but
" little. The two fmall vents on each fide will draw
the flame equally ; and by this means the molt equa¬
ble heat can be preferved, and may be pulhed fo far,
as to make the whole bottom and Tides of the veflel in-
tenfely red. Such a conftructkm as this is more efpe-
cially ufeful for fand-pots, and thofe which are tiled
for difliiling alkaline 1‘pirits from bones.
In the uie of the furnaces hitherto defcribed, the at¬
tendance of the operator is necelfary, both for infpec-
ting the proceflcs, and for fupplying and animating
the fuel. There are fome operations of a flower
kind, that require a gentle heat to be continued for
a length of time ; whihc demand little attendance in
regard to the operations themfelves; and in which, of
consequence, it is extremely convenient to have the
attendance in regard to the fire as much as poflible
difpenfed with. This end has been anfwered by the
furnace called athanor ; but the ufe of it has been found
attended with fome inconveniences, and it is now go¬
ad, 102 nerally laid afide.
Lamp-fur- Sundry attempts have been made for keeping up a
nace’ continued heat, with as little trouble as in the athanor,
by the flame'of a lamp; but the common lamp-fur¬
naces have not ahfwered fo well as could be wiflied.
The lamps require frequent fnuffing, and fmoke much;
and the foot accumulated on the bottom of the veflel
placed over them, is apt, at times, to fall down and
put out the flame. The largenefs of.the wick, the
irregular fupply of oil from the refervoir by jets, and
the oil being fullered to fink confiderably in the
lamp, fo lhat the upper part of the wick burns to a
coal, appeared to be the principal caufes of thefe in¬
conveniences ; which, accordingly, were found to be
in great meafure remedied by the following conflxuc-
tion.
Fig. 8. The lamp confifts of a brafs pipe, 10 or 12 inches
long, and about a quarter of an inch wide, inferted at
one end into the refervoir of the oil, and turned up at
the other to an elbow, like the bole of a tobacco-pipe,
the aperture, which is extended to the width of near
two inches. On this aperture is fitted a round plate,
having 5, 6, or 7 fmall holes, at equal diftances, round
its outer part, into which are inferted as many pipes
about an inch long: into thefe pipes are drawn threads
of cotton, all together not exceeding what in the com¬
mon lamps form one wick: by- this divifion of the
wick, the flame expofes a larger furface to the adlion
of the air, the fuliginous matter is cbnfumed and car¬
ried off, and the lamp burns clear and vivid.
The refervoir is a cylindric veflel, eight or ten
inches wide, compofed of three parts, with a cover
on the top. The middle partition communicates,
by the lateral pipe, with the wicks; and has an up-
: S T R Y. Part II.
right open pipe foldered into its bottom, whdfe top Practice
reaches as high as the level of the wicks; lb that, 
when this part is charged with oil, till the oil riles up
to the wicks in tlie other end of the lamp, any fur¬
ther addition of oil will rim down through the up¬
right pipe into the lower divilion of the refervoir.
The upper divifion is defigned for fupplying oil to the
middle one; and, for that purpole, is furmflied with
a cock in the bottom, which is turned more or lels,
by a key on the outfide, that the oil may drop fait
enough to fupply the eonlumption, or rather faflrer, for
the overplus is of no inconvenience, being carried off
by the upright pipe ; fo that the oil is always, by this
means, kept exadly at the fame height in the lamp.
For common ules, the middle divifion alone may be
made to fuflice; for, on account of its width, the link¬
ing of the oil will not be confiderable in feveral hours
burning. In either cafe, however, it is expedient to
renew the wicks every two or three days ; oftener
or feldomer, according as the oil is more or lefs foul;
for its impure matter, gradually left in the wicks,
occafions the flame to become more and more dull.
For the more convenient renewing of them, there
fhould be two of the perforated plates; that, when
one is removed, another, with wicks fitted to ic, may
be ready to fupply its place.
One of the black lead-pots, recommended by Dr
Lewis for his portable furnace, makes a proper fur¬
nace for the lamp. If one is to he fitted up on pur-
pofe for this ufe, it requires no other aperture than
one in the botrom for admitting air, and one in the
fide for the introduftion of the elbow of the lamp.
The refervoir Hands on any convenient fupport with¬
out the furnace. The Hopper of the fide aperture
confifis of two pieces, that it may be conveniently put
in after the lamp is introduced; and has a round hole
at its bottom fitting the pipe of the lamp. By thefe
means, the furnace being fet upon a trevet or open
foot, the air enters only underneath,, and fpreads
equally all round, without coming in fireams, whence
the flame burns Heady. It is not advifable to attempt
railing the heat higher than about the 450th degree of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer, a heat fomewhat more than
fufficient for keeping tin in perfect fufion. Some have /
propofed giving a much greater degree of heat in lamp-
furnaces, by ufing a number of large wicks; but when
the furnace is fo heated, the oil emits copious fumes,
and its whole quantity takes fire. The balneum, or
other veffel including the liibjedt-matters, is liipported
over the flame by an iron ring, as already defcribed
in the fand-bath and Hill: a bath is here particularly
neceffary, as the fubjedt would otherwise be very
unequally heated, only a fmall part of the veffel being
expofed to the flame.
Part II. PRACTICE of CHEMISTRY.
Sect. I. Salts.
I. Vitriolic Acid, and its Combinations.
Never r I 'HE vitriolic acid is never found pure, but always
found pure. 1. united with fome proportion, either of phlogiHon,
or metallic and earthy. fubHances. Indeed there is
fcarce any kind of earth which does not contain fome
portion of this acid, and from which it may always
fome way or other be feparable. When pure, the vi¬
triolic acid appears in the form of a tranfparent co-
lourlefs liquor. By diflilling in a glafs retort, the a-
queous part arifes, and the liquor which is left becomes
gradually more and more acid. This operation is ge¬
nerally
Part II. CHE M
Practice nerally called the verification, or dcphlsgmation, of the
1 ™ ’ acid. After the diftillation has gone on for fome time,
Re&ifica- the water adheres more ftrongly to what remains in
tion. tlie retort, and cannot be forced over without eleva¬
ting part of the acid along with it. The remain¬
ing acid, being alio exceedingly concentrated, begins
to lofe its fluidity, and puts on the appearance of a
clear oil. This is the ftate in which it is ufually fold,
and then goes by the name of oil of vitriol. If the
diftillation is ftill farther continued, with a heat be¬
low 6oo° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, the acid gra¬
dually lofes more and more of its fluidity, till at laft
it congeals in the cold, and becomes like ice. In this
ftate it is called the.icy oil of vitriol. Such exceeding
great concentration, however, is only practiled on this
acid for curipfity. If the heat be fuddenly raifed to
6oo°, the whole of the acid rifes, and generally cracks
the receiver. Clear oil of vitriol is immediately turn¬
ed black by an admixture of the fmalleft portion of in-
flammable matter.
Attrafts The icy oil of vitriol, and even that commonly fold,
moilture attracts the moilture of the air with very gi'cat force,
from the Newman relates, that having expofed an ounce of this
air* acid to the air, frem September 1736 to September
1737, at the end of the twelvemonth it weighed fe-
ven ounces and two drachms j and thus had attracted
from the air above fix times its own weight of moi-
fture. This quantity, however, feems extraordi¬
nary ; and it is probable, that in fo long a time fome
water had been accidentally mixed with it; for Dr
Gould, profeflor at Oxford, who feems to have tried
this matter fully, relates that three drachms of oil of
vitriol acquired, in 57 days, an increafe only of fix
drachms and an half. The acid was expofed in a
glafs of three inches diameter ; the increafe of weight
the firft day was upwards of one drachm ; in the fol¬
lowing days lefs and lefs, till, on the fifty-fixth, it
fcarce amounted to half a grain. The liquor, when
faturated with humidify, retained or loft part of its
acquired weight, according as the atmofphere was in
a moift or dry ftate ; and this difference was fo fen-
fible as to afford an accurate hygrometer. Hoffman
having expofed an ounce and two fcruples in an open
glafs-difh, it gained feven drachms and a fcruple in
106 14 days.
Produaive This acid, when mixed with a large quantity of
both of cold water, makes the temperature fomething colder than
and heat. before ; but if the acid bears any confiderable propor¬
tion to the water, a great heat is produced, fo as to
make the velfel infupportable to the hand; and there¬
fore fuch mixtures ought very cautioufly, or rather
not at all, to be made in glafs veffels, but in the com¬
mon ftone-bottles, or leaden VefTels, which are not apt
to be corroded by this acid. The greateff heat is pro-
IOy duced by equal parts of acid and water.
Quantity of Though the vitriolic acid unites itfelf very ftrongly
alkali fatu- with alkalies, both fixed and volatile, it does not fa-
rated by it.
turate near fo much of the latter as of the former. A
pound of oil of vitriol will faturate two of the com¬
mon fixed alkali, but fcarce one of volatile alkali. The
fpecific gravity of good oil of vitriol is to water as x 7
108 to 8.
Effefts on if the concentrated acid is applied flightly and fu-
bodhUman Perfidally to thf fkm of a living animal, it raifes a
I S T R Y. 1831
violent burning heat and pain ; but a larger quantity Practice
preffed on, fo as to prevent the ingrefs of aerial moi-
fture, occafions little pain or erofion. If diluted with
a little water, it proves corrofive in either cafe.
Largely diluted with water, this acid is employed me¬
dicinally for checking putrefaction, abating heat, and
quenching thirft; in debilities of the ftomach, and
heartburn. To perfons of weak and unfound lungs,
to women who give fuck, to hydropic or emaciated
perfons, it is injurious. Some recommend it as a col-
lyrium for fore eyes; but as it coagulates the animal
juices, corroding and indurating the folids, it feems
very unfit for being applied to that tender organ. - I09
The vitriolic acid is fb much ufed in different arts Difficulty
and manufactures, that the making of it has become a of procu-
trade by itfelf; and the procuring it in plenty, and at TinS f h7
a cheap rate, would be a very advantageous piece of ltfeif'
knowledge to any perfon who could put it in praCtice.
This, however, is very far from being eafily done ;
for though it exifts in almoft every mineral fubftance,
the attraction betwixt this acid and the bafes with
which it unites, is found to be fo ftrong, that we can
only decompole litch combinations by prefenting ano¬
ther fubftance to the acid, to which it has a greater
attraction than that one wherewith it is joined. Thus
the firft combination is indeed diffolved, but we have
another from which it is equally difficult to extricate
the acid by itfelf. Thus, if we want to difengage the
vitriolic acid from any metallic fubftance, fuppofe iron,
this may be eafily done by throwing a calcareous earth
into a folution of green vitriol. We have now a com¬
pound of vitriolic acid with the calcareous earth, which
is known by the name of gypfum or fcUnites. If we
want to dccompofe this, we muft apply a volatile or
a fixed alkali; and the refult of this will conftantly be
a new combination, which we are as unable to decom-
pofe, and indeed more fo, than the firft. There are
two general methods which have been in ufe for pro¬
curing the vitriolic acid in fuch quantity as to fupply
the demands of trade. The one is from pyrites, and
the other from fulphur.
The extraction of Vitriolic Acid from Pyrites, the ma¬
king of Copperas, and obtaining the pure Oil of
Vitriol from it. I[0
Pyrites are found in large quantity in the coal-mines Pyrites,
of England, where moft of the copperas is made. w,iere
They are very hard and heavy fubftances, having a founci’
kind of braffy appearance, as if they contained that
metal; and hence they are called brajfes by the work¬
men. A very large quantity of thefe is collected, and
fpread out upon a bed of ftiff day to the depth of three
feet. After being fome time expofed to the air, the
uppermoft ones lofe their metallic appearance, fplit,
and fall to powder. The heaps are then turned, the
under part uppermoft, fo as to expofe frefh pyrites to
the air. When they are all reduced to powder, which
generally requires three years, the liquor, which is
formed by the rain-water running from fuch a large
mafs, becomes very acid, and has likewife a ftyptic
vitriolic tafte. It is now conveyed into large cifterns
lined with clay, whence if is pumped into a very large
flat veffel made of lead. This veffel, which contains
about 15 or 20 tons of liquor, is-fupportetl by caft-u on
plates
1832 C H E M !
Practice plates about an inch thick, between which and the
 lead a bed of clay is interpofed. The whole l efts
upon narrow arches of brick, under which the fire is
placed. Alongfl with the liquor, about half a ton or
more of old iron is put into the evaporating veflel.
The liquor, which is very far from being 1'aturated
with acid, adts upon the iron, and, by repeated filling
up as it evaporates, diflfolves the whole quantity. By
the time this quantity is difTolved, a pellicle is formed
on the furface. The fire is then put out; and as fuch
a prodigious quantity of liquor does not admit of filtra¬
tion, it is left to fettle for a whole day, and then is let
off by acock placed a little above the bottom of the eva¬
porating veflel, fo as to allow the impurities to remain
behind. It is conveyed by wooden fpouts to a large
leaden ciftern, five or fix feet deep, funk in the ground,
and which is capable of containing the whole quantity
of liquor. Here the copperas cryftallizes on the fides,
and on flicks put into the liquor. The cryftallization
ufually takes up three weeks. The liquor is then pump¬
ed back into the evaporating veffel; more iron, and
frefh liquor from the pyrites, are added ; and a new
lution takes place. See n° 41.
Copperas is ufed, in dyeing, for procuring a black
colour; and is an ingredient in making common ink.
It is alfo ufed in medicine as a corroborant, under the
name of fait of Jleel; but before it is ufed with this
intention, it is rediffolved in water, and cryftallized,
with the addition of a little pure oil of vitriol. Whe¬
ther it is at all mended by this fuppofed purification,
either in appearance or quality, is very doubtful.
This procefs furnifhes us firfl with a very impure
vitriolic acid, which could not be applied to any ufeful
purpofe; afterwards with an imperfect neutral fait,
called green vitriol, which is applicable to feveral pur-
pofes where the pure acid itfelf could not be ufbd;
but flill the acid by itfelf is not to be had, without a
in very troublefome operation.
Diftillation Though this acid adheres very ftrongly to iron, it is
*ddVfrom1C caPab*e bc>Rg expelled from it by fire ; yet not
copperas, without a very violent and long-continued one. If
we attempt to diftil green vitriol in a retort, it fwells
and boils in fuch a manner by the great quantity of
water contained in its cryflals, that the retort will al-
mofl certainly crack; and though it fhould not, the fait
would be changed into an hard flony mafs, which the
fire could never fufficiently penetrate fo as to extri¬
cate the add. It mufl therefore be calcined, previous
to the diflillation. This is belt done in flat iron-pans,
fet over a moderate fire. The fait undergoes the wa¬
tery fufion, (fee Ftijion) ; after which it becomes
opaque and white. By a continuance of the fire, it
becomes brown, yellow, and at laft red. For the
purpofes of diftillation, it may be taken out as foon as
it has recovered its folidity.
The dry vitriol, being now reduced to powder, is to
be put into an earthen retort, or rather long neck,
(a kind of retort where the neck iffues laterally, that
the vapours may have little way to afcend), which it
may nearly fill. This retort muft be placed in a fur¬
nace capable of giving a very ftrong heat, fuch as the
melting furnace we have already defcribed. A large
receiver is to be fitted on ; and a fmall fire made in
the furnace, to heat the veflels gradually. White
: S T R Y. Part II.
fumes will fooh come over into the receiver, which Practice
will make the upper part warm. The fire is to be —  
kept of an equal degree of ftrength, tilt the fumes be¬
gin to difappear, and the receiver grows cool. It is
then to be increafed by degrees ; and the acid will be¬
come gradually more and more difficult to be railed,
till at laft it requires an extreme red, or even white
heat. When nothing more will come over, the fire
muft be fuffered to go put, the receiver be unluted, and
its contents poured into a bottle fixed with a glafs
ftopper. A fulphureous and fuffocating fume will
come from the liquor, which muft be carefully avoided.
In the retort, a fine red powder will remain, which is
ufed in painting, and is called colcothar of vitriol. It TI2
is ufeful on account of its durability ; and, when mixed Preferva-
with tar, has been employed as a prefervative of wood tives of
from rotting; but Dr Lewis prefers finely powdered wood,
pit-coal. As a prefervative for mails of Ihips, he re¬
commends a mixture of tar and lamp-black, concern¬
ing which he relates the following anecdote.
“ I have been favoured by a gentleman on board of
a velfel in the Eaft Indies, with an account of a violent
thunder-ftorm, by which the main-mail was greatly da¬
maged, and whofe effects on the d '"erent parts of the
mall were pretty remarkable. All the parts which
were greafed or covered with turpentine were burft
in pieces: thole above, between and below the grea¬
fed parts, as alfo the yard-arms, the round top or
fcaffolding, coated with tar and lamp-black, remained
unhurt.” Irj
Oil of vitriol, when diftilled in this manner, is al- Redtifica-
ways of a black colour, and muft therefore be re6li- t‘on-
fied by diftillation in a glafs retort. When the acid
has attained a proper degree of ftrength, the black-
nefs either flies off, or feparates and falls to the bot¬
tom, and the liquor becomes clear. The diftillation
is then to be difcontinued, and the clear acid which is
left in the retort kept for ufe.
This was the firft method by which the vitriolic
acid was obtained ; and from its being diftilled from
vitriol has ever fince retained the name of oil of vitriol.
Green vitriol is the only fubllance from which it is
practicable to draw this acid by diftillation ; when
combined with calcareous earths, or even copper,
(though to this laft it has a weaker attraction than to
iron,) it refifts the fire moft obftinately. When diftil¬
lation from vitriol was pra&ifed, large furnaces were
erefted for that purpofe, capable of containing an
hundred long necks at once : but as it has been dif-
covered to be more eafily procurable from fulphur,
this method has been laid afide, and it is now needlefs
to defcribe thefe furnaces.
To procure the Vitriolic Acid from Sulphur. n4
This fubftance contains the vitriolic acid in fuch Quantity of
plenty, that every pound of fulphur is reckoned to acid in ful'
contain 15 ounces of pure acid ; which being in a ftate pbur'
perfectly dry, is confequently of a ftrength far beyond
that of the moft highly redlified oil of vitriol. Com¬
mon oil of vitriol requires to be diftilled to one fourth
of its quantity before it will coagulate when cold ;
and even in this ftate, it undoubtedly contains fome
water. Making allowances, therefore, for the acid
which rifes in diftillation, we may reckon, that in a
pound
Part II. C PI E M
Practice pound of oil of vitriol, fo ounces are mere water.
Every pound of fulphur therefore, if -all the acid it
contains could be preferved, ought to yield two pounds
and an half of highly concentrated acid. No method,
however, has as yet been fallen upon to condenfe all
the Iteams of burning 1'ulphur ; nor is any other pro¬
fitable way of tiecompofingfulphur known, than that by
115 burning; and in this way the moft fuccefsful opera-
Qujntity tors have never obtained more than x 4 ounces of oil
produced from a pound of fulphur.
rom it. r-phe difficulties here are, that fulphur cannot be
burnt but in an open veffel; and the itream of air,
uS which is admitted to make it burn, alfo carries off the
Methods of acid which is emitted in the form of fmoke. To a-
obviating void this, a method Was contrived of burning fulphur
ties this *n ^arge g^a^s gl°bes, capable of containing an hogf-
procefs. head or more. The fume of the burning fulphur was
then allowed to circulate tilj it condenfed into an acid
liquor. A greater difficulty, however, occurs here ;
„ for though the fulphur burns very well, its fleams will
never condenfe. It has been faid, that the condenfa-
tion is promoted by keeping fome warm water conti¬
nually fmoking in the bottom of the globe ; and even
Dr Lewis has afferted this : but the fleam of warm
water immediately exttnguiffies fulphur, as we have
often experienced ; neither does the fljme of burning
fulphur feem at all inclinable to join with water, even
when forced into contact with it. As it arifes from
the fulphur, it contains a quantity of plilogifton, which
in a great meafure keeps it from uniting with water ;
and the defideratum is not fomething to make the ful¬
phur burn freely, but to deprive the fumes of the
phlogifton they contain, and render them mifcible with
water. For this purpofe nitre has been advantage-
oufly ufed. This confumes a very large quantity of
the phlogifton contained in fulphur, and renders the
acid ealily condenfible : but it is plain that few of tie
fumes, comparatively fpeaking, are thus deprived of
the inflammable principle ; for the veflel in which the
fulphur and nitre are burnt, remains filled with a vo¬
latile and moft fuffocating fume, which extinguiflies
flame, and ifllies in fuch quantity as to render it high¬
ly dangerous to flay near the place. It has been
thought that nitre contributes to the burning of the
fulphur in clofe veffels; but this too is a miftake.
More fulphur may be,burnt in an oil of vitriol globe
without nitre than with it, as we have often experi¬
enced ; for the acid of the fulphur unites with the al¬
kaline bafis of the nitre, and forms therewith an un¬
inflammable compound, which foon extinguifhes the
flame, and even prevents a part of the fulphur from
II7 being burnt either at that time or any other.
EfFervef- In the condenl’ation of the fumes of fulphur by means
cence be- of nitre, a remarkable effervefcence happens, which
tween the naturally leads us to think that the condenlation is
fulphuremis Pro^uce^ by fome ftruggle between the vitriolic and
fumes. nitrous acids.—Dr Lewis is of opinion that the acid
thus obtained is perfectly free from an admixture of
the nitrous acid: but in this he is certainly miftaken;
for, on rectifying the acid produced by fulphur and
nitre, the firft fumes that come over are red, after
which they change their colour to white. How the ni¬
trous acid Ihould exift in the liquor, indeed, does not ap¬
pear ; for this acid is totally deftrudiible by deflagra-
I S T R Y. 1833
tion with charcoal: but it does not follow, that be- Practice
caufe the nitrous acid is deftroyed when deflagrated "
with charcoal, that it muft likewife be fo if deflagra¬
ted with fulphur. Indeed, it certainly is not; for the
clyflus of nitre made with fulphur, is very different
from that made with charcoal. (See Nitrous Acid
decompofed by Charcoal, below). This is not the only
inftance in which we muft not reafon too dole from
analogy.
The proportions of nitre to the fulphur, ufed in the
large oil of vitriol works are not known, every thing
being kept as fecret as poflible by the proprietors. Dr
Lewis reckons about fix pounds of nitre to an hundred
weight of lulphur; but from fuch experiments as we
have made, this appears by far too little. An ounce
and an half, or two ounces, may be advantageoufiy
ufed to a pound of fulphur. In greater proportions,
nitre feems prejudicial. ug
A very great improvement in the apparatus fok Lead veC-
making oil of vitriol, lies in the ufing lead veffels in- Cl , an im-
ftead of glafs globes. The globes are fo apt to be Provcxncnt*
broken by accident, or by the adlion of the acid upon
them, that common prudence would ftiggeft the ufe
of lead to thofe who intend to prepare any quantity
of vitriolic acid, as it is known to have fo little effebt
upon the metal. The leaden veffels, according to the
beft accounts we have been able to procure, are cubes
of about three feet, having on one lide a door about
fix inches wide. The mixture of fulpbar and nitre
is placed in the hollow of the cube, in an earthen fau-
9er, fet on a ftand made of the fame materials. The
quantity which can be confumed at once in fuch a
veffel is about two ounces. To prevent the remains
from flicking to the faucer, it is laid on a fquare bit
of brown paper. The fulphur being kindled, the
door is to be clofe flint, and the whole let alone for
two hours. In that time the fumes will be condenfed.
The door is then to be opened ; and the operator muii:
immediately retire,, to efcape the luflbcating fumes
which ilfue from the veffel. It will be an hour before
he can fafely return, and introduce another quantity
of materials, which are to be treated precifely in the
fame manner.
Where oil of vitriol is made in large quantities, the
flownefs of the operation requires a great number of
globes, and conftant attendance day and night. Hence
the making of this acid is very expenfive, and none
but men of fortune need attempt it. The apparatus
ufually cofts L. 1500.
Vitriolic Acid combined with fixed Alkali. ^
Dilute a pound of oil of vitriol with ten times its Vitriolated
quantity of water ; diffolve alfo two pounds of fixed tartar-
alkaline fait in ten pounds of water, and filter the fo-
lution. Drop the alkali into the acid, as long as any
effervefcence arifes ; managing matters fo, that the
acid may prevail. The liquor will now be a folu-
tion of the neutral fait called vitriolated tartar, which
may be procured in a dry form, either by exficcation
or cryftallization. ,In cafe the later method is made
ufe of, fome more alkali muft be added when it is fet
to evaporate, for this fait cryftallizes beft in an alka¬
line liquor. See n° 74.
Concerning the preparation of this fait, Neuman
10 Z relates
1S34
Practice
120
Neuman^
experi¬
ments.
121
Obferva-
tions.
122
Different
methods o
preparing
vitriolated
taitar.
123
Ui'ts.
C H E M
relates feveral experiments which feem to have been
very inaccurately made ; and many circumftances
which w'e are aflured, from later difcoveries, cannot
poffibly be true. “ I prepared,” fays he, “ a cau-
llic alkali, by mixing one ounce of pure alkaline fait
with two ounces of quicklime; boiling the mixture in
frelh parcels of water till the liquor no longer acqui¬
red any faline tafte ; then filtering the feveral decoc¬
tions, and evaporating them to drynefs. The dry
fait weighed two fcruples and an half more than the
alkali employed; and the remaining lime weighed a
drachm lefs than at firft.”
Here, we are fure, that he muft have been mifta-
ken; for as a pure alkali lofes weight by being de¬
prived of its fixed air, fo the quicklime gains by being
combined with the fixed air which the alkali lofes ;
but Neuman’s account would caufe us believe, that the
contrary took place.—He further takes notice, that ha¬
ving added by degrees two drachms of fpirit (proba¬
bly the oil) of vitriol, to one of the eauftic alkali, a
perfect: faturation took place. During the effervef-
cence a bright brownifh earth fell to the bottom,
which weighed, when dry, three grains. The filtered
liquor depofited in evaporation firft five grains and
an half of white earthy creme, and afterwards five
grains of a yellowifh one. The dried fait weighed
only two fcruples and eight grains. During the fa¬
turation an abominable urinous fmell arofe, from which
the exficcated fait was not wholly free.
On this experiment we may obferve, in the firft
place, that if the alkali had been perfedlly cauftic,
little or no effervefcence would havetaken place. (See
Air). If the fpirit of vitriol was highly rectified, the
quantity was by far too great for the alkali. If it was
not rectified, there can be no judgment formed con¬
cerning the experiment. The quantity of fait left,
too, is much lefs than it ought to have been; for the
vitriolic acid adds greatly to the weight of thole i’ub-
ftances which it unites with. The urinous fmell is to¬
tally unaccountable. Several other ftrange appear¬
ances are mentioned by this author, on trial of mild
alkalies, and differences which happened on mixing
the acid with the alkali, or the alkali with the acid;
but all of them have fo much the appearance of inac¬
curacy, that they can by no means be depended on.
Other methods, befides that above defcribed, have
r been recommended for preparing vitriolated tartar ;
particularly that of uling green vitriol inftead of the
pure vitriolic acid. In this cafe the vitriol is decotn-
pofed by the fixed alkali: but as the alkali itfelf dif-
folves the calx of iron after, it is precipitated, it is
next to impoffible to procure a pure fait by fuch a
procefs; neither is there occafion to be felicitous a-
bout the preparation of this fait by itfelf, as the ma¬
terials for it are left in greater quantity than wdll ever
be demanded, after the diftillation of fpirit of nitre.
Vitriolated tartar is employed in medicine as a pur¬
gative ; but is not at all fuperior to other Hilts which
are more eafily prepared in a cryftalline form. It is
very difficultly foluble in water, from which proceeds
the difficulty of preparing it in a cryftalline form; for
■if the acid and alkali are not very much diluted, the
fait will be precipitated in powder, during the time
of faturation—It is very difficult of fufion, requiring
I S T R Y.
a ftrong red heat; but, notwithftanding its fixednefs in
a violent fire, it arifes with the fteam of boiling wa¬
ter in fuch a manner as to be almoft totally diflipated
along with it by ftrong boiling.-—This fait has. been
ufed in making glafs; but with little fuccefs, as the
glafs wherein it is an ingredient always proves very
brittle and apt to crack of itfelf.
If, inftead of the vegetable fixed alkali, the vitrio¬
lic acid is faturated with the foffile one called the fait
of Soda, a kind of neutral fait will be produced, ha¬
ving very different properties from the vitriolated
tartar. This compound is called Glauber's fait. It
diftblves eafily in water, ffioots into long and beauti¬
ful cryftals, which contain a large quantity of water,
in confequence of which they undergo the aqueous fu-
fion when expofed to heat. They are alfo more eali-
ly fulible than vitriolated tartar.—This kind of fait
was formerly much recommended as a purgative, and
from its manifold virtues was intitled by its inventor
fal mirabile. It is, however, found to poffefs no vir¬
tue different from that of other purgative falts; and
its ufe is, in many places, entirely fuperfeded by a
fait prepared from the bittern, or liquor which re¬
mains after the cryftallization of fea-falt, which lliall
be afterwards defcribed.
Vitriolic Acid combined with Volatile Alkali.
Take any quantity of volatile alkaline fpirit; that
prepared with quicklime is preferable to the other, on
account of its railing no effervefcence. Drop into this
liquor, contained in a bottle, diluted oil of vitriol, ffia-
king the bottle after every addition. The fituration is
known to be complete by the volatile fmeil of the alltali
b^ing entirely deftroyed. When this happens,. fome
more of the fpirit muft be added, that the alkali may
predominate a little, becaufe the excels will fly off
during the evaporation. The liquor, on being filter¬
ed and evaporated, will fhoot into fine fibrous plates
like feathers. This fait, when newly prepared, has
a fulphureous fmell, and a penetrating pungent tafte.
It readily diffolves in water, and increafes the cold-
nefs of the liquor; on Handing for a little time, it
begins to feparate from the water, and vegetate, or
arile in efflorefcences up the fides of the glafs. It
eafily melts in the fire ; penetrates the common cru¬
cibles ; and if fublimed in glafs veffels, which requires
a very confiderable heat, it always becomes acid,
however exactly the faturation was performed.
This fait has been dignified with the names of Glau¬
ber's fecret fal ammoniac, or philofiphic fal ammoniac^
from the high opinion which fome chemifts have en¬
tertained of its activity upon metals: but from Mr
Pott’s experiments, it appears, that its effetfts have
been greatly exaggerated. It diffolves or corrodes in
fome degree all tliofe metals which oil of vitriol dif¬
folves, but has no elFecft upon thofe on which that a-
cid does not aft by itfelf.
Gold is not touched in the leaft, either by the fait
in fufion, or by a folution of it: the fait added to a
folution of gold in aqua regia occafions no precipita¬
tion or change of colour. On melting the falts with
inflammable matters, it forms a fulphureous compound,
which diffolves gold in fufion, in the fame manner as
compofitions of fulphur and fixed alkaline fait. Melt-
Part II.
Practice
124
Glauber's
fait.
125
Glauber's
fecret fal
ammoniac.
126 ,
Properties
of the falts.
Part II. C H E M :
Practice ed with filver, it corrodes it into a white calx, which
 partially diffolves in water: it likewife precipitates
lilvtr trom its folution in aqua fortis. It a£ts more
powerfully on copper; elevates a part of the metal in
lublimation, fo as to acquire a bluilh colour on the fur-
face ; and renders the greateft part of the reliduum
foluble in water. This folution appears colourlefs, fo
that it could not be fuppofed to hold any copper ; but
readily difcovers that it abounds with that metal, by
the blue colour it acquires on an addition of volatile
alkali, and the green calx which fixed alkalies preci¬
pitate. In evaporation it becomes green without ad¬
dition. Iron is corroded by this fait in fufion, and dif-
Iblved by boiling in a folution of it. Zinc dilfolves
more freely and more plentifully. Lead unites with
it, but does not become foluble in water. Tin is cor¬
roded, and a part of the calx is foluble in boiling wa¬
ter. Of regulus of antimony, alfo, a fmall portion is
made foluble. Alkalies precipitate from the folution
a bluilh powder. Calcined bifmuth-ore treated with
its equal weight of the fait, partly dilfolved in water
into a pale red liquor, which became green from heat,
in the lame manner as tinctures made from that ore
by aqua regia. The undiffolved part yielded (fill
with fritt, a blue glafs. On treating manganefe in
the fame manner, aluminous cryftals were obtained :
the undilfolved part of the manganefe gave Hill a vio¬
let colour to glafs.
127 Vitriolic Acid combined with Calcareous Earth.
Gypfura. This combination may be made by faturating diluted
oil of vitriol with chalk in fine powder. The mixture
ought to be made in a glafs; the chalk mull be mixed
with a pretty large quantity of water, and the acid
dropped inter it. The glafs mull be well lhaken after
every addition, and the mixture ought rather to be
over faturated with acid; becaufe the fuperfluous
quantity may afterwards be walked off; the fclenite,
as it is called, or gjpfum, having very little folubility
in water.
This combination of vitriolic acid with chalk or cal¬
careous earth, is found naturally in fuch plenty, that
it is feldom or never made, unlefs for experiments
fake, or by accident. Mr Pott indeed fays, that he
found fome flight difi’erences between the natural and
artificial gypfum, but that the former had all the ef-
fential properties of the latter.
The natural gypfums are found in hard, femitranf-
parent maffes, commonly called alabafter, or plafler
of Paris. (See Alabaster, Gypsum, and Plas¬
ter). Byexpofure to a moderate heat, they become
opake, and very friable. If they are now reduced
to fine powder, and mixed with water, they may be
call into moulds of any fliape ; they very foon harden
without fhrinking; and are the materials whereof
the common white images are made. This property
belongs likewife to the artificial gypfum, if moderate-
128 ly calcined.
Beaume’s Mr Beaume has oblerved, that gypfum may be dif-
obferva- folved in fome meafure by acids; but is afterwards
turns. feparable by cryftallization in the fame fate in which
it was before folution, without retaining any part of
the acids. This compound, if long expofed to a pret¬
ty llrong heat, lofes great part of its acid, and is coa-
: S T R Y. 1835
verted into quicklime.' In clofe veffels, it gives over Practice
no acid with the moll violent heat. It may be fufed  
by fuddenly applying a very violent heat. With clay
it foon melts, as we have obferved when fpeaking
of the materials for making crucibles. A like fufion
takes place when pure calcareous earth is mixed"with
clay; but gypfum bubbles and fwells much more in
fufion with clay than calcareous earth.
From natural gypfum we lee that vitriolated tar¬
tar may be made, in a manner limilar to its prepara¬
tion from green vitriol. If fixed alkaline fait is boiled
with any quantity of gypfum, the earth of the latter
will be precipitated, and the acid united with the al¬
kali. If a mild volatile alkali is poured on gypfum
contained in a glafs, and the mixture frequently flia-
ken, the gypfum will in like manner be decompofed,
and a philofophic fal ammoniac will be formed. With
the caultic volatile alkali, or that made with quick¬
lime, no decompolition enfues.
Vitriolic Acid combined with Argillaceous Earth. , 29
The produce of this combination is alum ; the na- Alum,
ture of which was long unknown, but has been dif-
covered by Melfrs Geoffroy and Boulduc, to be the
acid of vitriol imperfectly faturated with argillaceous
earth. Whether the earth of alum pre-exilted in the
clay, having the fame nature as afterwards in the fait
of alum, the above-mentioned gentlemen did not de¬
termine. Dr Lewis has made fome experiments on
this fubjeCl, and is of opinion that fome change is
made upon the earth during the operation. His pro-
cefs is as follows. “ Powdered tobacco-pipe clay be¬
ing boiled in a confiderable quantity of "oil of vitriol,
and the fire continued to drynefs, the matter, exami¬
ned when grown cold, difcovers very little talle, or
only a flight acidulous one. On expofure to the air
for a few days, the greateft part of it was changed
into lanuginOus efflorelcences, in talle cxaCtly like alum.
The remainder treated with freflt oil of vitriol in the
fame manner, exhibits the fame phenomena, and this
repeatedly, til! nearly the whole of the clay is conver¬
ted into an aftringent fait.”
Alum is never prepared for the purpofes of trade
by the above procefs; the materials for it are found in
different places, and the method of extrading the
alum differs according to the nature of thefe materials.
Different kinds of it are known, under the names of
rock-alum, plume-alum, &c.
That called rock-alum is ufually of a reddilh colour ; Different
and confequently feems impure, as containing a little kinds of.
vitriolic matter. It is neverthelefs preferred, and fold
at a higher price than the purer kinds. This feems to
be the kind called by the author of the Chemical Dic¬
tionary Roman alum. He fays, that on trial it was
found perfedly free from any admixture of vitriolic
matter ; though it is difficult to account for its rednefs
on this fuppolition.
This kind of alum is, prepared in the territory of-Method of
Civita Vecchia, about 14 leagues from Rome. It is preparing in
produced from a hard Hone which is found there, and Italy,
is neither pyritous nor calcareous. It is calcined for
12 or 14 hours, after being broken in pieces. When
thus calcined, it is laid in heaps upon places furrounded
by-ditches filled with water. It is fprinkled with this
10 Z 2 water
1836 C H E m :
Practice water three or four times each day,for 40days,or till the
  calcined flone is covered with a reddifh efflorefcence.
Then the ftones are boiled with water in caldrons to
diflblve all the alum which is formed, and the water
is evaporated to the point of cryftallization. This
water is made to flow quite hot into oaken veflels;
where, by cooling, a great quantity of irregular -cry-
j22 ftals are formed, having a pale reddifh tinge.
In Sweden. In Sweden is found a kind of mineral which yields
fulphur, vitriol, and alum. This mineral appears to
be a kind of pyrites. The fulphur is firft extracted
by diftillation ; the refiduum, ftrongly calcined, is
boiled in water, and the vitriol cryitallized. What
remains, being treated with urine, and-a ley drawn
j-- from allies, yields alum.
In England. In England, alum is prepared from certain black
laminated argillaceous ftrata. Sometimes thefe re¬
quire calcination, and at others only to be expofed to
the open air, when they fall into powder in the fame
manner as the pyrites from which copperas is made.
The mineral, when fufficiently impregnated with
alum, is boiled with water ; the liquor boiled down,
commonly with an addition of urine or alkaline ley,
or both together. The clear part is poured off and
fet to fhoot; the cryftals, if not fufficiently pure, are
dilfolved again, boiled down, with a little more-alkali,
!34 and cryftallized afrefh.
Aluiniiious Some earths have a manifeffly aluminous tafle when
inarerials at newly dug; and hence are direftly boiled, without any
Selfatara in previous preparation. Of this kind is the earth found
Ita at Solfatara in Italy, where large quantities of fulphur
are alfo made. The author of the Chemical Dictio¬
nary fays that this earth very much refembles the
marie found ii; the fame plain, but differs effentially
from it in not effervefcing with the nitrous acid.
Caldrons of lead, two feet and an half in diameter,
and as much in depth, are filled with this earth or
ffone, to three quarters of their contents. Thefe
caldrons are funk fo as to be almoft on a level with the
ground, under a great fhed, at the diftance of about
400 paces from the fulphur furnaces. Water is thrown
into each caldron till it rifes three or four inches above
the earth. The natural warmth of the ground is here
fufficient to heat the matter, being upwards of ioo°
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. By this means fuel is
fpared ; and the fait fhoots in large cryftals on the
furface, as the water evaporates. The alum in this
ftate, being mixed with many impurities, is carried
to a building at the entry into Solfatara, where it is
diffolved in a great ftone-veffel fliaped like a funnel.
The alum is there cryftallized again by the heat only
of the ground, and becomes purer.
Near York. The alum flates, near York in England, are con-
fiderably fulphureous, and therefore require calcina¬
tion to make them become aluminous. The reafon of
this is, that, during the calcination, the phlogifton is
feparated from the fulphur, and its acid combines with
the aluminous earth. Long expofure to the air pro-
duces dje fame effeift.
Cryftalliza- Alum is ufually cryftallized in large, ftrong, wooden
tion. cafks; whofe ftaves and hoops are all marked with
numbers, that they may readily be put together.
The liquor is either boiled down greatly beyond the
cryftallizing point, that fo it may all congeal into one
: S T R Y. Partir.
lump when cold, or the cryftals are taken out of the Practice
cafks; and as they are capable of undergoing the aque- —— *
ous fufion, they are by this means all cnft into lumps. It
is abfolutely certain, that the huge maffes in which alum
is fold, can never be the effect of regular cryftallization.
Plume alum is fometimes found native, and cryftalli-
zed like feathers, in grottos through which aluminous
waters pafs. From Dr Lewis’s experiment with to¬
bacco-pipe clay,'it appears that this kind is eafily pre¬
pared. It is rarely found native, and is not ufed in
commerce. The name of pluvie alum has been im¬
properly given to other matters, fuch as a kind of
afheftus ; and by feme alchemifts to a compound form¬
ed of arfenic and vitriolic acid.
One remarkable circumftance attends the cryftalli¬
zation of alum, namely, that good cryftals of it cannot
be formed without the addition of an alkaline lixivium,
or urine, to the liquor when fet to cryftaliize. It was
fuppofed, that, by adding thefe matters, fome metallic
or impure earthy, fubftance, which prevented the cry¬
ftallization, was precipitated ; but Mr Margraaf found
by experiments, that he could not form good cryftals
by combining vitriolic acid with earth of alum, with
calcined alum, or with clay, unlefsjie added a lixivium
of fixed or volatile alkali, or urine. As the Roman
alum is the only kind which is not prepared with thefe
additions, it may poftibly derive its fuperiority over o-
ther kinds of this fait from its want of fuch fubftances. j
Alum has an auftere, fweetifh, and ftrongly aftrin- Solubility,
gent tafte. It is foluble. according to Neuman, in to
times, according to others in 14 times hs quantity of
water. It diffolves in much greater quantity in hot
than cold water. When evaporated to the cryftalli¬
zing point, and flowly cooled, the greateft part of its
cryftals are found to be triangular pyramids, whofe
four angles feem cut off. It retains half its weight of
water in cryftallizing. When expofed to a moderate
fire, it melts, bubbles, and Iwells up; and is gradually
changed into a light, white, and fpongy mals, called
calcined or burnt alum. .After evaporation, it may be
again dilfolved and cryftallized as before. g
This fait is very eafily decompofed ; and, according Decompo-
to the different fubftances made ufe of for this pur- fition.
pofe, we may produce different compounds. From
alum may be prepared a'vitriolated tartar ; a philofo-
phic fal ammoniac, or gypfum, according as we tile a
fixed alkali, a volatile one, or a calcareous earth, for
its decompofition. The laft will as eftedlually and
readily decompofe alum, as fixed alkali itfelf. Nor is
there any difference between the mild and cauftic al¬
kalies with regard to this fait, the latter decompoling
it as readily as the firft. Neither are thefe the only
fubftances capable of decompoling alum. Iron itfelf,
which has generally much lefs attraction for acids than
earthy fubftances, will decompofe it, and thus form a
green vitriol or copperas.
Though the vitriolic acid, however, has fo little at¬
traction for the earthy bafis of alum when in a moift:
ftate, it is obftinately retained by it when heated, nei¬
ther is it poflible to diftil the acid from alum, as from
vitriol. Mr Gecffroy put five pounds of calcined alum
into an earthen retort, and expofed it to a moft vio¬
lent fire for fix days and fix nights, during which time
he obtained only 3 ounces of vitriolic acid.
Alum
Pan II. C H E M I
Practice Alum is very much iifed in dyeing, and the prepara-
‘ lions ot' fome colours. It is likewile ufed in medicine
as a llyptic.
Vitriolic Acid combined with Magnefia,
Epfom fait. The earthy fubftance called magnefia alba is never
found by itfelf, and confequently this combination can¬
not originally take place by art. The vitriolic acid,
however, is found combined with magnefia in great
plenty in the bitter liquor which remains after the
cryltallization of common fait, from whence the mag¬
nefia is procured by precipitating with a fixed alkali. If
this liquor, which, when the common fait is extracted,
appears like clear oil of vitriol, is fet by for fome time
in a leaden veflel, a large quantity of fait fhoots, very
much refembling Glauber’s fal mirabile. This fait is
in many places fold inflead of the true Glauber’s fait;
and is preferred to it, becaufe the true fal mirabile cal¬
cines in dry air, which the fpurious kind does not. If
after the firft cryflallization of the bittern, the remain¬
der is gently evaporated farther, a freflt quantity of
Glauber’s fait will fhoot; and if the liquor is then ha-
flily evaporated, a fait will ftill be cryftallized ; but, in-
ftead of large regular cryftals, it will concrete into very
fmall ones, having fomething of the appearance of
fnow, when taken out of the liquid. Thefe falts are
efientially the fame, and are all ufed in medicine as
purgatives. Tiie fait fliot into fmall cryftals is termed
Epfom fait, from its being firft produced from the pur¬
ging waters at Epfom in England. The bittern af¬
fording this kind of fait in fuch great plenty, thefe wa¬
ters were foon negle&ed, as they yielded it but very
• fparingly, and the quantity prepared from them was
infufficient for the demand. Neuman fays, that ha¬
ving infpiffited 100 quarts of Epfom water, he fcarce
obtained half an ounce of faline matter.
140 Combinations of Vitriolic Acid with Met ah.
Silver. I. Silver. Oil of vitriol boiled on half its weight
of filver filings, corrodes-thfem into a faline mafs. This
fubftance is not ufed in medicine, nor in the arts. The
only remarkable property of it is, that it has a very
ftrong attraction for mercury ; coagulating and har¬
dening as much quickfilver as the acid weighed at firft.
If the hard concrete be diluted with frefli acid, it
melts eafily in the fire, and does not part with the
mercury in the greateft heat that glafs veflels can fu-
ftain. The vitriolic acid, by itfelf, ftrongly retains
mercury, but vnot near fo much as when combined
with filver.
Silver thus corroded by the vitriolic acid, or preci¬
pitated by it from the nitrotw, may in great par.t be diftbl-
ved. by cautioufly applying a very little water at a time;
141 and more effectually by boiling in frefh oil of vitriol.
Copper. 2. Copper. With this metal the vitriolic acid can¬
not be combined, unlefs in its concentrated ftate, and
ftrongly heated. If pure oil of vitriol is boiled on
copper filings, or fmall pieces of the metal, it dif-
folves it into a liquor of a deep blue colour, which
eafily cryftallizes. The cryftals are of a beautiful
blue colour, and are fold under the name of blue vi¬
triol, or Roman vitriol.
Blue vitriol Where fulphur is found in great plenty, however,
how made.’ Roman vitriol is made by ftratifying thin plates of cop-
S T R Y. ,837
per with fulphur; and upon flowly burning the fulphur, Practice
its acid corrode* the copper. 1 he metal is then to be  
boiled in water, that the faline part may be diilbl-
ved. The operation is to be repeated, till all the cop¬
per is confumed ; and all the faline liquors are to be
evaporated together to the cryftallizing point. By
this method, however, a great part of the acid is loft;
and in Britain, where the fulphur muft be imported,
we fnoutd think the pure acid preferable for thofe who
prepare blue vitriol.
This fait, on being expofed to the fire, firft turns Phenomena
white, then of a yellowilh red colour. On urging it on diflilla-
vvith a ftrong fire, the acid flowly exhales, and a dark don.
red calx of copper remains. The whole of the vi¬
triolic acid cannot be expelled from copper by heat:
as much of it ftill remains as to render a part of
the metal foluble in water. After this foluble part
has been extracted, a little acid is ftill retained, a-
mounting to about of the calx.
Vitriol of copper is employed in medicine as a cau- Dies,
ftic, in which relpeft it is very ufefyl; but when ufed
internally, is dangerous, as indeed all the preparations
of copper are found to be. It has, neverthelefs, ac¬
cording to Neuman, been recommended in all kinds
of intermittents,. and the lepra. The fmalleft por¬
tion, he fays, occafions a ficknefs and naufea ; a fome-
what larger, reaching and violent vomitings, accom¬
panied often with convullions. If the quantity taken
has been confiderable, and is hot foon difebarged by
vomiting, the ftomach and inteftines are corroded, in-
tenfe pains, inflammations, and death, fucceed. I45
3. Iron. The vitriolic acid does not a<5l upon this irou.
metal till confiderably diluted. Common oil of vitriol
requires to be mixed with ten or twelve times its
quantity of water, before it will a£t brifkly on the me¬
tal. In this flare it effervefees violently with iron fi¬
lings, or fmall bits of the metal, and a great quantity
of inflammable vapour is difeharged. (See Air.) The
liquor affumes a fine green colour; and, by evaporation
and flow cooling, very beautiful rhomhoidal cryftals ,46
are formed. Thefe are named fait of feci, and are Saltoffleeft
ufed in medicine ; but, for the fait made with the pure
acid and iron, the common copperas, made with the
impure acid extrafted from pyrites, is commonly fub-
ftituted. (See Vitriolic Acid extratted from Pyrites,
above, n° no.) This is generally efteemed a venial
fraud, and no doubt is fo in medicinal refpetfts; but when
it is coniidered, that, by this fubftirution, common cop¬
peras is impofed'on the ignorant, at the price of
2 s. pound, the affair appears in a different light.
Pure vitriol of iron is originally of a much more Precipita-
beautiful appearance than common copperas, and re- tion of iron
tains' its colour much better ; the reafon of which f'ro™ t.lie
feems to be, that the fair thus prepared is more free ^rl° 1C a~
from phldgiftic matters than the, copperas. If either ’ /
of the kinds, however, are expofed to the air for a fuf-
ficient length of time, part of the acid is diffipated, and
the vitriol becomes yellowifh or brownifli. If the fait
is now diffolved in water, a brown precipitate falls,
which is part of the iron in a calcined ftate. If the
liquor is Separated from this precipitate by filtration,
a fimilar one forms in a fliort time, and by long
Handing a confiderable quantity fubfides. According
to Dr Lewis, the precipitation is greatly expedited
by
i838
PR ACTICE
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
- Yellow for
ho ufe paint¬
ing.
by a boiling heat; by which more of the metal fepa-
rates in a few minutes, than by ftanding without heat
for a twelvemoth. This change takes place in no
other metallic folutions.
The calx of iron, precipitated by quicklime from
green vitriol, appears, when dry, of a yellow colour;
and is recommended, in the Swedifli trail factions, in-
ftead of yellow ochre, as a colour for houfe-painting.
Solutions of green vitriol are alfo recommended for
preferving wood, particularly the wheels of carriages,
from decay. When ail the pieces are fit for being
joined together, they are directed to be boiled in a
folution of vitriol for three or four hours ; and then
kept in a warm place for fome days to dry. By this
preparation, it is faid, wood becomes fo hard, that
moifture cannot penetrate it; and that iron nails are
not fo apt to ruft in this vitriolated wood as might be
expected, but laft as long as the wood itfelf.
4. Tin. This metal cannot be'diflblved in the vi¬
triolic acid, but in the fame manner as filver ; namely,
by boiling concentrated oil of vitriol to drynefs upon
filings of the metal. The faliue mafs may then be
diifolved in water, and the folution will cryftallize.
The fait, however, formed by this union, is not ap¬
plied to any ufeful purpofe. A fait of tin, indeed,
formed by the union of vitriolic acid with this metal,
has been recommended for fome medical purpofes,
and proceffes are given for it in the difpenfatories ;
but they have never come much into practice/
5. Lead. While lead is in its metallic Bate, the
vitriolic acid acts very little upon it, either in a di¬
luted, or concentrated Hate ; but if the metal is dif-
folved in any other acid, and oil of vitriol added, a
'precipitation immediately enfues, which is occafioned
by the combination of vitriolic acid with the lead.
This precipitate wull be more or lefs white, as the
metal is more or lefs deprived of its phlogifton by
calcination, before folution. If a little ftrong fpirit
of nitre is poured upon litharge, which is lead cal¬
cined to the greateil degree poffible without vitrifica¬
tion, the acid unites itfelf to the metal with confide-
rable effervefcence and heat. Some water being
now poured on, and the vial containing the mixture
lhaken, a turbid folution of the litharge is made. If
a little oil of vitriol is then added, it throws down a
beautifully white precipitate ; and the .acid of nitre,
being left at liberty to a<5t upon the remaining part of
the litharge, begins a-new to diffolve it with effer¬
vefcence. When it is again faturated, more oil of
vitriol is to be dropped in, and a white precipitate is
again thrown down. If any of the litharge is Hill un-
diflblved, the nitrous acid, being fet at liberty a fe-
cond time, .attacks it as at firfl; and, by continuing
to add oil of vitriol, the whole of the litharge'may be
converted into a moft beautiful and durable white.
Unfortunately this colour cannot be ufed in oil, tho’
in water it feems fuperior to any. If the procefs is
well managed, an ounce of fpirit pf nitre may be
made to convert feveral pounds of litharge into a
153 white of this kind.
Quickfil- 6. Quickfilver. The diffolution of quickfilver in vi-
ver. triolic acid cannot be performed but by a concentra¬
ted oil and ftrong boiling heat. The metal is firft
corroded into a white calx, which may afterwards be
A beautiful
white co¬
lour.
eafily diflblved by an addition of frefh acid. Every Practice
time it is diffolved, the mercury becomes more and   
more fixed and more difficult to dry. If the exficcation
and diffolution has been repeated feveral times, the
matter becomes at laft fo fixed as to bear a degree of
red heat. This combination is the bafis of a medicine
formerly of fome repute, under the name of turhiih mi¬
neral. The procefs for making turbith mineral is given
by the author of the Chemical Dictionary as follows : ,i4
“ Some mercury is poured into a glafs retort, and Turbith
upon it an equal quantity of concentrated oil of vitriol, mineral,
or more, according to the ftrength of the acid. Thefe
matters are to be diftilled together, in the heat of a
fand-bath, till nothing remains in the retort but a dry
faline mafs, which is a combination of the vitriolic
acid and mercury. The acid which paffes into the
receiver is very fuffocating and fulphureous ; .which
qualities it receives from the phlogifton of the mer¬
cury. The white faline mafs which is left at the bot¬
tom of the retort is to be put into a large veffel; and
upon it are to be poured large quantities of hot water,
at feveral different times. This water weakens the
acid, and takes it from the mercury ; which is then
precipitated towards the bottom of the veflel, in form
of a very fhining yellow powder. The water with
which it is walked, contains the acid that was united
with the mercury ; and likewife a little mercury,
rendered foluble by means of the very large quantity
of acid.
Moft chemifts have believed, that a portion of vi¬
triolic acid remains united with the turbith mineral,
only too little to render it foluble in water. But Mr
Beaume, having examined this matter, affirms, that
turbith mineral contains no acid, when it has been
fufficiently wafhed ; and that, by frequentlvv boiling
this preparation in a large quantity of diftilled water,
not a veftige of acid will adhere to it.” IS5
Dr Lewis, who is of opinion' that, the whole of this Dr Lewis’s
mercurial calx is foluble in a very large quantity of direftions.
water, defires the water with which it is wafhed to
be impregnated with fome alkaline fait; which makes
the yield of turbith greater than when pure water is
ufed. The author of the Chemical Diiftionary alfb
obferves, that the precipitate remains white till well
freed from the acid ; and the more perfectly it is
waflied, the deeper yellow colour it acquires. 156
7. Zinc. This femimetal is nor a£fed upon by the Zinc,
vitriolic acid in its concentrated ftate; but, when di¬
luted, is diffolved by it wiriv-efierVefcence, and with
the extrication of an inflammable vapour in the fame
manner as iron. Neuman obferves, that, during the
diflblution, $ grey and blackifh fpongy matter fell to
the bottom ; but, on ftanding for fome days, was ta¬
ken up, and dilfolved in the liquor, nothing being left
but a little ^yellowifh duft fcarcely worth mentioning.
Six parts of oil of vitriol, diluted with an equal quan¬
tity of water, diffolves one part of zinc. I57
The product of this combination is -white vitriol; White vi-
which is ufed in medicine as an ophthalmic, and in triol.
painting for making oil-colours dry quickly : what is
ufed for this purpofe, however, is not made in Bri¬
tain, but comes from Germany. It is made at Goflar
by the following procefs. An ore containing, lead
and filver, having been previoufly roafted for the ob¬
taining
Part II. C H E M :
Practice taining of fulphur, (fee Metallurgy), is lixivia-
— ted with water, and afterwards evaporated in leaden
boilers, as for the preparation of green vitriol: bnt
here a regular cryllaliization is prevented ; for when
the fait has affutned any kind of cryftalline form, thei’e
cryJtals are made to undergo the watery fufion in
copper caldrons. It is then kept conitantly ftirring
till a confiderable part of the moifture is evaporated,
and the matter has acquired the conhftence of fine iu-
gar. White vitriol generally contains fome ferrugi¬
nous matter, from which it may be entirely freed, by
fome frefh zinc ; for this femimetal precipitates frori^
the vitriolic acid all other metallic fubftances; but not-
withlfanding this itrong attraction, the vitriolic acid is
more eafily expelled by diltillation from white, than
green, or blue vitriol. Towards the end of the di¬
ltillation of white vitriol, the acid arifes exceedingly
concentrated, though iulphureous; fo that, if mixed
with common oil of vitriol, it will heat it almolt as
158 much as oil of vitriol heats water.
Regulus of 8. Regulus of Antimony. To combine vitriolic acid
antimony. with regulus of antimony, the fame method mtift be
ufed, as direCted for uniting it with quickfilvef, for
making turbith mineral, viz. to employ a very con¬
centrated acid, and to diftil in clofe yelfels. The fame
phenomena alfo occur in this cafe as in making tur-
bith mineral; a very fuffocating fulphureous acid rifes j
and, as Mr Geoffrey obi'erves, a true fnlphur fublimes
into the neck of the retort; a white, faline, tumefied
mafs remains in the veffel ; and when the veffels are
unluted, a white fume iffues, as in the fmoking fpirit
of libavius. See Combinations of marine acid with
159 infra.
Regains of 9* Regulus of Cobalt. The only accounts we have
cobalt. of the combination of vitriolic acid with this femimetal
are, that it is flowly diffolved into a rofe-coloured li¬
quor, which, in evaporation, throws off to the fides a
i6;) blue powder, that on cooling grows white.
Arfenic. \o. Arfenic. Neuman relates, that powdered white
arfenic being diftilled in a retort with oil of vitriol, a
tranfparent fublimate like glafs arofe, which in a few
days loft its tranfparency, and became opake like the
arfenic itfelf. The arfenic remaining in the retort,
fuftained an open fire without any fenlible alteration.
The author of the Chemical Diftionary fays, that if a
concentrated vitriolic acid is diftilled from arfenic, the
acid which comes over fmells exaiftly like marine acid.
When the folution is1 diftilled till no more acid rifes,
the retort is then almoft red-hot, and no arfenic is fub-
limed ; hut it remains fnfed at the bottom of the
retort; and, when cold, is found to be an heavy,
eompadl mafs, brittle and tranfparent as cryftal-glafs.
This kind of arfenical glafs, expofed to the air, loon
loies its tranfparency from the moifture it attracts,
which diffolves and partly deliquiates it. This deli-
quium is extremely acid.—None of the three laft men¬
tioned combinations have been found applicable to any
ufeful purpofe.
Vitriolic Acid combined with Inflammable Subflances.
1. Gil. The product of this combination is a thick
black fubftance, very much refembling balfam of ful¬
phur in colour and confidence ; to which it is fome-
times fubftituted. If this fubftance is diftilled with a
[ S T R Y. .839
gentle heat, great part of the acid becomes volatile, Practice
and evaporates in white fumes, having a pungent fmell
refembling that of burning fulphur. This goes by the v0iatiieful-
nameof volatile or fulphureous vitriolic acid; and a fait phureous
was formerly prepared from it by faturation with fixed acid,
alkali,which was thought to poffefs great virtues. From
its inventor it was called the fulphureous fait of Stahl.
The moft Angular property of this volatile acid is,
that though the vitriolic in its fixed ftate is capable of
expelling any other acid from its bafts, the volatile
one is expelled by every acid, even that of vine¬
gar. It is very difficultly condenfible, as we have
already taken notice ; and, when mixed with wa¬
ter, feems fcarcely at all acid, but rather to have a
bitterilh tafte. ,5^
Several methods have been propofed for procuring How procu-
this acid from burning fulphur, which yields it in its red by Dr
greateft degree of volatility, as well as concentration ; Prieft^y-
but the produce is fo exeedingly final], that none of
them are worth mentioning. Dr Prieftley has given
very good directions for obtaining the volatile vitriolic
acid in the form of air. His method was, to pour, on
fome oil of vjtriol contained in a vial, a very fmall
quantity of oil olive ; as much as was fufficient to co¬
ver it. He then applied the proper apparatus for the
reception of air in quickfilver, (fee Air) ; and, hold¬
ing a candle to the vial, the volatile vitriolic acid rulh-
ed out in great quantity. Had he received this air in
water, inftead of quickfilver, the confequence would
have been, that fome part of it, at leaft, would have
been abforbed by the water, and a fulphureous acid
liquor produced. This feems indeed almoft the only
method of procuring the fulphureous vitriolic acid of
any tolerable ftrength ; but it is never required in the
form of a liquor except for experimental purpofes.
The only ufeful property hitherto difeovered about
this kind of acid is, that it is remarkably dcftrutfiive
of colours of all kinds, and hence the fumes of fulphur
are employed to whiten wool, Izc. ^
I.Phlogiflon of Charcoal. If charcoal is mixed with charcoal,
concentrated vitriolic acid, and the mixture diftillcd,
the fame kind of acid is at firft obtained, which comes
over when oil is ufed ; and towards the end, when
the matter begins to grow dry, a true fulphur fub¬
limes. The beft way, however, of producing fulphur
from the vitriolic acid is by combining it, when in a
perfedlly dry ftate, with the phlogifton. By tins
means fulphur may very readily be made at any time.
The procefs is generally diredfed to be performed in
the following manner.
Reduce to fine powder any quantity of vitricdiied Sulphur
tartar. Mingle it carefully with a 16th part oF#ferrepared
weight of charcoal-duft. Put the whole into a co-'^TOSnvimo-
vered crucible let in a melting furnace. Give a heat ldt w,tar*
lufficient to melt the^falt; and when thoroughly melt¬
ed, pour it out on a flat ftone. The vitriolated tartar
and charcoal will now be converted into a fulphureous
mafs fimilar to a combination of alkaline falls with fuV N
phur. See Alkaline Salts, below. „ } ^
3. Spirit of Wine. The refult of this combination Sprit of
is one of the extraordinary phenomena in chemiftry ; vine. ' >
being that fluid, which, for its extreme degree of Vo¬
latility, Yvas firft diftinguilhed by the name of ether :
and now, fince a liquor of the like kind is difeovered
to
1840
Practice to be preparable from fpirit of wine by means of o-
  ther acids, this fpecies is difHnguifhed by the name of
vitriolic ether. The method of preparing this fubtile
liquor recommended by Mr Beaume, feems to be the
belt of any hitherto dii'covered.
Ether. “ Mix together equal parts by weight, of highly
redtified fpirit of wine and concentrated oil of vitriol,
or fomewhat more than two meal’ures of fpirit of
wine with one of the acid. The mixture is to be
made in a flint glafs-retort, the bottom and fides of
which are very thin, that it may not break from the
heat which is fuddenly generated by the union of thefe
two fubllances. The fpirit of wine is firlt put into
the retort, and then the acid is poured in by a glafs-
funnel, fo that the itream may be diredled againlt the
fide of the glafs; in which cafe it will not exert much
of its force on the fpirit, but will lie quietly below at
the bottom. The retort is now to be very gently
fliaken, that the acid may mingle with it by little and
little. When the mixture is completed, very little
more heat will be neceflary to make the liquor boil.
This mixture is to be diltilled with as brilk and
quick a heat as poflible; for which reafon, immediately
after the acid and fpirit are mixed, the retort fhould
be put into a fand furnace, heated as much as the mix¬
ture is. The diltillation fhould be continued only till
about one-third of the liquor is come over ; if it is
continued farther, part of the vitriolic acid rifes in a
fulphureous flate. In the retort a thick, black, acid
matter remains, which is fimilar to a combination of
oil of vitriol with any inflammable matter, and from*
which a little fulphur may be obtained. Along with
the fulphureous acid, a greenifh oil, called oleum vi¬
triol i dalcis, arifes, which has a fmell compounded of
that of the ether and fulphureous acid : and Mr Beaume
has fhewn that it is compounded of thefe two ; for if
it is rectified with an alkali, to attradi the acid, it is
changed into ether. If, after the .diftillation of the
ether, fome water be poured into Vie retort, the li¬
quor by diftillation may be brought back to the ftate
of a pure vitriolic acid.
As the fleams of the ethereal liquor are, exceedingly
volatile, and at the fame time a quick fire is neceffary
to the fuccefs of the operation, the receiver muft be
carefully kept cool with very cold water, or with
fnow. Care muft alfo be taken to prevent any of
the fulphureous acid fleams from coming over; but as
it is impoffible to prevent this totally, the liquor re¬
quires rectification. This is the more neceffary, as a
part of the fpirit of wane always rifes unchanged.
From the acid the liquor is eafily fet free, by adding
a fmall quantity of alkaline fait, and re-diftilling with
a very gentle heat; but as fpirit of wine is .likewife
very volatile, the diftillation muft be performed in a
very tall glafs. Dr Black recommends a matrafs, or
bolt-head, with a tin pipe adapted to the head, fo as
to convey the fleams at a right angle, to be conden-
168 fed in the receiver.
Properties Ether is the lighteft of all known fluids, except
of ether. ajr . anc| is fQ volatile, that in vacuo its boiling point is
20° below o° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. If a fmall
quantity is poured out on the ground* it inftantly eva¬
porates, diffufing its fragrance all through the "room,
and fcarce perceptibly moiftening the place on which
Part IL
it fell. It difficultly mixes with water, as being of Practick
an oily nature : ten parts of water, however, will
take up one part of ether. Its great volatility ren¬
ders it ferviceable in nervous difeafes, and removing
pains, when rubbed on with the hand, and kept from
evaporating immediately. By fpontaneous evapora¬
tion, it produces a great degree of cold. (See Eva¬
poration and Congelation). The moft extra¬
ordinary property, however, is, that if gold is diffol-
ved in aqua regia, (fee Metallic Subjlances, below),
and ether'added to the folution, the gold will leave
the acid and permanently unite with the ether. The
exceeding great volatility of ether renders it very ea¬
fily inflammable even on the approach of flame ; and
therefore it ought never to be diflilled, or even pour¬
ed from one vclfel to another, by candle-light. If a
lefs quantity of the vitriolic acid is added to the fpirit
of wine than what is fufficient to produce ether, the
product is called fpiritus vitrioli dulcis.
II. Of the Nitrous Acid and its Combinations. ^9
This acid is far from being fo plentiful as the vitriolic. Doubtful
It has been thought to exift in the air; and Dr Prieft- wbethertbe
ley s experiments have indeed Ihewn, that a part of it js procura_
enters into the compofition of our atinofphere : but it ble from
is greatly to be doubted whether it can be recovered air. in its
from it in its proper form ; for no method of doing ProPer
this has hitherto been found. Fixed alkaline falts, in- °rm‘
deed, when expofed to the air, imbibe its fixable part,
and by that means become fufceptible of-cryftaliiza-
tion ; which probably has given occafion to the notion
that they imbibe vitriolic acid from it: but we have
no experiments from which it can be inferred, either
that the lead portion of nitrous acid exifts ready form¬
ed in the air, or that the materials for its formation
are to be found there.
p ^What has given rife to the opinion of the nitrous
acftl being ablorbed from the atmolphere, feems to be,
that fome kinds of earth, the rubbilh of old houfes,
ire.'are found impregnated with this acid, on being
fome time expoled to the air ; but we might as well
make this an argument for the vitriolic acid being ab-
1'orbed from the air by pyrites, when expofed to it
for making green vitriol. In this lalt cafe, however,
we know that there is no attraction of new acid; but on¬
ly a decompolition of fulphur which contains the vi¬
triolic acid already formed, and which then fully ma-
niftfts itfelf. In like manner, the nitrous acid may
originally lie hid in thofe earths which are found to
contain it plentifully in expofure to the air, and only
wants fuch an expofure to become vifible. 170
The moft probable opinion is, that the nitrous acid Probably
is only the vitriolic altered by a mixture of inflam- 01_dy the vi-
mable matter ; and, in fupport of this, the fimilarity *"ollcalter'
between the nitrous and fulphureous vitriolic acids is
urged. Experiments are alfo brought in proof of this;
none of them, however, feem to be decifive. In the
Berlin memoirs, we have an account of fome experi¬
ments made by Dr Pietchs on this fubjeeft ; who fays,
that, having funked a calcareous ftone with vitriolic
acid and urine, he found it, after being fome time ex¬
pofed to the air, to abound greatly in nitre. Neu¬
man fays, that if two ounces of good fpirit of nitre
are mixed with half an ounce of oil of turpentine,
the
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
Practice the mixture will be a true balfam of fulphur. The
molt remarkable experiment, however, is one by
Wallerius., mentioned by Dr Lewis in his notes on
171 Neuman’s chemiftry.
Experiment “ Some fait of tartar,” fays he, “ being mixed with
in favour °f the dulcified fpirit of vitriol, or perhaps with the
this opinion. etjier> ^fur the aut;i,or expreffes himfelf a little ambi-
guoufly,) the full boftle ftopt with a cork, tied over
with bladder, and laid on its fide, on Handing for four
months, the greateft part of the fpirit was found to
have efcaped, and the fait was fliot into hexangular
prifmatic cryftals refembling nitre. It tafted ftrongly
of the fpirit, but had no other particular tafte. Laid
on a burning coal, it crackled, exploded with a bright
flalh, and flew into the air. He afterwards found,
that by adding to the fpirit a drop or two of any acid,
the fait cryftallizes the fooner ; that in this cafe it has
a fourifh talle, but in other refpe-Hs is the fame with
that made without acid. This falt-petre, fays the au¬
thor, promifes, from the violence of its explofion, to
make the ftrongeft gun-powder in the world, but a
very dear one. Though the experiment Ihould not
be applicable to any ufe in this way, it will probably
contribute to illuftrate the generation of nitre ; as it
palpably Ihows nitre, that is, the acid or chara&eriflic
part of nitre, produced from the vitriolic acid and
172 phlogifton.”
Not conclu- We cannot here help again regretting that che-
five. mifts of luperior abilities fhould fometimes leave very
important difcoveries only half finifhed, fo that che-
mifts of an inferior rank know not what to make
of them. Had Wallerius, who feems more than once
to have been in poffellion of this fait, only poured
on it a few drops of oil of vitriol, the peculiar co¬
lour and fmell of the fumes muft have been a much
more convincing proof of the reality of this tranfmu-
tation, than that of the mere deflagration; becaufe
the latter can be otherwife accounted for.
It is certain, that many fubflances, water itfelf not
excepted, will explode with great violence if fudden-
ly heated beyond what they are able to bear. If fpi¬
rit of wine is confined in a clofe velfel, it will alfo by
means of heat burft it as effedlually as water ; and as
the vapours of this fubftance are inflammable, the ex¬
plofion will be attended with a flafh, if any flame is
near. In like manner, ether, on the approach of a
candle, takes fire, and goes off in a flafh like lightning ;
but this happens, not from any thing nitrous, but from
itsgreat volatility and inflammability. If therefore the
vapours of the ethereal liquor are confined, and heat
is applied fuddenly to the containing veffel, their great
volatility will caufe them make an ipflantaneous effort
againll: the fides of it, which, increafing with a fwift-
nefs far beyond that of aqueous or fpirituous vapours,
will make a much quicker as well as a much flronger
explofion than either of them ; and if a flaming fub¬
ftance is near, the explofion will be attended with a
bright flafh like that of the ether -itfelf.
In the experiment now before us, the fait tafted
ftrongly of the fpirit, or ether, from which it was
made. The fpirit was therefore confined in the cryf¬
tals of fait; and his volatile liquor, which, even under
the preflure of the atmofphere, boils with the heat of
ioo° of Fahrenheit, was, in a confined ftate, fubjedled
Vol. III.
1841
to the heat of a burning coal; that is, to more than Pr actice
ten times the degree of heat neceffary to convert it ‘
into vapour. The confequence of this could be no
other, than that the particles of fait, or perhaps the
air itfelf, not being capable of giving way foon enough
to the forcible expanfion of the ether, a violent ex¬
plofion would happen, and the fait be thrown about;
which accordingly came to pafs, and might very reafo-
nably be expected, without any thing nitrous contain¬
ed in the fait. 173
The accounts we have of the produdlion of nitre Accounts of
itfelf, which is a combination of the nitrous acid and the produe-
fixed alkali, generally agree pretty much in its being tjon of nitre,
extracted from particular kinds of earth, or from the an(j fufp;c;.
rubbilh of old houfes; but the impoflibility of procu- ous.
ring the leaft quantity of nitrous fait from thefe fub-
ftances in this country, renders the whole of 1'uch ac¬
counts juftly fufpedted. The warmth of particular
climates indeed might be very juftly conjeHured to
be the reafon why nitre Ihould be made to advantage
in fome countries, and not in others; but it can fcarce
account for the impoflibility of making a Angle grain
in colder climates. It feems very ftrange, that the
fame means which produce great quantities of nitre
in France fhall produce none in Britain, though ufed
with the utmoft exa&nefs and care. 174
The requifites for the production of nitre, accord- Requifites,
ing to Neuman, are, r. Putrid, or putrefcible matters, according
either of the animal or vegetable kingdom. 2. Cer-
tain earths; as lean clays, limeftone, gypfum, the rub- du£t;on,
bilhof old buildings, ire. And, 3. Air. The greateft
quantities of falt-petre, fays he, are produced from
urine and dung, whofe ftrong tendency to putrefaction
renders them preferable to other matters. Human
urine, the urine of Iheep, goats, and horfes, and the
dung of pigeons, are found to anfwer belt. The
leaves, flowers, and ftalks of vegetables, hay and ftra w,
faw-duft, ire. are mixed in the compolition, and con¬
tribute more or lefs to the effect, according to their
degree Of putrefeibility. On thefe principles, fays
he, nitre may be produced in all countries ; and in
many places very advantageous works might be efta-
bliflied, if we were better acquainted with the man¬
ner of its production. 175
According to this author, likewife, certain earths Nitrous
may be fo dipofed and improved, as to afford more ferments,
nitre by the admixture of different fubftances, which
may properly be called nitrous ferments. The fol¬
lowing compofitions are proper. 1. Lime, Iheeps
dung, Iheeps urine, and common fait. 2. Lime, fait,
rafped horns and hoofs, cuttings of leather, and other
refufe of animal fubftances. 3. Human urine and
lime. 4. Human urine, lime, fait, and pigeons dung;
and other like mixtures of lime and fait with animal
matters. 5. Compofitions of animals and vegetables
together; as bitter plants boiled in the urine, and
poured on the earth. 6. Tartar, lime, and urine.
7. Lime, preflings of grapes, and the liquor of dung¬
hills. 8. Wine lees, dunghill liquor, lime, and fait.
9. Tartar and lime. 10. Lime, fait, dunghill liquor, and
the matter remaining after the diftillation of fpirit of
wine. 11. Lime, fait, urine, dung", and martial fcoria. . T76
The author of the Chemical Dictionary acquaints
us, that this fait is found naturally cryftallized in In- of makin(T
II A dia, nitre. “
CHEMISTRY.
1842
Practice dia, and is fwept from the earths and ftones which
produce it; for which reafon it is called falt-petre
fweepings. A nitre may alfo be obtained from feveral
plants. Thefe,. fays he, are the only two kinds of
natural nitre; all other nitre is only begun by nature,
and is found in the walls of old buildings. The mo ft
favourable places for the produdlion of nitre, are the
habitations of men and animals, particularly fuch as are
low and moift, as cellars, kitchens, ftables, houfes of
office, and others of that kind, which are apt to be
impregnated with vegetable and animal matters, and
alfo to have an habitual moifture, which is favourable
to putrefadlion ; and lallly, which are flickered from
rain, which might dilfolve and carry off the nitre as
foon as it is formed.
In the Eafl: Indies, the nitrous acid is faid to be found
in great plenty, mixed with fome kinds of marly
earths; from whence it is extracted by lixiviation with
water, and precipitating the earth with a fixed alkali.
An account of the method of making falt-petre in
Virginia has been publiflied by order of the fociety
for encouraging arts, ire. This, however, gives no
light as to the origin of the acid; only informing us
that nitre is found in tobacco-houfes, ftables, cow-
houfe^, hen and pigeon houfes, and in any covered
place where the influence of the fun feldoni reaches.
A fixty feet tobacco-houfe will yield 16 hundred weight
yearly ; and fo in proportion for other houfes. The
directions for preparing the floors of thefe houfes for
yielding nitre, follow*
“ In order to prepare the floors for attracting nitre,
all dung and other trafli muft be removed ; and if the
floors are not level, they muft be made fo by laying on
marl,.or any foil not too ftiff, which muft be lightly
trod down with the feet.
“ The floor being thus prepared, fprinkle ftrong
amber over it, made from tobacco trafli; and cover it
with wet ground leaves, or other tobacco trafti, for a
fortnight: then clean out the trafti; and in any cool
dry morning that fucceeds, you will find on the floor,
the nitre attracted and condenfed like hoar-froft,
which muft be carefully fwept off as often as that ap-
j pearance is obferved.”
Attempts to In the annual regifter for 1763, we meet with a pa-
make nitre per figned J. R. the author of which relates fome at-
in Britain, tempts of his own to make fidt-petre, in fo fenfible a
manner, that we cannot help giving an account of
them in his own words.
“ Having pended/’ fays he, “ what Hoffman,
Stahl, Boerhaave, and others, have delivered on the
formation of nitre ; and being fnrniftied with an ac¬
count of the nitre-works near Paris, and with the
method of making this fait at Calcutta, I entered up¬
on the fiibjecft with as much affiduity and attention, as
a man can apply to one he is either pleafed .with, or
interefted in. The writers above-mentioned differ fo
little in their accounts of the conftitution of nitre, and
the materials which fupply it, that 1 fliall, for brevity’s
fake, confine myfelf to what is delivered by Hoffman.
He lays, in the firft place, that nitre has two princi¬
ples, or elements; one the univerfal, fimple, and pri-
mogenial acid which inhabits the air, quod ventre fuo
fortat; the other an alkaline, fulphureous, fat earth;
and that this laft is a matrix, which, by attra&ing to
Part II.-
itfelf and imbibing the former from the air, confti- Practice
tutes nitre. He further obferves, that the fubftances
which fupply nitre in greateft plenty, are the rubbilh
of demohlhed houfes, all kinds of earth, clay, and loam,
lime, allies, and foap-boilers dregs; and that thefe al¬
ways produce the molt nitre, in proportion as they
are combined with the urine and excrements of ani¬
mals, and writh corrupted vegetables. All thefe ma¬
terials I foon furnilhed myfelf with, and for greater
certainty procured fome of them from different places;
but after frequent trials, by drenching and boiling;
them in water, could not procure any thing at all like
nitre from them. I then provided a great number of
flat glazed earthen pans; and in thefe expofed the fame
fubftances for feveral months, in a dry ftate, to the air;
but found myfelf equally difappointed. I likewife
placed in the fame lituation a quantity of the vege¬
table alkaline fait called pearl-ajh, fome of it alone,
and lome mixed with the fore-mentioned earthy fub¬
ftances ; but to no better purpofe : for W'hich I am
induced to believe, notwithftanding the authority of
Hofl’man, and the opinion of many concerning the re-
fidence of the nitrous acid in the air, that it is not to
be found therein ; and this I am the better authorifed to
deliver, as I never could procure, after proper trials, any
veftiges of nitre from hail, fnow, rain-water, or dew.” r yg
Thefe experiments having proved totally fruitlefs, Nitrous acid
our author was obliged to have reeourfe to other infprings.
• nirces for the nitrous acid : and the only one he could
find was hard fpring-water. Many of thefe waters
do indeed contain a combination of the nitrous acid
with calcareous earth ; but in too final! quantity to be
worth extracting. The operation is very eafy, con-
fifting only in dropping into the water a folution of
fixed alkaline fait, filtering the liquor, and evapora¬
ting to a fufficient degree ; when cryftals of true nitre
will be formed. From three pounds of fuch water as
we have tried, only 20 grains of nitre were procu¬
rable ; it is probable, therefore, that in all places where
this fait is found in plenty, there are fome circum-
ftances which contribute to its formation, that are
either over-looked, or defignedly concealed.
The diftingniffiing charadteriftic of the nitrous acid
is its great difpofition to unite with the phlogifton;
and, when fo united, firft to become exceedingly vo¬
latile, and at laft to be diflipated in a very white bright
flame : this is called its detonation or deflagration. In
the ftrongeft ftate in which this acid is procurable in a
liquid form, it is of a reddifti yellow colour, and con¬
tinually exhales in denfe, red,(and very noxious fumes ^
and in this ftate is called fmakingy or, from its inventor,
Glauber's, fpirit of nitre.
To extract the Nitrous Acid by means of the Vitriolic.
Into a glafs-retort put two pounds of good fait- Spirit of
petre, and pour upon it 18 ounces of concentrated oil nitre.
of vitriol; fet the retort in a land heat, and lute on
a large receiver with the compofition recommended
n° 78, for refifting acid fumes; the mixture will grow
very warm, and the retort and receiver will be filled
with red vapours. A fmall fire is then to be kindled,
and cautioufly raifed till no more drops will fall from
the nofe of the retort. What comes over vifi fie a
very ftrong and finoking fpirit of nitre.
CHEMISTRY.
in
PartIL
Practice
181
DifFerent
methods of
diftilling-
182
Ufes.
Blue aqua
Fortis,
CHEMISTRY. 1843
In this procefs, the nitrous acid is generally mixed
with part of the vitriolic which comes over along with
it, and from which it muft be freed if defigned for
nice purpofes. This is moil effectually done by dif-
iblving in it a ftnall quantity of nitre, and re-diitilling
the mixture. The vitriolic acid which came over in
the firit diitillation is kept back by the nitre in the fe-
cond, combining with its alkaline bafts, and expelling
a proportionable quantity of the nitrons acid.
We have here directed the pure vitriolic acid to be
ufed, in order to expel the nitrous one ; but for this
ptirpofe any combination of the vitriolic acid with a
metallic or earthy bafis may be ufed, though not with
equal advantage. If calcined vitriol is made ufe of,
as much phlogiflon is communicated by the calx of
iron contained in that fait, as makes the nitrous acid.
exceedingly volatile, fo that great part of it is loft.
If calcined alum, or felenite, is made ufe of, the vitrio¬
lic acid in thefe fubftanees immediately leaves the
earth with which it was combined, in order to unite
with the alkaline bafis of the nitre, and expels its
acid: but the moment the nitrous acid is expelled
from the alkali, it combines with the earth which the
vitriolic acid had left; from which it cannot be driven
without a violent fire ; and part of it remains obfti-
nately fixed, fo as not to be expelled by any degree
of heat. Hence the produce of fpirit, when nitre is
diftilled with fuch fubftances, always turns out confi-
derably lefs than when the pure vitriolic acid is ufed.
Alum is preferable to felenite, for the purpofes of
diftilling fpirit of nitre; becaufe the acid does not ad¬
here fo ftrongly to argillaceous, as to calcareous
earth.
Spirit of nitre is veryufeful in the arts of dyeing and
refining, where it is known by the name of aqua for¬
th ; and therefore an eafy and cheap method of pro¬
curing it is a valuable piece of knowledge. Many
difficulties, however, occur in this procefs, as well as
that for the vitriolic acid. Oil of vitriol, indeed, al¬
ways expels the nitrous acid with certainty; and on
diftilling the mixture, a fpirit of nitre arifes: but if
a glafs-retort is ufed for the purpofe of diftilling this
acid, the quantity of refiduum left in diftillation is fo
great, and fo infoluble in water, being no other than
vitriolated tartar, that the retort muft always be broke
in order to get it out; and the produce of fpirit will fcarce
afford the expence of breaking a retort. If earthen re¬
torts are made ufe of, they muft certainly be of that
kind called ftone-ware, and the price of them will be
very little if at all inferior to that of glafs. Iron pots
are laid to be made ufe of in the diftillation of common
aqua fortis in large quantities; but they have the great
inconvenience of making a quantity of the acid fo vo¬
latile, that it not only will not condenfe, but fpreads its
fuffocating vapours all around in fuch a manner as to
prove very dangerous to thofe who are near it. If an
iron veffel, therefore, is thought of for the purpofe of
diftilling aqua fortis, it will be proper at leaft to at¬
tempt luting over the infide with a mixture of gyp-
feous earth and fand, to prevent as much as ponible
the acid from attacking the metal.
To procure the Nitrons Acid by means of Arfsnic.
Pulverife equal quantities of dried nitre and white
cryftalline arfenic ; mix them well together, and diflil Practice
in a glafs-retort with a fire very cautioufly applied ;   
for the arfenic a<fts on the nitre with fuch violence,
and the fumes are here fo volatile, that, unlefs great
care is taken, a molt dangerous explofion will almoft
certainly happen. As, in this cafe, the nitrous fumes
arile in a perfectly dry ftate, fome water muft be put
into the receiver, with which they may unite and con¬
denfe. The aqua foYtis fo produced will have a blue
colour, owing to the inflammable principle feparated
from the arfenic, by which its extreme volatility is
likewife occafioned. If this blue aqua fortis is expo-
fed to the air, its colour foon flies off.
Nitrous Acid combined with Alkaline Salts. jg4
1. Vegetable fixed alkali. This fait, combined with Salt-petre.
the nitrous acid to the point of faturation, regene¬
rates nitre. It is obfervable, however, according to
Neuman, that there is always fome diflimilarity be¬
tween the original, and regenerated nitre, unlefs
quicklime is added. The regenerated fait, he fays,
always corrodes tin, which the original nitre does nor.
Boiling with quicklime depriv es it of this quality, and
makes it exactly the fame with original nitre. 185
2. Fofiile alkali. The neutral fait arifing from a Cubic nitre,
combination of the nitrous acid and folfile alkali is
fomewhat different from common nitre ; being more
difficult to cryftallize, inclining to deliquate in the air,
and fhooting into cryftals of a cubical form, whence it
gets the name of cubic nitre. Its qualities are found
fomewhat inferior to the common nitre ; and therefore
it is never made, unlefs by accident, or for experi¬
ments. ,86
Nitre is one of the moft fufible falts. It is liquefied Fufibility.
in a heat much lefs than what is neceffary to make it
red; and thus remain in tranquilfufion,without fwelling.
If nitre thus melted be left to cool and fix, whether
it has been made red hot or not in the fufioh, it coagu¬
lates into a white, femUtranfparent, folid mafs, called
mineral cryftal, having all the properties of nitre it-
felf. By this fufion, Mr Beaum6 obferves that nitre
lofes very little, if any, of the water contained in its
cryftals, iince the weight of mineral cryftal is nearly
the fame with that of the nitre employed.
When nitre is kept in fufion with a moderate heat,
and at the fame time does not touch any inflammable
matter, nor even flame, it remains in that ftate with¬
out fuffering any very fenfible alteration ; but if it is
long kept in fufion with a ftrong fire, part of the acid
is deftroyed by the phlogifton which penetrates the
crucible; and hence the nitre becomes more and more
alkaline. (See n° 220.) ,87
Nitre is of very extenfive ufe in different arts; be- Ufes.
ing the principal ingredient in gun-powder ; and fer-
ving as an excellent flux to other matters; whence its
ufe in glafs making. (See Glass.) It is alfo poffef-
fed of a confiderable antifeptic power ; whence its ufe
in preferving meat, to which it communicates a red
colour. In medicine, nitre is ufed as a diuretic, feda-
tive, and cooler; but very often fits uneafy on the fto-
mach. The refemblance of the cryftals of nitre to
thofe of Glauber’/ fait has fometimes been the occafion
of dangerous miftakes. Dr Alexander mentions a
fwelling over the whole body of a woman, occafioned
11 A 2 by
1844 C H E M
Practice by her taking a folution of nitre inllead of Glauber’s
r fait. Two miftakes of the fame kind we have alfo
known. In one an ounce, and in the other upwards
of two ounces, of nitre, were fwallowed. The fymp-
toms occafioned were univerfal coldnefs and fhivering,
extreme debility and ficknefs at ftomach, cold fweats,
and faintings. Neither of the cafes proved mortal,
jgg The cure was effected by cordials and corroborants.,.
Sal prunel- A procefs has obtained a place in the difpenfatories
la. for a fuppofed purification of nitre, by means of flower
of brimftone. A pound of falt-peti e is to be melted in
a crucible, or fmall iron veflel; and an ounce of flowers
of fulphur thrown upon it, by fmall quantities at a
time : a violent deflagration enfues on each addition ;
and after the whole is put in, the fait is poured out
in moulds, and then called fal prunella. It has been
difputed whether the nitre was at all depurated by
this procefs; Dr Lewis thinks it is not. From our
own experience, however, we can affirm, that by
this means a fediment falls to the bottom,which carries
with it any impurities that may have been in the
nitre, and leaves the fluid fait clear and tranfparent
as water. This precipitate is probably no other than
a vitriolated tartar formed by the union of the fulphu-
reous acid and alkali of the nitre, which being lefs fu-
fible than the nitre, fubfides in a folid form and clari-
jgg fies it.
Nitrousam- 3. Volatile alkali. The nitrous acid feems peculiar-
moniac. ]y adapted to an union with volatile alkali; faturating
as much, or rather more of it than the ftrongeft vitrio¬
lic acid is capable of doing. The product is a very
beautiful fait, called volatile nitre, or nitrous fal ammo¬
niac. It very readily diffolves, not only in water, but
in fpirit of wine, which diftinguilhesit from the vitrio¬
lic, and common kind of fal ammoniac. It alfo requires
lefs heat for its fublimation : indeed care mull be ta¬
ken not to apply too great a heat for this purpofe, as
the nitrous fal ammoniac has the property of defla¬
grating by itfelf without any addition of inflammable
matter ; and this it does more or lefs readily, as the
volatile alkali with which it was made was more or
lefs impure and oily.
Dr Ward's The medical virtues of this kind of nitre have not
white drop, been inquired into. It feems to have made the prin¬
cipal ingredient in the famous Dr Ward’s white drop,
which was celebrated as an antifcorbutic ; with what
juftice, thofe who have tried it rnuft determine. The
firft ftep towards the preparation of this medicine, was
the diffillation of a fpirit of nitre from equal parts of
nitre and green vitriol calcined to whitenefs by a very
gentle heat. The product, we know, muft have
been an aqua fortis of a quality nowife extraordi¬
nary. To fixteen ounces of this aqua fortis rectified,
feven ounces of volatile fal ammoniac are to be ad¬
ded. The quantity of volatile alkali is infuflicient to
faturate fo much acid ; but, as far as it goes, will form
nitrous fal ammoniac. To the acid, thus partly fatu-
rated, four ounces of quickfilver is to be added, of
which it is to be allowed to diflblve as much as it can.
The liquor now contains a folution of nitrous fal am¬
moniac, and of quickfilver. It is then to be evapora¬
ted to a pellicle ; and as the nitrous fal ammoniac
muft be in greater quantity than the mercurial fait, it
will at any rate cryftallize firft. Mr Beaume has Ihown
: S T R Y. Part II.
that the cryftals of one kind of fait contain none of any Practice
other, though they are both diflblved in the fame li-
quid. The fait produced could therefore contain no
mercury, except what adhered to the outfide of its
cryftals; and this was rendered as little as poflible,
by carefully draining the corrofive oil (as it is called
in the receipt) from them. The nitrous fal ammoniac
now rendered almoft pure, is to be dilfolved in thrice
its quantity of rofe-water: and this folution is the fa¬
mous white drop ; a moft excellent, and perhaps the
greateft,antifcorbutic and purifier of the blood, {Jlnnual
Regifier for 1763). The dofe of this powerful medi¬
cine was two drops in the 24 hours. Two drops of
any liquid weigh about a grain. A fourth part of this,
or a quarter of a grain, was nitrous fal ammoniac im¬
pregnated with an uncertain, but inconceivably little
portion of mercury diflblved in the nitrous acid ; and
we agree with the chemift who fignedthe receipt, that,
if proper care was taken to drain the fait, fuch a medi¬
cine was not dangerous.
Nitrous Acid combined with Earths. ^
1. Calcareous. Thefe the nitrous acid diflblves into Calcareous
a tranfparent colourlefs liquor ; but for this purpofe it nitre*
muft be very much diluted, or the folution will have
a gelatinous confiftence. This compound is not ap¬
plicable to any ufeful purpofe. It has a very acrid
tafte; and, if infpiflated, attracts moifture from the air.
If it is totally dried, it then refembles an earthy mat¬
ter, which deflagrates very weakly. By diftillation
in a retort, almoft all the acid may be expelled, and
what little remains flies off in an open fire.
Mr Pott, who has particularly examined the com- Nitrous acid
bination of nitrous acid with quicklime, fays that the decompo-
acid fuffered remarkable alterations by diftilliation fed*
from quicklime, and repeated cohobations upon it.
By thefe experiments he obtained a fait more fenfibly
fufceptible -of cryffallization and detonation, than what
can be obtained by a fingle combination. From his
experiments it would feein, that nitrous acid, by this
treatment with quicklime, was capable of being en¬
tirely decompofed.
If a folution of chalk in the nitrous acid be evapo¬
rated to drynefs, and then gently calcined, it acquires
the property of ftuning in the dark, after having been
expofed to the fun’s rays, or even to the light of a
candle. This fubftance, from its inventor, is called
Baldwin's phxifphorusor, from its being neceffary to phofpho-
keep it in a glafs hermetically fealed, phofphorus her- rus.
meticus. (See Earths.)
2. Argillaceous earths and magnefia All that is
known concerning the combinations of nitrous acid
with thefe earths is, that the firft produce aftringent,
and. the fecond purgative, compounds, fimilar to alum
and Epfom fait, and which are not fufceptible of cry-
ftallization. •*
Nitrous Acid combined with Metallic Subjlances. ^
1. Gold.—Till very lately, it has been the opinion Gold,
of chemifts, that the nitrous acid by itfelf was inca¬
pable of acting upon this metal Dr Brandt, how¬
ever, produced before the Swedilh academy of fcien-
ces, a folution of gold in the nitrous acid, obtained in
parting, by that acid, a mixture of gold and filver.—
The
Part II.
CHEMISTRY.
Pr actice The mixed metal was boiled with aqua fortis, in a glafs
 body fitted with a head and receiver, the liquor pour¬
ed off, and the codlion repeated with frelh parcels of
lixonger and ftronger nitrous fpirits, till all the filver
was judged to be extradted. The lad parcel was
boiled down till the matter at the bottom looked like
a dry fait; on boiling this in frefh aqua fortis in clofe
veflels, as before, a part of the gold was diffolved,
ancLthe liquor tinged yellow. But though gold is by
this means truly foluble in the nitrous acid, the union
is extremely flight; the gold being not only precipi¬
tated on the addition of fiiver, but likewife fpontane-
oufly on expofure to the air.—Dr Lewis very juftly
obferves, that this folution may have been often made
unknown to the chemifts who did fo; and probably
occafioned the miltakes which fome have fallen into,
who thought that they were in pofieffion of aqua for-
,gj tis capable of tranfmuting lilver into gold.
Silver. 2. Silver.—Pure fpirit of nitre will diflblve its own
weight of filver; and (hoots with it into fine white
crydals of a triangular form, confiding of very thin
plates joined clofely one upon another. Thefe crydals
are fomewhat deliquefcent; of an extremely bitter,
pungent, and naufeous tade; and, if taken internally,
are highly corrofive and poifonoiis. They melt in a
fmall heat; and form, -on cooling, a dark-coloured
Lunar cau- mafs dill more corrofive, called lunar cauflic or lapis
flic. infernalis. They readily diflblve in water; and, by
the aflidance of warmth, in fpirit of wine. In the
Jltfa- Nature Curioforum, tom. vi. there is a remark¬
able hidory of filver being volatilized by its combina¬
tion with the nitrous acid. Four ounces of filver be¬
ing diflblved in aqua fortis, and the folution fet to
didil in an earthen retort, a white tranfparent butter
arofe into the neck, and nothing remaining behind ;
by degrees the butter liquefied, and paffed down into
the phlegm in the receiver. The whole being now
poured back into the retort, the filver arofe again a-
long with the acid. The volatilization being attribu¬
ted to the liquor having dood in a laboratory where
charcoal was bringing in, the experiment was repeat¬
ed with a frefli folution of filver, and a little powder-
ed charcoal, with the fame event.
Colours Solution of filver in the nitrous acid dains hair,
produced bones, and other folid parts of animals, and different
by folution kinds of wood, of all the intermediate (hades from a
of filver. light brown to a deep and lading black. The liquors
commonly fold for daining hair brown or black, are
no other than folutions of filver in aqua fortis, fo far
diluted in water as not fenfibly to corrode the hair.
It gives a permanent darn likewife to fundry dones;
not only to thofe of the fofter kind, as marble ; but to
fome of confiderable hardnefs, as agates and jafpers.
The folution for this purpofe fhould be fully faturated
with the metal; and the done, after the liquor has
been applied, expofed for fome time to the fun. M.
du Fay obferves, (in a paper on this fubjetd in the
French memoirs for 1728), that if the folution be
repeatedly applied, it will penetrate in the whitifli
agate, or chalcedony, about one-twelfth of an inch;
that the tintdure does not prove uniform, on account
of the veins in the done ; that the colours, thus com¬
municated by art, are readily didinguifttable from the
natural, by difappearing on laying the done for a
night in aqua fortis; that, on expofing it to the fun
afterwards for fome days, the colour returns: that
the folution gave fomewhat different tincdures to dif¬
ferent dones; to oriental agate, a deeper black than
to the common chalcedony; to an agate fpotted with
yellow, a purple ; to the jade done, a pale brownilh ;
to the common emerald, an opake black; to common
granate, a violet unequally deep; to ferpentine done,
an olive; to marble, a reddilh, which changed to
purple, and fixed in a brown: that on dates, talcs,
and amianthus, it had no effetd.
If folution of filver be diluted with pure water, a
confiderable quantity of pure mercury added, and the
whole fet by in a cold place; there will form by de¬
grees a precipitation and crydallization relembling a
little tree, with its root, trunk, and branches, called
arlor Diana or the philofophic Jilver tree. Another
kind of artificial vegetation may be produced by
fpreading a few drops of folution of filver upon a glals
plate, and placing in the middle a fmall bit of any of
the metals that precipitate filver, particularly iron.
The filver quickly concretes into curious ramifications
all over the plate.
Like other metallic folutions, this combination of
the nitrous acid with filver is decompofed by fixed and
volatile alkalies, calcareous earths, and feveral me¬
tals, (fee the Table of Affinities); but with feve¬
ral peculiar circumftances attending the precipitation.
With metqls, the filver is readily and copioufiy thrown
down at firfl, but (lowly and difficultly towards the
end. The menftruum generally retains fome portion
of the filver, as the filver almoft always does of the
metail which precipitated it. For recovering the fil¬
ver from aqua fortis after parting, the refiners em¬
ploy copper. The folution, diluted with water, is put
into a copper veflel, or into a glafs one with thin
plates of copper, and fet in a gentle warmth. The
filver begins immediately to feparate from the liquor
in form of fine grey (bales, or powder ; a part of the
copper being diflblved in its place, fo as to tinge
the fluid more or lefs of a bluiffi green colour. The
plates are now and then (haken, that fuch part of the
filver as is depofited upon them may fall off, and fettle
to the bottom. The digeltion is continued till a frefli
bright plate, kept for fome time in the warm liquor,
is no longer obferved to contract any powdery matter
on the furface; when the liquor is poured off, and
the precipitate waffled with fi e(h parcels of boiling^
water. It is obfervable, that though the acid in this
procefs faturates itfelf with the copper, in proportion as
it lets go the filver, yet the quantity of copper which
it takes up is not near fo great as that of the filver
which it depofites. One drachm of copper will pre¬
cipitate three of filver, and fat urate all the acid that
held the three drachms diflblved.
Calcareous earths, as chalk, ©r quicklime, throw-
down a part of the filver, but leave a very confide¬
rable part fufpended in the liquor. If the earth be
moiftened with the folution into the confidence of a
paffe, and expofed to the fun, it changes its white
colour to a dark purpliffi black; diffindt characters
may be exhibited on the matter, by intercepting a
part of the fun’s light by threads, (lit paper, ir:. placed
on the outfide of the glafs. Culinary fire does not af-
5845
Practice
198
Arbor Dia»
199
Solution of
filver de¬
compofed.
1846 C H E M
Pkactice fe£l its colour; after the mafs has been exficcated by
this, it changes as before, on expolure to the fun.
Mild volatile alkaline fpirits, added to a fblution of
filver precipitate, but little, and cauftic volatile alka¬
lies, none. Pure fixed alkalies, and alkalies rendered
caullic by quicklime, throw down the whole. Fixed al¬
kalies impregnated with inflammable matter by calci¬
nation with animal coals, occafion at firft a confide-
rable precipitation ; but, if added to a larger quantity,
take up great part of the metal again. Mr Mar-
graff relates, that edulcorated calces of filver totally
diflblve, both in a lixivium of theie alkalies, and in vo¬
latile fpirits; and that the marine acid precipitates the
filver from the volatile, but not from the fixed, alka¬
line folution. Kunckel reports, that the calx precipi¬
tated by volatile fpirits made with quicklime, fulmi¬
nates or explodes in the fire ; and that by inlpiffating
a folution of pure filver, 'melting the dry refiduum,
pouring it on fpirit of urine fuperfaturated with fait,
and fetting the mixture in a gentle warmth, a blood-
red mafs is produced, fo tough as to admit of being
200 wound about the fingers.
Copper. Copper. The nitrous acid very readily diflblves
this metal into a green-coloured and very caultic li¬
quor. The folution, if properly evaporated, will cry-
flallize ; but the cryltals are deliqucfcent, and there¬
fore difficult to be preferved. The only ufe nf this
201 combination is for the preparation of the pigment cal-
Verditer. led verditer. Of this there are two kinds, the blue
and green. The blue is by far the brighteft colour,
and confequently the moft valuable, it is faid that
this is obtained by precipitating a folution of copper
by any calcareous earth; and therefore is fold by the
refiners, who have large quantities of folution of cop¬
per accidentally made. The folution is faid to be pre¬
cipitated by chalk, or whiting and that the precipi
tate is the beautiful blue colour called verditer.
Though this procefs has obtained fo much credit as
to be printed, and implicitly copied from one book in¬
to another, it is certain that nothing can be more falfe.
We have difiblved copper in the nitrous, the vitriolic,
the marine, and the vegetable, acids. Thefe folutions
we have precipitated with fixed alkalies, with volatile
alkalies, with abforbent earths, without being able to
produce any other colour than the dirty green verdi¬
ter. We have combined the precipitates with dif¬
ferent blues, rubbing them long with Pruflian blue,
with fmalt, bice, ire. in different proportions, with¬
out producing the defired colour. Of thefe, fmalt
mixed with green verditer was found to come neirelt
to the colour of blue verditer. We have alfo diflbl-
ved copper in alkalies, both fixed and volatile ; preci¬
pitating the folutions with acids, and endeavouring to
combine them, when precipitated, with a fmall quan¬
tity of fixed alkali; but with no fuccefs. Blue verdi¬
ter itfelf diflblves in the nitrous acid with a ftrong
elfervefcence; and if precipitated from it by a fixed
alkali, a volatile alkali, or an abforbent earth, is al¬
ways changed into green verditer. This laft, when
pure, always diffblves without effervefcence, and is
precipitated unchanged.
Dr Merrit likewife takes notice of the fallacy of the
receipts given for making verditer; and feems’inclined
to believe that filver is necefl'ury to its formation, as
[ S T R Y. Part II.
this colour is prepared only by the refiners; but in Practice
whatever proportion we combined folution of copper
with filver, we never could produce the defired co¬
lour- a0J
4. Iron. On this metal the concentrated nitrous
acid a£ls very violently ; and plentifully corrodes, but
does not dilfolve, it; the calx falling almofl: as fafi as
dilfolved ; and when it is once let fall, frelh acid will
not take it up again. If the acid was diluted at firft,
it takes up a confiderable proportion, provided the
metal be leifurely added. If the folution is perform¬
ed with extreme flownefs, the colour will be green ;
but, if otherwife, of a dark red. It does not cryllal-
lize ; and, if infpiflated to drynefs, deliquates in the
air. 203
' 5. Tin. Concentrated nitrous acid a£ls upon tin Tin.
with great force, but only corrodes the metal into a
white indiflbluble mafs: in order to obtain a perfect
folution of tin in the nitrous acid, the metal muft be
put in by very little at a time, and a diluted aqua
fortis made ufe of. This folution has been confider-
ably ufed in dyeing, and is remarkable for heighten¬
ing red colours of all kinds; but the folution made with
ng/j is preferable. See Tin, Sedl.III. 204
6. Lead. Proof aqua fortis, lowered with an equal Lead,
quantity of water, diliblves about half its weight of
lead. On diluting the folution with a large quantity
of water, it turns milky, and depofites great part of
the metal. The folution flioots, upon exhaling part
of the menltruum, into fmall pyramidal cryflals with
fquare bafes, of an auftere fweet tafte. 2oj
In the memoirs of the French academy for 1733, Quickfilver
there is a particular account of an experiment, in which fuppofed to
mercury is faid to have been extracted from had by
diffblving it in the nitrous acid. During the diflblu-
tion, there fell a precipitate, which is plainly proved
to be mercury, and was looked upon to be one of the
conllituent parts of the lead feparated by this fimple
procefs: it feems probable, however, that the mer¬
cury in this cafe had been contained in the aqua fortis;
for pure lead dilfolved in pure aqua fortis gives no
fuch precipitate.
The cryflals of lead in the nitrous acid, when thrown
into the fire, do not deflagrate as other combinations
of this acid with metallic or faline bafes; but crackle
violently, and fly around, with great danger to the
by-flanders.. If they are rubbed into very fine pow¬
der, they may then be melted without any clanger.
By repeated diflblutions in frelh aqua fortis, they at
laft form a thick fluid like oil, which cannot be dried
without great difficulty. This compofition is not ad¬
apted to any particular ufe, and is a violent poilbn. 206
7. Quickfilver. Atpia fortis, of fuch a degree of Quickfilver.
ftrength as to take up half its weight of filver, dif-
folves with eafe above equal its weight of mercury in¬
to a limpid liquor, intenlely corrofive and poifonous,
which fppntaneoufly Ihoots into v/hite cryftals. Thefe
cryflals, or the folution exficcated, and moderately
calcined, affume a fparkling rdd colour; and are ufed 2071
in medicine as an efcharotic, under the name of red Red preci-
precipitate. This precipitate ha? fometimes been gi- Pltate>
ven internally, it is faid, in very large quantities; e-
ven a whole drachm at one dole. But this would
feem incredible; and the prefent practice does not
' countenance
Part II.
Practice
208
Bifmuth.
209
Magiftery
©f bifmuth.
CHEMISTRY.
1847
countenance the taking of red precipitate inwardly.
- This folutioh feems to have been what gave the effi¬
cacy to Ward’s white drop. See n° 190.
When red precipitate is prepared in quantity, it is
proper to diftil the mercurial i'olution; becaule molt
of the aqua fortis may then be faved. It is exceed-
ingly pure, if by purity we mean its being free of any
admixture of vitriolic or marine acids; but is confider-
ably tainted with the inflammable principle of the mer¬
cury extricated during the diffolution. In confequence
of this, it is very volatile and linoking; which has ge¬
nerally, though improperly, been taken as a lign of
ftrength in the nitrous acid.
8. Bifinuth. This femimetal is very readily a&ed
upon by the nitrous acid. Proof aqua fortis difTolves
about half its weight of bifmuth. If the metal was ha-
ftily added, the folution proves of a greeniili colour ;
if otherwife, it is colourlefs and tranfparent. Unlefs
the acid was diluted with about an equal quantity of
water, a part of the bifmuth cryliallizes almolt as fall:
as it dilfolves. The metal is totally precipitated both
by fixed and volatile alkalies. The laid, added in
greater quantities than are fufficient for precipitation,
take it up again. The liquor generally appears
greeniffi; by alternate additions of the alkaline fpirit
and folution, it becomes bluifh, or purple. Fixed
alkalies calcined with inflammable matter, like-
wife diflblve the bifmuth after they have precipita¬
ted it.
The only ufe of this compound is for the precipi¬
tate, which is ufed as a cofmetic, under the name of
magiflery of bifinuth. The common way of prepa¬
ring this is by diluting the folution very largely with
water, upon which it tarns milky, and a fine white
precipitate falls, which is to be well edulcorated with
water, and is then employed as a cofmetic, both in
waffies and pomatums.
Gencerning the preparation of this cofmetic, Neu¬
man obferves, that there are fundry variations.—
“ Some” fays he, “ take aqua regia for the rnenftru-
uni ; and for the precipitant a folution of fea-lalt, al¬
kalies, fpirit of wine, tec. Some mix, with the folu¬
tion of bifmuth, a folution of benzoin in fpirit of
wine, and thus obtain a magiftery compounded of
bifmuth and benzoin. Others add a folution of chalk
to the metalline folution, and precipitate both toge¬
ther by alkalies. I have made trial with a good num¬
ber of different precipitants ; and found, that with
common fixed alkali and cauftic alkali, with watery
and vinous alkaline fpirits, the magiftery was white,
and in confiderable quantity; the liquor, after the
precipitation with volatile fpirits, appearing blue.
That oil of vitriol threw down a white precipitate ve¬
ry copioufly : but that with fpirit of fait, or fpirit of vi¬
triol, the precipitate was in very fmall quantity, in co¬
lour like the foregoing; dfftilled vinegar making no pre¬
cipitation at all. Common rectified fpirit of wine, and
tartarized fpirit, common water, and lime-water, gave
white precipitates. Solutions of nitre, vitriolated tartar,
fal mirabile, alum, borax, common fait, fal ammoniac,
the combination of marine acid with calcareous earth,
and terra fohata tartari, all precipitated the bifmuth
white. With a folution of gold in aqua regia the ma¬
giftery proved grey; with a fol'ution of the fame me¬
tal in aqua regia made with fpirit of fait, thepreci- Practice
pitate was likewife grey, and in fmall quantify; with  
folution of copper in aqua fortis, white, and in very
fmall quantity, the liquor continuing blue ; with folu- .
tion of vitriol of copper, white ; with folution of mer¬
cury fublimate, white and plentiful; with folution of
iron in aquafortis, yellowilh ; with folution of lead
in aqua fortis, and of fugar of lead, white; with fo¬
lution of zinc in aqua fortis, there was little precipi¬
tate ; and with folutions of filver, tin, regulus of anti¬
mony, and of mercury, in the fame acid, none at all.” zto
9. Zinc.—Upon this femimetal, the nitrous acid Z\i\c,
a<5ts with greater violence than any other, and will
forfake any other metallic fubftance for it. The
whole is very foon diffolved into a tranfparent colour¬
lefs liquor. The calces or flowers of zinc, fee Zinc,
Sedt. III.) are likewife foluble in the nitrous acid; but
neither the folution of the flowers, nor of the metal it-
felf, has been yet found applicable to ary ufeful pur-
pole. Neuman remarks, tliat on extracting with ni¬
trous acid the foluble parts of calamine, which is an
ore of zinc, the lolution, infpiflated to drynefs, left a
reddifh brown mafs, which, on digeftion with Ipirit
of wine, exploded, and burft the veftel. 2i 1
10. Regulus of Antimony. The nitrous acid rather Reoulus of
corrodes, than dilfolves, this femimetal. The cor- antimony,
roded powder forms a medicine formerly ufed under
the name of bezoar mineral, but now difregarded.
See Antimony, Sedb III. 2I2
11. Regulus of Cobalt. This femimetal diftblves Regulus of
readily in the nitrous acid, both in its metallic form, cobalt,
and when reduced to a calx. The folution is of a red 2I ^
colour. Hence the nitrous acid furnilhes means of Reyulus of
difcovering this femimetal in ores, after ftrong calci- cobalt, how
nation; very few other calces being foluble in the ni- dilcoveredi
trous acid ; and thofe that are, not influencing the m ores*
colour.
12. Nickel. This femimetal is eafily diffblved by
the nitrous acid into a deep green liquor ; but neither
this folution, nor indeed the femimetal of which it is
made,, has hitherto been found of any ufe.
13. Arfenic. This fubftance is readily diftblved by
the nitrous acid, but the nature of the compound is
not known.
Nitrous Acid combined with Inflammable Subflances.
1. Expreffed oils. Thefe, as well as all other fatty oils,
or unbtuous fubftances, are confiderably thickened and
hardened by their union with the nitrous acid. There
is only one preparation where this combination is ap- 2IJ
plied to any ufe. It is the unguentum citrinum of Unguen-
the Ihops. This is made by adding to fome quantity turn curl-
of melted hogs-lard, a folution of quickfilver in the lium-
nitrous acid. The acid, though in a diluted ftate, and
combined with mercury, neverthelefs a<fts with fucb
force on the lard, as to render the ointment almoft of
the confiftence of tallow. 2Ig.
1. Vinous fpirits. If highly redlified fpirit of wine Spirit ot
and ftrong fpirit of nitre are fuddenly mixed together,, wiue..
the acid inftantly becomes volatile, and is diffipated
with great heat and efferv.efcence, in highly noxious
red fumes. If the acid is cautioufly poured into the
fpirit, in the proportion of five, fix, or even ten parts
of fpirit to one of acid, and the mixture diflilled in a
glafs-
1848 C H E M I
Practice glafs-retort fet in a water-bath, an exceedingly fra¬
grant and volatile fpirit comes over, ufed in medicine
217 as a diuretic and cooler, under the name of fphitus
Spintus ni- nitri dulcis. This-liquor is not acid; nor has what re-
tri dulcis. mains in the retort any more the charadleriltics of
nitrous acid, which feems to be entirely dccompofed
218 in this procefs. (See the following article.)
Nitrous e- With the nitrous acid and fpirit of wine, may alfo
ther. be ma(je an exceedingly volatile liquor, called nitrous
ether, to dillinguilh it from the vitriolic, mentioned
n° 167. The method of preparing this ether is very
ftmple and eafy, provided due precautions are ob-
ferved. The heft proportions of the acid and vinous
fpirit, are,, two ounces of Itrong nitrous acid, and three
of good rectified fpirit of wine. The acid is firlt put
into a vial; and nearly an equal bulk of water is very
fiowly added, that it may float as much as poffible on
the fpirit of nitre. The fpirit of wine is then to be
added in the fame flow and cautious manner, that it
may float as much as poffible on the water. The
whole is placed in a veflel of cold water, and the vial
not very clofely flopped. The acid gradually riles
up through the water, and mingles with the fpirit of
wine ; a gentle ebullition happens during the union,
and the elaftic fluid generated gets out by the flopper
of the bottle. The ether is produced in full quantity
in feven or eight days, and floats on the top of the
mixture, from whence it is to be poured off, and rec-
' tified by diftillation with a little fixed alkali.
2j9 Nitrous Acid decompofed by Phlogijlon.
Oils fired I. E[feutial oils. If equal quantities of flrong ni-
by fpirit of trous acid and oil of cloves are poured into the lame
nitre. veffel, the mixture inftantly takes fire ; both acid
and oil burning with great fury till only a light fpongy
coal remains. Dr Lewis obferves, that this experi¬
ment does not always fucceed, and that there are but
few oils whicti can be fired with certainty, without
attending to a particular circumftance firft difcovered
by M. Rouelle, and communicated in the French me¬
moirs for the year 1747. “ On letting fall into the
oil equal its quantity of acid, the mixture effervefces,
fwells, and a light fungous coal arifes: a little more
of the acid poured upon this coal fets it inftantly on
fire : by this method almoft all the diftilled oils may
be fired by fpirit of nitre of moderate ftrength. Ex-
preffed oils alfo may be fet on fire by a mixture of
the nitrous acid and oil'of vitriol; the ufe of which
laft feems to be to abforb the aqueous humidity of the
nitrous, and bring it to a greater degree of concen-
220 tration than it can be brought to by itfelf.”
Nitre alka- 2. Charcoal. By this fubftance, the nitrous acid
lized. cannot be conveniently decompofed, unlefs it is com¬
bined with an alkaline or metallic bafe. For the pur-
pofe of decompofing the acid, common falt-petre is
moft convenient. The proportions recommended by
Dr Lewis for alkalifating nitre, are four ounces of the
fait, to five drachms of powdered charcoal. lithefe
are carefully mixed, and injected by little and little
into a tubulated retort made red hot, and fitted with
a large receiver and a number of adopters, a violent
deflagration will enfue on every addition, attended
with a great quantity of air, and fome vapours which
will circulate for fome time, and then condenfe in the
S T R Y. Part II.
veflels. Thefe vapours, when condenfed, feem ra- Practice
ther of an alkaline than acid nature. This liquor is
called clyjfus of nitre. If fulphur is ufed inftead of 22i
nitre, the cljfjus is of a different kind, conlifting of a Clyffus of
mixture of the nitrous and vitriolic acids. The reft- nitre,
duum, when charcoal is ufed, is a very ftrong and
pure alkali; with fulphur, it is vitriolated tartar.
3. Vinous fpirits. In the procefs already mentioned
for making fpiritus nitri dulcis, a total decompoiition
of the acid feems to take place ; for neither the dul¬
cified fpirit itfelf, nor the acid matter left in the re¬
tort, Ihew any iigns of deflagration with inflammable
matters, which is the peculiar charadteriftic of nitrous
acid. " 222
Mr Pott has given an analyfis of the oleaginous re- Refiduum
fiduum of the diftillation. Diftilled by a ftronger fire, of fpiritus
it gave over a yellow, acid, flightly empyreumatic nitr7 i11!1/5’
fpirit ; which being faturated with fixed alkali, the jy[r pott. y
liquor evaporated, and the dry neutral fait laid on
burning coals did not deflagrate. After this fpirit a-
rofe a red empyreumatic oil ; and in, the bottom of
the retort was left a Ihining black mafs like foot; which,
burnt in a crucible, left a white, fixed, earth, conver¬
tible, by a vehement fire, into glafs. Another parcel
of the above refiduum was evaporated to the concif-
tence of pitch. In this ftate it gave a yellow tindture
to fpirit of wine, flamed vividly and quietly on burn¬
ing coals, and at laft fwelled up like bitumens. Ano¬
ther portion wis faturated with alkaline ley, with
which it immediately effervefced, and then evapo¬
rated as the former. It gave, as before, a yellow
colour to redtified fpirit of wine, and a much deeper
yellow to dulcified fpirit of nitre ; and in the fire dif¬
covered no footftep of detonation. Mr Macquer fup-
pofes this acid to have been not the nitrous, but the
acetous, which enters into the compofition of the fpirit
of wine ; but it is impoffible to account for the total
difappearance of the fpirit of nitre, unlefs on the. fup-
pofition of its decompofition.
III. Of the Marine Acid and its Combinations.
223
This acid is never, at leaft very rarely found, but Marine a-
in a ftate of faturation with the mineral alkali; in c‘d.
which cafe it forpns the common fait ufed in food. Al¬
moft the only exception to this is human urine, and
perhaps that of fome other animals; for there the
marine acid is found'faturated, not with the mine¬
ral, but the coiRmon vegetable fixed alkali. From
being found in fuch plenty in the waters of the ocean,
it has the name of marisie acid.
It is commonly thought that this acid is no other
than the vitriolic* fomehow or other difguifed by the
inflammable principle; to which fome have added ano¬
ther, called by them a mercurial earth. 224
The reafons given for this fuppofition, however, Marine acid
are but very flight, confifting chiefly in the refem- thought to
blance between the volatile vitriolic acid and the ma- ^
rine, both in the white colour of their vapours, and evi“
likewife the. great volatility of both. As to the exif-
tence of that principle called a mercurial earth, it hath
never been proved ; and, till that time, can never be
allowed to be an ingredient in the compofition of any
fubftance whatever. As we do not remember to have
read of any experiments where the marine acid was
directly
Part IT.
Practice
225
A tranfinu-
tation.
CHEMISTRY.
1849
: directly produced from that of vitriol, we {hall con-
"tent ourfelves with relating one very remarkable
fadt, which happened to fall under our own obfer-
vation.
As vitriolated tartar, or Glauber’s fait, when fufed
with charcoal-duft, is converted into an hepar ful-
phuris, attempts have been made on this principle
to feparate the pure alkali from the refiduum of
Glauber’s fpirit of nitre and fpirit of fait. In an
attempt of this kind, which, by the bye, proved un-
fuccefsful, as all others of the fame kind mufl do, 30 or
40 pounds of the mafs for Glauber’s fait were fufed
in a itrong iron pot, with a fufficient quantity of com¬
mon coal powdered and fifted. As the quantity of
powdered coals was pretty large, the mafs was there¬
by hindered from flowing into thin fuiion ; and, that
the whole might be perfectly alkalifated, it was fre¬
quently ftirred up with an iron ladle, and kept very
intenlely heated for fome hours. The mafs was now-
taken out by means of an iron ladle, and laid on a flat
Itone ; and, as it was but half fluid, every ladleful con-
creted into a black irregular faline mafs, which had
the appearance of a cinder ; but which, however,
confifted of an hepar fulphuris mixed with fome coal-
duft. As there was a confiderable quantity of this
matter, and the ladlefuls were thrown at random above
one another, it fo happened, that between two or
three of the pieces, a kind of chimney was formed,
fo that there being a (mall draught of air through the
interftices, and the maffes containing a quantity of
coal-dufl, the internal parts were in a ftate of igni¬
tion, while the external were quite cold. From thefe
ignited places, a white fume arofe ; which, being col¬
lected on the colder mafles, afliimed the form of white
flowers. Thefe were found to be genuine fal ammo¬
niac, compofed of volatile alkali, and marine acid ;
both of which, we have the greatefl: reafon to think,
were produced at that very time, and that a double
tranfmutation took place ; namely, of the vitriolic acid
into the marine, and of the fixed alkali into the vola¬
tile. Our reafons for being of this opinion are, I. That
the matter had been fnbjeCled to fuch an extreme and
Jong continued heat, that, had any fal ammoniac been
pre-exiftent in the mixture, it muft have certainly
been diffipated, as this fait always fublimes with a de¬
gree of heat below ignition. 2. Though the matter
was taken out of the pot of a very intenfe red heat,
fo that the faline part was evidently melted, yet no
ammoniacal fume ifl’ued from it at that time, nor till
the mafles had been for fome time expofed to the air,
and were become cool, excepting only thofe inter¬
ftices where the air kept up a burning heat, by a fmall
draught being formed from the fituation of the faline
mafles. 3. In thofe ignited places, when cool, the
fixed fait was entirely decompofed, neither alkaline
fait, Glauber’s fait, fixed alkali, nor fulphur remain¬
ing ; but the whole was confumed to a kind of ferru¬
ginous alhes. We are therefore of opinion, that the
marine acid and volatile alkali are, in fome cafes,
mere creatures of the fire, and moft commonly pro-
-duced at the fame time, from the flow combuftion of
mineral fubftances. Hence, where heaps of hot cin¬
ders are thrown out, fmall quantities of the true fal
ammoniac are always formed, when the ignited ones
Vol. III.
happen to fall in fuch a manner as to occafion a fmall Practice
draught of air through them. |^r
The marine acid, or fpirit of fait, is weaker than Dr Prieft-
either the vitriolic or nitrous; though Dr Prieftley hath ley’s obfer-
obferved, that, when concentrated to the utraoft de- vat!?ns
gree, in which ftate it was perfectly invifible and JjJ”116 a'
elaftiiij%s air, it was then able to feparate the nitrous
acid from an alkali. In fome other cafes, too, it ap¬
pears not only ftronger than the nitrous, but even than
the vitriolic, of which we lliall take notice in courfe.
To procure the Marine Acid by means of the Vitriolic. 22y
Put any quantity of fea-fait, into a tubulated glafs- Spirit of
retort, to which a large receiver is firmly luted, ha- fea-falt.
ving a quantity of water in it, more or lefs, as you
want your fpirit of fait to be more or lefs ftrong.
Having placed your retort in a fand-bath, take of con¬
centrated oil of vitriol half as much as you put fait
into the retort. Through the aperture in the upper
part of the retort, pour a fmall quantity of the vitrio¬
lic acid ; a violent effervefcence will immediately a-
rife, and white vapours will afcend, and come over into
the receiver. Thefe vapours are the marine acid in
its moft concentrated ftate ; and, as they are very
greedy of moifture, they will unite with the water in
a very fhort time, unlefs too much oil of vitriol is put
in at once ; in which cafe, part of them will be difli-
pated through the fmall hole in the receiver. When you
perceive the firft fumes condenfed, add a little more
oil of vitriol, taking care to ftop the aperture of the
retort as foon as you drop in the vitriolic acid, that
the marine acid may not efcape. Continue this by
intervals, till your acid is all put in; and then make
a very gentle fire, that the retort may be no warmer
than the hand can bear. This degree of heat muft
be continued a long time, otherwife very much of
the acid will be loft. To perform this operation per-
fecftly, no more acid ftiould be forced over, than what
the water in the receiver can take up ; and by this
means the operator’s patience will be rewarded with
a vaftly larger produce of acid than can be procured by
hafty diftillation. When the vapours become a little
more fixed, a greater heat is neceflary, but nothing
equal to what the nitrous acid requires. 22g
The maiine acid cannot be proc ured by means of Why diftil-
combinations of the vitriolic acid with metallic and lation of
earthy bafes, as the nitrous is : for though, by means
of calcined vitriol, for inftance, the marine acid is ef-
fedtually expelled from its alkaline bafis, yet it imme- not fuc- '
diately combines with the calx of iron left by the vi- ceed.
triolic acid, and not only adheres obftinately, but even
fublimes the metal; fo that what little fpirit can be
obtained, is never pure. This inconvenience is not
fo great when uncalcined copperas is made ufe of:
for the marine acid has a very ftrong attraction to
water ; which partly diflblves its union with the me¬
talline calx. If gypfum is ufed, inftead of calcined
vitriol, not a drop of fpirit will be obtained. Alum
and fal catharticus amarus anfwer better.
To procure the Marine Acid by means of the Nitrous. ^
Take equal quantities of fea-falt, and Glauber’s fpi- Aqua regis.
rit of nitre ; put the fait into a retort, and pour on it
the nitrous acid; let them ftand for 10 or 12 hours ;
11 B then
1850 r CHEMISTRY. Partll.
Pr actice then tliftil with a gentle heat; an acid liquor will come
 over, which is a compound of the nitrous and marine
acids, called aqua regis. When the diflillation is ft-
niflied, and the veitels cooled, pour back the diftilled
liquor on the which is left on the retort, and
diitil again; the fecond produce will be more of the
nature of fpirit of fea-falt than the former. Cdntinue
to do this, pouring the diftilled liquor either on the
mafs left in the retort, or upon frelh fea-falt, till you
obferve that no nitrous acid arifes. No experiments
have been made on this fpirit of fait, by which we
can judge whether it is different from that procured
by the vitriolic acid or not.
To'procure the Marine Acid, by diftilling Salt per fe.
Spirit of fait Put into a retort any quantity of common fait which
per fe. has not been dried, and diftil in a fand heat, till no¬
thing more will come over. In the receiver you will
have a liquor confiderably more acid than vinegar, in
weight about the fourth part of the fait employed.
On the dry fait left in the retort, pour fome water,
fomewhat lefs in quantity than the liquor which came
over. Let it Hand till the fait has thoroughly imbib¬
ed the moifture, and then diftil again. You will again
have an acid, but weaker than the former. Repeat
this fix or feven times; after which you will obtain
no more marine acid in this way. It h^s been
thought that fea-falt was capable of total decompo-
fition>by means of moifture alone ; but that is found
to be a mi (take. The reafon of any acid being pro¬
curable in this way, is the impurity of the common
fait, which is always mixed wit* a quantity of fal ca-
tharticus amarus, and of marine acid combined with
magnefia, from which laft it is feparable by moifture.
If a pure fait be formed by combining marine acid with
fait of foda, no fpirit will be obtained.
Marine Acid combined with Alkaline Salts.
Sal aLfu- I. Vegetable fixed alkali. This combination is ac-
vus fylvii. cidentally formed after the diftillation of volatile falts,
by means of fait of tartar. (See Alkaline Salts.) It
was formerly known by the name of fal digefiivus
Sylvii; and a procefs for making it was inferted in the
difpenfatories, under the name offpiritus falls marini
coagulants ; but as it has been found to polfefs no vir¬
tues fuperior, or even equal, to common fait, it is fallen
into difufe.
The cryftals of this kind of fait are not cubical, like
thofe of common fait, but parallellopipeds, and if thrown
into the fire crack and leap about with violence. They
are foluble in greater quantity by hot water than
cold; and therefore are cryftallized by evaporating the
folution to a pellicle, and then letting it cool.—It is
very remarkable, that though by a direct combination
of vitriolic acid with vegetable fixed alkali, the fait
called vitriolated tartar is formed; yet, if this alkali
is once faturated with fpirit of fait, fo as to form a
fal digefiivus, upon the decompofition of this fait by
means of oil of Vitriol, the refiduum of the diftillation
will not be a vitriolated tartar, but a fait eafily foluble
in water, and which bears a ftrong refemblance to
Glauber’s fait. Whether, by means of fpirit of fea-
falt, the vegetable alkali could be converted into the
the mineral, or fait of foda, is a queftion well worthy Practice
of being folved.
2. Mineral alkali. This combination is the com¬
mon alimentary fait, and is»never made but for expe¬
riment’s fake ; as the marine acid cannot be had but
from fea-falt. For the extraction of this fait from fea-
water, fee the article Salt.
3. Volatile alkali. The produce of this combina- Sai amm0,
tion is the common fal ammoniac, which is ufed in nine,
different arts, and which has the property of making
tin unite very readily with iron and copper fo is
much ufed by copperlmiths and in the manufactory
of tinned iron.
Sal ammoniac is ufually fold in large femi-tranfparent
cakes, which are again capable of being fublimed into
maffes of the like kind. If they are diftblved in water,
the fait very eafily Ihoots into fmall cryftals like fea¬
thers. Expol'ed to a moiftair, it deliquates. It is one
of the falts which produces the moft cold by its folu¬
tion ; fo as to fink the thermometer iS or 20 degrees,
or more, according to the temperature of the atmo-
fphere. According to Mr Gellert, a folution of fal
ammoniac has the property of diffolving refins. Ac¬
cording to Neuman, the volatility of fal ammoniac is fo
much diminilhed by repeated fublimations, that at laft
it remains half fluid in the bottom of the fubliming
veflfel. In its natural ftate, it fublimes with a degree
of heat neceflary to melt lead. Pott fays, that a fmall
quantity of fal ammoniac may be produced, by diftil¬
ling fea-falt with charcoal, or with alum, or by diftil¬
ling marine acid with Armenian bole. The fame au¬
thor affirms, that the inflammability of fulphur is de*
ftroyed by fubliming it with twice its quantity of fal
ammoniac. .. ^
The method of making this fait was long unknown; How made,
and it was imported from Egypt, where it was faid
to be prepared by fublimation from foot alone, or
from a mixture of fea-falt, urine, and foot. That it
Ihould be produced from foot alone is very impro¬
bable ; and the other method, from the known prin¬
ciples of chemiftry, is abfolutely impoffible. The
compofition of this fait, however, being once known,
theYe remained no other defideratum than a me¬
thod of procuring thofe component parts of fal am¬
moniac fufficiently cheap, fo as to afford fal ammoniac
made in Britain at a price equally low with what was
imported. The volatile alkali is to be procured in
plenty from animal fubftances, or from foot; and the
low price of the vitriolic acid made from fulphur, af¬
fords an eafy method of decompofing fea-falt, and ob¬
taining its acid at a low rate. A fid-ammoniac work
has, accordingly, been cftablilhed for feveral years part
in Edinburgh: the principal material made choice of
for procuring the volatile alkali is foot; and though no
perfons are admitted to fee the work, the large quan¬
tities of oil of vitriol brought into it, and the quantities
of genuine fal mirabile which are there made, evident¬
ly ffiew that the procefs for making fal ammoniac allb
produces Glauber’s fait, by the decompofition of com¬
mon fait by means of vitriolic acid. The method of
condinfting the procefs is unknown ; but it is plain
that there can be no other difficulty than what arifes
from the volatility of the vapours of the alkali and of
the marine acid. In the common way of diftilling thofe
fubftances.
Part II. C HEMISTRY. 1851
Practice fubftances, a great part of both is loft ; and if it is at-
 tempted to make fal ammoniac by combining thefe
two when diftilled by the common apparatus, the pro¬
duce will not pay the coft: a little ingenuity, how¬
ever, will eafily fuggeft different forms and materials
for diftilling-veflels by which the marine acid and vo¬
latile alkali may'be united without lofing a particle of
either.
If a folution of vitriolic or Glauber’s fecret fal
ammoniac is mixed with fea-falt, the vitriolic acid
feizes the alkaline bafts of the fea-falt, and expels
the marine acid ; which immediately unites with
the volatile alkali left by the vitriolic acid, and forms
h true fal ammoniac. If this folution is now eva¬
porated to drynefs, and the faline mafs fublimed, the
fal ammoniac rifes, and leaves a combination of vitrio¬
lic acid and mineral alkali at the bottom. This fixed
mafs being diflblved, filtered, and evaporated, affords
Glauber’s falls. This has fometimes been thought a pre¬
ferable method of making fal ammoniac, as the trouble
of diftillingthe marine acid was thereby prevented; but
it is found vaftly inconvenient on another account,name-
ly, that when fal ammoniac is mixed with any fixed fair,
it is always more difficult of fublimation, and a part of
it even remains entirely fixed, or is deftroyed. The
rnafs of Glauber’s fait alfo, by reafon of die inflam¬
mable and oily matter contained in impure volatile al¬
kalies, is partly changed into a fulphureous mafs, fo
that the folution refufe to cryftallize ; at leaft, the
operation is attended with intolerable trouble.
Marine Acid combined with Earths.
Fixed^fal The combinations of this acid with earths of any
ammoniac, kind have never been found applicable to any purpofe,
and therefore they are feldom made or inquired into.
The combination with calcareous earth, is indeed pret¬
ty frequently made accidentally, in the diftillaricn of
volatile alkali from fal ammoniac by means of chalk,
Phofpho- or quicklime. When melted in a crucible and cooled,
rus. it appears luminous when ftruck, and has been called
phofphorusfcintillans. See Earths.
Marine Acid combined with Metallic Subjlances.
Solution of *• Cold. The marine add has no aftion on gold in
gold in fpi- its metallic ftate, in whatever manner the acid be ap-
rit of fait, plied ; but if the metal is previoufly attenuated, or re¬
duced to a calx, either by precipitation from aqua
regis, or by calcination in mixture with calcinable me¬
tals, this acid will then perfectly diffolve, and keep it
permanently fufpended. Gold, precipitated from aqua
regis by fixed alkalies, and edulcorated by repeated
ablutions, may be diffolved even in a very weak fpirit
of fait by moderate digeftion. This folution appears
of the fame yellow colour as that made in aqua regis;
gives the fame purple ftain to the Ikhi, feathers,
bones, and other folk! parts of animals; the fame vio¬
let ftain to marble ; and' ftrikes the fame red colour
with tin. Even when common aqua regia is made
ufe of for the menftruum, it feems to be chiefly by the
marine acid in that compound liquor that the gold is
held in folution. In diftillation the nitrous acid arifcs,
and thedjiarine acid remains combined with the gold
in a blootl red mafs, foluble, like me ft of the combina¬
tions of metallic bodies with this acid, in fpirit of wine,
if, towards the end of the diftillation, the fire is hafti-
ly raifed, part of the gold diftils in a high faflfron co- Practice
loured liquor; and part fublimes into the neck of the  
retort in clufters of long flender cryftals of a deep fed
colour, fufible in a fmall heat, deliquating in the air,
and eafily foluble in water. By repetitions of this pro-
cefs the whole of the gold may be elevated, except a
fmall quantity of white powder wlibfe nature is not
known.—This red fublimate of gold is faid to be eafily Blood of St
fufible with the heat of one’s hand, and to be fliown Januarius.
by the Papifts for the blood of St Januarius; the fubli¬
mate contained in a vial, being warmed by the hands
of the priefts who hold it, cdnftitutes the miracle of
that faint’s blood melting on his birth-day. 238
2. Silver. Strong fpirit of fait corrodes leaf-filver Silver,
into a white powder, but has no effect on filings or
larger mafl'es of the metal. If applied in the form of
vapour, to maffes of lilver, and ftfongly heated at the
fame tiihe, it readily corrodes them. Thus, if filings,
grains, or plates, of filver are mixed with about twice
their weight of mercury fublim .re, and expofed to a
moderate fire, in a retort, or other diftilling vellel, a
part of the marine acid in the fublimate will be fepa-
rated and Utiite with the filver, leaving the mercury
to arife in the form of mercurius dulcis. Marine acid
is commonly fuppofed to be incapable of diflblving
filver into a liquid ftate ; but Ilenckel relates, that if
red filver ore, which confifts of lilver intimately mix¬
ed with red arfenic, be digefted in fpirit of fait, the lil¬
ver will be extracted and kept permanently dilfolved.
The combination of marine acid with filver is called Luna cor-
luna cornea. The moft ready way of preparing it is nea.
by dilfolving filver in the nitrous acid, and then ad¬
ding fpirit of fait, or a folution of fea-falt; when a
precipitation inftantly enfues; the marine acid expels
the nitrons, and, uniting with the*filver, falls to the
bottom in form of a white powder. The fame pre¬
cipitation would tuke place, if a folution . -f filver was
made in the vitriolic acid. See n° 32. 2^0
Luna cornea weighs one-fourth more than the filver Its proper,
employed ; yet, When perfectly walked, it is quite in- ties,
lipid to tfie tafte. It does not dilfolve in water, fpi¬
rit of wine, aqua fortis, or aqua fegis; but is in fome
fmall degree atfted upon by the vitriolic acid. It
melts in the fire as f6on as it grows red-hot; and, on •
cooling, forms a ponderous brownilh mafs, which be¬
ing call into thin plates, becomes femi-tranfparent, and
fomewhat flexible, like horn ; whence its name haia
cornea. A ftronger fire does not expel the acid from
the.metal, the whole concrete either fubliming entire,
or palling through the crucible. It totally dilfolves in
volatile alkaline fpirrts without any feparafipn of the
metal. Expofed to the fire in a dole copper veffel,
it penetrates the copper, arid tinges it throughout of
a filver colour. Kunckel obferves, that when care¬
fully prepared, melted in a glafs velfel, and fuffered to
cool llowly, to prevent its cracking, it proves clear
and tranfparer.t; and may be turned upon a lathe, and
formed into elegant figures. He fuppofes this to be
the preparation which ga ve rife to the notion of mal¬
leable glafs. 2jj
3. Copper. In the marine acid, coppet diffidves but Copper,
flowly. The folution, if made without hear, appears at
firft brown ; but, on ftandingfor fome time, depofites a
white fedimerit, and becomes green. On adding frefli
B 2 copper.
1^52
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
Practice copper, it becomes brown again, and now recovers its
’ greennefs more ilowly than before. The white fedi-
ment, on being barely melted, proves pure and per¬
fect copper of the fame colour as at firft. Copper calci-
242 ned by fire, communicates a reddilh colour to this acid.
Iron. 4, Iron. The marine acid 'ails upon iron lefs ve¬
hemently than the nitrous, and does not difiblve fo
much; neverthelefs it attacks the metal brilkly, fo as
to raile confiderable heat and effervefcence, and dif-
folve it into a yellow liquor. During the folution, an
inflammable vapour arifes as in the folution of this me¬
tal by vitriolic acid. This folution of iron does not
eryftallize. If it is evaporated, it leaves a greenifh
243 faline mafs, which is foluble in fpirit of wine, and runs
Iron volati- in the air into an aflringent yellow liquor. If this
lized. folution of iron is diftilled, fome of the acid feparates,
and towards the end of the diftillation the fpirit be¬
comes yellow. This is followed by a yellowilh, or
deep reddilh fublimate, which gliflens like the fcales
of fillies ; leaving behind a fubltance which- confills of
244 thin, glofiy plates, like talc.
Tinaura The folution of iron in fpirit of fait, with the addi-
tnartis. t;on 0f fome fpirit of wine, is ufed in medicine as a
corroborant, under the name of tinftura martis. The
f iblimate of iron is alfo ufed for the fame purpofe,
and called ens veneris, or fiores martiales. It is com¬
monly directed to be prepared by fubliming iron fi¬
lings and fal ammoniac together. In the procefs, the
245 fal ammoniac is partly decompofed, and a caullic al-
tiaies$ mar" kaline liquor difhls. Then the undecompofed fal
ammoniac, and the martial fublimate above menti¬
oned, arife together. The fublimate has a deeper or
lighter yellow colour, according as it contains more or
lefs fal ammoniac. The name an veneris is impro¬
per. It was given- by Mr Boyle, who difeovered this
medicine. He imagined it to be a preparation of
copper, having made ufe of a colcothar of vitriol con-
246 taining both iron and copper.
Solution of 5- T"in. Though the concentrated marine acid has
tin. a greater attraction for tin than any other acid, it does
not readily dilTolve this metal while the acid is in its
liquid ftate ; but may be made to diflblve it perfectly,
by the addition of a fmall quantity of fpirit of nitre.
Neuman pbferves, that an ounce of fpirit of fait, with
only a fcruple of fpirit of nitre, diifolved tin perfectly :
but on inverting the proportions, and taking a fcruple
of marine acid to an ounce of the nitrous, four fcru-
ples, or four and an half, of tin, were diflblved into a
thick pap; fome more of the marine acid being gra¬
dually added, the whole was diflblved into a clear li¬
quor. In making thefe Iblutions, a fmall quantity of
black matter ufually fubfides.
The folution of tin is fometimes colourlefs ; fome-
times of a bluilh, or yellow cplour, according to dif¬
ferent circumftances of the procefs. It is of the
greateft confequence in dyeing, by not only heighten¬
ing the colours, but making them more durable.
(See Dyeing). It Ihoots into fmall cryftals j and, if
247 infpiflated, deliquates in the air.
Smoking li- Marine acid in its concentrated ftate volatilizes tin,
<juor of Li- and forms with it a thick liquor, which, from its in-
bavias. yentor, is called fnioking liquor of Lib avius. To make
this fmoking liquor, an amalgam (See SeCt. 111.) mnft
be made of four parts of tin and five of mercury. This
amalgam is to be mixed with an equal weight of cor- Practice
rofive mercury, by triturating the whole together in
a glafs mortar. The mixture is then to be put into a
glafs retort, and the diftillation performed with a fire
gradually increafed. A very fmoking liquor pafles
into the receiver; and towards the end of the diftil¬
lation, a thick, and even concrete matter. When
the operation is finilhed, the liquor is to be poured
quickly into a cryftal glafs-bottle, with a glafs ftopper.
When this bottle is opened, a white, copious, thick,
and poignant fume ifliies, which remains long in the
air without dilappearing.
The acid in this liquor is far from being faturated,
and is capable of ftill diflblving much tin in the ordi¬
nary way. From this imperfect faturation, together
with its concentration, proceeds partly its property of
fmoking fo confiderably : neverthelefs, fome other
caufe probably concurs to give it this property; for
though it fmokes infinitely more than the molt con¬
centrated fpirit of fait, its vapours are, notwithftand-
ing, much lefs elaftic. It has all the other properties
of concentrated marine acid when imperfeiftly fa¬
turated with tin. If it is diluted with much water,
moft of the metal feparates in light white flocks. In
dyeing it produces the fame effects as folution of tin
made in the common way. If the diftillation is con¬
tinued after the fmoking liquor of Libavius has come
over, the mercury of the corrofive fublimate will then
arile in its proper form. 24g
7. Lead. Marine acid, whether in its concentrated Lead¬
er diluted ftate, has little effect upon lead, unlefs af-
fifted by heat. If fpirit of fait is poured on filings of
lead, and the heat is increafed fo as to make the li¬
quor boil and diftil, a part of the acid will be retained
by the metal, which will be corroded into a faline
mafs; and this, by a repetition of the procefs, may be
diflblved into a limpid liquor. If lead is diflblved in
aqua fortis, and fpirit of fea-falt, or lea-fait itfelf, ad¬
ded, a precipitation of the metal enfues; but if fome
aqua regia is added, the precipitate is redilfolved.
The combination of lead with marine acid, has, Plumbum
when melted, fome degree of tranlparency and flexi- corneum.
bility like horn ; whence, and from its refemblance to
luna cornea, it is called plumbum corneum. This fub-
ftance is ufed in preparing phofphorus, according to
Mr Margraaf’s method. 250
8. Quickfiher. Marine acid in its limpid ftafe, whe- Quickfll-
ther concentrated or diluted, has no effeft upon quick- ver.
filver, even when aflifted by a boiling heat; but if
mercury is diffolved in the vitriolic or nitrous acids,
and fea-falt, or its fpirit, is added to the lolution, it
immediately precipitates the quickfilver in the fame 25I
manner as it does lilver or lead. If concentrated ma- Corrofive
rine acid, in the form of vapour, and ftrongly heated, fublimate.
meets with mercury in the fame ftate, a very inti¬
mate union takes place ; and the produce is a moft vio¬
lent corrofive and poifonous fait, called corrofive fub¬
limate mercury. This fait is foluble, though fparingly,
in water; but is far from being perfe&ly faturated
with mercury; for it will readily unite with almoft its
own weight of frefh quickfilver, and fublime with it
into a folid white mafs (which, when levigated, af-
fumes a yellowilh colour) called mcrcurius dulcis, aquila
alba, or calomel.
There
Part II.
PR ACTICE
252
Different
methods c
making.
. 253
Differences
of quality.
C H E M
There have been many different ways of preparing
corrolive mercury, recommended by different chemilts.
Neuman mentions no fewer than ten. 1. From mer¬
cury, common fait, nitre, and vitriol. 2. From mer¬
cury, common fait, and vitriol. 3. Mercury, common
fait, and fpirit of nitre. 4. Solution of mercury in
aqua fortis and fait. 5. Solution of mercury in aqua
fortis, and fpirit of fait, or the white precipitate. 6.
Mercury, common fait, nitre, and oil of vitriol. 7. E-
dulcorated turbith mineral, and common fait. 8. Red
precipitate, common fait, and oil of vitriol. 9. Edul¬
corated turbith mineral, and fpirit of fait. 1 o. Mer¬
cury, fil ammoniac, and oil of vitriol.
From a view of thefe different methods, it is evi¬
dent, that the intention of them all is to combine the
marine acid with quickfilver ; and as this combination
can be effected without making life of the nitrous acid,
the greateft chemifts have imagined that this acid,
which is by far the moft expenfive of the three, might
be thrown out of the procefs altogether, and fublimate
be more conveniently made by dire&ly combining ma¬
rine acid and mercury in a procefs fxmilar to the di-
ftillation of fpirit of fait. This method was formerly
recommended by Kunckel; then publifhed in the me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences for 1730; and has
been adopted and recommended by Dr Lewis.
The procefs confifts in dilfolving mercury in the vi¬
triolic acid, as directed for making turbith mineral,
(fee n° 153). The white mafs remaining on the ex-
hccation of this folution is to be triturated with an
equal weight of dried fait, and the mixture is then to
be fublimed in a fand-heat ; gradually increafing the
fire till nothing more arifes.
Neuman obferves, that there is a confiderable dif¬
ference in the quality of fublimates made by the dif¬
ferent methods he mentions; particularly in thofe
made with, or without nitre. This we have alfo
found to be the cafe; and that fublimate made with¬
out the nitrous acid is never fo corrofive, or foluble in
water, as that which is made with it: nor will it af¬
terwards take up fo large a quantity of crude mercury
as it otherwife would, when it is to be formed into
calomel. The above procefs, therefore, tho’ very con¬
venient and eafy, is to be rejected ; and fome other,
in which the nitrous acid isufed, fubftituted in its ftead.
This is another inftance where a rigid adherence to
the eftablilhed rules of chernift'ry will lead people into
a mi flake. Seen°ii7.
From Tachenius, Neuman gives us the following
procefs, which he fays was the method of making
fublimate at London, Venice, and Amllerdam. .Two
hundred and eighty pounds of quickfilver ; 400 pounds
of calcined vitriol, aco pounds of nitre, the'fame
quantity of common fait, and 50 pounds of the caput
mortuum remaining after a former fublimation, or
(in want of it) of the caput mortuum of aqua fortis,
making, in all, 1130 pounds, are well ground, and
mixed together ; then fet to fublime in proper glaffes
placed in warm afhes ; the fire is increafed by de¬
grees, and continued for five days and nights. In the
making fuch large quantities, he fays, fome precau¬
tions are neceffary, and which thofe conflantly em¬
ployed herein are beft acquainted with. The princi¬
pal are, the due mixture of the ingredients, which in
I S T R Y. 1853
fome places is performed in the fame manner as that Practice
of the ingredients for gun-powder, (feeGuN-row-  
per) : that a head and receiver be adapted to the
fubliming glafs, to fave fome fpirit of nitre which will
come over. (Here a bent tube of glafs will anfwer
the purpofe, as already mentioned, n° 80). The fire
mull not be raifed too haltily. When the fublimate
begins to form, the allies mull be removed a little from
the lides of the glafs, or the glafs cautioully raifed up
a little from the alhes. (Thislaft, we think, is highly
imprudent.) Laftly, the laboratory mull have a good
chimney, capable of carrying off the noxious fumes.
The above-mentioned quantities commonly yield 360
pounds of fublimate ; the 280 pounds of quickfilver
gaining 80 from the 200 pounds of fea-falt. The
makers of fublimate in France, he fays, employ, in
one operation, only 20 pounds of mercury. This
they dilfolve in aqua fortis, evaporate the lolution to
drynefs, mix the dry matter with 20 pounds of decre¬
pitated fea-falt and 60 of calcined vitriol, and then
proceed to fublimation.
The above proceffes, particularly the la ft, are un- obfervati-
exceptionable as to the production of a fublimate per- onson the
feCtly corrofive ; but the operation, it is evident, muft different
be attended with confiderable difficulty, by reafon of methods,
the large quantity of matter put into the glafs at once.
We muft remember, that always on mixing a volatile
fait with a quantity of fixed matter, the fublimation
of it becomes more difficult than it would have been
had no fuch matter been mixed with it. It is of
confiderable confequence, therefore, in all fublima-
tions, to make the quantity of matter put into the
glafs as little as poffible. It would feem more pro¬
per, therefore, inftead of the calcined vitriol ufed in
the proceffes laft mentioned, to diffolve the mercury
in the vitriolic acid, as direCled for turbith mineral,
and fublime the dry mafs mixed with nitre and fea-falt.
It has been faid, that corrofive fublimate mercury Suppofeda-
was frequently adulterated with arfenic ; and means dulteration
have even been pointed out for deteCling this fuppo- with arfeaie
fed adulteration. Thefe means are, to diffolve a little
of the fufpeCled fait in water, and add an alkaline
lixivium to precipitate the mercury. If the precipitate
was of a black colour, it was faid to be a certain fign
of arfenic. This, however, fhews nothing at all, but
that either the alkali contains fome inflammable mat¬
ter, which, joining with the precipitate, makes it ap¬
pear black; or that the fublimate is not perfetftly cor¬
rofive ; for if a volatile alkali is poured on levigated
mercurius dutch, the place it touches is inftantly turn¬
ed black. 256
Mercurius dulcis, or calomel, is prepared by mixing.Mercurims
equal parts, or, at leaft, three of quickfilver, with four dulcis.
of fublimate ; after being thoroughly ground together
in a glafs or ftone mortar, they are to be poured
through a long funnel into a bolt-head, and then fub¬
limed. The medicine has been thought to be impro¬
ved by repeated fublimations, but this is found to be a
miftake. 257
9. Zinc. This femi-metal diffolves readily in the Zinc volati-
marine acid, into a tranfparent colourlefs liquor. It hzed.
is volatilized, as well as moft other metallic fubftances,
by this combination, as appears from the following
procefs delivered by Neuman.
u Equal
1854 CHE M ]
Practice “ Equal parts cf filings of zinc and powdered fal
ammoniac being mixed together, and urged with a
gradual fire in a retort; at firlt arofe, in a very gentle
heat, an exceffively penetrating volatile fpirir, fo
- ftrong as to ftrike a man down, who fhould unadver-
tently receive its vapour freely into the nofe. This
came over in fubtile vapours, and was followed by a
fpirit of fait in denfe white fumes. In an open fire,
white flowers fucceeded ; and, at lertgth, a reddifh
and a black butter. In the bottom of the retort was
found a portion of the zinc, in its metalline form,
with a little ponderous and fixed butyraceous matter,
which liquefied in the air. The lump was far more
brittle than zinc ordinarily is; of a reddilh colour on
the outfide, and blackilh within. The bottom of the
retort was variegated with yellow and red colours,
and looked extremely beautiful. The remaining zinc
was mixed afrelh with equal its weight of fal ammo¬
niac, and the' procefs repeated. A volatile alkaline
fpirit and marine acid were obtained as at firfl:; and
in the retort was found only a little black matter.
When the zinc was taken at firfl: in twice the quanti¬
ty of the fal ammoniac, the part that preferved its
metallic form proved lefs brittle than in the foregoing
experiment ; and the retort .appeared variegated in
the lame manner ; on endeavouring to retflify the
butter, the retort parted in two, by the time that one
half had diftilled.” The nature of this combination is
2 58 unknown.
Butter of 10. Regulus of antimony. This femi-metal cannot
antimony. jje uniteci with, the marine acid, unlels the latter is in
its moft concentrated flate. The produce is an ex¬
ceffively cauflic thick liquid, called butter of antimony.
The procefs for obtaining this butter, is fimiiar to that
for diflilling the fmoking fpirit of Libavius. (See
n° 247). Either crude antimony, or its resulus, may
be ufed ; for the fpirit of fait will attack the reguline
part of this mineral, without touching the fulphureous.
Three parts of corrofive fublimate are to be mixed
with one of crude antimony ; the mixture to be di-
gefted in a retort fet in a fand heat; the marine acid
in the fublimate will unite with the reguline part of
the antimony. Upon increafing the fire, the regulus
arifes, diflblved in the concentrated acid, not into a li¬
quid form, but that of a thick un<fluous lubftance like
butter, from whence it takes its name. This fub-
flance liquefies by hear, and requires the cautious ap¬
plication of a live, coal to melt it down from the neck
of the retort. By redlification, or expolure to the
air, it becomes fluid, like oil, but ftill retains the name
of butter. If water is added to butter of antimony,
either when in a butyraceous form, or when become
fluid by recflification, the antimony is precipitated in a
white powder called powder of algaroth, and impro¬
perly mercurius vit.e. This powder is a violent and
very unfafe emetic. The butter itlelf was formerly
ufed as a cauftic ; but it fieems totally neglected in the
prefent pra<5Iice.
When the mercurius vitse precipitates, the union
between the marine acid and regulus is totally diflbl¬
ved ; fo that the powder, by frequent walhings, be¬
comes perfectly free from every particle of acid,
which unites with the water made ufe of, and is then
called, very improperly, pbilofophic fpirit of vitriol.
: S T R Y. Part II.
ir. Regulus of cobalt. Pure fpirit of fait diflblves Practice
this femi-metal into a reddilh yellow liquor, which im- ~
mediately becomes green from a very gentle warmth. Sympathe-
On faturating "the folution with urinous fpirits, the tic ink.
precipitate appears at firft white, but afterwards be¬
comes blue, and at length yellow. If the nitrous add
is added to folutions of regulus of cobalt, they alfume
a deep emerald green when moderately heated, and on
cooling become red as at firfl:. Duly evaporated, they
yield role-coloured cryftals, which change their colour
by heat in the fame manner. This folution makes a
curious fympathetic ink, the invention of which is
commonly afcribed to M. Hellot, though he himfelf
acknowledges that he received the firfl: hint of it from
a German chemift in 1736. Any thing wrote with
this folution is invifible when dry and cold ; but af-
fumes a fine green colour when warm, and will again
difappear on being cooled ; but if the heat has been
too violent, the writing ftill appears. Mr Hellot ob-
ferves, that if nitre or borax be added to the nitrous
folution, the charafters wrote with it become rofe-
coloured when heated ; and if fea-falt is afterwards
palled over them, they become blue ; that with alkali
fufficient to faturate the acid, they change purple, and
red with heat. 2g0
Arfenic. This fubftance is foluble in all acids ; but oil of arfe-
the nature of the compounds formed by fuch an union nic.
is little known. If half a pound of arfenic is diftilled
with one pound of corrofive fublimate, a thin fmok-
ing liquor and a butyraceous fubftance will be obtain¬
ed, as in making the fmoking liquor of Libavius, (fee
n° 247). By repeated rectifications, this butter may
be almoft all converted into fpirit. If equal parts of
the arfenic and fubiimate are ufed, a ponderous black
oil comes over along with the fpirit, which cannot be
mixed with it. By rectification in a clean retort, they
will become clear, but ftill will not incorporate. If
they are now returned upon the red mafs remaining
in the firft retort, and again diftilled, a much more
ponderous oil than the former will be obtained.
Marine Acid combined with Inflammable Subfattces. ^
The add of fea-falt is very little difpofed to con- Marine
trad any union with the phlogifton, while in a liquid ether,
ftate ; and much lefs fo, even in its moft concentrated
ftate, than either the vitriolic or nitrous. Mr Beatime,
however, has found that a fmall quantity of ether, fimi¬
iar to that prepared with the vitriolic and nitrous
acids, may be obtained by caufing the fumes of the ma¬
rine acid unite with thofe of fpirit of wine. Others,
and particularly fome German chemifts, attempted to
make this liquor, by employing a marine acid previ-
oully combined with metallic fubftances, fuch as butter of
antimony. The fmoking liquor of Libavius, (n°247).
fucceeds heft. If equal parts of this liquor, and high¬
ly redified fpirit of wine are diftilled together, k
confiderable quantity of true ether is produced ; but
which, like the vitriolic and nitrous ether, muft be
redified, in order to its greater purity. The tin con¬
tained in the fmoking liquor is feparated, and precipi¬
tated in white powder. In this procefs, the acid is
probably more difpofed to unite with the fpirit of
wine, by having already begun to combine with the
inflammable principle of the metal.
Dr
Part II.
Practice
262
Attradlion
for phlogi-
fton.
CHEMISTRY.
!S55
Dr Prieftley has obferved, that the pure marine acid,
when reduced to an invifible aerial ftate, has a llrong
affinity with phlogifton, fo that it decompofes many
fubliar.ces that contain it, and forms with them an air
permanently inflammable. By giving it more time, it
will cxtraft phlogifton from dry wood, crulk of bread
not burnt, dry flefli j and, what is (till more extraordi¬
nary, from flints.
Efleptial oil of mint abforbed the marine acid air
pretty fait, and prefently became of a deep brown co¬
lour. When taken out of this air, it was of the confift-
ence of treacle, and funk in water, fmelling differently
from what it did before ; but Hill the fmell of the mint
was predominant. Oil of turpentine was alfo much
thickened ; and became of a deep brown colour, by
being faturated with acid air. Ether abforbed the
air very fall; and became firlt of a turbid white, and
then of a yellow and brown colour. In one night a
confiderable quantity of lirongly inflammable air was
produced.
Having once fatnrated a quantity of ether with acid
air, he admitted bubbles of common air to it, through
the quickfilver by which it was confined, (fee Air,
49.) and obferved that white fumes were made in
it, at the entrance of every bubble, for a confiderable
time. Having, at another time, faturated a fmall
quantity of ether with this kind of air, and the vial
which contained it happening to be overturned, the
whole room was inftantly filled with a white cloud,
which had very much the fmell of ether, but peculiar¬
ly offenfive. Opening the door and window of the
room, this light cloud filled a long paffage, and ano¬
ther room. The ether, in the mean time, was feem-
ingly all vanifhed : but, feme time after, the furface
of the quickfilver in which the experiment had been
made, was covered with a very acid liquor, arifing
probably from the moifhire in the atmofphere, attrac¬
ted by the acid vapour with which the ether had been
impregnated. This feerns to fhew, that, however
much difpofed the marine acid may be to unite with
phlogiflic matters when in its aerial ftate, the attrac¬
tion it has for them is but very flight, and ftili infe¬
rior to what it has for water.
Camphor was prefently reduced into a fluid ftate by
imbibing this acid air ; but there feemed to be fome-
thing of a wlntifh fediment in it. After continuing
two days in this fituation, water was admitted to it,
upon which the camphor immediately refumed its for¬
mer Iblid ftate; and to appearance was the fame fub-
ftance that it had been before.
Strong concentrated oil of vitriol, being put to ma¬
rine acid air, was not at all affeifted by it in a day and
a night. In order to try whether it would not have
more power in a condenfed ftate, it was comprefted
with an additional atmofphere; but, on taking off this,
the air expanded again, and was not ift the leaft di-
minifhed. A quantity of ftrong fpirit of nitre was
alfo put to it without any fenfible effeift. From thefe
laft experiments it appears, that the marine acid is
not able to diftodge the other acids from their union
with water.
IV. Of the Fluor Acid.
The difeovery of this curious acid we owe to
Mr Scheele, a Swedifh chemift, from whom it is of- Pr ACTICE
ten diftinguilhed by the name of the Swedifh acid.  —
Mr Scheele was of opinion, that this acid is one of-the whence
component parts of a iparry fubftance called fluor fpa- procured.
tofus. This fubftance he reckons to be compofecl of
a calcareous earth, and the particular fpecies of acid
obtained from it by diftillation ; and accordingly re¬
lates, that he produced the fame kind of fpar by add¬
ing this acid to lime-water. The molt remarkable
circumftance, however, attending this acid is, that
when the vapour of it is mingled with water placed
in the receiver for that purpofe, a white fpot is form¬
ed on the furface of the water, which, by degrees,
fpreads entirely over the furface of it. On agitating
the receiver, this cruft, being broken into feveral
pieces, was thereby funk to the bottom. On the con-
tael of.the fucceeding vapours, a new cruft was im¬
mediately formed, and the water foon became con-
fiderably acid. The white cruft, which lirft appeared
on the furface of the water in the receiver, and which
afterwards funk to the bottom, was found by him to
poflefs all the properties of a real flex, or flinty llib-
ftance. It could not be diffolved in any of the acids,
nor would it form any pafte with water. It diflblved
in an alkaline lixivium ; fuffered no change from fire,
when expofed to its fingle atftion ; but, on the addi¬
tion of an alkali, melted into glafs. This glafs, mixed
with thrice its own quantity of vegetable fixed alkali,
melted into a blue mafs ; which, being pounded, and
put into a damp cellar, very foon ran per dsliquiwn,
and turned into a gelatinous fubftance. An acid pre¬
cipitated a powder from it ; and laftly, it was dil-
folved in borax without the leaft eftervelcence.
The inference drawn by the author from thefe cir-
cumftances is, that this flex, or flinty cruft, thus pro¬
duced from the Iparry fluor, is lolely compounded of
the acid of fpar united with the particles of the water
in the receiver. From fome other procefles he con¬
cludes, that the whole of this Angular acid may be
converted into flint by the addition of water: and that
the water is a rteceffary ingredient in this compound
body, lie infers from other procelfes; in which it ap¬
pears, that when the receiver contained alcohol, oil
of olives, or oil of vitriol, no flinty cruft was formed ;
and that it appeared only when there was water in
the receiver. _
His, method of operating upon this fubftance was, Glafs
to diftil it with oil of vitriol in glafs veftels; and ano- roded.
ther very remarkable fact concerning it was, that all
thofe veftels were fo corroded, that holes were made
through them. This occafioned fome doubt with re-
fpe<ft to the flinty cruft formed on the water in the
receiver, as it might reafonably enough be imagined
that it proceeded from the particles of fand or flint
originally exifting in the glafs, which the acid parted
with on its meeting with the water. Mr Scheele,
however, fell upon a way to obviate this ohjeiftion, by
expofing a piece of wet charcoal to the vapours of the .
acid, as they arofe from the mixture of oil of vitriol
and fpar, and found the fame flinty cruft formed upon
it as when the vapour was fuffered to mingle dire<ftly
with water in the receiver.
Mr Boulanger, who examined this acid with great
care, concludes, that it is the add of fea-falr, joined
with
264
1856
Practice with an earthy fubftance, but does not pretend to de-
tide this matter with certainty. Mr Scheele himfelf
was of opinion, that the fluor acid was diitindt from
the marine and all other acids; becaufe he found it dif-
lodged from the fpar by the nitrous and marine, as
well as by the vitriolic acid : but thofe who repeated
the experiments after him could procure no fluor acid,
ad 264 except by ufing the vitriolic.
Fluor acid Dr Prieftley, who had exhibited other acids in the
air> form of air, was very defirous of making fimilar ex¬
periments on this. Accordingly, having put fome
pounded fpar into a vial, and poured oil of vitriol up¬
on it, he filled it with a tube, and the other apparatus
for receiving the air which Ihould be expelled from it;
(fee Air, n° 49.) He obferved, that when the fluof
acid vapour ifiued out of the tube, and mingled with
the external air,^a permanent white cloud was form¬
ed ; which he attributes to the attachment of the acid
to the water contained in the air. The moment that
water came into contadl with this air, the furface of
it became white and opake, by a ftony film ; which,
forming a reparation between the air above and the
water below, conliderably retarded the afeent of the
water, till, the air infinuating itfelf through the pores
and cracks of the cruft, the water neceftarily rofe as
the air diminifhed; and, breaking the cruft, prefented
a new furface to the air, which immediately was co¬
vered with another cruft. Thus one ftony incrulta-
tion was formed after another, till every particle of
the air was united to the water, and the different
films being collefted and dried, formed a white pow¬
dery fubftance, generally a little acid to the tafte ; but
when waflied in much pure water, was perfectly in-
fipid. The property of corroding glafs he found to
belong to this air only when pretty hot.
The Doftor is of opinion, that this acid is only the
vitriolic, loaded with plenty of fparry cruft, and vola¬
tilized by a little phlogifton. What he reckons an ex¬
periment fuffident to determine this matter, is, that
having preffed out the ftony matter with which
the acid liquor in the receiver was impregnated, he
found it to yield air which formed no cruft on the fur¬
face of other water, but was imbibed by it in the fame
manner as the vitriolic acid air he had formerly made
experiments on. The proof, however, would have
been more convincing to chemifls, had he formed a
little vitriolated tartar, or Glauber’s fait, by uniting it
with a fixed alkali.
V. Of the Sal Sedativus, or Jcid of Borax.
Howprepa- This is a faline fubftance of a very Angular nature,
rs<1, and hitherto found no where but in borax itfelf. From
this it is feparable either by fublimation or cryftalliza-
tion. The method by fublimation, is that recom¬
mended by Ho mb erg, who firft difeovered the feda-
tive fait. His procefs confifts in mixing green vitriol
with borax, diflblving them in water, filtering the fo-
lution, and evaporating till a pellicle appears: the li¬
quor is then to be put into a fmall glafs alembic, and
the fublimation promoted till only a dry matter re¬
mains in the cucurbit. During this operation, the li¬
quor paffes into the receiver; but the internal furface
of the capital is covered with a faline matter forming
very fmall, thin, laminated cryftals, very Ihining, and
Part II.
very light. This is the fedative fait. The capital is Practice
then to be unluted, and the adhering fait fwept off
with a feather ; the part of the liquor, which paired
laft into the receiver, is to be poured on the dry mat¬
ter in the cucurbit; and a new fublimation is to be pro¬
moted as before, by diftilling till the matter in the
cucurbit is dry. Thefe operations are to be frequent¬
ly repeated, in the fame manner, till no more fedative
fait can be obtained.
To obtain the fedative fait by cryftallization, borax
is to be diffolved in hot water; and to this folution any
one of the three mineral acids is to be gradually nd-
ded, by a little at a time, till the liquor be faturated,
and even have an excels of acid, according to Mr
Beaume’s procefs. The liquor is then to be left in a
cold place ; and a great number of fmall, Ihining, la¬
minated cryftals will be formed : thefe mult be walh-
ed with a .little very cold water, and drained upon
brown paper. The fedative fait obtained by this pro¬
cefs is fomewhat denfer than that obtained by fublima¬
tion ; the latter being fo light, that 72 grains are fuffi-
cient to fill a large vial. ^
Sedative fait, though thus capable of being once Fixed in
fublimed, is not, however, volatile : for it arifes only the fire,
by means of the water of its cryftallization ; and when
it has once loft its water by drying, it cannot be rai-
fed into vapours by the moft violent fire, but remains
fixed, and melts into a vitreous matter, like borax it¬
felf. This glafs is foluble in water, and then becomes
fedative fait again. A great quantity of water is re¬
quired to diffolve the fedative fait, and much more of
cold than of boiling water; whence it is cryftallizable
by cold, as it alfo is by evaporation ; a lingular proper¬
ty, which fcarce belongs to any other known fait. 2g7
This fubftance has not an acid, but a fomewhat its proper,
bitterilh tafte, accompanied with a flight impreffion of ties,
coolnefs. It neverthelefs unites with alkaline falts as
acids do, and forms with them neutral falts. It is fo¬
luble in fpirit of wine, to which it communicates the
property of burning with a green flame. It makes no
change on the blue colour of vegetables, as other acids
do. It expels the other acids from their bafis, when dtf-
tilled with a ftrong heat; though thefe are all capable
of expelling it in the cold, the acid of vinegar not ex-
cepted. 26g
The compofition of fedative fait is very much un- Mr Bour-
known, as no means fuflicient for its decompolition delin's ex-
have hitherto been found out. Mr Bourdelin who periments.
made many experiments on this fait, found that it was
unalterable by treatment with inflammable matters,
with fulphur, with mineral acids difengaged, or united
with metallic fubftances, and with fpirit of wine. He
could only perceive fome marks of an inflammable mat¬
ter, and a little marine acid. The former difeovered
itfelf by its communicating a fulphureous fmell to the
vitriolic acid employed ; and the latter by a white
precipitate formed, in a folution of mercury in the ni¬
trous acid, by the liquor which came over on diftilling
the fait with powdered charcoal. ^
Mr Cadet, in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy Mr Cadet’s
of Sciences for 1766, has given an account of fome ex- experi-
periments made by him on borax and its acid: from ra«ans.
which he infers, (1.) That the acid contained in bo¬
rax itfelf is the marine, and not fedative, fait. (2.) That
it
CHEMISTRY.
Part II. C H E M
Practice it is the marine, he proves by having made a corro-
  five i'ublimate with this acid and mercurius precipita-
tus per fe. That fedative lalt does not enter the com-
pofition of borax itfelf, he proves, by the impoffibility
of recompoting borax from uniting the fedative fait
with foflile alkali. The fait fo produced, he owns, is
very like borax, but Unfit for the purpofes of foldering
metals as borax is. He therefore thinks, that, in the
decompofition of borax, the principles of the fait are
fomewhat changed, by the addition of that acid which
textricates the fedative fait; and that this fait is com-*
pofed of the marine acid originally exifting in the bo¬
rax, of the vitriolic acid employed in the operation,
and of a vitrefcible earth. (If this is true, then feda¬
tive fait either cannot be procured by any other acid
than the vitriolic, or it mult have different properties
according to the acid which procures it.) The vitre¬
fcible earth, he fays, is that which feparates from bo¬
rax during its folution in water, and which abounds
more in the unrefined than refined borax, and which
he thinks confills of a calx of copper, having obtained
a regulus of copper from it. As he has never been
able, however, to compofe borax by the union of
thefe ingredients, his experiments are by no means
decifive.
Sedative Salt combined with Alkalies.
With the vegetable alkali this fait forms a com'
pound very much refembling borax itfelf in qua¬
lity ; but in what refpehts it differs from, or how far
it is applicable to the purpofes of, borax, hath not yet
been determined.
270 With the mineral alkali, this fait has generally been
Borax, thought to recompofe borax : and, though Mr Cadet
has denied this, yet as his experiments are'hitherto
imperfedl and unfupported, we fliall here give the
hiitory of that fait, as far as it is yet known.
This fait is prepared in the Eaft Indies. It is faid,
that from certain hills in thefe countries there runs a
green faline liquor, which is received in pits lined
with clay, and fuffered to evaporate with the fun’s
heat; that a bluifh mud which the liquor brings along
with it is frequently ftirred up, and a bituminous mat¬
ter, which floats upon the furface, taken off; that
when the whole is reduced to a thick confiftence,
fome melted fat is mixed, the matter covered with
vegetable fubftances and a thin coat of clay ; and
that when the fait has cryftallized, it is feparated
from the earth by a fieve. In the fame countries is
found native the mineral alkali in confiderable quan¬
tity ; fometimes tolerably pure, at other times blend¬
ed with heterogeneous matters.of various kinds. This
alkali appears to exift in borax, as a Glauber’s fait
may be formed from a combination of borax with vi-
27, triolic acid.
Refined. Borax, when imported from the Eaft Indies, con-
fifts of fmall, yellow, and glutinous cryftals. It is re¬
fined, fome fay, by -diffolving it in lime-water ; others,
in alkaline lixivia, or in a lixivium of cauftic alkali ;
and, by others, in alum-water. Refined borax con-
fifts of large, eight-fided cryftals, each of which is
compofed of final), foft, and bitterifh fades. Cryftals
of this lize can by no means be obtained by difiblving
unrefined borax in common water. The cryftals ob-
Voi. III.
I S T R Y. 1857
tained in this way are extremely fmall, and differ1 con- Practice
fiderably from the refined borax of the fliops; info- * *
much that Cramer calls the large cr^ftals, not a puri¬
fied, but an adulterated borax. When diffolved in
lime-water, the borax fhoots into larger cryftals; ami
largeft of all, when the veflel is covered, and a gentle
warmth continued during the cryftallization. During
the diffolution, borax appears glutinous, and adheres in
part to the bottom of the veflel. From this glutinous
quality, peculiar to borax among the falls, it is ufed by
dyers for giving a glofs to filks. 272
All acids diflolve borax flowiy, and without eft’er- Its proper-
vefcence. It precipitates from them moft, but not all, tlc--
metallic fubftances; along with which a confiderable
part of the borax is generally depofited. It does not
abforb the marine acid of luna cornea, or of mercury
fublimate. It melts upon the furface of the firft with¬
out uniting, and fuflers the latter to rife unchanged :
the borax in both cafes becomes coloured ; in the firft,
milky with red Breaks; in the latter, amethyft or
purple. Mixed with fal ammoniac, it extricates the
volatile alkali, and*retains the acid ; but mixed with
a combination of the marine acid with calcareous
earths, it unites with the earth, and extricates the
acid. It extricates the acid of nitre without feeming
to unite with the alkaline bafis of that fait; nor does
it mingle in fufion with the common fixed alkaline
falls, the borax flowing diftinft upon their furface. A
mixture of borax with twice its weight of tartar, dif-
folves in one lixth of the quantity of water that would
be neceflary to dilfolve them feparately : the liquor
yields, on infpiflation, a vifcous, tenacious mafs like
glue ; which refufes to cryftallize, and which deliquiates
in the air. Borax affords likewife a glutinous com¬
pound with the other acids, except the vitriolic ;
whence this laft is generally preferred for making the
fedative fait. It proves moft glutinous with the vege¬
table, and leaft with the marine. With oils both tx-
prelfed and diftilled, it forms a milky, femi-fapona-
ceous compound. It partially diffolves in fpirit of
wine. In conjumftion with any acid, it tinges the flame
of burning matters green ; the precipitate thrown
down by it from metallic folutions has this effecft. It
does not deflagrate with nitre. Fufed with inflam¬
mable matters, it yields nothing fulphureous as thofe
falts do which contain vitriolic acid. By repeatedly
moiftening it when confiderably heated, it may be en¬
tirely fublimed.
Borax renders all earths and ftones fufible by fire,
and hence is ufed for the effaying of ores. It alfo fa¬
cilitates the fufion of metals ; and is particularly uleful
when fmall particles of metal, mixed with dirt and
afhes, are to be melted together; as it promotes the
fufion of the metal, and the vitrification of the other
matters, by which the particles of metal may difen-
gage themlelves, and collecft into one mafs. It is fur¬
ther ufeful in the fufion of metals, as it defends their
furfaces from the combined action of air and fire, by
which imperfe<5t metals are calcined. A principal
ufe of borax is in the foldering of metals; which it pro¬
bably does by accelerating the fufion of the furfaces of
the metals to be joined, and by clearing them of any
calx or other matter by which they might be pre¬
vented from being perfectly joined to one another.
11 C Borax
1858 C H E M
Practice Borax retains a good quantity of water in its cryftals;
by which it melts and fwells up in a heat infufficient
to vitrify it. It is then fpongy and light, like calci¬
ned alum; but, on increafing the fire, it flows like wa¬
ter.
273 VI. Of the Acetous Acid and its Combinations.
Howprocu- This acid is plentifully obtained from all vinous li-
re<1- quors, liy a fermentation of a particular kind, (fee
Fermentation, and Vinegar.) It appears firft
in the form of an acid liquor, more or lefs deeply co¬
loured, as the vinegar is more or lefs pure. By di-
iliilation in a common copper-ftiH, with a pewter head
and worm, this acid may be feparated from many of
its oily and impure parts. Diftilled vinegar is a purer,
but not a ftronger acid, than the vinegar itfelf: for
the acid is originally lefs volatile than water, though,
by certain operations, it becomes more fo. After vi¬
negar has been diltilled to about T's of its original bulk,
it is ftill very acid, but thick and black. This mat¬
ter continues to yield, by dillillation, a- flrong acid
i’pirit, but tainted with an empyreumatic oil. If the
diftillation is ftill continued, a thick black oil continues
to come over ; and at laft fome volatile alkali, as in
the diilillation of animal fubftances. The caput mor-
timm left in the diftilling veflel, being calcined in an
open fire, and afterwards lixiviated, yields fome fixed
alkaline fait.
Acetous Acid combined with Alkaline Salts.
Sal diure- 1. Vegetable Alkali. The produce of this combina-
dcus. tion js t].le terra foliata tartari, or fal diureticus of
the fliops; but to prepare this fait of a fine white flaky
appearance, which is neceffiiry for fale, is a matter
of fome difficulty. The heft method of performing
this operation is, after having faturated the alkali with
the vinegar, which requires about 15 parts of com¬
mon diltilled vinegar to one of alkali, to evaporate
the liquor to drynefs; then melt the faline mafs which
remains with a gentle heat; after which it is to be
dilfolved in water, then filtered, and again evapora¬
ted to drynefs. If it is now dilfolved in fpirit of wine,
and the liquid abftradted by difiillation, the remaining
mafs being melted a fecond time, will, on cooling,
have the flaky appearance defired.
A good deal of caution is neceflary in the firft melt¬
ing; for the acetous acid is eafily diflipable, even when
combined with fixed alkali, by fire. It is proper)
therefore, that, when the fait is melted, a little Ihould
be occafionally taken cut, and put into water ; and>
when it readily parts with its blacknefs to the water,
2,s„ mufc then be removed from the fire.
Acetous a- Fojple Alkali. This alkali combined with the ace-
cid with tons acid, forms a-falt whole properties are not well
fbnlle al-. known. Dr Lewis affirms, that it is nearly fimilar
ka11, to the terra foliata tartari. The author of the Chemi-
ca! Dictionary, again, maintains it to be quite different:
particularly that it cryllallizes well, and is not deli-
quefcent ih the air; whereas the former cannot be
t'. vlhdiked ; and even when obtained in a dry form)
uidefs great care is taken to exclude the air, will pre-
fently deliquiate.
Vegetable Vclaiile Alkali. This combination produces a fait
*:ci:.v:skc. fo exceedingly deliquefeent that it cannot be procured
r S T R Y.
in a dry form without the greateff difficulty. In a li¬
quid flate, it is well known in medicine, as a fudori-
fic, by the name offpiritus mindereri. It may, how¬
ever, be procured in a dry form, by mixing equal
parts of vitriolic fal ammoniac and terra foliata tar¬
tari, and fubliming the mixture with a very gentle
heat. When the"”fait is once procured, the utmofl
care is requifite to preferve it from the air.
Acetous Acid combined with Earths.
Combinations of this kind are but little known.
With the calcareous and argillaceous earths compounds
of an aftringent nature are formed. According to
the author of the Chemical Didlionary, the fait re-
fulting from a combination of vinegar with calcare¬
ous earth eafily cryftallizes, and does not deliquiate.
.With magnefia the acetous acid does not cryftallize ;
but, when infpiflated, forms a tough mafs, of which
two drachms, or two and a half, are a brilk purga¬
tive.
Acetous Acid combined with Metallic Bodies.
1. Copper. Upon this metal the acid of vinegar
does not aft brifidy, until it is partly at leaft calcined.
If the copper is previoufly diffolved in a mineral acid,
and then precipitated,, the calx will be readily diffol-
ved by the acetous acid. The folution is of a green
colour, and beautiful green cryftals may be obtained
from it. The folution, however, is much more eafily
effefted, by employing verdigreafe, which is copper
already united with a kind of acetous or tartareous
acid, and very readily diffolves in vinegar. The cry¬
ftals obtained by this procefs are ufed in painting, un¬
der the name of dijlilled verdigreafe.
2. Iron. Vinegar afts very readily upon iron, and
diflblves it into a very brown, and almoft black li¬
quor, which does not eafily cryftallize, but, if infpif¬
lated, runs per deliquium. This liquor is employed
in the printing of linens, callicoes, be. being found
to ftrike a finer black with madder, and to injure the
cloth lefs, than folutions of iron in the other acids.
3. head. The acetous acid diflblves lead in its me-
taTiic ftate very fparingly ; but if the metal is calcined,
it afts upon it very ftrongiy. Even after lead is melt¬
ed into glafs, the acetous acid will receive a ftrong
impregnation from it, and hence it is dangerous to
put vinegar into inch earthen veflbls as are glazed
with lead. In the metallic ftate, only a drachm of
lead can be diflblved in eight ounces of diftilled vine¬
gar.
If lead is expoftd to the vapours of warm vinegar,
it is corroded into a kind of calx, which is ufed in
great quantities in painting, and is known by the name
of cerufs, or white lead. The preparation of this pig¬
ment has become a diftinft trade, and is praftifed in
fome places of this kingdom where lead is procurable
at the loweft price. The prccefs for making cerufs
is thus given by the author of the Chemical Dictio¬
nary.
“ To make eei hfs, leaden plates rolled fpirally, fo
that the fpace of an inch ffiall be left between each
circumvolution, muft be placed vertically in earthen
pots of a proper fize, containing fome good vinegar.
Thefe leaden rolls ought to be fo fupported in the pots
that:
Part II.
Pr actice
277
Anomalous
falls.
278
DifHlleck
verdi¬
greafe..
279
for printing
cloth.
280
Lead,
28 r
Cerufs.
Part II. C H E M I
Practice tliat they do not touch the vinegar, but that the acid
  vapour may circulate freely betwixt the circumvolu¬
tions. The pots are to be covered, and placed in a
bed of dung, or in a fand-bath, by which a gentle
heat may be applied. The acid of vinegar being thus
reduced into vapour, ealily attaches itlelf to the fur-
face of thefe plates, penetrates them, and is impreg¬
nated with the metal, which it reduces to a beautiful
white powder called cerufs. When a fufficient quan¬
tity of it is collected on the plates, the rolls are taken
out of the pots, and unfolded ; the cerufs is then taken
off, and they are again rolled up, that the operation
may be repeated.”
“ In this operation, the acid being overcharged
with lead, this metal is not properly in a faline
ftate ; hence cerufs is not in cryltals, nor is foluble in
water : but a faline property would render it unfit for
2g2 painting, in which it is chiefly employed.”
Obfervati- Though this procefs may in general be juft, yet
ons on the there are certainly fome particulars necefl'ary to make
procefs for cerufs of a proper colour, which this author has omit-
ceruls. ted ; for though we have carefully treated thin .plates
of lead in the manner he directs, yet the calx always
turned out of a dirty grey colour. It is probable,
therefore, that after the lead has been'corroded by
the fteam of vinegar, it may be walked with water
flightly impregnated with the vitriolic and nitrous a-
cids.
This preparation is the only white hitherto found
fit for painting in oil : but the difcovery of another
would be very definable, not only from the faults of
cerufs-as a paint, but alfo from its injuring the health
of perfons employed in its manufacture, by affeCling
them with a fevere colic ; which lead, and all its pre-
283 parations, frequently occafion.
Sugar of If diftilled vinegar is poured on white lead, it will
lead. diffolve it in much greater quantity than either the
lead-in its metallic form, or any of its cakes. This
folution, filtered and evaporated, fltoots into fmall cry-
ftals, of an auftere fweetifli tafte, called fugar of lead.
Thefe are ufed in dyeing) and externally in medi¬
cines. They have been even given internally for
fpitting of blood. This they will very certainly cure ;
but, at the fame time, they as certainly kill the patient
by bringing on other difeafes. If thefe cryftals are
repeatedly diffolved in frefli acids, and the folutions
evaporated, an oily kind of fubftance will at laft be
obtained, which can fcarcely be dried.
Infiamma- From all the metallic combinations of the acetous
ble fpirit, acid, it may be recovered in an exceedingly concen-
from fugar trated form, by Ample d.iftillatiotl, fugar of lead only
of lead. excepted. If this fubftance is diftilled in a retort with
a ftrong heat, it hath been faid that an inflammable
fpirir, and not an "acid, comes over; but this is de-
2gj nied by Dr Black.
Tin. 4- The combination of acetous acid with tin
is fo little known, that many have doubted whether
2g6 diftiiled vinegar is capable of diflblving tin or not.
Dr Lewis's Dr Lewis-obferves, “ That plates of pure tin put into
experi- commorf vinegar begun in- a few hours to be corroded,
ments con- without the application of heat. By degrees a por-
rT'hT tl e t‘on t^ie metal was taken up by the acid, but did
of tin.not feem to be perfectly diflblved, the liquor appear-
ing quite opaque and turbid, and depofiting great part
S T R Y. 1859
of the corroded tin to the bottom, in a whitilh powder. Pr actice
A part of the tin, if not truly diflblved, is exquiliteiy' 
divided in the liquor ; for, after Handing many days,
and after palling through a filter, fb much remained
fufpended as to give a whitilhnefs and opacity to the
fluid. Acid juices of fruits, fubftituted to the vinegar,
exhibited the fame phenomena. Thefe experiments.,
are not fully concluftve for the real lolubility of tin in
thefe acids, with regard to the purpofes for which
chemifts have wanted fuch a folution : but they prove
wliat is more important; that tin, or tinned vefltls,
however pure the tin be, will ,give a metallic im¬
pregnation to light vegetable acids fullered to Hand
in them for a few hours.”
With regard to other metallic fubftances, neither
the degree of attraction which the acetous acid has for
them, nor the nature of the compounds formed by
the union of it with fuch fubftances, are known ; only,
that as much of the reguline part of antimony is dif¬
folved in this acid as to give it a violent emetic qua¬
lity. See Regulus of Antimony.
Concentration of the Acetous Acid.
287
Common vinegar, as any other weak acid, may Concentra-
be advantageoully concentrated by froft; as alio may t£d vine-
its fpirit, or the diftilled vinegar of the fhops : but Sal'"
as the cold, in this country, is i’eldom or never fo in-
tenfe as to freeze vinegar, this method of concentra¬
tion cannot be made ule of here. If diftilled vinegar
be let in a water-bath, the moft aqueops part will
arife, and leave the more concentrated acid behind.
This method, however, is tedious, and no great de¬
gree of concentration can be produced, even when
the operation is carried to its utmoft length. A much
more concentrated add may be obtained by diftilling
in a retort the cryftals of copper, mentioned (n° 278)
under the name of difliUed verdigreafe. A very ftrong
acid may thus be obtained, which has a very pungent
fmell, almoft as fuftbeating as volatile fulphureous a-
cid. The count de Lauraguais difeovered that this
fpirit, if heated in a wide-mouthed pan, would take
fire on the contacft of flaming fubftances, and burn en¬
tirely away, like fpirit of wine, without any refiduum. 2gg
The fame nobleman alfo obferved, that this fpirit, gait of vi-
when well concentrated, eafily cryftallizes without ad- ne^ar.
dition.
This may feem to be the moft proper method of
obtaining the acetous acid in its greateft decree of
ftrength and purity ; but as the procefs requires a
very ftrong heat to be ufed towards the end of the
operation, it is probable that part of the acetous acid
may be by that means entirely flecompofed. It would
feem preferable, therefore, to decompofe pure terra
foliata tartar! by means of the vitriolic acid, in the
fame manner as nitre or lea-falt are decompofed for
obtaining their acids. In this cafe, indeed, the acetous
acid might be a little mixed with the vitriolic ; but that
could eafily be fepafated by a fecopd diftillation. „g
Dr Prieftley, who gives us feveral experiments on Dr
the vegetable acid when reduced to the form of air, ley's expe-
mentions his being eafily able to expel it from fome rimenta.
exceedingly ftrong concentrated vinegar, by means of
heat alone. This feems fomewhat contrary to the
count de Lauragnak’s obfervation of the difpefi ion of
11 C 2 the
i86o
CHEMISTRY.
Part II,
Practice the fph'it of verdigreafe, as it is commonly called, to
“ cryftallize ; but a ftill greater difference is, that the
vegetable acid air extinguiflied a candle, when, accor¬
ding to the count’s obfervation, it ought to have been
inflammable. The moft curious property oblerved by
Dr Prieftley is, that the vegetable acid air being im¬
bibed by oil olive, the oil was rendered lefs vifcid, and
clearer, almcjl like an efeutial oil. This is an ufeful
hint ; and, if purfued, might lead to important dilco-
veries.
Acetous Acid combined with Inflammable Matter.
Vegetable The only method yet known, of combining acetous
ether. acid with the principle of inflammability, is by mix¬
ing together equal parts of the ffrongly concentra¬
ted acid called fpirit of verdigreafe, and fpirit of
wine. The refult is, a new kind of ether, fimilar
to the vitriolic, nitrous, and marine. This ether,
however, retains fome of the acidity and peculiar
fmell of the vinegar. By rectification with fixed al¬
kali, it may be freed from this acidity, and then fmells
more like true ether, but ftill retaining fomething of
the fmell, not of the acid, but the inflammable part of
the vinegar.
In this procefs a greater quantity of ether is obtain¬
ed than by employing the vitriolic acid ; which fhews
that the vegetable acid is effentially fitter to produce
ether than the vitriolic. This difference muff undoubt¬
edly be attributed to the great quantity of ardent fpi¬
rit which enters into the compofition of the acetous acid,
and perhaps already approaches the ffate of ether.
29t VII. Of the Acid of Tartar.
Tartar. Tartar is a fubflance thrown off from wine, after
it is put into cafks to depurate. The more tartar that
is feparated, the more fmooth and palatable the wine
is. This fubffance forms a thick hard cruft on the
fides of the calks : and, as part of the fine dregs of.
the wine adhere to it, the tartar of the white wines
is of a greyifli white colour, called white tartar; and
that of red wine has a red colour, and is called red
2q2 tartar.
Cream of When feparated from the cafks on which it is for-
tartar. med, tartar is mixed with much heterogeneous mat¬
ter, from which, for the purpofes of medicine andche-
miftry, it requires to be purified. This purification
is performed at Montpelier; and confifts firftin boiling
the tartar in water, filtrating the folution, and allow¬
ing the fait to eryftallize, which it very foon does; as
tartar requires nearly twenty times its weight of wa¬
ter to diffolve it.
The cryftils of tartar obtained by this operation
are far from being perfectly pure; and therefore they
are again boiled in water, with an addition of clay,
which abforbs the colouring matter; and thus, on a
fecond cryftallization, a very pure and white fait is ob¬
tained. The cryftals now obtained are called cream,
or cryflals, of tartar; and are commonly fold under
thefe names.
3(j 2^2 To obtain the pure Acid of Tartar.
Scheele’s a- For a long time the cream or cryftals of tartar
nalyfis of were confidered as the pureft acid which could be
tart™ °f °fctaiaed from this fubftance; but, in the year 177O;
an analyfis of tartar was publifhed in the Swedifh Practice-
tranfacftions, by Mr Scheele, a Swedifh chemift. His
method of decompofing the fait was, to diflblve it in
a fufficient quantity of boiling water, then to add chalk
in fine powder till the effervefcencc ceafed. A copi¬
ous precipitation enfued; and the remaining liquor be¬
ing evaporated, afforded a foluble tartar. This pro¬
ved, that cream of tartar is not, as was commonly
fuppofed, an acid of a peculiar kind, joined with a
great deal of earthy impurities; but really a compound
fait, containing an alkali joined with an acid ; and that
the alkali produced from burnt tartar, is not generated
in the fire, but pre-exiftent in the fait.
The whole fediment obtained in this experiment,
is the calcareous earth combined with the acid of tar¬
tar, which may juftly be called felenites tartareus.
(Seen0 34). If fome diluted vitriolic acid is poured
upon this felenites tartareus, the vitriolic acid expels the
acid of tartar, forming a true felenite with the earth,
while the liquor contains the pure acid of tartar. By
infpiffation this acid may be made ftronger, and even
formed into finall white cryftals, whicli do not deli-
quiate in the air. A particular fpecies of tartar ex- Eflential
tracked from forrel hath been fold for taking fpots out fait of le-
of cloths, under the name of effentialfait of lemons, mons.
This experiment was repeated by Dr Black ; who
farther obferved, that if quicklime was ufed inftead of
chalk, the whole acid would be abforbed by the lime,
and the remaining liquor, inftead of being a folution of
foluble tartar, would be a canftic lixivium.
Acid of tartar combined with Alkalies. 294
1. Vegetable Alkali. If the pure acid of tartar be SoluMe
combined with this alkali to the point of faturation, a tartar*
neutral fait is produced, which deliquiates in the air,
and is not eafily cryftallizedrnnlefs the liquor be kept
warm, and likewife be fomewhat alkaline. This fait,
called foluble tartar, is ufed in medicine as a purgative;
but as its deliquefcence does not admit of its being
kept in a cryftalline form, it is always fold in powder.
Hence, thofe who prepare foluble tartar, take no fur¬
ther trouble than merely to rub one part of fixed al¬
kaline fait with three of cream of tartar, which ren¬
ders the compound fuflSciently neutral, and anfwers all
the purpofes of medicine. 295
According to Mr Scheele, cream of tartar may be Regenera-
recompofed from the pure acid and alkali, in the fol- ted cream
lowing manner: “ Upon fixed vegetable alkali pour tartar‘
a folution of the acid of tartar. Continue this till the
effervefcence is over ; the fluid will then be tranlpa-
rent; but if more of the acid is added, it will become
turbid, and white, and fmall cryftals like white fand
will be formed in it. Thefe cryftals are a perfect
cream of tartar.”
Upon thefe principles, another method of decom-
pofmg cream of tartar might be tried; namely, adding
to it as much oil of vitriol as would faturate the alka¬
li, then diffolving and cryftallizing the (alt: but, by
this method, there would be danger of the acid being
adulterated with vitriolated tartar. 296
2. Foffile Alkali. The fait produced from an union Seignette’s
of cream of tartar with foflile alkali, has been long or Rochelle
known under the names of Seignette's falt,fal Rupel-
ler.fls, or Rochelle fait; but as the cream of tartar is
BOW
Part II.
Practice
297
Selenites
298
A fine green
299
Chalybeat-
ed tartar.
300.
Saccharine
acid.
CHEMISTRY.
now difcovered to be not a pure- acid, but adulterated
with a portion of foluble tartar, poffibly fome diffe¬
rences might be obferved if the pure acid was ufed.
This fait was firft invented, and brought into vogue,
by one Seignette, an apothecary at Rochelle, who
kept the compofition a fecret as long as he could.
MefT. Boulduc and Geoffroy afterwards difcovered
and publifhed its compofition.
To prepare this fait, cryftals of mineral alkali are
to be diflblved in hot water, and powdered cream of
tartar thrown in as long as any effervefcence arifes.
For the better cryftallization of the fait, the alkali
ought to prevail. The liquor muft then be filtered
and evaporated, and very fine large cryftals may be
obtained by cold, each of which is the half of a poly-
gonous prifm cut in the diredtion of its axis. This
fedtion, which forms a face much larger than the reft,
is, dike them, a regular redtangle, diftinguifhable from
the Others, not only by its breadth, but alfo by two
diftindt diagonal lines which interfedt each other in
the middle.
3. Volatile Alkali. With regard to this combina¬
tion, all we know as yet, is, that if the alkali is over
faturated with acid, a cream of tartar, almoft as diffi¬
cult of folution as that of fixed alkali, will be obtained.
Acid of Tartar combined with Earths.
All that is as yet known concerning thefe combina¬
tions, is, that with the calcareous earth a compound not
ealily foluble in water is formed. The other properties
of this fubftance, and the nature of combinations of tar-
tareousacid with other earths, are entirely unknown.
Acid of Tartar combined with Metallic Suhfiances.
1. Copper. In its metallic Hate, cream of tartar
adls but weakly on this metal, but diifolves verdigreafe
much more perfectly than diftilled vinegar can. The
folution with cream of tartar, being evaporated, does
not cryftallize, but runs into a gummy kind of matter ;
which, however, does not attract the moifture of the
air. It readily diffolves in water, and makes a beau¬
tiful bluifli green on paper, which has the property of
always ffiining, as if covered with varniffi. The ef¬
fects of the pure acid on this metal have not yet been
tried.
2. Iron. The effects of a combination of iron with
the pure acid have not hitherto been tried. Cream of
tartar diffolves this metal into a green liquor, which
being evaporated runs per deliquium. It has been at¬
tempted to fubllitute a folution of this kind to the li¬
quor ufed in printing callicoes formed of iron and four
beer ; but this gave a very dull brownifh colour with
madder. Poffibly, if the pure acid was ufed, the co¬
lour might be improved. In medicine, a combination
of cream of tartar with iron is ufed, and probably
may be an ufefql chalybeate.
3. Regulus of Antimony. See Se6t. III.
VIII. Of the Acid of Sugar.
That fugar contains an acid, which on diftillation
by a ftrong fire arifes in a liquid form, in common with
that of moft other vegetable fubftances, has been ge¬
nerally known ; but how to obtain this acid in a con¬
crete form, and to appearance as pure and cryftal-
lizable as the acid of tartar, we were entirely igno¬
rant, till the appearance of a treatife intitled, Difl'er-
tatio Chemica, de Acido Sacchuri, auclore Johanne Af-
zelio Arvidffon, 4to, Upfal'ue.
Of the method of procuring, and the properties of,
this new acid, we have the following account in the
Edinburgh Medical Commentaries, vol. iv.
“ X. To an ounce of the fined white fugar in pow¬
der, in a retort with a neck, add three ounces of Itrong
fpirit of nitre.
“ 2. The folution being finiffied, and the phlogilton
of the fpirit of nitre moilly exhaled, let a receiver be
properly fitted to the retort and luted, and the liquor
then made to boil gently.
f< 3. When the folution has obtained a browniffi
colour, add three ounces more of fpirit of nitre, and
let the ebullition be continued till the fumes qf,the
acid are almoii gone.
“ 4. The liquor being at length emptied into a lar¬
ger veifel, and expofed to a proper degree of cold,
quadrangular prifmatic cryftals are obferved to form ;
which being collected, and dried on foft paper, are
found to weigh about 109 grains.
u 5. The remaining liquor being again boiled in
the fame retort, with two ounces of freffi fpirit of
nitre, till the red vapours begin to difappear; and be¬
ing then in the fame manner expofed to cryftallize,
about 43 grains of faline fpiculas are obtained.
“ 6. To the liquid that ftill remains, about two
ounces more of fpirit of nitre being added, and after¬
wards the whole being, both by boiling and evapora¬
tion, reduced to a dry mafs, a brown, faline, gelati¬
nous kind of fubftance is produced, which, when tho¬
roughly dry, is found to weigh about half a drachm.
“ In the fame manner, a iimilar acid, we are told,
may be obtained from different faccharine fiibftances,
as gum-arabic, honey, &c.; but from none in fuch quan¬
tities, or fo pure, as from fine fugar.”
This fait poflefies fome very fingular properties, of
which what appears to us the moft remarkable, and
which we cannot help reading with fome degree of
doubt, is, that it produces an effervefeence on being ad¬
ded to fuch alkaline, earthy, or metallic fubjlances, as
contain the vitriolic acid. From this we fhould be apt
to think, that this acid was capable of diflodging even
the vitriolic acid from its bafis.
Acid of fugar, being diftilled in a retort, gives over
about 730 of its weight of water. By an intenfe heat
it melts, and is partly fnblimed; leaving in the retort
a dark grey mafs, of about the fifth part of the weight
of the cryftals made ufe of. The fublimed fait ealiiy
recovers its cryftalline form, and feems to have under¬
gone no further change by fubiimation than being ren¬
dered more pure. During the diftillation a great quan¬
tity of elaftic vapour rulhes o«t, (about 100 cubic inches
from half an ounce of the cryftals), which, from the di¬
ftilled liquor’s precipitating lime-water, we may judge
to be fixed air. In a fecond fnblimation, white fumes
are fent over, which, wbeh cold, appear to be an acid,
glaffy-coloured liquor, but cannot be again eryftallized.
“ Such parts of the falls as adhere to the fides and
necks of the velfcls, do not appear to he in the leaft '
changed in the procefs.” (What thefe parts are, we
do nut comprehend). On a third fublimation, thefe
parts
l86l
Practice
3Q»
CryfUls, of
302
Prefumpti.
on of its cx-
pelling the
vitriolic a-
cid.
1862 C H E M
Practice parts produced fuch elaftic vapours as burit the re-
  — ceiver.
Great Lid This finglllar fa,t has a confiderable acid power;
power.C twenty grains of it giving a very confiderable degree
•of acidity to a large tankard of water. It dilfolves in
an equal weight of diftilled water, but concretes on
the liquor’s growing cool. It is alfo foluble in fpirit
of wine; too parts of boiling fpirit of wine diffolving
56 of the faccharine cryllals, but no more than 40
when cold. The folution in fpirit of wine loon be¬
comes turbid; anddepofites a mucous fediment.in quan¬
tity about j-a of the acid made ufe of. When cold,
irregular fcaly cryftals are formed, which when dry
are perfedlly white.
With vegetable alkali, the acid of fugar can fcarcely
be formed into cryftals, unlefs either the alkali or acid
predominate. With mineral alkali, a fait very diffi-,
304 cult of folution is formed. The quantity of volatile
Incredible alkali faturated by this acid is incredible. Six parts
quantity of of a pure volatile alkali (we fuppole volatile falts are
volatile a!- mear)t) may be faturated with one of the acid of fu-
jed'b^it'3' garThe produce is a quadrangular pril'matic fait.
C y * * With lime this acid unites fo ftrongly, as to be fepa-
rable by no other means than a ftrong heat. What
kind of a fait refults from this combination we are not
told ; but the author is of opinion, that this Ihews the
ide of lime in the purification of fugar, in order to ab-
foib the fuperfluous acid. Being faturated with fome
of the terra ponderofa, the acid of fugar immediately
depofites a quantity of pellucid angular cryftals, fcarcely
foluble in water. With magnefia the fait appears in
form of a white powder, foluble neither in water nor
fpirit of wine, unlefs the acid prevails. It has a
ftronger affinity with magnefia, than any of the alka¬
line falts. With earth of alum, no cryftals are ob¬
tained ; but a yellow pellucid mafs, of a fwcetilh and
fomewhat aftringent tafte; which, in a moift air, li¬
quefies, and increafes two-thirds in weight.
This acid adts upon all metals, gold, filver, platina,
and quickfilver, not excepted, if they have been pre-
_vioufly diffolved in an acid, and then precipitated.
Iron in its metallic ftate is 'dilfolved in very large
quantity by the faccharine acid ; 45 parts of iron be¬
ing loluble in 55 of acid. By evaporation, the liquor
Ihoots into yellow prifmatic cryftals, which are eafily
foluble in water. With cobalt, a quantity of yellow-
coloured cryftals are obtained, which being diffolved
in water, and fea-falt added to the folution, form a
fympathetic ink. The elective attractions of this
lingular acid are, firft, Lime; then the terra ponde-
,^5 refa, magnefia, vegetable alkali, mineral alkali, and
Saccharine laftly clays. With fpirit of wine an ether was ob-
ether. tained, which cannot eafily be let on fire unlefs pre-
viottlly heated, and burns with a blue inftead of a
306 white flame.
Whether Towards the conclufion of his diffiertation the au-
this acid is thor obferves, that fome may imagine that the acid of
produced nitre, made ufe of in thefe experiments, may have a
^°™tnem* confiderable fhare in the prodiuftion of what he has
rous' termed acid of fugar. But, though he acknowledges
that this acid cannot in any way be obtained but by
the affiftance of fpirit of nitre, he is thoroughly con¬
vinced that it does not, in any degree, enter into its
compofitim.
S T R Y. Part II.
What occurs to us on this fubjeci is, that if the acid Practice
really pre*exifts in the fugar, it mult give fome to-  
kens of its exiftence by mixing the lugar with other
fubftances belides fpirit of nitre. The author himfelf
thinks that lime afts upon the acid part of the fugar:
from whence we are apt to conclude, that by mixing
lime, in a certain proportion, with fugar, a compound
fliould be obtained fomewhat fimiiar to what was
formed by a direct combination of lime with the pure
acid. In this cafe, we might conclude that the ni¬
trous acid produces this fait, by combining with the
inflammable part of the fugar, becoming thereby vo¬
latile, and flying entirely off, fo as to leave the acid
of the fugar pure. In the diftillation of dulcified fpi¬
rit of nitre, however, we have an inftance of the ni¬
trous acid itfelf being very much altered. This mull
therefore fuggeft a doubt, that the acid fait obtained
in the prefent cafe is only the nitrous acid deprived of
its phlogifton, and united with fome earthy particles.
IX. Of the Acid of Phosphorus.
This acid as yet is but little known. It is obtained phofpho-
in the greateft quantities from human urine, where it rine acid,
is combined with a volatile alkali, forming a lingular
kind of ammoniacal falts. It is there alio found in
combination with the vegetable fixed alkali; (lee
Sect. VI.) #It may alfo be obtained from molt vege¬
table fubltances, by diftillation with a very violent
heat; but in fmall quantity. When obtained in this
manner, it combines with the phlogifton of jhe matter
diftilled, and affumes the form of phofphorus. As the
only method of procuring this acid, without the trouble
of a very tedious, and even dangerous, diftillation, is
by evaporation and cryftallization, we lhall here give
the procefs for extracling the microcofmic fait from
Uline- 308
“ A large quantity of urine is to be evaporated to Microcof.
the confiftence of a thin fyrup ; • which, being let in a mic fait,
cold place, will yield, in three or four weeks, foul how procu*'
brown-coloured cryftals, which are the microcofmic red"
fait, mixed with the marine, and other falts of urine.
Thefe cryftals are to be diffolved in hot water; the
folution filtered whilft it continues hot, and fet to cry,-
ftallize again ; and the folution, filtration, and cryftal¬
lization, repeated till the fait becomes pure and white.
In all the cryftallizations the microcofmic fait Ihoots
firft, and is eafily diftinguiflied and feparated from
. the others. If the urine which remains after the firrt
cryftallization be further evaporated, and again fet in
the cold, it will yield more cryftals; but browner and
more impure than the former; and therefore requi¬
ring to be purified by the;mfelves. From twenty gal¬
lons of urine, may be obtained fodr ounces of pure fait;
a confiderable part being ftill left in the refiduum.
“ In thefe operations the heat ought to be gentle,
and the yeflels either of glafs or compact ftone-ware.
Urine being evaporated in a copper veflel, afforded
only a green folution of that metal.”
Concerning the nature of the microcofmic fait ob- Mr Ma,._
tained by the above procefs, Mr Margraaff gives the graalPs ex¬
following account in the Berlin Memoirs for 1 746. periments.
“ Sixteen ounces of the fait, diftilled in a glal's re¬
tort, in a heat gradually raifed, gave over eight oun¬
ces of a volatile urinous fpirit, refembling that made'
from
Parc II. ^ C H E M I
Practice from fal ammoniac by quicklime. The refiduum was
 a porous brittle mafs, weighing eight ounces. This,
urged with a ftronger fire in a crucible, bubbled and
frothed much, and at length funk down into the ap¬
pearance of glafs, without feeming to fuffer any fur¬
ther diminution of its weight in the mo If vehement
heat.
The vitreous matter diffolved in twice or thrice its
quantity of water, into a dear, tranfparent, acid li¬
quor, fomewhat thick, not ill refembling in confidence
concentrated oil of vitriol. This liquor totally cor¬
roded zinc into a white powder, which, being diluted
with water, appeared in great part to diffolve, fixed
alkalies occafioning a plentiful precipitation. It aided
powerfully upon iron,- with fome eifervefcence ; and
changed the metal into a kind of muddy fubftance in¬
clining to bluifh, in part foluble in water like the pre¬
ceding. It diffolved likewife a portion of regulus of
antimony, and extraided a red timdure from cobalt.
On lead and tin it had very little adion. Copper it»
corroded but flightly. On bifmuth, filver, and gold,
it had no effetd at all, either by ftrong digeftion, or a
boiling heat. Nor did the addition of a confiderable
portion of nitrous acid enable it to aid upon gold.
“ The vitreous fait in ‘its dry form, melted with
metallic bodies with a ftrong fire, aids upon them
more powerfully. In each of the following experi¬
ments, two drachms of the fait were taken to two
fcruplcs of the metal reduced to fmall parts. (I.) Gold
communicated a purple colour to the vitreous fait; on
weighing the metal, however, its diminution was not
confiderable. (2.) Silver loft four grains, or T‘b ;
and rendered the fait ycllowifh, and moderately opake.
(3.) Copper loft only two grains, or -u, though the
fait was tinged of a deep green colour. It feemed as
if a portion of the fait had been retained by the me¬
tal, which, after the fufion, was found to be whiter and
more brittle than before. (4.) During the fufion with
iron, flafltes like lightning were continually thrown
out; a phofphorus being generated from the combi¬
nation of the acid with the inflammable principle of the
iron.' Great part of the mixture rifes up in froth;
which, when cold, appears a vitreous fcoria, covered
on the furface with a kind of metallic fkin, which, on
being rubbed, changes its green colour to a'yellowifh.
The reft: of the iron remains at the-bottom of the cru-
cible,haif melted, half vitrified, and fpongy. (5.) Tin
loft 18 grains,, or nearly one-half its weight, and ren¬
dered the fait whitifh; the remaining, metal being
at the fame time remarkably changed. It was all
over leafy and brilliant, very brittle, internally like
zinc. Laid on burning coals,, it firft began to melt,
then burnt like zinc, or phofphorus. (6.) Lead loft
r6 grains, and gave the fame whitifh colour to the
fcorioE that tin does. The remaining lead was in like
manner inflammable, but burnt lefs vehemently than
the tin; from which it differed alfo in retaining its
malleability. (7.) Mercury precipitated from aqua
fortis, and well edulcorated, being treated with the
fait in a glafs retort, with a fire railed to the utmoft,
only 12 grains of mercury fublimed; 28 remaining u-
nited with the acid, in a whitifh,Temi-opake mafs. A
folution of this, mixed in diftilled water, depofited a
quantity of a yellowifh powder; which, by diftillation
S T R Y. 1863
in a glafs retort, was in great part revived into run- Practice
ning mercury. A part alfo remained diffolved in the "
clear liquor ; for a drop let fall on polifhed topper in-
ftantly whitened it. (8.) Regulus of antimony melt¬
ed with the vitreous fait, loft eight or nine grains,
(about ; the regulus affumed a fine, brilliant, ftria-
ted appearance ; the fcorite were fomewhat dpake.
(9.) Bifmuth loft eight grains; the fcoria: Were like
the preceding, but the bifmmh itfelf fullered little
change. (10.) Zinc, mixed with the fait, and diftil¬
led in a glafs. retort, yielded a true phofphorus, which
arofe in a very moderate heat. The refiduum was
of a grey colour, a little melted at the bottom, in
weight not exceeding two drachms, fo that two feru-
ples had fublimed. This refiduufri, urged further in a
fmall Heffian crucible, to perfeift fufion, emitted an in¬
finity of phofphorine flafhes, with a kind of detonation.
The matter, grown cold, looked like the fcorias of melt¬
ed glafs. (n.) White arfenic, mixed with this fair,:
feparated in the fire, greateft part of it fubliming, and:
only fo much remaining behind as increafedthe weight
of the fait eiglrt or nine grains. This compound ap¬
peared at firft tranfparent; but, on being expofed to
the air, became moift, and of an opake wbitenefs,
much relembling cryftalline arfenic. (12.) Cinnabar
totally fublimed ; fuffering no change itfelf, and 00
cafioning none in the fait. Sulphur did the fame.
(13.) One part of the fait, mixed with ten of man-
ganefe, and melted in a clofe velfel, gave a femi-trani-
parent mafs, fome parts of which were bluifli. The
crucible was lined with a fine purple glazing, and the-
edges of the mafs itfelf appeared of the fame colour.
“ The vitreous fait dilfolved alfo, in fufion, me¬
tallic calces, and earths. Chalk, with one third its
weight of the fait, formed a femi-tranfpnrent vitreous
mafs r calcined marble, with the fame proportion,
flowed fo thin as to run all through the crucible : gyp-
fum, likewile, ran moftly through the crucible; what
remained was femi-tranfparent. Lapis fpecularis ran
entirely through the veftel. Spanilli chalk gave a femi-
tranfparent mafs, which fparkled on-breaking; and
fine white clay, a-fimilar one. Saxon topaz and flint
were changed into beautiful opal-coloured malfes;
the earth of alum into a feini-tranfparent mafs, and
quick lime into an opake white one. The mafs with
flints imbibed moifture from the air; the tubers not.
“ Oil of vitriol, poured upon one fourth its weight
of this fait in a retort, raifed an effervefeenee, acquired
a browniflt colour, and afterwards became turbid and
white- On railing the fire, the oil of vitriol diftilled,
and the nratter in the bottom of the retort melted.
In the neck was found a little fublimare, which grow
moift in the air as did likewife the remaining fair,
which was opake and whitifh. Concentrated i’pirit
of nitre, diftilled with this fait in the above propor¬
tion, came over unchanged ; no Sublimate appeared ;
the refiduum looked like glafs of borax. The diftil-
led fpirit did not aid in the leaft upon gold, even by
codtion. Strong fpirit of fea-falt being-diftilled in
the fame manner, no fenfible change was made either
in the fpirit or the falt.
u Equal parts of the vitrified microcofmic fait and
fait of tartar being urged with the ftrongeft fire that
a glafs retort could bear, nothing fenfible came over,,
not»
1364 CHEMISTRY. Part II.
Practice nor did the mixture appear in thin fufion. DifTolved
in water, filtered, and duly evaporated, it afforded,
very difficultly, oblong cryltals, foinewhat alkaline;
the quantity of alkali having been more than enough
to faturate the acid. A whitilh matter remained
on the filter, amounting to feven or eight grains,
from two drachms of the mixture ; this, after being
waflied and dried, melted before a blow-pipe, as did
gto likewife the cryltals. ,
F.yr.cls the This fait teems to extricate, in part, the acids of
triolated^' v^tr*°^ate^ tart:ar, nitre, and fea-lalt. (i.) On diliil-
tartar ^.itre ^ng a mixture of it with an equal quantity of vitrio-
and fea-lalt. lated tartar, there came over fome ponderous acid
drops, which, faturated with fixed alkali, formed a
neutral fait greatly refembling the vitriolated tartar.
The refiduum readily diffolved in water, and difficult¬
ly cryftallized. (2.) Nitre, treated with the fame
proportion of the fait, began to emit red vapours.
The refiduum was of a peach-blolfom colour, appear¬
ed to have melted lefs perfectly than the preceding,
and diffolved more difficultly in water. The folution
depofited a little earthy matter; and, on being llowly
evaporated, Ihot into crylhils, which did not deflagrate
in the fire. (3.) Sea-falt, dillilled in the fame man¬
ner, manifeltly parted with its acid; the refiduum
was whitilh, readily diffolved in water, and afforded
fome cubical cryllals. (4.) Sal ammoniac fuffered no
change. (5.) Borax, with an equal quantity of vi¬
treous fait, run all through the crucibles.
“ Solutions of this fait precipitated the earthy part
of lime-water, of folution of alum, of flint diffolved in
fixed alkali, and the combination of marine acid with
chalk or quicklime. The precipitate from this laft
liquor is tenacious like glue, and does not diffolve
even in boiling water; expofed to a lirong fire, it
froths prodigioully, and at laft melts into a thick fcoria.
“ Solutions .-of this fait precipitate alfo fundry me¬
tallic folutions; as butter of antimony, folutions of
lilver, copper, lead, iron, mercury, and bifmuth, in
the nitrous acid; and of tin in aqua regis. The
precipitate of iron from fpirit of fait is a tenacious
mafs; that of filver from aqua fortis, fometimes a
white powder, fometimes tenacious. Copper from
aqua fortis is fometimes thrown down in form of a
white powder, and fometimes in that of a green oil,
according to the proportions and dilutenefs of the li¬
quor. Silver is not precipitated at all by this acid from
its folution in vinegar, nor gold from aqua regis.
“ An ounce of the vitreous fait, well mixed with
half an ounce of foot, and committed to diftillation,
yielded a drachm of fine phofphorus. The black re¬
fiduum, being elixated with boiling water, and the
liquor paffed through a' filter, there remained upon
the filter eight fcruples of a blagk matter ; and, on e-
vaporating and cryflallizing the liquor, about (even
drachms were obtained of oblong cryftals, which did
not deliquiate in a mcift air,Tut became powdery in a
warm one. Thefe cryftals, treated afrefh with in¬
flammable matter, yielded no phofphorus. Before a
blow-pipe they melted into a tfanfparent globular mafs,
which, on cooling, became turbid and opake. Dif¬
folved in water, they precipitated folutions of filver,
mercury, copper, and of chalk; though they did not
act upon the latter fo powerfully, nor produce with it
a gluey mafs, as before they had been deprived of Practice
their phofphorine acid.”
On this account of the phofphorine, or rather micro-
cofmic, acid, which we have taken from Lewis’s notes
on Neuman’s chemiftry, we have only to obferve,
that the microcofmic fait either contains two diftinft
acids, one of which only is capable of being united
with inflammable matter fo as to produce phopfhorus ;
or that the true phofphorine acid itfelf is capable of a
kind of decompofition, by which it may be made in¬
capable of uniting any more with phlogifton. It would
feem likewife, that fome fubftances are much more
proper for producing phofphorus than others; and
that thofe which contain the greateft quantity of in¬
flammable matter are not the moft proper. Thus,
half an ounce of loot mixed with a whole ounce of
acid, yielded only a drachm of phofphorus; while two
drachms of acid, with no more than-two fcruples of
zinc, gave two fcruples of phofphorus; nor did the
diftillation feem to be finilhed.
X. Of the Acid of Ants. ,ri
The acid may be obtained from thefe infefls either Hou'procu-
by diftillation, or fimple infufion in water. From red.
twenty-four ounces of ants, Neuman obtained eleven
ounces and an half of acid as ftrong as good vinegar,
by diftillation in balneo marise. Of this acid, Mr Mar-
graaff gives the following account in the Beilin Me¬
moirs for 1749. 312
“ The acid of ants effervefees with alkaline falts, Its proper-
both fixed and volatile. With volatile alkalies it forms ties,
a neutral liquor, which, like that compofed of the
fame alkalies and vinegar, yields no concrete fait on
diftillation. With fixed alkalies it concretes, upon
proper exhalation into oblong cryftals, which deli¬
quiate in the air. The cryftals, or the faturated neutral
liquor uncryftallized, on being diftilled with a fire in-
creafed till the retort begun to melt, yielded a liquor
fcarce fenfibly acid, and afterwards a fmall quantity
of an urinous and partly ammoniacal liquor. The
remaining black matter, diffolved in diftilled water,
filtered and evaporated, Ihot into large cryftals which
did not deliquiate in the air, though they were in
tafte ftrongly alkaline, eftervefeed with acids, and
had all the other properties by which fixed alkalies
are diftinguiihed.
“ This acid diffolves, with great effervefcence, co¬
ral, chalk, and quicklime ; and concrets with them all
into cryftals which do deliquiate in the air.
“ It does not precipitate filver, lead, or mercury,
from the nitrous acid; nor quicklime from the marine.
Hence it appears to have no analogy to the marine or
vitriolic acids; the firft of which conllantly precipitates
the metallic folutions, and the other the earthy.
“ It does not a<ft upon filings of filver; but (like
vegetable acids), it totally diffolves, by the afiiftance
of heat, the calx of filver precipitated from aqua for¬
tis by fait of tartar.
“ It does not dillblve calces of mercury, (as vege¬
table acids do); but revives them into running qtiiik-
filver.
u It a<fts very weakly upon filings of copper ; but
perfedlly diffolves copper that has been calcined.
The folution yields beautiful, compact, green cryftals.
Part II.
Practice
-Mr Pott’s
C H E M
“ It difTolves iron-filings with violence; the folq-
tion, duly,evaporated, ihoots into cryftals more readily
than that made in diitilled vinegar. It fcarcely adls at
all upon filings of tin.
“ It does not, according to Mr Margraff, corrode
filings of lead; but diflblves, by the .affiitance of heat,
the red calx of lead. The folution cryftallizes into a
faccharum faturni. In Mr Ray’s philofophical letters,
it is faid, that “ lead put into the acid fpirit, or fair wa¬
ter, together with the animals themfelves, makes a good
faccharum faturni ” and that this faccharum, on be¬
ing drilled, “ will afford the fame acid fpirit again,
which the faccharum faturni made with vinegar will
not do, but returns an inflammable oil with water,
but nothing that is acid : and faccharum faturni made
with fpirit of verdigreafe doth the fame in thisrefpedl
with fpirit of pifmires.
ti It diffolves zinc with vehemence, and {hoots, up¬
on due evaporation, into inelegant cryftals, not at all
like thofe produced with diftilled vinegar. On bif-
muth, or regulus of antimony, it has little effect, ei¬
ther when calcined, or in their metalline ftate.”
XI. Of the Acid of Amber.
The nature of this acid is as yet but little known,
and Mr Pott is the only chemift who feems to have
examined it with accuracy. We {hall therefore give
an abftraft of the principal obfervations and experi¬
ments he has made on this fait.
“ Salt of amber requires a large quantity of water
for its folution. In the firft cryftallization (being
much impregnated with the oil, which rifes from the
amber along with it), it {hoots into fpongy flakes, in
colour refembling brown fugar-candy; the cryftals
which fucceed prove darker and darker coloured. On
repeating the depuration, the cryftals appear at top
of a clear yellow, or whitilh colour, in form of long
needles or feathers; at bottom, darker, and more ir¬
regular, as are likewife the cryftals which {hoot after¬
wards. The cryftals neither liquefy nor become pow¬
dery in the air: rubbed, they emit a pungent fmell like
that of radifties, efpecially if warmed a little ; their
tafte is acid, not in the leaft corrofive, but with a kind
of oily pungency.
“ This fait, kept in the heat of boiling water, lofes
nothing of its weight, and fuffers no alteration. In a
great heat it melts like oil; after which a little oily acid
arifes, then oily flrias appear in the lower part of the
retort, and the fait fublimes into the neck, partly in
the form of a dark yellow butter, and partly in that
of feathers, a black coaly matter remaining at bottom;
fo that, by this procefs, a part of the fait is deftroyed.
“ Oil of turpentine has no action on this fait.
Highly re&ified fpirit of wine gains from it a yellow
.colour in the cold; and, on the application of heat,
diffolves a confiderable quantity, but depofites great
part of it on cooling. The fait thus depofited is fome-
what whiter than before, but ftill continues fenfibly
yellow. The dulcified fpirit of fal ammoniac diflblves
it readily, without effervefcence, into a yellow liquor ;
jf the fait was foul, the folution proves of a red co¬
lour; on burning of the vinous fpirit, a neutral liquor
remains.
“ A folution of fait of amber in water, faturated
Vol. III.
I S T R Y.
1865
with a pure alkaline lixivium, yielded, on infpiflation, a Pa actk
faline matter, which would not cryftallize, and which,
when exficcated by heat, deliquiated in the air, lea¬
ving a confiderable proportion of an earthy, untfluous
matter. Being again gently infpiflated, it left a
brownifli fait, very foluble, weighing one half more
than the fait of amber employed. This fait effervef-
ced with the vitriolic and nitrous acids: the vapour,
which exhaled, was not acid, but oily and fulphureous.
On repeating the experiment, and fully faturating the
alkali with the {'alt of amber, the neutral fait made no
eflervefcence with thefe acids. This fait did norper-
fe<5tly melt before a blow-pipe ; continued in the fire
for fome time, it effervefced with aqua fortis. In dif-
tillation it yielded a bitter, oily, alkalefcent fpirit,
much refembling the fpirit of tartar ; and towards the
end, an empyreumatic oil. The refiduum elixated,
yielded the alkaline fait again of a brown colour.
“ Salt of amber effervefces ftrongly with volatile
alkalies; and, on faturation, forms with them an oily
ammoniacal liquor, which, in diftillation, totally arifes
in a fluid form, except that a fmall portion of a pe¬
netrating, oily, faline matter concretes towards the
end* 314 —
“ On diftilling fait of amber with an equal quanti- Extricates
ty of common fal ammoniac, an acid marine fpirit the adds of
came over, of a ftrong fmell, and a brown colour : ammo-
afterwards, a little white fal ammoniac fublimed ; at and nl"
length arofe fuddenly a large quantity of a fuliginous
or bituminous matter, leaving behind a fmall portion
of a like fliining black fubftance. The coaly matter
’ was confiderably more in quantity than the fait of am¬
ber employqfl. On treating it with nitre, red va¬
pours arofe, and the mixture detonated with vio¬
lence. A mixture of it with borax, frothed and fwel-
led up much more than borax by itfelf; and, on rai¬
ling ftie fire, yielded only fome oily drops; the acid
being deftroyed by this fait, as by fixed alkalies and
quicklime..
“ Spirit of fea-falt, poured upon one-fourth its Purified by
weight of fait of amber, made fcarce any folution in d16 marine
the cold : on the application of heat, nearly the whole acid’
coagulated into the confiftence of a jelly. In diftilla¬
tion, the fpirit of fait arofe firft; then almoft the whole
of the fait of amber, partly like firm butter, partly like
long ftriated plumous alum, very pure, and of a fine
white colour, its oily matter being changed into a
coal at the bottom. The fait, thus purified, makes
no precipitation in the folution of lilver, and confe-
quently retains nothing of the marine acid ; nor does
it precipitate folution of quicklime made in fpirit of
fait, and confequently contains nothing vitriolic. If
any of the mineral acids was contained in tliis fait, it
could not here efcape difcovery; the oil, which in the
rough fait is fuppofed to conceal the acid, being in this
procefs feparated.
“ Aqua fortis being poured upon one-fourth its
weight of fait of amber, extra<51ed a yellowifli colour,
from it in the cold, but diflblved little : on the appli¬
cation of heat, the whole diflblves into a clear liquor,
without any coagulation : if the fait is very oily, the.
folution proves red-. In diftillation, greateft part a-
rifes in a liquid form, with only a very fmall quantity
of concrete fait- The fpii it does not aft upon gold,
11 D but
1866 C H E M I
Practice but diflblves filver, and quickfilver, as at fir ft; a proof
  that it has received no maiine acid from the fait of
amber.
“ Oil of vitriol being added to twice its weight of
fait of amber diluted with a little water, a moderate
fire elevated an acidulous liquor, which appeared to
proceed from the fait of amber; for its making no
change, in folution of fixed fal ammoniac, fhewed it
not to be vitriolic. On continuing the diftillation by
a ftronger fire, greateft part of the fait arifes unde-
ftroyed, and the oil of vitriol along with it; a black,
light, porous earth remaining.
“ Equal parts of quicklime and fait of amber gave
over in diftillation only an acidulous phlegm ; the refi-
duum, elixated with water, yielded a folution of the
lime in the acid of amber, refemfiling a folution of the
fame earth in vegetable acids, precipitable by alkaline
falts, and by the vitriolic acid. Lime added to a wa¬
tery folution of fait of amber, diflblves with fome ef-
fervefcence; after which, the whole coagulates into
the confidence of a jelly: this, diluted with water,
proves fimilar to the foregoing folution.
“ Solution of fait of amber makes no precipitation
in folutions of filver or quickfilver. It diffolves zinc,
as all acids do : fixed alkalies precipitate the zinc: the
volatile do not; and when a fuflicient quantity of the vo¬
latile has been added, the fixed make no. precipitation.
It atfts exceeding flowly and difficultly upon copper;
but corrodes calcined copper in a fhorter time. It foon
corrodes iron, by codlion, into a crocus, and diflblves
a part into a liquid form : the folution has little colour ;
but alkaline falts readily difcover that.it holds iron, by
rendering it turbid and whiliffi, and throwing down
a confiderable quantity of a greenifn calx.”
316 XII. Of Fixed Ai.kai.ine Salts.
How procu- of thefe there are two kinds; the vegetable* and
te ‘ mineral, (fee n° 23.) The firft is never found by
itfelf, and but rarely in combination with any acid;
but is always prepared from the afhes of burnt vege¬
tables. • The fecond is found native in fome parts of
the earth. It is likewife found, in very large quan¬
tities, combined with the marine acid, in the waters of
the ocean, and in the bowels of the earth ; thus for¬
ming the common alimentary fait. It is alfo produced
from the affies of certain fea-plants, and of the plant
called kali; from whence both the mineral and vege-
317 table alkalies have taken their name.
Vegetable vegetable alkali difficultly afliimes a cryftalline
ftallized^" *°rrn; heverthelefs, it may be partially united with
fome acids in fuch a manner as to cryftallize, and lole
its property of deliquiating in the air, without, at the
fame tin*-, ceafing to be an alkali. Of this we have’an
example in the acid of ants above mentioned. Some¬
thing of the fame kind we have obferved in treating
vegetable fixed alkali with fpirit of wine. A gallon
of pretty ftrong fpirit of wine being drawn over from
a pound of fait of tartar, a black unctuous liquor was
left, which Ihot into cryftals very much refembling
vitriolated tartar, and which did not deliquiate in the
air, but were neverthelefs ftrongly alkaline.
The mineral alkali in its natural ftate always aflumes
a cryftalline form, fomewhat refembling that of fal
mirabile. It does not deliquiate in the. air, nor does it
S T R Y. Part II.
feem to have fo ftrong an attraction for water, even Practice
when in its moft cauftic ftate, as the vegetable alkali; '
hence mineral alkali is preferable to it in making foap,
which is always of a firmer confiftence with mineral 318
than with vegetable alkali. If vegetable alkali is com- Change on
bined with fpiritof fait, fome change feems to be therebyveSf'^.
induced upon it; as the fait produced by expelling the ta e a a '•
marine acid by means of the vitriolic, and then cryftal-
lizing the mai's, cryftallizes differently from vitriola¬
ted tartar. Whether the vegetable alkali might by
this means be entirely converted into the mineral, de-
ferves a further inquiry! 319
Both vegetable and mineral alkalies, when applied Difference
to the tongue, have a very ffiarp, pungent, and uri- between
nous tafte; but the vegetable conliderably more fo than g*!mbie^aL
the mineral. They both unite with acids, and form alkalies,
different neutral (alts with them: but the vegetable al¬
kali feems to have rather a greater attraelion for acids
than the other ; although this difference is not fo great,
as that a neutral fait, formed by the union of mineral
alkali with any acid, can be decompofed by an addition
of the vegetable alkali. ^2o
Both vegetable and mineral alkali appear to be Compofed
compofed of an exceedingly cauftic fait united with a of a cauftic
certain quantity of fixed air: (See Air, n° 10.) This fah and fix-
may be increafed fo far, as to make the vegetable, alkali e air'
afllime a cryftalline form and lofe great part of its al¬
kaline properties ; but as the adhefion of great part of
this air is very flight, it eafily feparates by a gentle
heat. Some part, however, is obftinately retained ;
and the alkali cannot be deprived of it by the moft
violent calcination per fe. The only method of de¬
priving it entirely of its fixed air, is by mixing an al¬
kaline folution with quicklime.
Fixed Alkalies combined with Sulphur. ^2I
The produce of this is the red fetid compound cal- Hepar ful¬
led hepar fulphuris, or liver of fuipur.. It may Be phuris.
made by melting fulphur with a gentle heat, and ftir-
ring into it, while melted, four times its weight of dry
alkaline fait. The whole readily melts and forms a
red mafs of a very fetid finell, and which deliquiates
in the air. If fulphur is boiled in a folution of fixed
alkaline fait, a like combination will'take place.
In this procefs, when the hepar is made either in
the dry or the moift way, the fixed air of the alkali is
difeharged, according to Dr Prieftley’s obfervation.
Neither does a fixed alkali, when combined with fixed
air, feem capable of uniting with fulphur; nor will
the union be accomplifhed without heat, unlefs the al¬
kali is already in a cauftic ftate. Hence a cold folution
of hephar fulphuris may be decompomnded, partly at g22
leaft, by fixed air. On adding an acid, however, the Decompo-
decompofition takes place much more rapidly ; and the fed.-
fulphur is precipitated to the bottom, in form of a
white powder.
During the precipitation of the fulphur from an al¬
kali, by .means of acids, a thick white fmoke arifes, of
a moft fetid fmell, and fuffbeating nature ; this fmoke.
feems to approach more nearly to the nature of pure
phlogifton, than any fubftance that hath been hitherto
obferved. It burns quietly,, without explofion, on a.
candle’s being held in it. Calces of filver, lead, iron,
or bifmuth, are rendered black by it. Hence, if any
thing.
Part II.
Practice
I23
Inflamma¬
ble vapour
in the de-
compofi-
tion of it.
324
Phlogifton
of fulphur
difpofed to
quit the
acid.
325
Metals and
charcoal
diflolved
by it.
326
CHEMISTRY.
thing is wrote with a folution of lead, and a folution
"of hepar fulphuris is paired over it when dry, the
writing, formerly invifible, will immediately appear
of a blackilh brown colour. Silver, in its metallic
ftate, is prodigioully blackened either by the contadt
of this vapour, or by being immerfed in a folution of
the hepar fulphuris itfelf. Litharge is inllantly re-
llored to its metallic ftate, on being immerfed even
in a cold folution of hepar fulphuris.
By being united with an alkali, the acid of fulphur
feems very much difpofed to quit the phlogifton. If a
folution of hepar fulphur is expofed to the air for
feme time, it is fpontaneoufly decompofed ; the phlo¬
gifton of the fulphur flying off, and the acid remaining
united with the alkali into a vitriolated tartar. This
decompofition takes place fo remarkably, when liver
of fulphur is dilfolved in water, that, by a Angle eva¬
poration to drynefs, it will be almoft totally changed
into vitriolated tartar. If this fubftance, in a dry ftate,
be expofed to a moderate degree of heat, and the
mafs kept conftantly ftirring, a like decompofition
will follow; the phlogifton of the fulphur will fly off,
and the acid unite with the alkali.
Liver of fulphur is a great folvent of metallic mat¬
ters ; all of which, except zinc, it attacks, particular¬
ly in fufion. It feems to diffolve gold more effedlu-
aily than other metals; (fee Sedt. III.) This com¬
pound alfo diffolves vegetable coals, even by. the hu¬
mid way ; and thefe folutions, if fuffered to ftand in
the open air, always precipitate a black powder, no
other than the coal they had dilfolved, in proportion
to the quahtity-of hepar fulphuris decompofed. When
vegetable coal is thus diflblved by liver of fulphur in
fufion, it is of a much deeper red than in its natural
ftate. The folution in water is of a green colour.
Fixed Alkalies combined with Exprejfed Oils.
The refult of this combination is foap: for the pre¬
paration of which in large quantities in the way of
trade, fee Soap. The foap which is ufed in medi¬
cine, is prepared without heat, in the following man¬
ner, according to the author of the Chemical Didtio-
nary.
“ One part of quicklime, and two parts of good
“ Spanilh foda” (the fait prepared from the allies of the
herb kali), “ are boiled together during a Ihort time
“ in an iron caldron. This lixivium is to be filtered,
“ and evaporated by heat, till a vial, capable of con-
<c taining an ounce of water, lhall contain an ounce
t( and 216 grains of this lixivium. One part of this
<( lixivium is to be mixed with two parts of oil of
“ olives, or of fweet almonds, in a glafs or ftone-
“ ware veflel. The mixture foon becomes thick and
« white ; and muft be ftirred from time to time with
“ an iron fpatula. The combination is gradually com-
“ pleated, and in feven or eight days a very white
te and firm foap is obtained.”
In attempting combinations of this kind, it is abfo-
lutely neceffary that the alkali be deprived of its fixed
air as much as poffible ; otherwife the foap will be
quite undtuous and foft: for fixed alkalies have a great¬
er attra&ion for fixed air than for oil, and hence foap
is decompounded by blowing fixed air into a folution
of it in water.
Fixed Alkalies combined with Effcntial Oils.
The "Volatility of thefe oils in a great meafure hin¬
ders them from being atfted upon by alkalies: never-
thelefs combinations of this kind have been attemp¬
ted ; and the compounds fo produced have been called
Starkey's foap, from one Starkey a chemift who en¬
deavoured to volatilize fait of tartar by combining it
with oil of turpentine. His method was, to put dry
fait of tartar into a matrafs, and pour upon it effential
oil of turpentine to the height of two or three fingers
breadth. In five or fix months, a part of the alkali
and oil were combined into a white faponaceous com¬
pound. This muft be feparated from the mixture,
and more of it will afterwards be formed by the fame
method.
Chemifts, imagining this foap to be poffeffed of con-
fiderable medical virtues, have endeavoured by various
methods to Ihorten this tedious procefs. Of thefe one
of the moft expeditious is that recommended by Mr
Beaume ; which confifts in triturating, for a long time,
alkaline fait upon a porphyry, and 'adding oil of tur¬
pentine during the trituration. According to him, the
thick refinous part of the oil only can combine with
the fait; and, during the time this combination is ef-
feifted, the more fubtile and attenuated parts will fly
off. Hence he finds, that the operation is confide-
rably abridged by the addition of a little turpentine, or
common (bap. The moft expeditious of all, how¬
ever, is that mentioned by Dr Lewis ; which confifts
in heating the alkali red hot, and then throwing it
into oil of turpentine, ftirring them well together ;
on which they immediately unite into a faponaceous
mafs.
This kind of foap is fubject to great alterations from
keeping; particularly the lofs of its colour, and a kind
of decompofition occafioned by the extradiion of an
acid from the oil of turpentine, which unites with the
alkali, and cryftallizes not only all over the furface, but
in the very fubftance of the foap. The nature of this
fait is unknown, but certainly deferves confideration.
Fixed Alkalies combined with Ehlogiflon.
This combination is effected by calcining them with
the charcoal either of vegetable or animal matters.
The confequence is, that they are greatly altered in
their properties; fometimes fo much, as to be unable
to precipitate calcareous earths from their folutions in
acids. Metallic folutions precipitated by them in this
ftate, afl’ume different colours. (See Seift. III. Iron.)
Differences obferved between Fixed Alkalies obtain¬
ed from different Vegetables.
Thefe differences we muft conceive to arife from
fome proportion of the oily and phlogiftic matter of
the vegetable remaining in the allies from whence the
(alts are extracted; for when reduced to their utmoft
purity, by repeated calcinations in a ftrong fire, and
deliquiations in the air, all of them, the marine alkali
excepted, appear to be the very fame.
On this fubjebt Mr Gmelin has given a great num¬
ber of experiments in the fifth volume of the Com¬
ment aria Petropolitana ; and found very confiderable
differences, not only between the alkaline falts, but
11 D 2 likewife
1867
Practice
327
Starkey's
(bap.
328
Mr Grrte-
lin's experi¬
ments.
i868 CHEMISTRY. PartIL
Practice Hkewife the pure vegetable earths obtained from dif-
  ferent vegetables by burning. (See Seft. II. Vege¬
table Earth.) The falts of the feveral plants exa¬
mined were prepared with great care, and all of
them exadlly in the fame manner ; each vegetable
being burnt in a feparate crucible, with the fame de¬
gree of fire, till no remains of coaly matter could any
longer be perceived ; and the allies elixated in glals
Velfels with cold diltilled water. The falts, thus ob¬
tained, were found to produce different colours, on
mixture with certain liquors; and to effervefce in
very different degrees with acids: certain metallic
folutions were by fome precipitated, by others only
rendered thicker, by others both precipitated and
rendered thick ; whilft fome occafioned neither the
one nor the other of thefe changes, but left the fluid
clear and tranfparent. Thus, with the vitriolic acid,
the falts of fouthernwood and fage ftruck a pale brown
colour; thofe of pine-tops and rue, a yellow; that of
fern, a reddilh yellow ; and that of fanicle, a dark leek-
green : that of dill yielded a leek-green precipitate,
with elegant green flakes floating in the liquor. This
laft fait alfo gave a greenilh precipitate with the ma¬
rine acid, and a red one with the nitrous. Solution of
corrofive fublimate was changed yellow by fait of
fouthernwood; of a brownilh colour, by that of colt’s-
foot; of a deep red, by that of wormwood ; and of a
pitch colour, by that of dill. That of fern threw down
an opal-colour ; of fage, a fulphur-yellow ; of elder
flowers, a citron-yellow ; of fanicle, a faffron-colour ;
and of milfoil a deep-red precipitate. From folution
of filver, fait of carduus benediBus threw down a
white ; of camomile, a grey ; of hyfop, a brownifh ; of
dill, a blackiflt brown; of fcabrous, a yellowiffi; and that
of pine-tree tops, a fulphur-yellow precipitate. Solu¬
tion of vitriol of copper was changed by fait of fou¬
thernwood to a bright fea-green, by that of dill to an
unfightly-green, of agrimony to a greenilh-blue, and
by that of milfoil to a bright fky-blue : the fait of pen¬
ny-royal made the liquor thick as well as blue, and
that of feverfew made it thick and green : the fait of
hyffop threw down a green precipitate, that of fcurvy-
grafs a blue one, and that of fumitory a greenilh-blue;
whilft the fait of fern made fcarcely any change either
in the colour or conliftency of the liquor.
XIII. Of Volatile Alkali.
Whence This is a kind of fait obtained from all animal, fome
obtained, vegetable fubltances, and from foot, by diftillation with
a ftrong heat; and from all vegetable fubftances by pu-
trefadlioiv Though a volatile alkali is procurable from
all putrid animal fubftances by diftillation, yet the pu-
trefa<ftive procefs does not feem to prepare volatile al¬
kali in all of thefe. Putrid urine, indeed, contains a
great quantity of alkali ready formed, whence its ufe in
icouring, ire. but the cafe is not fo with putrid blood
or flefli. Thefe afford no alkali till after the phlegm
has arifen; and this they would do, though they had
not been putrefied.
Volatile alkali, when pure, appears of a fnowy
whitenefs; has a very pungent fmell, without any dif-
agreeable empyreuma; is very eafily evaporable, with¬
out leaving any refiduum; effervefees with acids much
more ftrongly than fixed alkali; and forms with them
neutral compounds called amtmniacalfalls, which we Practice.
have already deferibed, and which are different ac-     
cording to the nature of the acid made ufe of; for all
volatile alkalies, when perfectly purified, appear to be
the very fame, without the fmalleft difference.
Like fixed alkalies, thefe falts contain a great quan¬
tity of fixed air, on which their folidity depends; and
which may be fo increafed as perfectly to neutralize,
and deprive them of their peculiar tafle and fmelh
When neutralized by fixed air, they have a very
agreeable pungent tafte, fomewhat refemfiling that of
weak fermenting liquors. When totally deprived of
fixed air, by means of lime,, they cannot be reduced
to a folid form; but are diflipated in an invifible and
exceedingly pungent vapour, called by Dr Prieftley
alkaline air. When volatile alkaline fait is difiblved
in water, the folution is called a volatile alkalme fpirit.
Diftillation and Purification of Volatile Alkalies.
The materials moft commonly ufed for preparing
volatile alkalies are the folid parts of animals, as bones,
horns, fcjV. Thefe are to be put into an iron pot of
the fliape recommended for folution ; (fee n° 68).
To this muft be fitted a flat head having a hole in the
middle, about two inches diameter. From this a tube
of plate-iron muft iffue, which is to be bent in finch a
manner, that the extremity of it may enter an oil jar,
through an hole made in its upper part, and dip about
half an inch under fome water placed in the lower
part. The mouth of the jar is to. be fitted with a
cover, luted on very exadlly ; and having a fmall hole',
which may be occafionally flopped with a wooden
peg. The jundlures are to be all luted as clofe as pof-
fible, with a mixture of clay, fand, and fome oil; and
thofe which are not expofed to a burning heat, may
be further fecured by quicklime and the white of an
egg, or by means of glue. A fire being now kindled,,
the air contained in the diftilling veffel is firft expel¬
led, which is known by the bubbling of the water;
and to this vent muft be given by pulling out the
wooden peg. A confiderable quantity of phlegm
will then come over, along with fome volatile alkali,
a great quantity of fixable air, and fome oil. The
alkali will unite with the ward-, -and likewife fome
part of the fixed air, the oil fwimming above. A
great many incoercible vapours, however, will come
over, to which vent muft be given from time to time,
by pulling out the peg. The diftillation is to be con¬
tinued tii) all is come over ; which may be known by
the ce'ffation, or very flow bubbling of the water. The
iron-pipe muft then be fepnrated from the cover of
the diftilling veffcl, left the liquid in the jar fhould
return into it, on the air being condenfed by its cool¬
ing. ' In the jar will be a volatile fpirit, more or lefs
ftrong according as there was lefs or more water put
in, with an exceedingly fetid black oil floating upon it.
The re&ification of the volatile alkali is moft com- Rea?|c^,
modioufly performed at once by combining it with an tion.
acid ; and, as fpirit of fait has the leaft affinity with
inflammable matter, it is to be chofen for this pur-
pofe, in preference to the vitriolic, or nitrous. As
the fpirit is exceflively oily, though already much
weakened by the admixture of the water in the jar,
if a very large quantity was not originally put in, an
equal
Part II.
CHEMISTRY.
e 86g
Practice equal quantity* of water may flill be added, on draw-
ing off the Ipirif. That as little may be loft as pof-
fible, the fpirit ftiould be received in a ftone bottle;
and the marine acid, likewife in a diftilled ftate, ad¬
ded by little and little, till the effervefcence ceafes.
The liquor, which is now an impure folution of fal
ammoniac, is to be left for fome time, that the oil
may feparate itfelf; it is then to be filtered, evapo¬
rated, and cryftallized in a leaden veffel. If the cry-
ftals are not fufficiently pure at the firft, they will
eafily become fo on a fecond diftblution.
Volatile fal From fal ammoniac thus obtained pure, the vitriolic
ammoniac, alkali may be extricated by diftillation with chalk, al¬
kaline falls, or quicklime. Alkaline falls aft more
brilkly than chalk, and give a much ftronger volatile
alkali. The ftrength of this, however, we know,
may be altered at pleafure, by adding to, or depriving
it of, its natural quantity of fixed air. Hence, per¬
haps, the beft method would be, to prepare volatile
alkalies altogether in a fluid ftate, by means of quick¬
lime ; and then add fixed air to them, by means of
an apparatus fimilar to that direfted by Dr Prieftley
for impregnating water with fixed air.
222 Volatile Alkalies combined with Metals*
Cuprum There are only three metals, viz. copper, iron, and
ammonia- lead, upon which, while in their metallic form, volatile
cale’ alkalies are capable of afting. Copper-fiiings are dif-
folved by volatile alkali, elpecially in their cauftic ftate,
into a liquor of a moft admirable blue colour. It is
remarkable, that this colour depends entirely upon the
air having accefs to this folution : for if the bottle con¬
taining it is elofe ftopt, the liquor becomes colourlefs;
but, however, refumes its blue colour, on being expo-
fed to the air. On evaporation, a blue faline mafs is
obtained, which, mixed with fats, or other inflammable
matters, tinges their flame green, leaving a red calx of
copper, foluble again in volatile fpirits as at firft. This
faline fubftance has been received into the laft edition
of the Edinburgh Difpenfatory, under the name of
333 cuprum ammoniac ale, as an antiepileptic.
Copper, The blue mixture of folution of copper in aqua for-
fulmina- tis with volatile fpirits, yields fapphire-coloured cry-
Un%' ftals, which diffolve in fpirit of wine, and impart their
colour to it. Ifj.inftead of cryftallization, the liquor
be totally evaporated, the remaining dry matter ex¬
plodes, in a moderate heat, like aurum fulminans.
This is given as a faft by Dr Lewis; but hath not fuc-
ceeded upon trial by Dr Black.
On the other two metals, the aftion of volatile al¬
kali is by no means fo evident : it diflblves iron very
flowly into a liquor, the nature of which is not known;
and lead is corroded by it into a mucilaginous fubftanee.
Volatile Alkalies combined with inflammable Sub-
ftances.
With expreffed oils, the cauftie volatile alkali unites
into a foft unftuous mafs, of a very white colour, im-
perfeftly foluble in water; and which is foon decom-
pofed fpontaneoufly. Compofitions of thisf kind are
frequently ufed for removing pains, and fometimes
with fuccefs. With effential oils, volatile alkalies may
Sal volatile '3e unite^> either in their dry or liquid form, by means
oleofum. of diftillation. The produce is called fal volatile ole-
ofurn ; it is much more frequently ufed in a liquid Practice
than in a dry form. The general method of prepa- 
ration is by diftilling volatile alkali along with effential
oils and Ipirit of wine, or the aromatic fubftances
from whence the effential oils are drawn. Thefe
compolitions are variable at pleafure; but certain forms
are laid down in the difpenlatories, with which it is
expefted that all the chemifts fliould comply in the
preparation of thefe medicines.
Eau de Luce.
33j
This is the name given to an exceedingly volatile Spiritns vo-
fpirit, which fome years ago was pretty much in vogue; Ltilis fucci-
and indeed feems very well calculated to anfwer all natus*
the purpofes for which volatile alkalies can be .ufeful.
It was of a thick white colour, and fmelled fomewhat
of oil of amber. A receipt appeared in Lewis’s dif¬
penfatory for the preparation of this fluid, under the
name of fpiritui volatilis fuccinatus. The method
there direfted, however, did not fucceed; becaufe
though the alkaline fpirit is capable of keeping a fmall
quantity of oil of amber fufpended, the colour is greatly
more dilute than that of genuine eau de luce. In the
Chemical Diftionary we have the following receipt:
“ Take four ounces of reftified fpirit of wine, and in
it diffolve to or 12 grains of white foap ; filter this
folution; then diflblve in it a drachm of reftified oil
of amber, and filter again. Mix as much of this folu-
tipn with the ftrongeft volatile fpirit of fal ammoniac,
as will be fufficient, when thoroughly (hook, to give it
a beautiful milky appearance. If upon its furface be
formed a cream, fome more of the oily fpirit mult be
added.”
This receipt likewife feems infufficient. For the oil
of ainber does not diffolve in Ipirit of wine : neither
is it probable that the fmall quantity of foap made ufe
of could be of any fervice ; for the foap would diffolve
perfeftly in the alkaline fpirit, without fuffering. any
decompdfition. The only method which we have
found to anfwer is the following. Take an ounce, or
any quantity at pleafure, of balfamum Ganadenfe; place
it in a fmall china bafon, in a pan of boiling water, and'
keep it there till a drop of it taken out appears of a
reftnous conftftence when cold. Extraft a tinfture
from this refin with good fpirit of wine ; and having
impregnated your volatile fpirit with oil of amber, la¬
vender, or any other effential oil} drop in as much of
the fpiritous tinfture as will give it the defired colour.
If the volatile fpii it is very ftrong, the eau de luce will
be thick and white, like the cream of new milk; nor is
it fubjeft to turn brown with keeping.
Volatile Tinfture of Sulphur.
This is a combination of the cnuftic volatile alkali,
or fpirit of fal ammoniac, with quicklime. It is ufnally
direfted to be made by grinding lime with the ful-
phur, and afterwards with the fal ammoniac, and di¬
ftilling the whole in a retort; but the produce is by
this method very fmall,.and even the fuccefs uncertain.
A preferable method feems to be, to impregnate the
ftrongeft cauftic volatile fpirit with the vapour which
arifes in the decompolition of hepar fulphuris by means
of an acid, in the fame manner as direfted for impre g¬
nating water with fixed air. See Air, n° 49.
This
1870
P R AC TIC I
336
Sympathe-
CHEMISTRY. Parlil.
This preparation has a mod naufeous fetid fmel],which
fpreads to a confiderable diltance ; and the effluvia will
blacken filver or copper, if barely placed in the neigh¬
bourhood of the unltopped bottle. This property ren¬
ders it capable of forming a curious kind of lyinpathe-
tic ink; for if paper is wrote upon with a folution of
faccharum faturni, the writing, which difappears when
dry, will appear legible, arid of a browntlh black, by
barely holding it near the mouth of the bottle contain¬
ing volatile tin<5ture of fulphur. The vapours of this
tindhire are fo exceedingly penetrating, that it is laid
they will even penetrate through a wall, fo as to make
a writing with faccharum faturni appear legible on the
-other fide; but this is much to be doubted.
XIV. Of the Phenomena refulting from different
mixtures of the Acid, Neutral, and Alkaline Salts,
already treated of.
x. If concentrated oil of vitriol is mixed with ftrong
fpirit of nitre, or fpirit of fait, the weaker acid will
become exceedingly volatile, and emit very elaftic
fumes ; fo that if a mixture of this kind is put into a
clofe ftopt bottle, it will almoft certainly burfl it. The
fame effedl follows upon mixing fpirit of fait and fpi¬
rit of nitre together. In this cafe, both acids become
furprifingly volatile ; and much of the liquor will be
diflipated in fumes, if the mixture is fuffered to ftand
for any confiderable time. Such mixtures ought there¬
fore to be made only at the time they are to be ufed.
2. If vitriolated tartar is diffolved in an equal quan¬
tity of ftrong fpirit of nitre, by heating them together
in a matrafs, the ftronger vitriolic acid will be difpia-
ced by the weaker nitrous one, and the liquor, on
cooling, will Ihoot into cryftals of nitre. The fame
thing happens alfo upon diffolving vitriolated tartar,
or Glauber’s fait, in fpirit of fait. This obfervation
we owe to Monf. Beaume. It feems to ftrike diretftly
againft the commonly received opinion of an etfential
fuperiority of ftrength in the vitriolic acid over the
nitrous and marine acids; and would infinuate that one
acid difplaced another, not according to its quality but
according to its quantity.
3. If vitriolated tartar, ,or Glauber’s fait, is diffolved
in water, and this folution mixed with another con¬
fiding of calcareous earth, filver, mercury, lead, or
tin, diffolved in the nitrous or marine acids, the vitrio¬
lic acid will leave the fixed alkali with which it was
combined, and, uniting with the calcareous earth or
metal, fall with it to the bottom of the veffel. This
decompofition takes place only when the vitriolic acid
meets with fucli bodies as it cannot eafily dilfolve in¬
to a liquid, fuch as thofe we have juft now menti¬
oned : for though vitriolated tartar is mixed with a
folution of iron, copper, ire. in the nitrous or marine
acids, no decompofition takes place. The cafe is not
altered, whatever acid is made ufe of; for the marine
acid will effectually feparate filver, mercury, or lead,
from the vitriolic or nitrous acids. This, as well as
the laft obfervation, ffiews us, that the attractive power
between acids and alkalies or metals, is exceedingly
weakened by water.
4. According to Dr Levris, if a foiution of vitriola¬
ted tartar is dropt into lime-wrater, the acid will unite
w ith the lime., and precipitate with it in an indiffoluble
felenite, the alkali remaining in the water in a pure Pra
and cauftic ftate.
5. If green vitriol is mixed with any folution con¬
taining fnbftances which cannot be diffolved into a li¬
quid by the-vitriolic acid, the vitriol will be immedi¬
ately decompofed, and the liquor will become a folu¬
tion of iron only. Thus, if green vitriol is mixed with
a folution of faccharum faturni, the vitriolic acid im¬
mediately quits the iron for the lead, and falls to the
bottom with the latter, leaving the vegetable acid of
the faccharum faturni to combine with the iron.
6. If folution of tin in aqua regia is mixed with fo¬
lution of faccharum faturni, the marine acid quits the
tin for the lead contained in the faccharum; at the
fame time, the acetous acid, which was combined with
the lead, is unable to diffolve the tin which was be¬
fore kept fufpended by the marine acid. Hence, both
the faccharum faturni, and folution of tin, are very ef¬
fectually decompofed, and the mixture becomes en¬
tirely ufelefs. Dyers and callico-printers ought to at¬
tend to this, who are very apt to mix thefe two folu-
tions together; and no doubt many of the faults of
colours dyed or printed in particular places, arife from
injudicious mixtures of a fimilar kind. See Dyeing.
7. If mild volatile alkali, that is, fuch as remains in
a concrete form, by being united with a large quan¬
tity of fixed air, is poured into a folution of chalk in
the nitrous or marine acids, the earth will be preci¬
pitated, and a true fal ammoniac formed. If the
whole is evaporated to drynefs, and a confiderable
heat applied, the acid will again part with the alkali,
and combine with the chalk. Thus, in the purifica¬
tion of volatile alkalies by means of fpirit of lalt, the
fame quantity of acid may be made to ferve a number
of times. This will not hold in volatile fpirits prepa¬
red with quicklime.
8. If equal parts of fal ammoniac and corrofive fub- Sal ale.:
limate mercury are mixed together and fubiimed, they-brotff,j
unite in fuch a manner as never to be feparable from
one another without decompofition. The compound
is called fal alanbroth; which is faid to be a very pow¬
erful folvent of metallic fubftances, gold itfelf not ex¬
cepted. Its powers in this, or any other refpeift, are i
at prefent but little known. By repeated fublima-
tions, it is faid, this fait becomes entirely fluid, and j
refufes to arife in the ftrongelt heat.
9. If vitriolic acid is poured upon any fait difficult
of folution in water, it becomes then very eafily fo- j
luble. By this means, vitriolated tartar, or cream of
tartar, may be diftblved in a very fmall quantity of
water.
Sect. II. Earths.
The general divifions and characters of thefe fub- ,
ftances we have given, n° 33.; and moft of their com¬
binations with faline fubftances have been already men¬
tioned. In this feCtion, therefore, we have to take
notice only of their various combinations with one
another, with inflammable, or metallic fubftances, ire.
As they do not, however, aCt upon one another till
fubjeCted to a vitrifying heat, the changes then indu¬
ced, upon them come more properly to be treated of
under the article Glass. Upon metallic, and inflam¬
mable fubftances, (fulphw alone excepted), they have
very
Part II. C H E M
Practice very little efFeft ; and therefore, what relates to thcfe
—   combinations ihall be taken notice of in the following
feftions. We fliall here confine ourfelves to lome re¬
markable alterations in the nature of particular earths
by combination with certain fubltances, and to the
phofphoric quality of others.
§ X. Tranfmutation of Flints into an Earth folu-
338 ble in acids.
Solution of This is effedled by mixing powdered flints with
flmt. alkaline fait, and melting the mixture by a ftrong
fire. The melted mafs deliquiates in- the air, like
alkaline falts ; and if the flint is then precipitatedj
it becomes ibluble in acids, which it entirely refilled
before.
In this procefs the alkali, by its union with the flint,
is deprived of its fixed air, and becomes caultic. To
this caufticity its folvent power is owing ; and there¬
fore the flint may be precipitated from the alkali, not
only by acids, but by any fubftance capable of furnifh-
ing fixed air; fuch as magnelia alba, or volatile alkali.
The precipitate in both cafes proves the fame ;' but the
nature of it hath hot hitherto been determined. Some
have conjeiftured that the vitriolic acid exiited in the
flint; in which cafe, the alkali made ufe of in this pro¬
cefs, ought to be partly converted into vitriolated tar¬
tar.
■ _ § 2. Of Phosphoric Earths.
■ 1 339-
.Bolognian Thefe are fo called from their property of fhining
fi°ne. jn tj)e (jar]c -pije celebrated and anciently
known of this kind is that called the Bblognian Jlone,
f»om Bologna, a city in Italy, near which it is found.
The difcovery, according to Lemery, was accidentally
made by a {hoe-maker called Vincenzo Cafeiarokq who
ufed to make chemical experiments. This man, ha¬
ving been induced to think, from the great weight'and
luftre of thefe {tones, that they contained filver, ga¬
thered fbme, and calcined them ; when carrying them
into a dark place, probably by accident, he obferved
them fhining like hot coals.
Mr Margraaff defcribes the Bolognian {tone to be
an heavy, loft, friable, and cryftallized fubitance, in¬
capable of efFervefcence with acids before calcination
in contact with burning fuel. Thefe properties Teem
to indicate this {tone to be of a felenitic or gypfeous
ff 343 nature.
How ren. When thele {tones are to be rendered phofphoric,
fm'red iU~ ^UC*1 t*iem ollght to be chofen as are the cleane/t,
BBimoub. cryftallized, moft friable and heavy ; which ex¬
foliate when broken, and which contain no heteroge¬
neous parts. They are to be made red hot in a cru¬
cible ; and reduced to a very fine powder in a glafs-
mortar, or upon a porphyry. Being thus reduced to
powder, they are to be formed into a pafte with mu¬
cilage of gum tragacanth, and divided into thin cakesV
Thefe are to be dried with a heat which at lalt is to
be made pretty confiderable. An ordinary reverbe¬
rating furnace is to be filled to.three quarters of its
height with charcoal, and the fire is to be kindled.
Upon this charcoal, the flat furfaces of the cakes are
to reft, and more charcoal to be placed above them,
fo as to fill the furnace. The furnate is then to be
covered with its dome, the tube of which is to remain
I S T R Y. ,871
open ; all the coal is to be confumed, and the furnace Practice
is to be left cool; the cakes are then to be cleaqfed 
from the alhes by blowing with bellows upon them..
When they have been expoied during feme minutes,
to light, and afterwards carried to a dark place, they
will feem to lliine like hot coals ; particularly if the
perfon obferving them has been fometime in the dark,
or have flint his eyes, that the pupils may be fufficient-
ly expanded. After this calcination through the coals,
if the {tones be expofed to a ftronger calcination, du¬
ring a full half hour, under a muffle, their pholphoric
quality will he rendered ftronger.
From attending to the qualities of this ftone, and Analyfis oF
the requifites for making this phofphorus, we are na- the phof-
turally led to think, that the Bolognian phofphorus is pkorus..
no other than a compofition of fulphur and quicklime.
The ftone it (elf, in its natural (late, evidently contains
vitriolic acid, from its not effervefeing with acids of
any kind. This acid cannot be expelled from earthy
fubftances by almoft any degree of fire, unlefs inflam¬
mable matter is admitted to it. In this cafe, part of
the acid becomes fnlphureous, and flies otf; while part
is converted into ftilphnr, and combines with the earth.
In the above mentioned proeefs, the inflammable mat¬
ter is furniflied by the coals in contact with which the
cakes are calcined, and by the mucilage of gum tra¬
gacanth with which the cakes are made up. A true
lulphur mnft therefore be formed by the union of this
inflamrtiable matter with the vitriolic acid contained
in the {tone; and part of this lulphur muft remain:
united to the earth left in a calcareous ftate, by
the diflipation, or convtrfion into fulphur, of its '
arid. 342,
In the year 1730, a memoir was pubiifhed by Mr All calcare*-
du Fay, wherein he aflerts, that all calcareous ftoues, ous ftones-
whether they contain vitriolic arid or nor, are capa- phofphoric,.
ble of becoming luminous by calcination; with This
difference only, that therpure calcareous {tones require fay.F U
a ftronger, or more frequently repeated, calcination
to convert them into phofphorus; whereas thofe which
contain an acid, as felenites, gypfum, {pars, &c. be¬
come phofphoric by a {lighter calcination. On the
contrary, Mr Margraaff afferts, that no other ftones
can be rendered phofphoric but, thofe which are fa tit¬
rated with an acid ; that purely'calcareous {tones, fuch
as marble, chalk, limeftonC, ftalariitc-s, &-c\ cannot be
rendered luminous, rili faturated with an acid, previ-
oufly to their calcination..
We have already taken notice, n° 193, 2.35, that the
compounds formed by uniting calcareous earths with
the nitrous and marine acids become a kind cf phofpbo-
ri; die former of which emits light in the dark, after
having been expofed to the fun through the day ; and „
the latter becomes luminous by being {truck. Signior signior
Beccaria found, that this phofphoric quality was ca- Eeccaria’s
pable of being given to almoft all fubftances in nature, obfervatr-
metals perhaps excepted. He found that this quality on•
was widely difiufed among animals, and that even his
own hand and arm poflefTed it in a very confidern ble
degree. In the year x 775, a treatife on this kind of
phofphori was pubiifhed by B. Wilfon, P. R. S. and MrWii-
member of the Royal Academy at Upfal. in this trea- Ton’s exFe-
tife he fliews, that oyfter-fhells, by calcination, ac- ‘‘meats,
quire the phofphoric quality in a very great degree, -
either
1872 C H E M I
Practice either when combined with the nitrous acid, or with-
out it.
The fir ft experiment made by our author was the
pouring fome aqua fortis, previoufly impregnated with
copper, on a quantity of calcined oyfter-ihells, fo as
to form them into a kind of pafte ; he put this pafte
into a crucible, which was kept in a pretty hot fire for
about 40 minutes. Having taken out the mafs, and
waited till it was cool, he prefented it to the external
light. On bringing it back fuddenly into the dark, he
was furprifed with the appearance of a variety of co¬
lours like thole of the rainbow, but much more vivid.
In confequence of this appearance of the prifmatic
colours; he repeated the experiment in various ways,
combining the calcined oyfter-lhells with different me¬
tals and metallic folutions, with the different acids, al-
kaline and neutral falts, as well as with fulphur, charr
coal, and other inflammable fubftances ; anti by all of
thefe he produced phofphori, which emitted varioufly
345 coloured light.
Surprifmg What is more remarkable, he found that oyfter-
phofphoric f]lens poffeffed the phofphoric quality in a fuvpriung
oyfter- ° fiegree '> and for this purpofe nothing more was rtqui-
ihells. fite than putting them into a good lea-coal fire, and
keeping them there for fome time. On fcaling off
the internal yellowilh furface of each ikell, they be¬
come excellent phofphori, and exhibit the molt vivid
and beautiful colours. As we know that neither the
vitriolic nor any other acid is contained in oyfter-
fliells, we cannot as yet fay any thing fatisfafftory con¬
cerning the nature of this phol'phorus.
^ § 3. Of tfie Vegetable Earth.
Dr Lewis’s This is produced from vegetables by burning; and,
■opinion. when perfectly pure, by lixiviating the alhes with wa-'
ter, to extract the fait; and then repeatedly calcining
them, to burn out all the inflammable matter; and is
perhaps the fame, from whatever lubftance it was ob¬
tained : in this ftate, according to Dr Lewis, it is of
the fame nature with magnefa. In the ftate, how¬
ever, in which this earth is procurable by limply burn¬
ing the plant, and lixiviating the allies, it is confide-
347 rably different, according to the different plants from
Mr Gme- which it is obtained. The alhes of mugwort, fmall
bn’s expe- centaury, chervil, and dill, are of a brownilh grey ;
Timents. goat’s-beard and lungwort afford white alhes ; thole of
ianicle are whitilh ; rhofe of Roman wormwood of a
greenilh grey ; thofe of rue, agrimony, faxifrage,
brown ; thofe of tanfey, of a dulky green ; thofe of
dodder, of a fine green ; eyebright, fouthern-wood,
common wormwood, and fcabious, afford them grey;
Icurvy-grafs, of a whitilh grey ; hyffop, yarrow, and
fowbane, of a dulky grey ; melilot, and oak-leaves,
as alfo plantain, colts-foot, pine-tops, and fumitory,
of a dulky brown ; penny-royal, of a pale brown,
with fome fpots of white ; elder-flowers, fage, and
mother of thyme, afford yellow alhes; thole of ftraw-
berry-leaves are of a pale brimftone colour ; thofe of
cat-mint, of a dulky red ; of prunella, brick-coloured;
of honey-fuckle, blue ; of fern, blackilli; and thofe of
St John’s-worr, feverfew, origanum, and pimpernel,
are all of a deep black. The only ufe to which this
kind of earth has yet been put, is that of glafs-making
and manure. {See Glass, and Agriculture.)
S T R Y. Part II.
Practice
Sect. III. Of Metallic Subfiances. '
I. Gold.
This metal is reckoned of all others the moft per-
fedl and indeftruftible. When in its greateit purity,
it has very little elafticity, is not fonorous, its colour
is yellow, it is exceedingly foft and flexible, and is
more dudlile than any other metal whatever. (See
Gold Leaf, and Wire-Drawing.) Of all bo- specific
dies it is the moft ponderous ; its gravity being to gravity,
that of water, according to Dr Lewis, as 19,280, or
19,290, to 1. For its fufion it requires a low de¬
gree of white heat, fome what greater than that in
which filver melts. WhUft fluid, it appears of a
bluilh green colour ; when cold, its furface looks
fmooth, bright, and confiderably concave ; it feems
to expand more in the aft of fufion, and to Ihrink
more in its return to folidity, than any of the other
metals; whence the greater concavity of its furface.
Before fufion it expands the leaft.of all metals, except
iron. By hidden cooling it becomes, as well as other
metals, brittle; which effect has been erroneoufly at¬
tributed to the contaft of fuel during fufion.
Gold amalgamates very readily with mercury, and
mingles in fulion with all the metals. It is remarka¬
bly difpofed to unite with iron ; of which it diffolves
many times its own weight, in a heat not much greater
than that in which gold itfelf melts; the mixture is of
a filver colour, very brittle, and hard. All the me¬
tals, except copper, debafe the colour of gold ; and, if
their quantity is nearly equal to that of the gold, alinoft
entirely conceal it. AH but copper and filver deftroy
its malleability ; but none fo remarkably as tin and
lead:, a moft minute portion, even the vapour, of
thqfe metals, renders gold extremely brittle; though
a fmall proportion of gold forms with them compounds
fufficiently duftile ; more fo than either the lead or
tin by tbemfelves. When gold is ftruck during a cer¬
tain time by a hammer, or when violently compref-
fed, as by the wire-drawers, it becomes more hard,
elallic, and lefs duftile ; fo that it is apt to be cracked
and torn. Its cfhftility is, however, reftored by the
lame means ufed with other metals, namely, heating
it red hot, and letting it cool.flowjy. This is called
annealing metals; and gold feems to be more affefted
by this operation than any other metal. The tenacity Surprifing
of the parts of gold is alfo very furprifing; for a wire tenacity of
of 7V of an inch in diameter will fupport a weight its parts,
of 500 pounds. - 35D
Gold is unalterable by air, or water. It never con- Not liable
trails reft like other metals. The aftion of the fier- to ruft.
ceft furnace-fires occafions no alteration in it. Kunc-
kel kept gold in a glafs-houfe furnace for a month,
and Boyle kept lome expofed to a great heat for a
ftill longer time, without the lofs of a Angle grain.
It is faid, however, to be diffipable in the locus of a
large burning mirror. 35!
Mr Boyle relates a very curious and extraordinary Mr Boyle’s
experiment, which he thought was fufficient to prove expen-
the total deftruftihility of gold. About an eighth part
of a grain of powder, communicated by a ftranger, tlbij;ty 0f,
was projefted upon two drachms of fine gold in fu¬
fion, and the matter kept melted for a quarter of an
hour.
Part II. C H E M
Practice hour. During the fufion, the matter looked like or-
dinary gold; except only once, that his afiiflant ob-
itrvcd it to look exadlly of the colour of opal. When
cold, it was of a dirty colour, and, as it were, over-
calt with a thin coat, almoft like haif-vitrihed litharge:
the bottom of the crucible was overlaid with a vitri¬
fied fubitance, partly yellow, and partly reddiih brown ;
with a tew fmall globules, more like impure lilver than
gold. The metal was brittle, internally like brafs, or
bell-metal; on the touchftone more like filyer than
gold : its Ipecific gravity was to that of water only
as 1to i. There was no ablbltite lofs of weight.
By cupellation, 60 grains of this mafs yielded 53 grains
of pure gold ; with feven grains of a ponderous, fixed,
352 dark-coloured fubitance.
Solution in We have already mentioned, that in certain cir-
a<jua regia, cumftances gold is loluble in the nitrous and marine
acids feparately. It is, however, always foluble by
the two united, but diffolves (lowly even then.
The molt commodious method of obtaining this folu-
tion is, by putting the gold, either in leaves, or gra¬
nulated, or cut into fmall thin pieces, into a proper
quantity of aqua fortis; then adding, by degrees, feme
powdered fal ammoniac, till the whole of the gold is
dilfolved. By this means a much fmaller quantity of
the menltruum proves fufficient, thaaif the fal ammo¬
niac was previoully dillblved in the aqua fortis ; the
conflict, which each addition of the fait raifes with the
acid, greatly promoting the diflbhuion. Aqua fortis
of moderate Itrength will, in this way, take up about
one-third of its weight of gold ; whereas an aqua re-
gis, ready prepared from the fame aqua fortis, will
not take up above,one-fifth its weight. Common fait
anfwers better for the preparation of the aqua regis,
353 than fal ammoniac.
Properties This folution, like all other metallic ones, is corro-
of thefolu- five. It gives a violet colour to the fingers, or to any
tlon’ animal matters. If the folution is evaporated and
cooled, yellow tranfparent cryftals will be formed :
but, if the evaporation is carried too far, the acids
with which the gold is combined may be driven from
it, by heat alone ; and the gold will be left in the
354 Bate of a yellow powder, called calx of geld.
Gold pre- Gold may be precipitated from its folution by thole
fromk^ fubflances which commonly precipitate metals, Inch
as alkaline falts, and calcareous earths. It may alfo
be precipitated in a fine purple powder, by tin, or its
folution.
When fixed alkalies are made ufe of, the precipi¬
tate weighs about one-fourth more than the gold em¬
ployed. With volatile alkalies allb, if they are added
in no greater proportion than is fufficient to faturate
the acid, the quantity of precipitate proves nearly the
fame : but if volatile fpirit is added in an over-pro¬
portion, it re-diflblvcs part of the gold which it had
before precipitated, and the liquor becomes again con-
fiderably yellow. The whole of the precipitate, how¬
ever, could not be re-diffolved, either by the mild or
canllic alkali ; nor did cither of thefe fpirits lenfibly
dilfolve, or extraft any tinge from precipitates of
gold which had been thoroughly edulcorated with
boiling water.
All the metallic bodies which diflolve in aqua r.egia,
precipitate gold from it. Mercury and copper throw
Vot. III.
I S T R Y. ' 1873
down the gold in its bright metalline form ; the Practice
others, in that of a calx or powder, which has no me-    
tallic afpecl. Vitriol of iron, though it precipitates Separated
gold, yet has no effed upon any other metal; hence from other
it affords an ealy method of leparating gold from all metals by
.other metals. The precipitation with tin fucceeds ' itriol of
certainly, only when the metal in fubitance is ufed, lron*
and the folution of gokl largely diluted with water.
It is obfervable, that though the gold is precipitated
from the diluted folution by tin, yet, if the wiiole.is
fuffered to Band till the water has in a great mealure
exhaled, the gold is taken up afrelh, and only a white
calx of tin remains. 6
If gold is precipitated from its folution in aqua re- Aur'um ful-
gia, by a volatile alkali, the precipitate will explode miiians.
with a prodigious force and noife if too Brongly heat¬
ed. This preparation is called aurum fulniinans. The
reafon of this explofion probably is, the Bidden ex-
panfion of the fixed air contained in the calx, occa-
fioned by the deflagration of a fmall quantity of ni¬
trous ammoniaeal ii.lt produced during the precipita¬
tion.
The explofion of aurum fulminans is one of the moB
violent known in chemiBry. The report is preceded
by a flalh, vifible in the dark ; and, during the ex-
plofion, the gold is revived into little granules, which
may be caught by a proper apparatus. It is not ne-
celfary that fulminating gold Ihould be touched by an
ignited body, or made red hot, in order to make it
explode. The hear, requifite for this purpofe, is in¬
termediate between that of boiling water and the heat
which makes metals of an obfeure red colour. If a
little of it is laid upon a fmooth piece of metal, and
then heated fo .as to explode, the vehement qnicknefs
and Brength-of the explolion will make a fmali hollow
in the metal. From this it has been thought that ful¬
minating gold directed its force only, or chiefly, down¬
wards. This, however, feems not to be the cafe ; - _
but rather, that it acts equally in all diredlions. Fric- Explodes
tion, Itkewife, and even a friction that is not very con- by friction,
liderable, is fufficient to make this fubfiance explode.;
and thefe circumBances render fulminating gold very
dangerous. The author of the Chemical Dictionary re¬
lates the following accident, to which he fays he was
witnefs : “ A young man who worked in a labora¬
tory, hadiput a drachm of fulminating gold into a boitlq,
and had neglected to wipe the inner liirface of the
neck of the bottle, to which fome of the powder ad¬
hered. When he endeavoured to clofe tfie bottle,
the turning of the jrlafs Bopper round, in order to
make it fit more clofely, occalioned Inch a friCtion,
that heat enough was produced to make part of the
powder explode. By this exlpolion the young man
was thrown fome Heps behind, his face and hands
were wounded by the fragments of the bottle, and his
eyes were put out. Notwithflanding this violent ex-
plofion, the whole drachm of fulminating gold certainly
was not exploded ; for much of it was afterwards j-)e
found fcattered about the laboratory.” Of this mif- 0f us'fu!-
chievous quality the gold may ealily be deprived, by ndnating
boiling it in oil of vitriol, or mixing it with fulphur, property,
and burning away the fulpbur. 359
If gold is melted with an hepar lulphuris, compofed of
of equal parts of fulphur and fixed alkaline fait, the parfulpbu-
11 E metal ris.
1874 C H E M I
Practice metal readily unites with it into an uniform mafs, ca-
— pable of diflblution in water without any feparation
of its parts. The folution, befides a naufeous tafte
from the fulphur, has a peculiar penetrating bitter-
nefs, not difcoverable in any other metalline folution
made by the fame means.
Though the compofitions of fulphur and alkali feem
to unite more intimately with gold than any other
metal, their affinity with it is but flight; copper, or
iron, added to the matter in fufion, difunite, and pre¬
cipitate the gold. The metal thus recovered, and
purified by the common proceflTes, proves remarkably
paler-coloured than at firft. In an experiment rela¬
ted by Dr Brandt, in the Swedilh Memoirs, the puri¬
fied gold turned out nearly as pale as filver, without
360 any diminution of weight.
Medicinal Gold has been thought to be poffefTed of many, ex-
virtues of traordinary virtues as a medicine ; which, however,
“ * are long ago determined to be only imaginary. It is
not indeed very eafy to prepare this metal in fuch a
manner that it can be fafely taken into the human bo¬
dy. The folution in aqua regia is poifonous; but if
any eflential oil is poured on this folution, the gold
will be feparated from the acid, and united to the ef-
fential oil, with which, however, it contradls no laft-
361 ing union, but in a few hours feparates in bright
Etherialfo- yellow phlegm to the fides of the glafs. Vitriolic ether
lution. diflblves the gold more readily and perfectly than the
common effential oils; and keeps it permanently fu-
fpended, the acid liquor underneath appearing colour-
lefs. The yellow ethereal folution poured off, and
kept for fome time in a glafs ftopt with a cork, fo that
the fpirit may flowly exhale, yields long, tranfparent,
prifmatic cryftals, in lliape like thofe of nitre, and yel¬
low like topaz. What the nature of thefe cryftals is,
either as to medicinal effedts, or other purpofes, is
as yet unknown.
Redtified fpirit of wine mingles uniformly with the
folution of gold made in acids; if the mixture is fnffer-
ed to (land, for fome days, in a glafs flightly covered,
the gold is by degrees revived, and arifes in bright
pellicles to the furface. Grofler inflammable matters,
wine, vinegar, folutions of tartar, throw down the
gold, in its metalline form, to the bottom. Gold is
the only metal which is thus feparable from its folution
in acids by thefe fubftances; and hence gold may be
purified by thefe means from all admixtures, and fmall
-'62 proportions of it in liquors readily difcovered.
Odour of When the colour of gold is by any means rendered
gold refto- pale, it may be recovered again by melting it with
red. copper, and afterwards feparating the copper; or by
a mixture of verdigreafe and fal ammoniac with vitriol
or nitre.- The colour is alfo improved by fufion with
nitre, injeffing fal ammoniac upon it in the fufion,
quenching it in urine, or boiling it in a folution of alum.
When borax is ufed as a flux, it is cuftomary to add a
little nitre or fal ammoniac, to prevent its being made
pale by the borax. Juncker reports, that by melt-
ing gold with four times its weight of copper, fepara¬
ting the copper by aqua fortis unpurified, then melting
the gold with the fame quantity of frefh copper, and
repeating this procefs eight or nine times, the gold
becomes at length of a deep red colour, which fuftains
the action of lead, antimony, and aqua fortis.
S T II Y. Part IT.
This, next to gold, is the moft perfetft, fixed, and
dudlile of all the metals. Its fpecific gravity is to that 363
of water nearly as it to 1. A fingle grain has been Dnttifity
drawn into a wire three yards long, and flatted into a of filver.
plate an inch broad. In common fires it fuffers no di¬
minution of its weight; and, kept in the vehement
heat of a glafs-houfe for a month, it lofes no more than
one fixty-fourth. In the focus of a large burning-
glafs, it fmokes for a long while, then contracts a
greyifh afli on the furface, and at length is totally dif-
lipated.
Silver is fomewhat harder and more fonorous than
gold, and is fufible with a lefs degree of heat. The
tenacity of its parts alfo is nearly one half lefs than
that of gold ; a filver wire of T‘b of an inch diameter
being unable to bear more than 270 pounds.
Mercury unites very readily with filver-leaf, or
with the calx of filver precipitated by copper; but
does not touch the calces precipitated by alkaline falts. 364
The vapours of fulphureaus folutions ftain filver yel- Effefts of
low or black. Sulphur, melted with filver, debafes fulphur on.
its colour to a leaden hue, renders it more eafily fu¬
fible than before, and makes it flow fo thin as to be
apt in a little time to penetrate the crucible : in a
heat juft below fufion, a part of the filver ftioots up,
all over the furface, into capillary efflorefcences. A-
qua fortis does not adl upon filver in this compound ;
but fixed alkaline falts will abforb the fulphur, and
form a hepar fulphuris,' which, however, is capable of
again diflblving the metal. If the fulphurated filver is
mixed with mercury fublimate, and expofed to the fire,
the mercury of the fublimate will unite with the ful¬
phur, and carry it up in the form of cinnabar, whilft the
marine acid of the iublimate unites with the filver, in¬
to a luna cornea, (fee n° 239), which remains at the
bottom of the glafs. Fire alone is fufficient, if conti¬
nued for fbme time, to expel the fulphur from filver. 3^^
From the bafer metals, filver is purified by cupella- Purificatt-
tion with lead. (See Refining.) It always retains, on.
however, after that operation, fome fmall portion of
copper, fufficient to give a blue colour to volatile fpi-
rits, which has been crroneoufly thought to proceed
from the filver itfelf. It is purified from this admix¬
ture by melting it twice or thrice with nitre and bo¬
rax. The fcoria, on the firft fufion, are commonly
blue; on the fecond, green ; and on the third, white,
which is a mark of the purification being compleated. 3661
The moft effectual means, however, of purify- Luna cor¬
ing filver, is by reviving it from luna cornea ; be- nearedu-
eaufe fpirit of fait will not precipitate copper as it ce *
does filver. The filver may be recovered from lu¬
na cornea, by fufion with alkaline and inflammable
fluxes; but, in thefe operations, fome lofs is always
occafioned by the diffipation of part of the volatile
calx, before the alkali or metal can abforb its acid. 367
Mr Margraaff has difcovered a method of recovering Mr Mar-
the filver with little or no lofs ; mercury affifled by graaff'sme-
volatile falts, imbibing it by trituration without heat, t10<1•
One part of luna comea, and two of volatile fait, are-
to be ground together in a glafs-mortar, with fo much
water as will reduce them to the confiftence of a thin
pafte, for a quarter of an hour or more ; five parts of
pure
Part II.
Practice
368
Attraction
for lead.
externally.
C H E M
pure quickfilver are then to be added, with a little
more water, and the triture to be continued for fome
hours. A fine amalgam will thus be obtained ; which
is to be wailied with frefh parcels of warer, as long
as any white powder feparates. Nearly the whole
of the lilver is contained in the amalgam, and may be
obtained perfectly pure by diltilling off the mercury.
The white powder holds a fmall proportion feparable
by gentle fublimation ; the matter which fublimes is
nearly fimilar to mercurius dulcis.
The colour of lilver is debafed by all the metals,
and its malleability greatly injured by all but gold and
copper. The Englilh ftandard-filver contains one part
of copper, to twelve and one-third of pure lilver.
This metal difcovers in fome circumftances a great at¬
traction for lead; though it does not retain any of that
metal in cupellation. If a mixture of lilver and cop¬
per be melted with lead in certain proportions, and
the compound afterwards expofed to a moderate fire,
the lead and filver will melt out together, bringing ve¬
ry little of the copper with them; by this means lil¬
ver is often feparated from copper in large works.
The effeCi does not wholly depend upon the different
fulibility of the metals; for if tin, which is Ifill more
fufible than lead, be treated in the fame manner with
a mixture of filver and copper, the three ingredients
are found to attraCl one another lb ftrongly as to come
all into fufion together. Again,, if ftiver be melted
Math iron, and lead added to the mixture, the filver
will forfake the iron to unite with the lead, and the
iron will float by itfelf on the furface.
Silver is purified and whitened externally by boiling
in a folution of tartar and common fait. This is no
other than an extraction of the cupreous particles from
the furface of the lilver, by the acid of the tartar a-
cuated by the common fait.
3. Copper.
This is one of thofe metals, which, from their de-
ftruClibility by fire, and contracting ruft in the air,
are called hnperfefi. Of thefe, however, it is the
molt perfeCt and indeftruCtible. It is of a reddifli co¬
lour when pure ; eafily tarnifties in a moift air, and
contracts a green ruff. It is the molt fonorous of
g70 all the metals, and the hardeft and moll elaftic
Always fof. of all but iron. In fome of its flates, copper is as
ter than difficultly extended under the hammer as iron, but al-
iron' ways proves fofter to the file ; and is never found
hard enough to ftrike a fpark with flint or other ftones;
whence its ufe for chiffels, hammers, hoops, ire. in
the gunpowder works. .When broke by often bend¬
ing backwards and forwards, it appears internally of
a dull red colour without any brightnefs, and of a line
granulated texture, refembling fome kinds of earthen
ware. It is confiderably duCtile, though lefs fo than
either gold or filver; and may be drawn into wire as
fine as hair, or beaten into leaves almofl as thin as
thofe of filver. The tenacity of its parts is very con-,
fiderable ; for a copper wire of T\ of an inch dia¬
meter will fupport a weight of 299 pounds without
breaking. The fpecific gravity of this metal, accor¬
ding to Dr Lewis, is to that of water as 8.830 to 1.
Copper continues malleable when heated red ; in
which refpeCi it agrees with iron; but is not, like iron,
I S T R Y. 1875
capable of being welded, or having two pieces joined Pr acttc e
into one. It requires for its fufion a flronger heat
then either gold or filver, though lefs than that requi-
fite to melt iron. JVhen in fufion, it is remarkably
impatient of moiiture; the contaCl of a little water oc-
calioning the melted copper to be thrown about with 371
violence, to the great danger of the by-ltanders. It How gra"
is, neverthelefs, laid to be granulated in the brafs- nu ate '
works at Briflol, without explofion or danger, by let¬
ting it fall in little drops, into a large ciftern of cold
water covered with a brafs-plate. In the middle of
the plate is an aperture, in which is fecured with
Sturbridge clay a fmall veflel, whole capacity is not
above a fpoonful, perforated with a number of minute
holes, through which the melted copper paff'es. A
flream of cold water paffes through the ciftern. If
fuffered to grow hot, the copper falls liquid to the bot¬
tom, and runs into plates. 372
Copper, in fufion, appears of a bluifh green colour, Calcined,
nearly like that of melted gold. Kept in fufion for a
long time, it becomes gradually more and more brittle;
but does not fcorify confiderably, nor lofe much of its
weight. It is much lefs deftrubtible than any of the
imperfedi metals, being very difficultly fubdued even
by lead or bifmuth. If kept in a heat below fufion,
it contradls on the furface thin powdery feales; which,
being rubbed off,’ are fucceeded by others, till the
whole quantity of the metal is thus changed into a fco-
ria or calx, of a dark reddifli colour. This calx does
not melt in the ft rouged furnace fires; but, in the fo¬
cus of a large burning mirror, runs eafily into a deep
red, and aimoll opaque, glafs. A flaming fire, and
ftrong draught of air over the furface of the metal,
greatly promote its calcination. The flame being tinged
of a green, bluifh, or rainbow colour, is a mark that
the copper burns. 373
This metal is very readily foluble by almoft all fa- Solubility,
line fubftances; even common water, fuffered to ftand
long in copper-veflels, extracts fo much as to gain a
coppery tafle. It is obfervable, that water is much
more impregnated with this tafte, on being fiiffered
to ftand in the cold, than if boiled for a longer time
in the veffel. The fame tiling happens in regard to
the mild vegetable acids. The confectioners prepare
the mofl acid fyrups, even thofe of lemons and oranges,
by boiling in clean copper-veflels, without the prepara¬
tions receiving any ill tafte from the metal; whereas,
either the juices themfelves, or the fyrups made from
them, if kept cold in copper-veffels, loon become im¬
pregnated with a difagreeable tafte, and with the per¬
nicious qualities of the copper. 374.
By combination with vegetable acids, copper be- Altered by
comes in fome refpects remarkably altered. Verdi- combina-
greafe, which is a combination of copper with a kind
of acetous or tartarous acid, is partially foluble in ac;jSi‘
diftilled vinegar; the refidunm, on being melted with
borax and lintfeed oil, yields a brittle metallic fub-
fiance, of a whitifh colour,- not unlike bell-metal. The
copper alfo, when revived from the diftilled verdi-
greafe, was found by Dr Lewis to be different from
the metal before diffolution ; but neither of thefe
changes have yet been fufficiently examined. 375
Copper, in its metallic ftate, is very difficultly a--
amalgamated with mercury; but unites with it more.ea- v ;tj‘ nier.
11 D 2 ftly cmy.
1876 C H E M
Practice fily if divided by certain admixtures. If mercury and
verdigreafe be triturated, together with common fait,
vinegar, and water, the copper in the verdigreafe will
be imbibed by the mercury, and form with it, as Boyle
obferves, a curious amalgam, at firft fo fol't as to re¬
ceive any impreffion, and which, oh Handing^ be¬
comes hard like brittle metals. _ Brafs-leaf likewife
gives out its copper to mercury, the other ingredient
376 of the brafs feparating in the form of powder.
Dr Lewis’s Eafier methods of amalgamating copper are publifh-
method. e(j Qr Lewis in his notes on Wiifon’s chemiftry,
p. 432. His receipts are,—“ Diffolve fome line cop¬
per in aqua fortis: when the menltrunm will take up
no more of the metal, pour it into an iron mortar,
and add fix times the weight of the copper, of mer¬
cury, and a little common fait: grind the whole well
together with an iron peltle; and, in a little time,
the copper will be imbibed by the mercury, and an
amalgam a formed, which may be rendered bright by
walhing it well with repeated, affofions of water.
Another ?nethod. Take the muddy lubftance which is
procured in the polilhing of copper plates with a pu¬
mice Hone, and grind it well with a fuitable portion
of mercury, a little common fait, and fome vinegar,
in an iron mortar, (a marble one will do, if you make
ufe of an iron pedle,) till you perceive the mercury
has taken up the copper.” The copper recovered
from thefe amalgams retains it original colour, with¬
out any tendency to yellow. Even when brafs is
made ufe of for making the afnalgam, the recovered
metal is perfeiit red copper; the ingredient from
which the brafs received its yellownels being, as a-
3?7 bove obfcrved, feparated in the amalgamation.
Brafs, how Copper is the bafis of feveral metals for mechanic
prepared, ufes; as brafs, prince’s metal, bell-metal, bath-metal,
white copper, ire. Brafs is prepared from copper
and calamine, with the addition of powdered char¬
coal, cemented together, and at lad brought into fu-
lion. The calamine is to be previoufly prepared by
clean ting it from adhering earth, Hone, or other mat¬
ters ; by roading, or calcining it; and by grinding it
into a fine powder. The length of time, and degree’
of heat, requifite for the calcination of the calamine,
are different according to the qualities of that mineral.
The calamine, thus calcined, cleanfed, and ground, is
to be mixed with about a third or fourth part of char¬
coal dud, or powdered pit-coal, as is done inibme
parts of England. The malleability of the bads is di-
minilhed by the ufe of pit-coal, which is therefore
only employed for the preparation of the coarfer
kinds. To this compofition of calamine and coal,
fome manufacturers add common fait, by which the
procefs of making brafs is faid to be hadened. In
Collar, where the cachnia adhering to the infides of
the furnaces is ufed indead of the native calamine, a
finall quantity'of alum is added, by which they pre¬
tend the colour of the brafs is heightened. With this
compolition, and with thin plates or grains of copper,
the crucibles are to be nearly filled. The proportion
of the calamine to the copper varies according to the
richnefsof the former, but is generally as three to two.
The copper mud be difperfed through the compolition of
calamine and coal; and the whol? mult be covered with
more coal, till tire crucibles are full. The crucibles.
I S T R Y. Part II.
thus filled, are to be placed in a furnace funk in the Practice
ground, the form of which is that of the frudum of a
hollow cone. At the bottom of the furnace, or grea¬
ter bafis of the ffudum, is a circular grate, or iron-
plate. This plate is covered with a coat of clay and
horfe-dung, to defend it from the aftion of the fire;
and pierced with holes, through which the air main¬
taining the fire pad'es. The crucibles dand upon the
the circular plate, forming a circular row, with one in
the middle. The fuel is placed betwixt the crucibles,
and is thrown into the furnace at the upper part of it,
or the lefl’er balls of the frudum. To this upper part
or mouth of the furnace is fitted a cover made of
bricks or clay, kept together with bars of iron, and
pierced with holes. This cover ferves as a regider.
When the heat is to be increafed, the cover mud be
partly or entirely taken olf, and a free draught is
permitted to the external air, which palfes along a
vault under-ground to the afli-hole, through the holes,
in the circular grate or plate, betwixt the crucibles,
and through the upper mouth, along with the fmoke
and flame, into an area where the workmen Hand,
which is covered with a large dome or chimney,
through which the fmoke and air afeend. When the
heat is to be climinifhedj the mouth of the furnace
is doled with the lid ; through the holes of which the
air, fmoke, and flame pais. The crucibles are to be
kept red-hot during eight or ten hours; and in fome
places much longer, even, leveral days, according to
the nature of the calamine. During this time, the
zinc rifes in vapour from the calamine, unites with
the copper, and renders that metal conliderably more
fulible than it is by itielf. To render the metal very
fluid, that it may flow into one uniform mafs at the
bottom, the .fire is to be increafed a little before the
crucibles are taken out, for pouring off the fluid me¬
tal into molds. From 60 pounds of good calamine,
and 40 of copper, 60 pounds of brafs may be obtain¬
ed, notwithftanding a conliderable quantity of the zinc
is diffipated in the operation. The quantity of brals
obtained has been confiderably augmented lince the
introdudlion of the method now commonly pradlifed,
of granulating the copper ; by which means a larger
furface of this metal is expofed to the vapour of zinc,
and confeqnently lei's of that vapour efcapes. To
make the finer and more malleable kinds of brafs, be-
lides the choice of pure calamine and pure copper,
fome manufadiurers cement the brafs a fecond time
with calamine and charcoal; and ibmettmes add to it old
brafs, by which the new is laid to be meliorated.
Brafs is brittle when hot; but fo ductile when cold,,
that it may be drawn into very fine wire, and beat
into very thin leaves. Its beautiful colour, malleabi¬
lity, and its fufibility, by which it may be ealily cad into
moulds, together with its being lei’s liable to rud than
copper, render it fir for the fabrificatibn of many utenlils.
Although zinc be fixed to a certain degree in brafs,
by the adhefion which it contracts with the copper ;
yet when brafs is melted, and expofed to a violent
fire, during a certain time, the zinc difiipates in va¬
pours, and even flames away, if the heat be drongf
enough ; and if the fire is long enough continued, all
the zinc will be evaporated and delhoyed, fo that
what remains is copper.
Prince*'s
rartir.
CHEMISTRY.
• Practice Prince’s metal is made by melting zinc in fubftance
   with copper; and all the yellow compound metals
Princes me. PrePare^ *u imitation of gold, are no other than mix-
tal, * tures of copper with diifcrent proportions of that fe-
mi-metal, taken either in its pure ftate, or in its na¬
tural ore calamine, with an addition fometimes of
iron-filings, ire. Zinc itfelf unites moft eafily with
the copper; but calamine makes the mbit du&ile com¬
pound, and gives the yelloweft colour. Dr Lewis ob-
ferves, that a little of the calamine renders the cop¬
per pale ; that wiien it has imbibed about fV’its own
weight, the colour inclines to yellow ; that the yel-
lownefs inefeafes more and more, till the proportion
comes to ahnoft one half ; that on further augmenting
the calamine, the compound becomes paler and paler,
and at laft white. The crucibles, in which the fufion
is performed in large works, are commonly tinged by
379 the matter of a deep blue colour.
B’ell-metal. Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin ; though
both thefe metals fingly are malleable, the compound
proves extremely brittle. Copper is diffoived by
melted tin eafily and intimately, far more fo than by
lead. A fmall portion of tin renders this metal dull-
coloured, hard, and brittle. Bell-metal is compofed of
about ten parts of copper to one of tin, w^th the ad¬
dition commonly of a little brafs or zinc. A fmall pro¬
portion of copper, on the other hand, improves the
colour and confifteney of tin, without much injuring
ks duckility. Pewter isx foi.ietimes made from one
2g0 part of copper, and twenty or more of tin.
Dr Lewis’s It has long been obferved, that though tin is fpeci-
obfervatj. fically much lighter than copper, yet the gravity of
°ns °n 't^ie the compound, bell-metal, is greater than that of the
vity of^the coPPer itfelf. The fame augmentation of gravity alfo
metal. takes place where the lighter metal is in the greateft
proportion; a mixture even of one part of tin with
two of copper, turning out fpecifically heavier than
pure copper. Molt metallic mixtures anfwer to the
mean gravity of the ingredients, or fucb as would
rei’ult from a bare appofition of parts. Of thofe tried
by Dr Lewis, fome exceeded the mean, but the grea¬
ter number fell Ihort of it ; tin and copper were the
only ones that formed a. compound heavier than the
ggj heavielt of the metals feparately.
White cop- Whire copper is prepared by mixing together equal
per. parts of arfenic and nitre, injecting the' mixture into
a red-hot crucible, which is to be kept in a moderate
fire, till they fubfide, and flow like wax. One part
of this nfixture is injected upon four parts of melted
copper, and the metal, as foon as they app'ear tho¬
roughly united together, immediately poured out. The
copper, thus whitened, is commonly melted with a
eonliderable proportion of fdver, by which its colour
is both improved and rendered more permanent.
The white copper of China and Japan appears to be
no other than a mixture of copper and arfenic.
GeofFroy relates, that, on repeated fufions, it exhaled
arfenical fumes, and became red copper, lofing, with
its whitenefs, one feventh of its weight.
4. Ir o N.
Iron is a metal of a grey ifli colour; foon tarnifhing in
the air into a dufky blackilh hue ; and in a Ihort time
contracting a yellowifh, or reddilh rufh It is the hard-
1877
eft of all metals; the moft elaftic ; and, excepting pla- Practice
tina, the moft difficult to be fufed. Next to.gold, iron '
has the greateft tenacity of parts ; an iron wire, the Tenac-lty 0f
diameter of which is the tenth part of an inch, being its parts,
capable of fuftaining 450 pounds. Next to tin, it is
the lighteft of ail the metals, lofing between a feventh
and eighth part of its weight when immerfed in wa¬
ter. When very pure, it may be drawn into wire
as fine as horfe-hair ; but is much lefs capable of being
beaten into thin leaves than the other metals, excep¬
ting only leail.
Iron grows red-hot much fooner than any other
metal ; and this, not only from the application of ac¬
tual fire, but likewife from ftrong hammering, friCtion,
or other mechanic violence. It neverthelefs melts the
moft difficultly of all metals except platina ; requiring,
in its moft fuiible ftate, an intenfe, bright, white heat.
When perfectly malleable, it is not fulible at all by the
heat of furnaces, without the additions or the imme¬
diate contaCt of burning fuel; and, when melted, lofea
its malleability : all the common operations which
communicate one of thefe qualities deprive it at the
lame time of the other ;, as if fulibility and malleability
were in this metal incompatible. When expofed to
the focus of a large burning mirror, however, it quick¬
ly fufed, boiled, and emitted an ardent fume, the
lower part of which was a true flame. At length it
was changed into a blackilh, vitrified fcoria.
Fi-om the great wafte occafioned by expofing , iron Iron a com*-
to a red but efpecially to a white heat, this metal ap- buftible
pears to be a combuftible fubftance. This eombuftion fubftance*
is maintained, like that of all other combuftible fub-
ftances, by contaCI of air. Dr Hook, .having heated
a bar of iron to that degree called white heat, he
placed it upon an anvil, and blowed air upon it by
means of bellows, by which it burnt brighter and hot¬
ter. Expofed to a white heat, it contracts a femi-
vitreous coat, which burfts at times, and flies off in
fparkles. No other metallic body exhibits any fucb ap¬
pearance. On continuing the fire, it changes by de¬
grees into a dark red calx, which does not melt in the
moft vehement heat procurable by furnaces, and, if
brought into fufion by additions, yields an opake black
glafs'. When ftrongly heated, it appears covered on
the furface with a foft vitreous matter like varnifh. In
this ftate pieces of it cohere ; and, on being hammered
together, weld, or unite, without difeovering a June- ^.4
ture. As iron is the only metal which exhibits this Only metal
appearance in the fire, fo it is the only one capable of capable of
being welded. Thofe operations which prevent the being weld-
fuperficial fcorification, deprive it likewife of this va- e ‘
luable property : which may be reftored again, by fuf-
fering the iron to refume its vitreous afpetft ; and, in
fome meafure, by the interpofition of foreign vitre-
fcible matters; whilft none of the other metals will
unite in the fmalleft degree, even with its own fcoria- ^g^.
Iron expands the leaft of all metals by heat. In the Contracts;
aifl; of fufion, inftead of continuing to expand, like the in fufioc-
other metals, it fhrinks ; and thus becomes fo much
more denfe as to throw up fuch part as is unmelted, to
the furfaee ; whilll pieces of gold,.filver, copper, lend,
or tin, put into the refpe&ive metals in fufion, fink
freely to the bottom. In its return to a confiflent
ftate, inftead of fhrinking like the other metals, it
expands j;
1878
PR ACTIC
386
Diflolved
by all me¬
tals except
lead and
387
Prulfian
blue.
388
Dr Wood-
ward's re¬
ceipt for.
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
e expands; fenfibly rtfing in the veflel, and affuming a
- convex furface, while'the others become concave.
This property, firlt obferved by Reaumur, excellently
fits it lor receiving impreffions from moulds. By the
increaf'e of bulk which the metal receives in congela¬
tion, it is forced into the minuteft cavities, fo as to
take the impreflion far more exactly than the other
metals which Ihrink.
Iron is dilfolved, by all the metals made fluid, ex¬
cept lead ; though none of them adt fo powerfully up¬
on it as gold : but, as Cramer obfcvves, if the iron
contains any portion of fulphur, it can Icarcely be made
to unite at all with gold.
Among the femi-metallic bodies, it is averfe to an
union with mercury ; no method of amalgamating thefe
two having yet been difcoveredj though quicklilver, in
certain circumftances, feems in fome linall degree to
adl upon it. A plate of tough iron, kept immerfed in
mercury for fome days, becomes brittle; and mercury
will often adhere to and coat the ends of iron pellles
ufed in triturating certain amalgams with faline li¬
quors.
Next to mercury, zinc is the mod difficultly com¬
bined with iron ; hot from any natural indifpofition to
unite, but from the zinc being difficultly made to fu-
ftain the heat requifite. The mixture is hard, fome-
what malleable, of a white colour approaching to that
of lilver. Regulus of antimony, as foon as it melts, be¬
gins to adl on iron, and diflblves & confiderable quan¬
tity. If the regulus be ftirred with an iron rod, it
will melt off a part of it. Arfenic likewife eaflly
mingles with iron, and has a ftrong attradlion for it;
forfaking all the other metals, to unite with this. It
renders the iron white, very hard, and brittle.
This metal isrhe'bafis of the fine blue pigment, cal¬
led, from the place where it was firft difcovered, Ber¬
lin or Pruffian blue. This colour was accidentally dif¬
covered about the beginning of the prefent century, by
a chemift of Berlin, who, having fucceflively thrown
upon the ground feveral liquors from his laboratory,
was much furprifed to fee it luddenly ftained with a
beautiful blue colour. Recolledting what liquors he
had thrown out, and obferving the fame effects from
a limilar mixture, he prepared the blue for the ufe of
painters; who found that it might be fubftituted to ul¬
tramarine, and accordingly have ufed it ever fince.
Several chemifts immediately endeavoured to dif-
cover the compofition of this pigment; and, in the year
1 724, Dr Woodward pnbliftied the following procefs,
in the Philofophical Tranfadtions,for making it. *l Al¬
kalize together four ounces of nitre, and as much tar¬
tar: (Seen0 220). Mi'x this alkali well with four ounces
of dried bullocks blood; and put the whole in a cru¬
cible covered with a lid, in which there is a fmall hole.
Calcine with a moderate heat, till the blood be redu¬
ced to a perfedt coal; that is, till it emits no more
fmoke or flame capable of blackening any white bodies
that are expofed to it. Increafe the fire towards the
end, fo that the whole matter contained in the cru¬
cible fliall be moderately, but fenfibly, red.
“ Throw into two pints of w.iter the matter con¬
tained in the crucible, while yet red, and give it half
an hour’s boiling : decant this firft water; and pour
more upon the black charry coal, till it becomes almoft
infipid. Mix together all thefe waters; and reduce Practice
them, by boiling, to about two pints.  
“ Diflblve alio two ounces of martial vitriol, and
eight ounces of alum, in two pints of boiling water.
Mix this folutipn when hot with the preceding lixi¬
vium alfo hot. A great effervefcence will then be
made : the liquors will be rendered turbid ; and will
become of a green colour, more or lefs blue ; and a
precipitate will be formed of the fame colour. Fil¬
trate, in order to feparate this precipitate; upon which
pour fpirit of fait, and mix them well together; by
which means the precipitate will become of a fine
blue colour. It is neceflary to add rather too much of
the fait than too little, and till it no longer increafes
the beauty of the precipitate. The next day waffi
this blue, till the water comes off from it infipid; and
then gently dry it.”
Mr Geoffroy was the firft who gave any plaufible Mr Geof-
theory of this procefs, or any rational means of im- froy’s theo-
proving it. He obferves, that the Pruffian blue is no ry'
other than the iron of the vitriol revived by the in¬
flammable matter of the alkaline lixivium, and per¬
haps a little brightened by the earth of alum ; that the
green colour proceeds from a part of the yellow fer¬
ruginous c^lx, or ochre, unrevived, mixing with the
blue; and that the fpirit of fait diffolves this ochre
more readily than the blue part ; though it will dif-
folve that alfo by long Handing, or if tiled in too large
quantity. From thele principles, he was led to in¬
creafe the quantity of inflammable matter; that there
might be enough to revive the whole of the ferrugi¬
nous ochre, and produce a blue colour at once, with¬
out the ufe of the acid fpirit. In this he perfectly fuc-
ceeded ; and found, at the fame time, that the colour
might be rendered of any degree of deepnefs, or light-
nefs, at pleafure. If the alkali is calcined with twice
its weight of dried blood, and the lixivium obtained
from it poured into a folution of one part of vitriol to
fix of alum, the liquor acquires a very pale blue co¬
lour, and depofites as pale a precipitate. On adding
more and more of a frefli folution of vitriol, the co¬
lour becomes deeper and deeper, almoft to blacknefs.
He imagines with great probability, that the blue pig¬
ment, thus prepared, will prove more durable in the
air, mingle more perfectly with other colours, and he
lefs apt to injure the luftre of fuch as are mixed with
or applied in its neighbourhood, than that made in the
common manner ; the tarnifti to which common Pruf¬
fian blue is fnbjedt, feeming to proceed from the acid,
which cannot be feparated by any ablution.
He takes notice of ah amuling phenomenon, which Amufing
happens upon mixture. When the liquors are well phenome-
ftirred together ; and the circular motion, as foon as non *n t*le
poffible, Hopped ; fome drops of folutinn of vitriol,
(depurated by long fettling), let fall on different parts
of the furface, divide, fpread, and form curious repre-
fentations of flowers, trees, ftirubs, flying infedts, ire.
in great regularity and perfedlion. Thefe continue
10 or 12 minutes : and on ftirring the liquor again,
and dropping in fome more of the folution of vitriol,
are fucceeded by a new picture.
This theory is confirmed by Mr Macquer, in a Me- Mr Mac-
moir printed in the year 1752. He obferves, that quer'stheo-
the quantity .of phlogilton communicated to the iron rV-
Part II. C H E M
Practice in this procefs is fo great, as not only to caufe the me-
• tal refill in a great meafure the action of acids, and
become totally unaffected by the magnet; hut by a
flight calcination it becomes entirely fimilar to o-
ther iron, and is at once deprived of its blue colour.
He further obferyes, that fire is not the only means
by which Pruffian blue may be deprived of all the pro¬
perties which diftinguilh it from ordinary iron. A
very pure alkali produces the fame effebt. He has
alfo difcovered, that the alkali which has thus depri¬
ved the -Pruflian blue of all the properties which di¬
ftinguilh it from ordinary iron, becomes, by that ope¬
ration, entirely fimilar to the phlogifticated alkali ufed
392 for the preparation of Pruffian blue.
Phlogifti- By a more particular examination, he found, that the
IHofes its" a^a * become perfectly faturated with the co-
alkaline louring matter; fo that, when boiled on Pruffian blue,
properties, the alkali extracted none of its colour. When the fait
was thus perfectly faturated, it feemed no longer to
pofiefs any alkaline qualities. If poured into a folution
of iron in any acid, a Angle, homogeneous, and perfeft
precipitate was formed ; not green, as in Dr Wood¬
ward’s procefs, but a perfect Pruffian blue; which
needed no acid to brighten its colour. A pure acid
added to the alkali was not in the leafl: neutralized,
nor in the lead precipitated the colouring matter.
From hence Mr Macquer concludes, that, in the making
of Pruffian blue, vitriol is decompofed; becaufe the iron
has a lixong attraction for the colouring matter, as
well as the acid for the alkali ; and the fum of the at¬
traction of the acid to the alkali, joined to that of the
iron for the colouring matter, is greater than the Angle
393 attraction of the acid to the metal.
Earths do Another very important phenomenon is, that earths
not attraft have not the f;ime attraction for this colouring mattfer
Lg matter." that metaflic fubftances have. Hence, if an alkali fa¬
turated with this colouring matter be poured into a fo¬
lution of alum, no decompofition is effeCted, nor any
precipitate formed. The alum continues alum, and
the alkali remains unchanged. From this experiment
Mr Macqner concludes that alum does not direCily con¬
tribute to the formation of the Pruffian blue. Tiie
purpofe he thinks it anfwers is as follows.. Fixed al¬
kaline falls can never be perfectly faturated with phlo-
gifiic matter by calcination; alkalies, therefore, though
calcined with inflammable fubltances, fo as to make a
proper lixivium for Pruffian blue, remains dill alka¬
line. Hence, when mixed with a folution of green
vitriol, they form, by their purely alkaline part, a yel¬
low precipitate, fo much more copious, as the alkali
is lefs laturated with phlogidon. But nothing is more ca¬
pable of fpoilingthe Ane colour of the Pruffian blue, than
an admixture of this yellow precipitate : it is therefore
neceffary to add a quantity of alum, which will take up
the greateftpart of the purely alkaline fait; and, of con-
fequence, the quantity of yellow ferruginous precipi¬
tate is much diminilhed. But the earth of alum, be¬
ing of a fine fhining white, does not in the leaff alter
the purity of the blue colour, but is rather necelfary
to dilute it. From all this it follows, that it is a mat¬
ter of indifference whether the green precipitate is to
be again diffolved by an acid, or the alkaline part of
the lixivium faturated with alum, or with an acid, be¬
fore the precipitate is. formed. The latter indeed
[ S T R Y. 1879
feems to be the moll eligible method. Practice
Moft alkalies obtained from the allies of vegetables, "
being combined, by their combuffion, with a portion Blueprodu-
of inflammable matter, are capable of furnifliing a cible from
quantity of Pruflian blue, proportionable to the quan- other alka-
tity of colouring matter they contain, even without les*
the neceffity of mixing them with a folution of iron ;
becaufe they always contain a little of this metal dif-
Iblved, fome of which may be found in almoft all ve¬
getables ; therefore, it is fufficient to faturate them
with an acid. Henckel obferved the production of
this blue in the faturation of the foffile alkali, and re¬
commended to chemiffs to inquire into its nature. 395
Iron deflagrates with nitre, and renders the fait al- Nm-e alka.
kaline and cauffic. A part of the iron is thus render- !lzecl by
ed foluble, along with the alkalized fait. A mixture
of equal parts of iron filings and nitre, injected into a
ftrongly heated crucible, and, after the detonation,
thrown into water, tinges the liquor of a violet or
purplilh blue colour. This folution, however, is not
permanent. Though the liquor at firff paffes through
a filter, without any feparation of the iron ; yet, on
Handing for a few hours, the metal falls to the bot¬
tom, in form of a brick-coloured powder. Volatile
alkalies inffantly precipitate the iron from this fixed
alkaline folution. ggg
Iron readily un'frs with fulphur; and when com- Iron filings
bined with it, proves much eafier of fufion than by and fulphur
itfelf. A mixture of iron filings and fulphur, moiffen- *?ke fire
ed with water, and prefled down clofe, in a few hours
fwells and grows hot; and, if the quantity is large,
burfls into flame.
By cementation with inflammable matters, iron im¬
bibes a larger quantity of phlogiffon ; and becomes
much harder, lefs malleable, and more fufible. It is
then called Jleel. See Metallurgy, and Steel.
5. Lead.
Lead is a pale or livid-white metal, foon lofing its
brightnefs in the air, and contratffing a blackifti or
greyiffi afli-colour. It is the fofteft and molt flexible
of ail metallic bodies; but not ductile to any great de¬
gree, either in the form of wire, or leaf; coming far
Ihort, in this refpe£t, of all other metals. It has alfo Has very
the leafl: tenacity of all metallic bodies; a leaden wire little tena-
of of an inch diameter being capable of fupporting Clty*
only 29I- pounds. Lead has, however, a confiderable
fpecific gravity; lofing, when immerfed in water, be¬
tween yy and yY of its weight. It is of all metals the
moft fufible, excepting only tin and bifmuth.^ The ggg
plumbers caff thin Iheets of lead upon a table or mould, Sheet-lead,
covered with a woollen, and above this with a linen-
cloth, without burning or fcprehing the cloths. The
melted lead is received in a wooden cafe without a
bottom ; which being drawn down the floping table by
a man on each fide, leaves a flieet of its own width,
and more or lefs thin according to the greater or lefs
celerity of its defcent. For thick plates, the table is
covered over with moiftened fand, and the liquid me¬
tal conducted evenly over it, by a wooden ftrike,
which bears on a ledge at each fide. 399
Some have preferred, for mechanic ufes, the milled Advantages
lead, or flatted flieets, to the caff ; as being more equal, °f mdted
finooth, and folid. But whatever advantage of tins preca~
kind
188o
PR ACflCF.
400
Rendered
fbnorous.
■Cilcincd.
402
Jdinium.
^403
Litharge.
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
kind the milled fort may appear to have at find:, they
are pot-found to be very durable. When the lead is
flretched'between the rollers, its cavities mult necef-
farily be enlarged. The particles of metal that-may
be Squeezed into them can have no .union or adhelion
with the contiguous particles ; and, of confeqnenee,
.mult be liable, from bending, blows, jarrs, Arc. to
ftart out again, and leave the mats fpongy and porous.
Lead yields the duHelt and weakelt found of all me¬
tallic bodies. Reaumur obferves, that it is rendered fo-
norous by calling a fmall quantity into a fpherical or
elliptical legtnent, as in the bottom of an iron-laddle:
from hence he conjectures, that the found of the fo-
norous metals might be improved for the bells of
Clocks, ire. by giving them a fimilar form.
Though this metal very foon lofes its lultre, and tar-
nilhes in the air, it refills much longer than iron or
copper the combined action of air and water, before
it is decompofed or dellroyed ; and hence it is exceed¬
ingly ufeful for many purpofes to which thefe metals
can by no means be applied. When juft become fluid,
lead looks bright like quicklilver ; but immediately
contracts a variotilly coloured pellicle on the furface.
If this is taken off, and the fire continued, a frelh pel¬
licle will always be formed, till the metal is by de¬
grees changed into a dulky powder, or calx. The in¬
jection of a little fat, chSrcoal-pdWder, or other in¬
flammable matter, prevents this change, and readily
revives the calx into lead again. It is laid, that lead,
recovered from its calces, proves fomewhat harder
and whiter than at firft, as well as Id’s fulject to tar-
nilh in the air.
The blac'kiih calx or allies of lead become of a
very different appearance if the calcination is conti¬
nued with a fire lb moderate as not to melt them,
and particularly if expofed to flame. By this treat¬
ment, they become firft yellow ; and are then called
viajficot, or Jelloiv lead. This colour becomes gra¬
dually more and more intenfe, till at lalt the calx is of
a deep red ; and then is called minium, or red lead.
The preparation of this fubllance, which is much
ufed in painting, has become a trade by itfelf. It is
made from lead calcined to a greyilh powder by keep¬
ing it melted over the fire. This powder, ground in
mills, is further calcined in a reverberatory furnace,
under a low arch, and frequently ftirred with an iron-
rake, to prevent its running and melting into clots, and
to expofe a frelh furface . to the air and flame. The
calcination lafts two or three days. The increafe of
the weight by fome is laid to amount to 7‘5, by others,
to noLlefs than i of the lead employed ; and the lead
recovered from the minium to be T‘c lei's than the ori¬
ginal weight of the metal. If the minium be further
calcined, the increafe is no more, but the quantity of
lead recoverable from the calx proves lefs in propor¬
tion to the vehemence, and continuance of the calcina¬
tion.
If, inftead of keeping this calx in a continued mo¬
derate heat, it is fuddenly fufed, the matter then puts
on a foliated appearance, and changes to a dull kind
of brick-colour when powdered, and is then called //-
lharge. Moll of this lubftiince is produced by refining
lilver with lead, (feeREi ining); and is of two kinds,
white, and red. Thefe two are diftinguilhed by tke
names of litharge of gold, and litharge of finer. The Practice
molt perfect is that called litharge of gold: the pale “
fort contains a confiderable proportion of lead in its
metallic Hate ; and even the higheft coloured litharge
is feldom free from a little metallic lead, difcoverahle
and feparable by melting the mals in a crucible; when
the lead fubfitles to the bottom. 404
Lead mingles in fuilon with all the metals except Phenpmen*
iron, with which it refufes any degree of union as w,t!l other
long as the lead preferves its metallic form. On con- metais'
tinning the fire, the lead, fcorifying or calcining, ab-
forbs the phlogiftic principle of the iron, and confe-
quently promotes the calcination of that metal; both
being at length reduced to calces. The fufible c'alx of
lead eafily unites with the calx of iron, and both melt
together into an opake brown or blackifli glafs. Cop¬
per does not unite with melted lead, till the fire is rat*
fed fo high as to make the lead fmoke and boil, and
of a bright red heat. Pieces of copper, now thrown
in, foon diflblve and difappear in the lead: the mix¬
ture, when cold, is brittle, and of a granulated tex¬
ture. The union of thefe two metals is remarkably
flight. If a mixture of copper and lead is expofed
to a fire no greater than that in which lead melts,
the lead almoft entirely runs oft’ by itfelf; a fepa-
ration, of which no other example is known. What
little leacTis retained in the pores of the copper, may
be i’corified, and melted out, by a fire coniiderably lefs
than is fufficient to fufe copper. If any of the copper
is carried off by the lead, it fwims unmelted on tire
furface.
Gold and filver are both diflblved by lead in a flight
red heat. They are both rendered extremely brittle
by the minuteft quantity of this metal; though lead is
rendered more du'ftile by a fmall quantity of either of
them. In cupellation, a portion of lead is retained by
gold, but filver parts with it all. On the other hand,
in its eliquation from copper, if the copper contains
any of the precious metals, the filver will totally melt
out with the lead, but the gold will not. The attrac¬
tion of lead to copper, however flight, is greater than
' that of copper to iron : a mixture of copper and iron
being boiled in melted lead, the copper is imbibed by
the lead, and the iron thrown up to the top. Silver
is in like manner imbifeed from iron by lead ; whilft
tin, on the contrary, is imbibed from lead by iron.
If two mixtures, one of lead and tin, and another of
iron and filver, be melted together, the refuk will be
two new combinations, one of the tin with the iron at
the top, the other with the lead and filver at the bot¬
tom : how carefully foever the matter be ftirred and
mixed in fufion, the two compounds, when grown
cold, are found dirtindt, fo as to be parted with a
blow. - 405
This metal is foluble in alkaline lixivia and expref- Soluble in
fed oils. Plates of lead boiled in alkaline lixivia, have alkalies and
a fmall part diffolved, and a confiderable quantity cor- oils-
roded; the fblution ftains hair black. Lead, fufed
with fixed alkaline fairs, is in part corroded into a
dark-coloured feoria, which partially diftblves in wa¬
ter. Exprefled oils diifolve the calces of lead, by boil¬
ing, in fuch large quantities as to become thick and
confiftent: hence plafters, cements for water-works,
paint for preferving nets, ire. Acids have a greater
affinity
Part II. C H E M
Practice affinity with lead than oils have. If the common pla-
  frer, compofed of oil and litharge, be boiled in diltil-
led vinegar, the litharge will be difTolved, and the oil
thrown up to the top. The oil thus recovered,proves
foluble like eflential oils in fpirit of wine ; a pheno¬
menon firft taken notice of by Mr GeofFroy.
6. Tin.
The colour of this metal refembles filver, but fome-
what darker. It is fofter, lei’s elaltic, and fonorous,
than any other metal except lead. When bent back¬
wards and forwards, it occalions a crackling found, as
if torn afunder. It is the lighteft of all the malleable
metals, being little more than feven times fpecifically
heavier than water. The tenacity of its parts alfo is
not very confiderable ; a tin wire of r\ of an inch dia-
4o6 meter, being able to fupport only 49f pounds.
Capable of *s commonly reckoned the lealt dudlile of all
being beat metals except lead ; and certainly is fo, in regard to
into thin ductility into wire, but not in regard to extehlibility
leaves. jnI:o leaves. Thefe two properties feem not to be fo
much connedied with one another as is generally ima¬
gined. Iron and fteel may be drawn into very fine
wire, but cannot be beat into leaves. Tin, on the
other hand, may be beat into very thin leaves, but
cannot be drawn into wire; gold and filver poffel's
both properties in a very eminent degree ; whilft
lead, notwithllanding its flexibility and foftnefs, can¬
not be drawn into fine wire, or beat into thin leaves.
It melts the moft eafily of all the metals; about the
430th degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. Heated
till almoft ready to melt, it becomes fo brittle that
large blocks may be eafily beat to pieces by a blow.
The purer fort, from its facility of breaking into long
fhining pieces, is called grain-tin. Melted, and nim¬
bly agitated at the inftant of its beginning to congeal,
^ it is reduced into fmall grains, or powder.
Calcined. With the heat neceffary for fufion, it may alfo be
calcined; or at leafl fo.far deprivedatf its pblogifton
as to appear in the form of a grey calx, which may
be entirely reduced to tin by the addition of inflam¬
mable matter. The calcination of tin, like that of
lead, begins by the melted metal lofing its brightnefs,
and contracting a pellicle on its furface. If the fire is
raifed to a cherry-red, the pellicle fwells and burfls,
difcharging a fmall brjght flame of an arfenical fmell.
By longer continuance in the fire, the metal is con¬
verted firft into a greyifh, and then into a perfectly
white calx,’called putty, which is ufed for polifhing
glafs, and other hard bodies.
The calx of tin is the moft refractory of all others,
that of platina excepted. Even in the focus of a large
burning mirror, it only foftens a little, and forms cry-
ftalline filaments. With glafs of bifmuth, and the
fimple and arfenicated glaffes of lead, it forms opake
milky compounds. By this property it is fitted for ma¬
king the bafis of the imperfect glafles called enamels ;
(fee Glass, and Enamel). The at thor of the Che¬
mical Dictionary relates, that “ having expofed very
pure tin, fingly, to a fire as flrong as that of a glafs-
houfe furnace, during two hours, under a muffle, in an -
uncovered left ; and having then examined it, the
metal was found covered with an exceedingly white
calx, which appeared to have formed a vegetation.;
V.ol. III.
I S T R Y. 1881
under this matter was a reddifh calx, and an hyacin- Practice
thine glafs ; and laflly, at the bottom, was a piece of
tin unaltered. The experiment was feveral times re¬
peated with the fame fuccefs.” 408
Nitre deflagrates with tin, and haftens the cakina- Affinity of
tion of this as well as of other imperfect metals. The t'n
vapours which rife from tin, by whatever method it arfenK'*
is calcined, have generally an arfenical fmell. Tin
melted with arfenic falls in great part into a whitifh
calx: the part which remains uncalcined proves very
brittle, appears of a white colour, and a fparkling pla¬
ted texture, greatly refembling zinc. The arfenic is
ftrongly retained by the tin, fo as fcarcely to be fepa-
rable by any degree of fire; the tin always dilcover-
ing, by its augmentation in weight, that it holds a por¬
tion of arfenic, though a very intenfe fire has been
ufed. Hence, as the tin-ores abound in arfenic, the
common tin is found alfo to participate of that mi¬
neral. 409
Henckel difeovered a method of feparating adlual Arfenic fe-
arfenic from tin ; namely, by flowly diffolving the tin parable
in eight times its quantity of an aqua regia made with from UUk
fal ammoniac, and letting the folution to evaporate in
a gentle warmth : the arlenic begins to concrete whilft
the liquor continues hot, and more plentifully on its
growing cold, into white cryftals. Mr Margraaf, in
the Berlin Memoirs for 1 747, has given a more par¬
ticular account of this procel's. He obferves, that the
white fediment which at firft feparates during the dif-
folution, is chiefly arfenical: that Malacca tin, which
is accounted one of the pureft forts, yielded no lefs
than L its weight of arfenical cryftals; that feme forts
yielded more ; but that tin extracted from a particular
kind of ore which contained no arfenic, afforded none.
That the cryftals were truly arfenical, appeared from
their being totally volatile ; from their fubliming (a
little fixed alkaline fait being added to abforb the
acid) into a colourlefs pellucid concrete ; from the
fublimate, laid on a heated copper-plate, exhaling in
fumes of a garlic finell; from its ftaining the copper
white; and from its forming with fulphur, a com¬
pound fimilar to the yellow or fulphurated arfenic.
He found that the arfenic w2s feparable alfo by means
of mercury: an amalgam of tin being long triturated
with water, and the powder which was waflted oft’
committed to diftfllation, a little mercury came over,
and bright arfenicakflowers.arofe in the neck-of the 4l0
retort. Dr Lewis obferves, that the crackling noife Dr Lewis’s
of tin in bending may poflibly arife from its arfenic ; obfervati-
as thofe operations which are faid to feparate arfenic on-
from the metal, likewife deprives it of this property. 4JI
Tin may be allayed, in all proportions, with all me.- Injurious to
tals by fufion: but it abfolutely deftroys their ductility, other me-
and renders them brittle, as in bell-metal; whence tals-
this metal has obtained the name of cllabolus metallo-
rum. It is remarkable, that the moft dudtile metals
are moft injured by the addition of a fmall quantity of
tin; the vapour of a fingle grain of tin being fufficient
to deftroy the dudlility of a cpnfiderable quantity of
gold.
Iron is diffolved by tin in a heat far lafs than that in
which iron itfelf melts: the compound is white and
brittle. Iron added to a mixture of lead and tin, takes
up the tin, leaving the lead at the bottom ; and, in like
11 F manner.
1882
Practice manner, if lead, tin, and filver are melted together,
~ the addition of iron will abforb all the tin, and the tin
only. Hence an eafy method of purifying filver from
412 tin.
Not liable Tin, notwithllanding it is, like lead, foon deprived
to ruft. 0f jj;S lotJ-fe by expofure to the air, is neverthelefs
much lei’s liable to rull than either iron, copper, or
lead; and hence is advantageoully ufed for covering
over the infides of other metalline veflels. The amal¬
gam of mercury and tin is employed to cover one of
4,3 the furfaces of looking-glalfes ; by which they are ren-
Aurummo- dered capable of reflecting the rays of light. The
faicum. amalgam alfo, mixed with fulphur and fal ammoniac,
and let to fublime, yields a fparkling gold-coloured
fubftance called aurum mofaicutn; which is fometimes
ufed as a pigment. This preparation is commonly
made from quickfilver and tin, of each two parts,
amalgamated together ^ and then thoroughly mixed
with fulphur and fal ammoniac, of each one part and
a half. The mercury and fulphur unite into a cinna¬
bar, which fublimes along with the fal ammoniac;
and, after fublimation, the aurum mofaicum remains
at the bottom.
Sulphur may be united with tin by fufion ; and forms
with it a brittle mafs, more difficultly fufible than pure
tin. Sulphur has, in this refpcA, the fame effeft up¬
on tin, as upon lead. The allay of tin leffens the fu-
fibility of thefe very fufible metals; while it increafes
the fufibility of other difficultly fufible metals, as iron
and copper.
7. Mercury, or Quicksilver.
Mercury is a fluid metallic fubftance, of a bright fil-
ver colour, refembling lead or tin when melted ; en¬
tirely void of tafte and fmell; extremely divifible ; and
congealable only in a degree of cold very difficultly
produced, in this country, by art, (fee Cold, and Con¬
gelation). It is the moft ponderous of all fluids,
414 and of all known bodies, gold and platina excepted;
Heavier m its fpecific gravity being to that of water nearly as 14
infturinJr1 t;o ^ ^ f°und to be fpecifically heavier in winter
‘ than in fummer, by 2J grains, in 11 ounces.
Neither air nor water, nor the united adtion of thefe
two, feem to, make any impreflion upon mercury:
nor is it more fufceptible of ruft than the perfedt me¬
tals, Its furface, neverthelefs, is more quickly tar-
nHhed than gold or filvj;r; becaufe the duft which
floats in the air, quickly feizes on its furface. The
watery vapours alfo, which float in the air, feem to
415 _ be attracted by mercury.
Purificati- From thefe extraneous matters, which only flightly
na' adhere to it, mercury may be eaflly cleanfed by paf-
fing it through a clean new cloth, and afterwards
heating it: but if mixed with any other metal, no fe-
paration can he effedled without diftillation. In, this
procefs, a fmall portion of fome of the metals gene¬
rally arifes along with the mercury.- Thus, quickfil¬
ver diftilled from lead, bifmuth, or tin, appears lefs
bright than before ; ftains paper black ; fometimes ex¬
hibits a fldn upon the furface; and does not run freely,
or into round globules. Mr Boyle relates, that he has
obferved the weight of mercury fenfibly increafed
by diftillation from lead, and this when even a very
moderate fire was made ul'e of. By amalgamation
Part II.
with deflated regulus of antimony, and then being Practice
diftilled after a few hours digeftion, mercury is faid to “
become, by a few, repetitions of the procefs, more
ponderous, and more adlive : the animated, or phi-
lofophic mercuries of fome of the alchemifts, are fup-
pofed to have been mercury thus prepared. By the Curious
fame, or fimilar procefles, feem to have been obtain- mercuries
ed the curious mercuries which Boyle declared he was by Boyle,
poflefled of, and made himfelf; which were “ confi-
derably heavier in fpecie than common quickfilver,—
diflblved gold more readily,—grew hot with gold, fo
as to be offenfive to the hand, and elevated gold in
diftillation.” When quickfilver is to be diftifled, it
is proper to mingle it with a quantity of iron-filings;
which have the property of making it much brighter
than it can be otherwife obtained, probably by furnilh-
ing phlogifton.
By digeftion in a ftrong heat for feveral months,
mercury undergoes a confiderable alteration, changing '
into a powder, at firft affi-coloured, afterwards yel¬
low, at length of a bright-red colour, and an acrid 4^
tafte; and is then called mercurius precipitatus per fs. Mercurius
In this laft ftate it proves fimilar to the red preci- precipitatua
pitate, prepared from a folution of mercury in nitrous Per *e’
acid; the nitrous acid in the air feeming to be revi¬
ved into its proper form, by long contaiSt with the
metal, (fee Ai r, n° 44). This calx proves lefs volatile
in the fire than the mercury in its fluid ftate. It fup-
ports, for fome time, even a degree of red heat. In
the focus of a burning-glafs, it is faidj if laid upon a
tile, to vitrify on a piece of charcoal, and to revive into
running mercury before it exhales. Evaporated by
common fire, it leaves a fmall portion of a light brown
powder; which, Boerhaave relates, bore a blaft-heat;
fwelied into a fpongy mafs; formed with borax a vi¬
treous friable fubftance ; but'vaniffied in cupellation. 418
By long continued digeftion in a gentle heat, mercury Mercury
fuffers little change. Boerhaave digefted it in low unalterable
degrees of heat, both in open and clofe veflels, for gentle
15 years together, without obtaining any other re- ’
ward for his labour than a fmall quantity of black pow¬
der ; which, by trituration, was quickly revived into
running mercury. Conftant triture, or agitation, pro¬
duce a change fimilar to this, in a Ihort time. Both
the black and. red powders, by bare expofure to a
fire fufficient to elevate them, return into fluid mer¬
cury. The red powder has been revived by Amply
grinding it in a glafs-mortar. 419
In like manner, quickfilver remains unchanged by OrbydiftU-
diftillation. Boerhaave had the patience to diftil 18 lat’lon*
ounces of mercury upwards of 500 times over, with¬
out obferving any other change than that its fluidity
and fpecific gravity were a little increafed, and that 420
Ibme grains of a fixed matter remained. The va- Explofion
pours of mercury, like thole of all other volatile bo- ^
dies, caufe violent explofions if confined.. Mr Hellot ^°e^r°
gives an account of bis being prefent at an experi¬
ment of this Id ad : a perfon pretending to fix mer¬
cury, had inclofed it in an iron box clofely welded.
When the mercury was heated, it burft the box, and
diffipated in invilible vapours- 421
Mercury diflblves or unites with all metallic bodies, Amalgama-
except three, viz. iron, arfenic, and nickel: in fome
cafes it will abibrb metals,, particularly gold and fflver, fiances.
from
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
Practice
422
Separation
of the a-
tnalgama-
ted metal.
42?
Becomes
fixed by a-
malgamati-
gold.
CHEMISTRY
from their foluti'oni* in acids or alkalies ; but does not
' adl .upon any metal \> hen combined with fulpbur, nor
on precipitates made by alkalies, nor on calces by
fire. Whatever metal it is united with, it conftantly
spreferves its own white colour. It unites with any terwards, a bright matter like fine gold; and at laft,
1883
by itfelf, or with gold, or with mercury, gave no flain. Pr actice
The firll folution, on the addition of oil of tartar />er
deliquium, grew red as blood ; on (landing, jt depofi-
ted, firft, a little yellow calx, like aurum fulminans; af-
pfcgportion of thofe metallic fubdances-with which it
is capable of being combined; forming, with different
quantities, ^amalgams of different degrees of confid¬
ence. From the fluid ones, greated part of the quick-
lilver may be feparated by colature. Bifmuth is fo
far attenuated by mercury, as to pafs through leather
with it in confiderable quantity. It alfo promotes the
action of quickfilver upon lead to a great degree ; fo
ler precipitate, inclining to green ; its own deep red
colour and tranfparency remaining unchanged. Be¬
ing now committed to didillation, a colourlefs liquor
arofe ; and the refiduum, perfectly exdccated, yield¬
ed, on edulcoration, a yellow calx of gold; which the
alkaline lixivium had been unable to precipitate. The
fecond folution turned green on the admixture of the
alkaline liquor, and let fall a white precipitate, which
that mercury united with I, •§, or T‘T its weight of turned black and brown. The feveral precipitates
bifmuth, dilfolves maffes of lead in a gentle warmth,
without the agitation, triture, comminution, or melt¬
ing heat neceffary to unite pure mercury with lead.
From thefe properties, this folution of bilmuth in mer¬
cury becomes a proper folvent for pieces of lead lod¬
ged in the human body.
On triturating or digefting amalgams for a length
of time, a blackifh or duflty-coloured powder arifes
to the furface, and may be readily walked off by wa¬
ter. Some of the chemifts have imagined, that the
amalgamated metal was here reduced to its conftitUent
parts : but pure mercury is by itfelf reducible to a
powder of the fame kind ; and the metallic particles
in this procefs, united with the mercury, are found to
be no other than the metal in its entire fubftance.
Some metals feparate more difficultly than others ;
gold and (liver the mod fo. Boerhaave relates, that
if the powder which feparates from an amalgam of
lead be committed to diftillation with vinegar in a
tall veffel, the mercury will rife before the vinegar
boils : that, by a like artifice, quickfilver may be made
to dillil in a lefs degree of heat than that of the hu¬
man body ; but Dr Lewis, though he made many
trials, was never able to fucceed.
were calcined with twice their weight of fulphur, and .
then melted with four times their quantity of flint, and
twelve of pot-a(h, in a fire vehemently excited by bel¬
lows. The fcoria appeared of a golden colour, which,
on pulverization and edulcoration, vanifhed. At the
bottom was a regulus, which looked bright like the
pureft gold ; but was not perfectly malleable. Broke,
it appeared internally white; and the white part a-
mounted to at lead one-third its bulk. Befides this
lump of metal, there were feveral others, white like
filver, and foft as lead.” 424
In Wilfon’s chemidry, we have a procefs for con- Suppofedto
verting quickfilver into water, by dropping it by little b.e c<?nver'
and little into a tall iron veffel, heated almod to a white ^t'rinta
heat in the bottom. Over the mouth of this veffel
were luted feven ajudels; and on the top, a glafs alem¬
bic head, with a beak, to which was fitted a receiver.
The mercury was put in fo (lowly, that it required
16 hours for one pound. Every time that a little
quantity of mercury was put in, it made a great noife,
filling the aludel’s head, and receiver, with white
fumes. When the veffels were cooled, a little water
was found in each of the receivers ; and in the fird
and fecond, fome grains of crude mercury. The
By amalgamation with gold, mercury may become whole quantity amounted to 13 ounces and 6 drachms ;
exceedingly fixed; fo as not to be diffipable by the grea-
• teft heat. Concerning this. Dr Brandt relates the fol¬
lowing curious experiment : “ Having amalgamated
fine gold with a large proportion of quickfilver, and
drained off the fuperfluous mercury, he digeded the
amalgam in a clofe dopt veffel for two months with
fuch a degree of heat, that a part of the quickfilver
fublimed into the neck of the glafs. The matter be¬
ing then ground with twice its weight of fulphur, and
urged with a gradual fire in a crucible, a fpongy calx
remained ; which being melted with borax, and after¬
wards kept in fufion by itfelf for half ap hour, in a
very violent fire, dill retained fo much of the quick¬
filver, as to become brittle under the hammer, and
appean internally of a leaden colour. The metal be¬
ing again amalgamated with frefli mercury, the amal¬
gam again ground with fulphur, and expoled to an in-
tenfe fire, a fpongy calx remained as before. This
calx being digeded in two or three frelh parcels of
aqua regia, a fmall portion of whitifli matter remain¬
ed at lad undiffolved. The paper which covered the
cylindrical glafs wherein the digedion was performed,
contradled, from the vapours, a deep-green circular
fpot in the middle, with a (mailer one at the fide ;
whereas the aqua regis digeded in the fame manner
which was expected to prove a powerful' folvent of
gold and filver : but, on trial, was found to be in no
refpeA different from common water. On this ex¬
periment, Dr Lewis has the following note. 425
“ The poflibility of converting mercury into wa- Dr Lewis’s
ter, or at lead of obtaining a great quantity of water deteftion of
from mercury, has not only been believed by feveral jjoocfofthU
great men in the chemical art; but fome have even pr0cefs.
ventured to affert that they have atdually made this
change. Yet neverthelefs, they have delivered the
hidory of this affair with fuch marks, as feem to make
the reality of the change extremely doubtful. Mr
Boyle, (in his trail of the produciblenefs of Chemical
Principles, annexed to Scept. Chemifl. p. 235), fays,
il that he once obtained water from mercury without
additament, without being able to make the like ex¬
periment (ttcceed afterwards-” Mr Le Febure, who
is generally looked upon as an honed prailitioner,
direils a procefs limilar to that above (Wilfon’s), for
obtaining of this mercurial water. But it is to be fu-
fpeiied, as Mr Hales very well obferves (in his Sta¬
tical Experiments, p. 200.), that Mr i?o//r,and others,
were deceived by fome unheeded circumdance, when
they thought they obtained a water fro^n mercury,
which fliould feem rather to have arifen from the lute
IX F 2 and
1884
Practice and earthen veffels made ufe of in the diftillation :
   for Mr Hales could not find the lea(t iign of any moi-
fture upon diftilling mercury in a retort made of an
iron gun-barrel, with an intenfe degree of heat; al¬
though he frequently cohobated the mercury which
came over into the recipient. In a courfe of chemi¬
cal experiments, I repeated Mr Hales's procefs, and
urged the mercury, which was let fall by little and
little, through an aperture made in the gun-barrel, with
a mod intenfe degree of heat, without obtaining any
water; but it being fufpetded by a bydander, that the
mercury in this experiment came over before it had
been diffidently aided upon by the fire, by reafon of
the lownefs of the neck of the diddling indrument,
the experiment was varied in the following manner.
Sixteen ounces of mercury were heated in a crucible,
in. order to evaporate any moidure that might have
been accidentally mixed with it; and an iron gun-
barrel of fouf feet in length, being placed perpendi-
■cularly in a good furnace, and a glafs-head and reci¬
pient fitted to its upper part, the mercury was let fall
Jjy little and little into the barrel, and the fire urged
with bellows. After each injedion, the mercury
made a confiderahle nolle and ebullition, and arofe
into the head ; where it foon condenfed and trickled
, down, in the common form of running mercury, into
the recipient, without the lead perceptible appear-
ance of any aqueous humidity.”
ITow Mercury is difficultly amalgamated with regulus of
amalgate antimony and copper ; for which fome particular ma-
■with regu- noeuvres are required. Two of Dr Lewis’s receipts
lus of an- for uniting quickfilver with copper, we have already
tunony. .gi/en, (fee n° -376) : with regulus of antimony, mer¬
cury, he fays, may be perfectly united, by pouring a
•fmall dream of melted regulus into a confiderable por¬
tion of mercury, made almod boiling hot. Another
method direded by Henckel, is to put mercury into
an iron mortar along with fome water, and let the
whole oVer the fire. When the water boils, a third
or fourth part of melted reguius is to be poured in,
and the mafs ground with a pedle, till the amalgama
is completed. The ufe of the water, as Dr Lewis
obferves, is to hinder the mercury from flying off by
the heat of the regulus : but as the two are by this
means not put together in fo hot a date, the union is
more difficult, and lefs perfed. The lofs of the mer¬
cury, in the firfl procefs, may be prevented by ufing
a large veffel, and covering it with a perforated iron-
plate, through the hole in which the regulus is to be
poured. This method is likewife applicable to the
amalgamation of copper.
With fulphur, mercury unites very readily, fortn-
ing by trituration, or Ample fufiou, a black powder,
or mafs, called Ethiops mineral; which, by careful
fublimation, becomes the beautiful red pigment called
vermilitn. (See Sulphur, fed. iv.)
8. Zinc.
This is a femi-metal of a bluifli white colour. It is
the lead brittle of any of the femi-metals; and when
amply fupplied with phlogidon, which may be done
by treating it in clofe veffels with inflammable mat¬
ters, it pofleffes a femi-dudility, by which it may be
flattened into thin plates. When broken, it appears
Part II,
of many flat ftiining plates of facets, which are larger Practice
when flowly than when hafiily tooled. When heat-
ed, it is very brittle; and crackles like tin, only loud¬
er, when bent, Expofed to the air, it contrads in
length of time a yellowifli rud. Its fpecific gravity, 427
according to Dr Lewis, is to that of water as 7Tl5 to I. ^0e„a^ra’
It begins to melt as foon as red hot; but does not
flow thin till the fire is raifed to a white heat. Then
the zinc immediately begins to burn with an ex¬
ceedingly bright and beautiful flame. Kept jud in
in fufion, it calcines flowly ; not only on the upper
furface, but likewife round the fides, and at the bot¬
tom of the crucible. If feveral pieces are jud melted
together, the mafs, when grown cold, may be broke
into the fame number ; their union being prevented
by a yellowilh calx, with which each piece is covered
over. Mr Malouin relates, in the French Memoirs
for 1742, that a quantity of zinc being melted fix
times, and the fufion continued fifteen hours each
time, it proved, on every repetition, harder, more
brittle, lefs fufible, and lefs calcinable: that after the
two fird fufions, its colour was grey ; after the third,
brown; and after the fourth, black : that the fifth
rendered it of a Hate-blue; and the fixth of a clear
violet. _ 428
So violent is the deflagration of zinc, that the whole Flowers of
of its calx is fublimed by it, in the form of light flocks, z’inc*
or wool; which, however, are eafily reduced to a
fine powder. Thefe are uied in medicine, and reck¬
oned an excellent remedy in epileptic cafes. When
once fublimed, they are by no means capable of be¬
ing elevated again by the mod violent heat. In a
heat far greater than that in which they fird arofe,
they fuffer no alteration ; in a very vehement one
they melt, according to Henckel, into a femi-opake
green glafs. Vitrified wtih borax, they give a grey,
or brownifh, glafi. From the brightnefs of the flame
of burning zinc, and the garlick-fmell which it is laid
to emit, fome have concluded that zinc contained the
phofphorine acid; which, from fome other circum-
dances, is not altogether improbable. 429
The flowers of zinc have been thought very diffi- Lewis’s
cultly, or not at all, reducible to their metallic form me.thod of
by an addition of phlogidon. But Dr Lewis obferves, j^em."18
that this difficulty proceeds not from their unfitnefs to be
redored into the form of zinc, but from the volatility of
the femi-metal, which occaiions its being diffipated in
fumes, if the common methods are made ufe of. All
calces, thole of iron excepted, require .a greater heat
for their fufion than that in which the metal itfelf
melts; and as a full melting heat is the greated that
zinc can fultain, it burns and calcines the inflant of
its revival, if the air is admitted ; and in clofe veffels
efcapes, in part at lead, through their pores. On
mixing flowers of zinc with powdered charcoal, and
urging them with a flrong fire in a crucible, a defla¬
gration and freffi fublimation enfue; fufficient marks
that the zinc has been reduced to its metallic form ;
for as long as it remains in the date of calx, neither
of thefe effetds can happen. If the veffel is fo con¬
trived as to exclude the air, and at the fame to allow
the reviving lemi-metal to run off from the vehemence
of the heat, into a receiver kept cool, the zinc will
there concrete, and be preferved in its metallic date.
It
CHEMISTRY.
Part II. C H E M
Practice It js ftill more effectually detained by certain metallic
* bodies, as copper, or iron; with which the zinc, when
thus applied, unites more readily and perfectly than
430 it can be made to do by any other means.
Oil from Homberg pretended to obtain an oil from the
/lowers of flowers of zinc, by diffolving them in diftilled vine-
Homber^ §ar’ anc* r'ien hiffilling the iblution in a glals retort.
At firft a quantity of phlegm arofe ; then the fuper-
fluoiis acid; and at lait an empyreumatic oil. This
laft, which Homberg imagined to proceed from the
flowers of zinc, Neuman very juflly attributes to the
431 diltilled vinegar.
Another by ^ 0jj 0f another kind was obtained by Mr Hel-
Mr Hellot- l0t f'rom the above folution, by digelting the afli-co¬
loured reliduum, which remained after the /liftilla-
tion with the acidulous phlegm which came over, for
eight or ten days; diftiliing the tincture to drynefs ;
and repeating the extradiion with the diftilled liquor,
till the quantity of dry extraft, thus obtained, was
very conftderable. This relin-like matter, diftilled
in a retort with a ftronger fire, yielded a yellowilli
liquor, and a white fublimate. The liquor difcovered
no mark of oil; but, upbn'being palled upon the fu¬
blimate, immediately diflblved it, and then exhibited
on the furface feveral drops of a reddilh oil. Some of
this oil was taken up on the point of a pencil, and ap¬
plied to gold and filver-leaf. In twenty-four hours,
432 the parts touched appeared, in both, equally dilfolved.
Zinc with Zinc does not unite in fulion with bifmuth, or the
other me- femi-metal called nickel. It unites difficultly with
tas‘ iron; lefs lb with copper; eafily with the other me¬
tals. It renders iron or copper more eafily fufible;
and, like irfelf, brittle whilft hot, though confxderably
tnalleable when cold. It brightens the colour of iron
almoft into a filver hue, and changes that of copper
into a yellow or gold colour. It greatly debafes the
Colour of gold; and renders near an hundred parts of
422 [44'’! that mo^ clu&*le metal brittle and intrablable. A
Materials J mixture of equal parts of each is very hard, white,
for fpecula. and bears a fine polifh; hence it is propofed by Mr
Hellot for making fpecula. It is not fubjetft to ruft
or tarniSi in the air, like thofe metals whofe bafis is
copper. It improves the colour and luftre of lead and
tin, renders them firmer, and confequently fitter for
feveral mechanic ufes. Tin, with a fmall proportion
of zinc, forms a kind of pewter. Lead will bear an
equal weight, without lofing too much of its malle¬
ability. Malouin obferves, that arfenic, which whi¬
tens all other metals, renders zinc black and friable;
that when the mixture is performed in clofe veffels,
an agreeable aromatic odour is perceived on opening
them ; that zinc amalgamated with mercury, and af¬
terwards recovered, proves whiter, harder, and more
444 brittle than before, and no longer crackles on being bent.
Deflagra- Mixtures of zinc with other metals, expofed to a
tioiKof zinc fIrong fire, boil and deflagrate more violently than
metal 61 zmc Some globules of the mixture are ufu-
ally thrown off during the ebullition, and fome part of
the metal calcined and volatilized by the burning zinc :
hence this fubftance has been called metallic njtre.
Gold itfelf does not entirely refift its aftion. It very
difficultly volatilizes copper; and hence the fublimates
obtained in the furnaces where brafsis made, or mix¬
tures of copper and zinc melted, are rarely found to
I S T R Y. 1885
participate of that metal. On melting copper and Practice
zinc feparately, and then pouring them together, a ‘
violent detonation immediately enliied, and above
half the mixture was thrown about in globules. 445
Zinc does not unite in the leaft with fulphur, or Cannot be
with crude antimony, which fcorify all other fub- united with
fiances except gold and platina; nor with compofi- ^ulplulr•
tions of lulphur and fixed alkaline falts, which diflblve J
gold itfelf. With nitre it deflagrates violently. Its
flowers do not fenfibly deflagrate ; yet alkalize double
their weight of the fait, more readily than the zinc 446
itfelf. The alkaline mafs appears externally greenilh, Nitre alka-
internally of a purple colour. It communicates a fine lize<i by
purple to water, and a red to vinegar. The acetous fl.owers
tincitnre infpiffated, leaves a tenacious fubftance which ZinC‘
foon runs in the air into a dark red cauftic liquor, the
alkaheft of fome of the pretended adepts.
9. Bismuth.
This femi-metal, called alfo titi-glafs, and by fome
naturalifts marcajita officinarum, is fomewhat limilar
to the regulus of antimony. It appears to be com-
pofed of cubes formed by the application of plates up¬
on each other. Its colour is lefs white than that of
regulus of antimony ; and has a reddifh tinge, particu¬
larly when it is expofed to the air. In fpecific gravi¬
ty it approaches to filver; being nearly ten times
heavier than water. It has no degree of malleability ;
breaking under the hammer, and being reducible by
trituration to fine powder. Its melts a little' later
than tin, and feems to flow the thinneft of all metallic
fubftances. Bifmuth is femi-volatile, like all other 447
femi-metals. When expofed to the fire, flowers rife Conver-
from it; it is calcined ; and converted into a litharge tjbleinto
and glafs nearly as lead is : (See Glass). It may ll,:kar£e
even be employed like that metal, in the purification and s ars’
of gold and filver by cupellation. (See Refining).
When in fufton it occupies lefs volume than in its fo-
lid ftate : a property peculiar to iron among the me¬
tals, and bifmuth among the femi-metals. ft emits
fumes in the fire as long as it preferves its metallic
form ; when calcined or vitrified, it proves perfetftly
fixed. 44g
Bifmuth mingles in fufion with all the metalline fub- Promotes
ftances, except regulus of cobalt and zinc. The ad- the fufion
dition of nickel, or regulus of antimony, renders it
mifcihle with the former, though not with the latter.
It greatly promotes the tenuity as well as facility of
the fufion of all thofe metals With which it unites. It
whitens copper and gold, and improves the colour of
fome of the white metals: mixed in confiderable quan¬
tity, it renders them all brittle, and of a flaky ftruc-
ture like its own. If mixed with gold, or filver, a
heat that is but juft fufficient to melt the mixture, will
prefently vitrify a part of the bifmuth ; which, having
then'no aeftion on thofe perfetft metals, feparates, and
glazes the crucible all round.
10. Regulus of Antimony.
This femi-metal, when pure, and well fufed, is of
a white fliining colour, and conlifts of lamince applied
to each other. When it has been well melted, and 449
not too haftily cooled, and its furface is nor touched APPear;
by any hard body during the cooling, it exhibits the ^“on^es
perfect furface.
1886
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
ric e perfect figure of a ftar, confining of many radii ilfuing
 from a center. This proceeds from the difpofition
that the parts of this femi-metal have to arrange them-
felves in a regular manner, and. is fnnilar to the cryf-
tallization of falts.
a fpar ; but differs from bodies of this kind, in not be- Practice
ing acted upon by acids. If a lump of cawk, of an
ounce or two, be thrown red hot into 16 ounces of
melted antimony, the fufion. continued about two mi¬
nutes, and the fluid matter poured off, “ you will have
Regulus of antimony is moderately hard; but, like 15 ounces like polilhed fteel, and as the moil refined
her femi-metals, it has no ductility, and breaks in quickfilver.” Phi/. Tranf. n° no. Dr Lewis men*
.oil o hammer. It lofes ~ of its weight tions his having repeated this experiment feveral times
with fuccefs : but having once varied it by mixing the'
cawk and antimony together at the firlt, a part of the
ry dark black vi-
other
fmall pieces under _ w
in water. The adlion of air and water deltroys its luftre,
but does not rail it fo effectually as iron or copper.
It is fufible with a heat fufficient to make it red hot;
but when heated to a certain degree, it fumes conti-
Sublimable. nually, and is diffipated in vapours. Thefe fumes
form what are called the argentine flowers of regulus
of antimony, and are nothing but the'-earth of this fe¬
mi-metal deprived of part of its inflammable principle,
and capable of being reduced to its reguline llate by
an union with this principle.
Separation There are different methods of preparing the regu-
of the fid- lus of antimony; but all of them confift merely in fe-
phur from parating the fulphur which this mineral contains, and
antimony. wj1jcf1 js uniteci with the regulus. It is plain, there¬
fore, that regulus of antimony may be made by an
addition of any fubflance, to crude antimony in fulion,
which has a greater attraction for fulphur than the re¬
gulus itfelf has. For this purpofe, alkaline falts have
been employed, either previoufly prepared, or ex-
temporaneoufly produced in the procefs, by a defla¬
gration of tartar and nitre. By this means, the ful¬
phur was indeed abforbed; but the hepar fulphuris,
formed by the union of the fulphur and alkali, imme¬
diately diflblved the regulus, fo that very little, fome-
times none at all, was to be obtained diftindt from the
fcoria. Metals are found to anfwer better than alka¬
line falts, but the regulus is feldom or never free from
a mixture of the metal employed. The way of ob¬
taining a very pure regulus, and in great quantity, is
to calcine the antimony in order to diflipate its ful¬
phur ; then to mix the calx with inflammable matters,
fuch as oil, foft foap, ire. which are capable of refto-
ring the principle of inflammability to it. This me-
• thod was invented by Kunckel. Another, but more
expenfive way of procuring a large yield of very
pure regulus, is, by digclling antimony in aqua regis,
which diffolves the reguline part, leaving the fulphur
untouched, precipitating the folution, and afterwards
reviving the precipitate by melting it with inflam¬
mable matters.
There are confiderable differences obferved in the
regulus of antimony, according to the different fub-
ftances made ufe of to abfofb the fulphur. When
prepared by the common methods,, it is found to be very
difficultly amalgamated with mercury, (fee n® 426) ;
but Mr Pott has difcovered, that a regulus prepared
with two, or five parts of iron, four of antimony,
and one of chalk, yield reguli which readily unite
with mercury into an hard amalgam, by bare tritura¬
tion with water. Marble and quicklime "fucceed
equally well with chalk ; but day. gypfum, or other
earths, have no effecl.
One earthy fubftance, found in lead-mines, and com-
. monly called cawk, has a very remarkable effect upon
cawk.Wlth antiniony- This is found.in whitifh, moderitely com-
pail, and ponderous mafl’es: it is commonly fuppqfed
452
Regulus ea
fily mif-
cible with
453
Extempo¬
raneous
aiitimony was converted into a 1
treous matter, and part; feemed to have fuffered little
change; on the furface of the mafs fome yellow flowers
appeared. Neither the nature of cawk, nor of the
change produced on antimony by it, has been hitherto
well confidered.
Regulus of antimony enters into the compofitions
for metallic fpeculums for telefcopes, and for printing-
types. It is alfo the bafts of many medicinal prepa¬
rations ; but many of thefe, which were formerly much
efteemed, are found to be either inert, uncertain, or
dangerous in their operation. When taken in fub-
Ilance, it is emetic and purgative, but uncertain in its
operation ; becaufe it only ads in proportion to the
quantity of folvent matter it meets with in the fto-
mach ; and if it meets with nothing capable of ading *
upon it there, the regulus will be quite inadive. For
thefe reafons, the only two preparations of antimony
now retained, at lead by Ikilful praditioners, are the
infufion of glafs of antimony in wine, and emetic tar- 454
tar. For making the glafs of antimony we have the Glafs ofaa-
following procefs. “ Take a pound of antimony ; re- timony.
duce it to fine powder, and fet it over a gentld fire ;
calcine it in an unglazed earthen pan, till it comes to
be of an afli colour, and ccaffes to fume : you mult
keep it continually ftirring; and if it Ihould run into
lumps, you mud powder them again, and then pro¬
ceed to finifli the calcination. When that is done, put
the calcined antimony into a crucible; fet it upon a
tile in a wind-furnace; put a thin tile on the top ; and
cover it all over with coals. When it is brought into
fufion, keep it fo in a drong fire for an hour: then put
into it an iron rod; and when the melted antimony,
which adheres to it, is tranfparent, pour it upon a
fmooth, hot, marble; and when it is cold, put it up for
ufe. This is vitrum antbnoriii, or Jlibium.”
This preparation is more violent in its effeds than
the pure regulus itfelf; becaufe it contains lefs phlo-
gidon, confequently is fimilar to a regulus partially
calcined,.and fo more foluble. Hence it is the mod
proper for infufion in wine, or for making the
tartar emetic. It is obvioufly, however, liable to
great uncertainties in point of drength; for as the
antimony is more or lei's drongly calcined, the glafs
Will turn out dronger or weaker in its operation, and
confequently all the preparations of it mud be liable
to much uncertainty. This uncertainty is very ap- DifFerence
parent in the drength of different parcels of emetic of ftrength
tartar: accordingly Mr Geoffrey found by examina- in emetlc
tion of different emetic tartars, that an ounce of the taltars*
weaked contained from 30 to 90 grains of regulus ;■
an ounce of moderate drength contained about 108
grains; and an ounce of the dronged kind contained
154 grains. For thefe reafons, the author of the Che¬
mical
Part II,
Practice
456
Pulvis al-
garoth the
rooft pro¬
per materi¬
al for eme-
457
Objection
458
Diaphore¬
tic. antimo'
»y.
459
Crocus me.
tellorum.
C H E M
: mical Dictionary recommends the pul vis algaroth,
(n° 258.) as the moft proper material for making emetic
tartar; being perfectly ioluble, and always of an equal
degree of ftrength. Emetic tartar, as. he jultly ob-
ferves, ought to be a metallic fait compoled of cream
of tartar faturated with the regulus of antimony; and
Mr Beaume has Ihewn futh a faturation to be poflible,
and that the neutral fait cryftallizes in the form of py¬
ramids. They are tranfparent while moifl; but by ex-
pofure to a dry air, they lofe the water of their cry-
ftallization, and become opaque. The preparation of
this fait, according to Mr Beaume, confifts in mixing
together equal parts of cream of tartar, and levigated
glais of antimony : thefe are to be thrown gradually
into boiling water ; and the boiling continued, till there
is no longer any efl'ervefcence, and the acid is entire¬
ly farurated. The liquor is to be filtered ; and upon
the filter is obferved a certain quantity of fulphureous
matter, along with fome undifiblved parts of the glafs
of antimony. When the filtered liquor is cooled, fine
cryltals will be formed in it, which are a foluble tar¬
tar perfectly faturated with glafs of antimony. He ob-
ferves, that the difiolution is foon over if the glafs is
well levigated, but requires a long time if it is only
grofsly pounded.
The trouble of levigating glafs of antimony, as well
as the uncertainty of diffolving it, would render pul¬
vis algaroth much preferable, were it not on account
of its price; which would be a temptation to thofe
in ufe to prepare medicines, to fubllitute a cheaper
antimonal preparation in its place.
As regulus of antimony, like other metallic fub-
ftances, is lolnble in liver of 1’ulphur, it happens, that,
on boiling antimony in an alkaline ley, the fait, uniting
with the liilphur contained in that mineral, forms an
hepar fulphuris, which diffolves fome of the reguline
part. If the liquor is filtered, and faturated with an
acid, the regulus and fulphur will fall together in
form of a yellowilh or reddifli powder, called golden
fulphttr of antimony. If the ley is fuffered to cool, a
like precipitation of a red powder happens. This laft
is called kermes ?niiieral.
Nitre deflagrates violently with antimony, confum-
‘ ing not only its fulphureous part, but alfo the phlogifton
of the regulus; and thus reduces the whole to an inert
calx, called antimonium diaphoreticum. If equal parts
of nitre and antimony are deflagrated together, the
fulphureous part is confumed, as well as part of the
inflammable principle of the regulus. The metalline
part melts, and forms a femi-vitreous mafs, of a red-
. dilh colour, called crocus metallorum, or liver of anti-
many. It is a violent emetic, and was formerly ufed
for making infufions in wine fimilar to thofe of glafs
of antim.Qjiy ; but is now difufed on account of its un¬
certainty ,i>i, Itrength. It is ftill ufed by the farriers:
but the fubftance fold for it is prepared with a far lefs
proportion of nitre ; and fometimes even without
any alkaline fait being added to abforb part of the
antimonial fulphur. This crocus js of a dull red co¬
lour ; and when powdered, affumes a dark purple.
11. Arsenic.
This mineral, when in its pure Hate, has no appear¬
ance of a metallic fubltance. It is moderately heavy,
I S T R Y. 1887
compadt, brittle, and of a cryftaHine and vitreous ap- Practice
pearance. Expofed to the air, it changes to a milky
hue like that of porcelain ; and at length to the opaque
whitenefs of white enamel. The larger mafles pre-
ferve their tranfparency longer than the linall, and
longer in a dry than in a moilt air. In the fire it to¬
tally exhales before melting, with a ftrong fmell of
garlic. The fumes, caught in proper velfels, condenfe
either into a white powder, or into cryftalline mafl'es,
as the receiver is more or lefs removed from the
fire.
Arfenic eafily unites with all metals and femi-me-
tals, all of which it renders brittle. It renders gold of
a greyifh colour in its broken furface ; filver, of a deep
grey ; and copper, white. Tin becomes, by mixture
with arfenic, much harder, and more unfufible ; lead
becomes hard and very brittle; and iron is changed
into a blackilh mafs. It volatilizes, vitrifies, and fcori-
fies, all folid bodies; gold, filver, and platina, excepted. 4g0
We have already taken notice (n° 183.) that arfenic Neutral fait:
is capable of decompofing nitre, and uniting with its of arfenlo.
bafis. It then forms a lingular fort of fait which can¬
not be decompofed by any acid; becaufe the arfenie,.
when deprived of phlogilton, (which it perfectly is by.
the decompofition of the nitre,) feemsto have a great¬
er attraction for alkalies than acids have. Was it
poffible therefore to deprive arfenic of all its phlogi¬
lton, we Ihould no doubt find it capable of expelling the
marine, or vitriolic, as well as the nitrous acid. It
readily unites with alkaline falls, in the common way
of fufion: but is then ealily feparable by an acid ; be¬
caufe, not being deprived of its phlogifton, the union 461
between it and the alkali is very weak. This neutral May be de-
arfenical fait may itfelf be decompofed, by melting it ^omPofed
with inflammable matters, or adding a folution of it 0&1'r
to any metallic folution. A double decompofition and
combination then take place ; the acid unites with the
alkali, and the arfenic- with the metal. Concerning
the ufes of this neutral fait, we find the following pa¬
ragraph in the Chemical Dictionary.
“ The ufes of the neutral arfenieal fait are not yet
well determined; yet, as the arfenic feems to be ftrictly
combined with the fixed alkali, this fait may probably
be ufefully employed, 1. For the preparation of re¬
gulus of arfenic. 2. To combine arfenic convenient¬
ly with metallic matters. 3. In the compofition of
many glafles. 4. As the corrofive mineral acids, when
faturated with fixed alkali, form very mild falts, we
may be induced to believe that arfenic completely fa¬
turated with a fixed alkali, as it is in the neutral arfeni-
cal fait, might form a very mild fait, which may be
powerful in medicine ; but the name of arfenic is fo
terrible, that it will probably never be tried : but if it
fhould, very numerous and long trials ought previoully.
to be made on animals. ^2,
“ This fait might probably be ufeful. in arts; for Ufed in
Mr Beaume prepares large quantities of it for diffe- f°me ma~
rent manufactures; but the ufes to which it is applied nufaAures.
are kept a fecret.” ^
In his prediction, however, our author has been Arfenic re-
miftaken ; for a treatife has appeared, recommend- commend¬
ing, not the neutral arfenical fait, or any milder pre-r “j.as.a fi’e'
paration of this fubftance, but pure white arfenic it-
ielf, as a fpecific in cancers. Tins treatife is publifiied
hy
i888
CHEMIST
E by M. le Febure, a French phyfxcian, who directs the
- arienic to be taken in the following manner: “ Take
four grains * of arfenic, of a clear, white, Ihining ap¬
pearance, and in (mail cryltals; difiblve it by boiling
in a pint f of diltilled water ; let the patient take a
table fpoonful of this folution, with an equal quantity
of milk, and half an ounce of lyrup of poppies, every
morning falling, and taking care to talte nothing for
an hour after. This courle inuft be continued for
eight days, after which a dole is to be taken in the
fame manner twice every day ; the firlt in the morn¬
ing, the fecond towards eight at night. At the end
of a fortnight three dofes are to be given in a day, the
third being taken at mid-day.
“ In this manner women of a weakly conftitution
may continue till the cure is completed. But, with
an adult of a good conftitution, the dofe may be aug¬
mented, by degrees, every eight days, till he take
fix fpoonfuls of the lolution every day; two table-
fpoonfuls being taken for each dofe, with as much
milk, and half an ounce of fyrup of poppies. For
children, tea-fpoons muft be ufed ; and the dofe Ihould,
on no account, exceed three of thefe, with a propor¬
tional quantity of fyrup of poppies.
“ But befides that the folution of arfenic is thus to
be increafed to a certain height, in point of quantity,
the ftrength is allb to be augmented. Six grains of
arfenic may be diflblved in the fecond bottle of the
folution, and eight in the third. But beyond this, our
author thinks it unadvifeable to proceed, lie has, in
general, found fix bottles of the folution fufficient for
the cure of an open cancer.' In one cafe, however,
eight were necelfary.
“ He informs us, that this remedy, taken with the
above precautions, never occafions any unlucky acci¬
dent ; and is not difagreeable to the tafte. It does
not a£t in any certain manner upon the fecretions
or excretions. Some, indeed, difcharge their urine
more freely than ufuai; with fome the belly is more
loofe ; and with others the perfpiration is more co¬
pious : but thefe effects are neither general nor con-
Itant,
“ A purgative compounded of manna, rhubarb, and
fal feignette, is to be given every eight or twelve
days. Whey, with twelve grains of nitre to the
bottle, or a weak decotftion of the root of althea, with
an equal quantity of nitre, is to be ufed for common
drink. With relpetif to regimen, it is necelfary to ab-
ftain from wine and fermented liquors. Broth made
with a little veal, beaf, or chicken, ire. are proper.
“ M. le Febure has fometimes been obliged to give
the Peruvian bark, and to open an ifilie, when the
humours were either very alkalefcent, or in very great
quantity. He even confiders an ilfue as ufeful in
every cafe.
“ Befides this treatment by internal medicines, he
recommends, that the tumour, if not ulcerated, fhould
be walked with a folution of arfenic, in the proportion
of eight grains to a pint ; and he advifes the follow¬
ing cataplafm. Take of carrot-juice, one pound ; of
fugar of lead, half an ounce ; of arfenic, diftblved in
diltilled vinegar, half an ounce ; of liquid laudanum.
R Y. Part II.
a drachm and an half: form the whole into a mafs, Practice
with as much powder of hemlock as is neceflary.
With part of this cataplafm the tumour is to be co-
. vered to a tolerable thicknefs, and the whole kept on
with a diachylon plafter.
“ If the cancer is of the ulcerated kind, he advifes
that the ichorous ferofity be taken away at each dref-
fing, by means of dry ebarpee. He then diredts the
ulcer to be fomented with the arfenical folution, ha¬
ving the chill taken off it, and having about a third
part of red wine added to it. If the fore is of a very
bad kind, he propofes that the arfenic be diftblved in
a deooclion of bark, for fomenting the ulcer. After
this, the cataplafm mentioned above, and the plafter,
are to be applied. This treatment muft be renewed
every twelve hours.
“ Mr le Febure, before he concludes this treatile,
aflures his readers, that, in more than two hundred
inftances, he has had proofs of the efficacy of the me¬
dicine here propofed. He does not, however, pre¬
tend that it is infallible in every cafe. He confiders
the difeafe to be incurable, if, in its progrefs, a con-
fiderable haemorrhage has happened, from the erofion
of large blood-veflels; alfo when it attacks hediical or
phthilical patients. To judge of the efficacy of any
remedy, he obferves, that the patient with whom it
is tried fhould at leaft enjoy an ordinary good confti¬
tution, and be free from a complication of difeafes.
And he confiders the exhibition of a new remedy to
a patient, in fome meafure, breathing his laft, as fer-
ving no other purpofe but to bring it into diferedit.”
Edin. Med. Cemftient. vol. IV. p. 56,—61. 464
Whatever good effedts arfenic may produce when Symptoms
given in this way, certain it is, that this fubftance is, >n thofe
of all others, the moft poifonous, and muft certainly P01^1^
fatal, if taken into the human body, even in a fmall n^.ar e*
quantity. It feeros to adt not only upon the ftomach
and inteftines, but to produce alfo a very great ten¬
dency to diflblution in the blood itfelf; for thole who
die poifoned with arfenic, are generally covered over .
with red or purple fpots. When arfenic is fwallowed,
a naufea, ficknefs, and reaching, commonly enfue in
about half an hour. Thefe are followed by violent
vomitings, hiccups, and pains in the ftomach and
bowels. Convulfions and palfies of the limbs prefent-
ly fucceed, with intenfe heats, cold fweats, palpita¬
tions of the heart, extreme anxiety, reftleffnefs, pro-
ftration of ftrength, thirft, and drynefs of the mouth
and throat, lofs of reafon, and at laft death. If the
quantity taken was confiderable, the patient dies in
feven or eight hours after taking it; and the ftomach
and inteftines are found, upon difledtion, to be cor¬
roded or perforated. i 46J
Arfenic is a poifon the moft certainly fatal- and moft Why more
difficult to be cured of any, (if we except/perhaps,
large dofes of antimonial emetics,) on account of its
being difficultly foluble in water, and incapable of de- fonSt
compolition. Corrofive fublimate mercury, folution
of mercury in aqua fortis, ire. will as certainly poifon
as arfenic itfelf: but they are by no means fo dange¬
rous ; becaufe, being compounded of quickfilver united
with an acid, any alkaline fubftance will infallibly de¬
compound
* The French grain is here meant, which is lefs than the Englifli, 72 French grains being only equal to 60 Englifh.
f The French pintis here meant, contains 32 Troy ounces of water.
Part II.
Practice
466
The moft
approved
remedies
uncertain.
467
Regains of
•arfenic.
458
General di
vifion.
469
Sulphur.
C H E M
I S T R Y.
compound and deftroy the poifon, fo that fcarcely
any bad effects can happen but what arile from its
firft action on the ilomach. Arl’enic, on the contrary,
cannot be decompounded, nor united with any known
fubftance, without a conlxderable degree of heat. It
therefore remains in the ftomach, continually exert¬
ing its milchievous qualities, till it is all difcharged by
vomiting.
Many antidotes have been propofed againft this
pernicious mineral; but, that they might be rationally
put confidence in, it Ihould firft be demonftrated, that
they can make a change upon arfenic in fubftance, or
in Iblution, in a heat no greater than that of the hu¬
man body. Alkalies, which have been dire&ed, can¬
not unite with arfenic When in the ftomach. Acids,
which have been ordered on a contrary fuppofition,
will indeed diffolve arfenic ; but the Iblution, in all
probability, would prove a more violent poifon than
the arfenic itfelf. Oils, fats, warm fat broths, frelh
butter, or milk, are recommended as the moft proper
means of obtunding the poifon, and promoting its dif-
charge by vomit: and indeed in fuch deplorable cafes
they are the only remedies to which we can apply ;
though it is evident the efficacy even of thefe mult be
exceedingly uncertain; and for this plain reafon, that
the arfenic is already in contact with the ftomach; and
though they might prevent the adtion of the poifon
if they had been firj} fwallowed, their operation muft
be exceedingly Id’s efficacious after the poifon has had
accefs to the ftomach, and begun to exert its virulent
effects upon it.
The belt method of giving arfenic the metalline
form, or changing it into a regulus, as it is called, is
by mixing it, when powdered, with oil-olive, fo as
to form a pafte ; the mixture is to be put into a re¬
tort, or glafs matrafs, and to be diftilled.or fublimed,
with a fire at firft very moderate, and fufficient to
raife only the oil. After the oil has penetrated the
arfenic, its more fluid parts exhale, and it remains in
form of a charred coal. Then the fire is to be in-
creafed, and the metallized arfenic foon fublimes to
the top. When no more fublimes, the veffel is to be
broke, and the adhering cruft of regulus of arfenic fe-
parated. The regulus muft be fublimed a fecond, or
even a third time, in order to give it as perfed a me¬
tallic form as it can receive. The oil, which arifes
during this operation, is more fetid than any empy-
reumatic oil, and almoft intolerable.
Regulus of Cobalt and Nickel. See Metal¬
lurgy.
Sect. IV. Inflammable Sub/lances.
These may be divided into the following claffes:
1. Sulphurs. 2. Ardent fpirits. 3. Oils and fats. 4. Re¬
fins. J. Bitumens ; and, 6. Charcoal.
I. Sulphurs.
I. Common fulpkur. For the extradion of this fub¬
ftance from its ores, fee Sulph ur. The artificial com-
polition of it we have already related, n° 165.; and
have now only to take notice of a very few of its pro¬
perties, which come more properly under this fedion.
Sulphur, as commonly ufed in commerce and the
arts, is of a pale yellow colour, of a difagreeable and
Vol. III.
peculiar fmell, which is rendered more fenfible when Practice
it is heated or rubbed. By rubbing, it receives very  
curious eledrical qualities : (See Electricity.) Its
fpecific gravity is confiderably greater than that of
water, though lefs than earths or ftones. In clofe
velfels, fulphur is incapable of receiving any alteration.
It melts with a very gentle heat; and then is fublimed,
adhering to the capital in fmall, very fine, needle-like
cryltals, called flowers of'fulphur. It may thus be fub- 470
limed many times without alteration. If fulphur is Cryitalliza-
expofed to a heat barely fufficient to melt it, and, very ble.
llowly cooled, it cryftallizes in form of many needles
crofling one another. Some of thefe pointed cryftals
may all'o be obferved in the interior parts of the lumps
of fulphur which have been melted, and caft into cy¬
lindrical moulds, as they are commonly fold ; becauie
the center of thefe cylindrical rolls is more ilowly
cooled than the furface. Sulphur alfo gives this needle¬
like form to cinnabar, antimony, and many other mi¬
nerals containing it. Sulphur may be decompofed in
feveral ways. The moft fimple is by burning; which
we have already taken notice of, n°ii8. It may
alfo be very effedually decompofed by mixing it with
iron filings and water. In this cafe the phlogifton is
diflipated, and the acid uniting with the iron forms a
green vitriol. 47!
It is very remarkable, that though fulphur is com- Decompo-
pofed of vitriolic acid and phlogifton, yet the addition b>r a
of more inflammable matter, lb far from making the
union ftronger, weakens it to a great degree ; and phlogifton.
hence we have another method of decompofing this
fubftance ; namely, by combining it with a large quan¬
tity of oil, and diftiiling the compound.
Sulphur is capable of being eafily diffolved in ex-
preffed oils, but very difficultly in effential ones. Thefe
compofitions are called balfams of fulphur j and are
fometimes employed in medicine, but are found to be
of a very heating nature. They are much ufed by
farriers. According to Mr Beaume, fulphur cannot
be diffolved in oil, without a heat fufficient to melt it.
A larger quantity is kept diffolved when the mixture
is hot, than when cold ; and confequently, the fulphur,
efpecially if it has been diffolved in a thin effential oil,
cryftallizes on cooling the mixture. The fulphur, thus
feparated from the oil, is found not to be altered in
any refpedt from what it formerly was; but if the
mixture is expofed to a degree of heat capable of en¬
tirely decompofing the oil, the fulphur is decompofed
along with it, and the fame products are obtained by
diftiiling this mixture to drynefs, as if a mixture of
pure oil of vitriol and oil were diftilled. Thefe pro-
dudls are, firft a portion of oil, when an effential oil
was made ufe of in the compofition of the balfam; then
fome volatile fulphureous acid, which is at firft watery,
and afterwards becomes ftronger; along with this a-
cid more oil arifes, which becomes more and more
thick towards the end of the diftillation ; and laltly,
when the retort has been made red hot, nothing re¬
mains but a fixed coal.
In this procefs we find, that both the fulphur and oil
are decompofed. The acid of the fulphur feems to attack
the watery principle of the oil, while its phlogifton re¬
mains confounded with that of the oil, or is diflipated
in vapours.-" Hence, though the vitriolic acid in ful-
11 G phur
1890 C H E M
Practice phur is concentrated to the utmolt degree, and per-
” — fedlly free from water, what rifes in this diltillation is
very aqueous, by reafon of the water which it attracts
4^2 from the oil.
How folu- Spirit of wine does not fenfibly a<51 upon fulphur in
ble in fpirit its liquid (late ; but if both the fpirit of wine and fui-
of wine. phur meet in the itate of vapour, they will then unite,
and a perfe<5t folution will take place. By methods
of- this kind, many combinations might be effefted,
473 which have been hitherto thought impoffible.
Its union Pure fulphur unites eafily with all metals; gold, pla-
tTls^ mC* ^na> an(l zinc, excepted. The compounds, except
3 s* that with mercury, polfefs a metallic lullre without
any dudlility. The fulphur may be feparated by expo-
fing the mixture to a ftrong fire, (fee Metallurgy,)
or by dilfolving the metalline part in acids. The ful¬
phur, however, defends feveral of the metals from the
a<5lion of acids ; fo that this diffolution fucceeds but
imperfectly. The reguline part of antimony is more
eafily feparated from fulphur by means of acids, than
any other metalline fubltance. Alkaline falts will fe-
parate the fulphur from all metals in fufion, but they
unite with it themfelves, and form a compound equal¬
ly capable of diifolving the metal. (See Alkaline
474 Salts.)
Vermilion. Sulphur united with quickfilver, forms the beautiful
pigment called cinnabar, or vermilion; which is fo
much ufed in painting, that the making of it is become
a diftinCt tfade. Neuman relates, that in the making
of cinnabar by the Dutch method, fix or eight parts of
quickfilYer are made ufe of to one of fulphur. The
fulphur is firlt melted ; and then the quickfilver is ftir-
red into it; upon which they unite into a black mafs.
In this part of the procefs the mixture is very apt to
take fire of which it gives notice by fwelling up to
a great degree. The vefiel muft then be immediately
covered. The mafs being beaten to powder, is after¬
wards to be fublimed in large earthen jars almoft of
an equal widenefs from end to end ; thefe are hung in
a furnace by a ftrong rim of iron. When the matter
is put in, the mouth of the vefiel is covered, the fire
increafed by degrees, and continued for feveral hours,
till all the cinnabar has fublimed ; care being taken to
introduce at times an iron-rod to keep the middle
clear ; otherwife the cinnabar concreting there, and
flopping up the paflage, would infallibly burft the
vefltds.
The quantity of fulphur direCled in the common re¬
ceipts for making cinnabar is greatly larger than the
above ; being no lefs than one-third of the quantity of
quickfilver employed : accordingly it has been found,
that the fublimate, with fuch a large quantity of ful-
* phur, turned out of a blackifh colour, and required to
be feveral times fublimed before it became perfectly
red ; but we cannot help thinking, that by one gentle
liiblimation the fuperfluous fulphur might be feparated,
and the cinnabar become perfeiftly pure the fecond
time. Hoffman gives a curious method of making cin¬
nabar without fublimation ; by lhaking, or digefting
a little mercury with volatile tincture of fulphur : the
mercury readily imbibes the fulphur from the volatile
fpirit, and forms with it a deep red powder, not in¬
ferior in colour to the cinnabar prepared in the com¬
mon manner. Dr Lewis has found the common folu-
I S T R Y. Part II.
tions of fulphur by alkalies, or quicklime, to have a Practice
limilar effedt. This cinnabar will likewife be of a “
darker or lighter colour, according as the folution con¬
tains more or lefs fulphur. 475
Sulphur is a principal ingredient in gun-powder, pulvis ful*
(fee Gun-powder.) It alfo enters »he compofi- minans.
tion of the pulvis fulminans. This confifts of
three parts of nitre, two of the dry alkali of tartar,
and one part of fulphur, well ground together. If a
little quantity of this powder is laid on an iron-fpoon,
or fliovel, and llowly heated, it will explode, when it
arrives at a certain degree of heat, with aftonilhing
violence and noife. The moft probable opinion con¬
cerning this is, that the fixed air contained in the al¬
kali is, by the acid vapours adling upon and endea¬
vouring to expel it all at once, driven off with fuch
force, that a loud explofion is produced. 4-5
2. Phofphorus of Urine. This is a very inflammable Phofphorus
fubftance, compoled of phlogirton united with a cer- of urine,
tain acid, the propertiesof which we have already taken
notice of, n° 307—310. The preparation of it was
long a fecret, and only perfectly difcovered by Mr Mar-
graaff, who publilhed it in the Berlin Memoirs in 1743.
This procefs being by far the beft, and moft pra<5i:ica-
ble, we fliall content ourfelves with inferring it alone. 477
Two pounds of fal ammoniac are to be accurately Mr Mar-
mixed with four pounds of minium, and the mixture graafFs
diftilled in a glafs-retort; by which means a very pe- procefs for
netrating, cauftic alkaline fpirit will be obtained. . The ma ln&'
refiduum, after the diftillation, is a kind of plumbum cor-
neuvi ; n° 149.' This is to be mixed with nine or
ten pounds of extract of urine, evaporated to the con-
fiftence of honey. (Seventy or eighty gallons of urine
are required to produce this quantity of extra<5t.) The
mixture is to be made flowly in an iron' pot fet over
the fire, and the matter frequently ftirred. Half a
pound of powdered charcoal is then to be added, and
the evaporation continued till the whole is reduced
to a black powder. , This powder is to be put into a
retort; and urged with a graduated heat;, till it be¬
comes red hot, in order to expel all the volatile alkali,
fetid oil, and ammoniacal fait, that may be contained
in the mixture. After the diftillation, a black friable
refiduum remains, from which the phofphorus is to be
extra&ed by a fecond diftillation, and a ftronger heat.
Before it is fubjected to another diftillation, it may be
tried by throwing fome of it upon hot coals. If the
matter has been well prepared, a* fmell of garlic ex¬
hales from it, and a blue phofphorical flame is feen
undulating along the furface of the coals.
The matter is to be put into a good earthen retort,
capable of fuftaining a violent fire, Three quarters
of the retort are to be filled with the matter which is
to yield the phofphorus, and it is to be placed in a fur¬
nace capable of giving a ftrong heat. Mr Margraaff
divides the matter among fix retorts, fo that if any
accident happens to one, the whole matter is not loft.
The retorts ought to be well luted to a receiver of a;
moderate fize, pierced with a final! hole, and half full
of watei;; and a fmall wall of bricks muft be raifed be¬
tween the furnace and receiver, in order to guard
this veflel again!! heat, as much as poflible. The re¬
torts are to be heated by flow degrees for an hour and
an half; then the heat is to be increaied till the veflels
are
Part IT.
Practice
478
Re&ificati-
on of phof-
phorus.
P 47f
Ibmetimes
dangerous.
480
Liquid
phofpho-
rus.
481
Experi-
phofphorus
with fpirit
of wine.
CHEMISTRY.
1891
are red hot, when the phofphorus afcends in luminous
vapours. When the retort is heated till between a
red and white, the phofphorus paffes in drops, which
fall and congeal in the water at the bottom of the re¬
ceiver. This degree of heat is to be continued till
no more comes over. When a retort contains eight
pints or more, this operation continues about five
hours.
In the firft diftillation, phofphorus never paffes pure,
but is always of a blackilh colour, by reafon of its car¬
rying along with it fome part of the coal. From this,
however, it may be purified, by rectification in a fmall
glafs-retort, to which is luted a receiver half full of wa¬
ter. A very gentle heat is fufficient; becaufe phofphorus,
once formed, is very volatile ; and as the fuliginous
matter was raifed probably by the fixed air emitted
by the charcoal, in the inftant of its union with the
phofphorine acid, none of it can arife in a fecond di¬
ftillation.
The phofphorus is then to be divided into fmall
cylindrical rolls, which is done by putting it in glafs-
tubes immerfed in warm water ; for the phofphorus
is almoft as fufible as fuet. It takes the form of the
glafs-tubes; from which it may be taken out, when it
is cold and hardened. This muft be done under wa¬
ter, leaft the phofphorus fhould take fire.
This concrete continually appears luminous in a dark
place ; and by a very flight heat takes fire, and burns
far more vehemently than any other known fubftance.
Hence, it is neceffary to be very cautious in the di¬
ftillation of it; for if the receiver fhould happen to
break while the phofphorus is diftilling, and a little
flaming phofphorus fall upon the operator’s legs or
hands it would burn its way to the bone, in lefs than
three minutes. In this cafe, according to Mr Hellot,
nothing but urine will flop its progrefs.
Though phofphorus takes fire very readily by itfelf,
it does not inflame at all by grinding it with other
inflammable bodies, as camphor, gun-powder, or ef-
fential oils. In grinding it with nitre, fome luminous
flafhes are obferved; but the mixture never burns, un-
lefs the quantity of phofphorus be large in proportion
to the nitre : rubbed pretty hard on a piece of paper
or linen, it fets them on fire if they are rough, but
not if they are fmoolh. It fires written paper more
readily than fuch as is white, probably from the for¬
mer having more afperities. On grinding with iron-
filings, it prefently takes fire.
Oils ground with phofphorus, appear, like itfelf,
lumiqous in a temperately warm place ; and thus be¬
come a liquid phofphorus, which may be rubbed on
the hands, ire. without danger. Liquid phofphorus is
commonly prepared by grinding a little of the folid
phofphorus with oil of cloves, or rubbing it firft with
camphor, and this mixture with the oil. A luminous
amalgam, as it is called, may be obtained, by digeft-
ing a fcruple of folid phofphorus with half an ounce
of oil of lavender, and, when the phofphqrus begins
to diflblve and the liquor to boil, adding a drachm of
pure quickfilver ; then brilkly lhaking the glafs for five
or fix minutes, till they unite.
Redlified fpirit of wine, digefled on phofphorus,
extraCts a part of it, fo as to emit luminous flafhes on
being dropt into water. It is computed that one part
of phofphorus will communicate this property to Practice
600,000 parts of fpirit. The liquor is never obferved
to become luminous of itfelf, nor in any other circum-
ftance except that above mentioned. By digeftion for
fome months, the undiffolved phofphorus is reduced to
a tranfparent oil, which neither emits light, nor con¬
cretes in the cold. By wafhing with water, it is in
fome meafure revived ; acquiring a thicker confiftence,
and becoming again luminous, though in a lefs degree
than at firft. During this digeftion, the glafs is very
apt to bur ft. 482
Phofphorus is partially diflblved by expreffed oils ; With effen-
and totally, or almoft fo, in effential oils, and ether. an<*
When effential oils are faturated with it by heat, a acl s*
part of the phofphorus feparates, on ftanding in the
cold, in a cryftalline form. Concentrated fpirit of fait
has no aCtion on it. In diftillation, the fpirit rifes
firft, and the phofphorus after it unchanged. Spirit
of nitre diflblves it, and the diflblution is attended
with great heat and copious red fumes, fo that great
part of the fpirit diftils without the application of any
external heat, and the phofphorus at laft takes fire,
explodes, and burfts the veflels. Oil of vitriol, like-
wife, diflblves phofphorus, but not without a heat
fufficient to make the acid diffil. The diftilled liquor
is white, thick, and turbid; the refiduum is a whitifh
tenacious ipafs, which deliquiates, but not totally, in
the air. Phofphorus itfelf is refolved into an acid li¬
quor on being expofed two or three weeks to the air,
its inflammable principle feeming by degrees to be
diflipated.
Phofphorus has been reported to produce extraor¬
dinary effects in the refolution of metallic bodies: but
from the experiments that have been made with this
view, it does not appear to have any remarkable ac¬
tion on them ; at leaft on the precious ones, gold and
filver, for the refolution or fubtilization of which it
has been chiefly recommended. The following ex¬
periments were made by Mr Margraaff.
I. A fcruple of filings of gold were digefted with a Hr Mar-
drachm of phofphorus for a month, and then committed gra?ff’s ex*
to diffillation. Part of the phofphorus arofe, and part ^hmetals.
remained above the gold, in appearance refembling
glafs: this grew moift on the admiflion of air, and
diflblved in water, leaving the gold unaltered. Half
a drachm of fine filver, precipitated by copper,.being
digefled with a drachm of phofphorus for three hours,
and the fire then increafed to diftillation, greateft part
of the phofphorus arofe pure, and the filver remained
unchanged. Copper filings being treated in the fame
manner, and with the fame quantity of phofphorus,
the phofphorus fublimcd as before ; but the remaining
copper was found to have loft its metallic brightnefs,
and to take fire on the contact of flame. Iron filings
fuffered no change. Tin filings run into granules,
which appeared to be perfect tin. Filings of lead did
the fame. The red calx of mercury, callecf precipi¬
tate per fe, treated in the fame manner, was totally
converted into running quickfilver. 2. Regulus of an¬
timony fuffered no change itfelf, but occafioned a
change in the confiftence of the phofphorus, which,
after oeing diftilled from this femi-metal, refufed to *
congeal, and continued underwater, fluid like oil-olive.
With bifmuth there was no alteration. A drachm of
12 G 2 phofphorus
1892
Practice
484
Mr Can.
ton’s phof-
phorus.
485
Beft method
of prepar¬
ing.
CHEMISTRY.
Part II.
phofphorous being (Milled and cohobated with an
-equal quantity of zinc, greatelt part of the zinc fub-
limed in form of very .light pointed flowers, of a. red-
dilh-yellow colour : thefe flowers, injefted into a red
hot crucible, took fire, and run into a glafs refembling
that of borax. White arfenic, fublimed with phol-
phorus, arol’e along with it in form of a mixed red
fublimate. Sulphur readily unites with phofphorus,
into a mafs which fmells like /ityar fulphuris. This
does not eafily take fire on being rubbed ; but, expo-
fed to a moderate dry heat, it flames violently, and
emits a ftrong fulphureous fume. If phofphorus is
burnt in an open veflel, a quantity of acid remains
behind; and if a glafs bell is held over it, an acid like-
wife fublimes in the form of white flowers.
3. Mr Canton's phofphorus. This is a compofition
of quicklime and common fulphur. The receipt for
making it is as follows. “ Calcine fome common oyfter-
fhells, by keeping them in a good coal-fire for half an
hour ; let the pureft part of the calx be pulverized
and lifted. Mix with three parts of this powder, one
part of flowers of fulphur. Let this mixture be ram¬
med into a crucible of about an inch and a half in
depth, till it be almoft full; and let it be placed in the
middle of the fire, where it muft be kept red hot for
one hour at leaft, and then fet by to cool: when cold,
turn it out of the crucible; and cutting or breaking it
to pieces, fcrape off, upon trial, the brightell parts ;
which, if good phofphorus, will be a white powder.”
This kind of phofphorus fliines on being expofed to the
light of the fun, or on receiving an electrical Itroke.
4. Phofphorus of Homberg. This fnbftance, which
has the Angular property of kindling fpontaneoufly
when expofed to the air, was accidentally difcovered
by Mr Homberg, as he was endeavouring to diftil a
dear flavourlefs oil from human excrements. Having
mixed the excrement with alum, and dillilled over as
much as he could with a red heat, he was much fur-
prifed at feeing the matters left in the retort take
fire upon being expofed to the air, fome days after
the diftillation was over. This induced him to repeat
the operation, in which he met with the fame fuccefs;
and he then publilhed a procefs wherein he recom¬
mended alum and human excrement for the prepara¬
tion of the phofphorus. Since his time, however, the
procefs has been much improved; and it is difcovered,
that almoft every vitriolic fait may be fubftituted for
the alum, and moft other inflammable fubftances for
the excrement; but though alum is not abfolutely ne-
ceffary for the fuccefs, it is one of the vitriolic falts
that fucceed beft. The following procefs is recom¬
mended in the Chemical Didtionary.
Let three parts of alum and one of fugar be mix¬
ed together. This mixture muft be dried in an iron
fhovel, over a moderate fire, till it ,be almoft redu¬
ced to a blackifh powder or coal; during which time it
muft be ftirred with an iron fpatula. Any large maffes
muft be bruifed into pou der; and then it muft be put
into a glafs matrafs, the mouth of which is rather
flrait than wide, and feven or eight inches long. This
matrafs is to be placed in a crucible, or other earthen
veffel, large enough to contain the belly of th«? ma¬
trafs, with about a fpace equal to that of a finger all
round it. This fpace is to be filled with fand, lo that
the matrafs fhall not touch the earthen veffel. The Practice
apparatus is then to be put into a furnace, and the    
whole to be made red hot. The fire muft be applied
gradually, that any oily or fuliginous matter may be ex¬
pelled ; after which, when the matrafs is made red
hot, fulphureous vapours exhale : this degree of heat
is to be continued, till a truly fulphureous flame, which
appears at the end of the operation, has been feen
nearly a quarter of an hour : the fire is then to be ex-
tinguilhed, and the matrafs left to cool, without taking
it out of the crucible ; when it ceafes to be red hot, it
muft be flopped with a cork. Before the raatrafs is
perfectly cold, it muft be taken out of the crucible,
and the powder it contains poured as quickly as pof-
fible into a very dry glafs vial, with a glafs ftopper.
If we would preferve this phofphorus a long time, the
bottle containing it muft be opened as feldom as pof-
fible. Sometimes it kindles while it is pouring into
the glaft vial; but it may be then extinguilhed by
clofing the vial expeditioufly. A fmall quantity of
this pyrophorus laid on paper, and expofed to the air,
immediately takes fire, becomes red like burning coals,
and emits a ftrong fulphureous vapour greatly refem¬
bling that which arifes on decompofiug liver of fulphur.
The moft plaufible theory of this Arrange appear- Theory,
ance is, that, during the operation, part of the vitriolic
acid combines with the phlogiftou of the coal, into
perfedl fulphur ; while part remains imperfectly com¬
bined either with the phlogifton, or the earthy bafis
of the alum. This laft part, which is alfo exceeding¬
ly concentrated, probably attraCis the moifture of the
air fo ftrongly, as to produce the heat requillte for
kindling the coaly matter.
II. Ardent Spirits.
See Fermentation and Distillation.
III. Oils.
487
I. EJfential Oils. Thofe oils are called effcntial Eflentiat
which have evidently the fmell of the vegetable from oils,
which they are drawn. For the method of procuring
them, fee Distillation. They are diftinguifhed
from all others by their fuperior volatility, which is fa
great as to caufe them rife with the heat of boiling wa¬
ter. All thefe have a ftrong aromatic fmell, and an acrid,
cauftic tafte ; in which refpeCl alfo they differ from 4gg
other oils. This tafte is thought to proceed from a Suppofed
copious and difengaged acid, with which they are all xaufe of
penetrated. The prefence of this difengaged acid in theft tafle*
eflential oils, appears from the impreflion they make
upon the corks of bottles in which they are kept.
Thefe corks are always ftained of a yellow colour,
and a little corroded, nearly as they are by nitrous
acid. The vapour of thefe oils alfo reddens blue pa¬
per, and converts alkalies into neutral falts. 4g^
This acid is likewife fuppofed to be the caufe of Of their fo-
their folubility in fpirit of wine. They are not all lubility in
equally foluble in this menftruum, becaufe they do not *Pirit
all contain an equal quantity of acid. As this acid is
much difengaged, they lofe a great deal of it by re¬
peated diftiflations, and therefore they become lefs
and lefs foluble on being frequently diftilled. By e-
vaporation they lofe their moft volatile and thin part,
in which the Ipecific fmell of the vegetable from
which
Part II.
Practice
49°
Camphor.
491
Soluble hi
ardent fpi-
oil.
C H E M I
which they are extracted refides ; by v^hich lofs they
become thick, and acquire the i'mell and coniiilenee of
turpentine, and even of rtfins. In this ftate they are
no longer volatile with the heat of boiling water ;
and, if diftilled with a ftronger fire, they give over an
oil which has neither fmell nor tafte of the vegetable
whence they were extracted, but is entirely empy-
remnatic, and fimilar to thofe oils procured by diltil-
ling vegetable or animal fubftances with a itrorig fire.
See Distillation.
To the clafs of eflential oils, the volatile concrete
called camphor feems moft properly to belong. With
them it agrees in its properties of inflammability, fo-
Inbility in fpirit of wine, and a ftrong aromatic fla¬
vour. The only differences between them are, that
camphor is always in a folid ftate, and is incapable of
decompofition by any number of fublimations.
According to Neuman, all the camphor made ufe
of is the produce of two fpecies of trees; the one
growing in Sumatra and Borneo, the other in Japan.
Of thele, the Japan kind is the only one brought into
Europe. The tree is about the fize of a large lime,
the flowers white, and the fruit a fmall red berry.
All parts of the tree are impregnated with camphor ;
but the roots contain moft, and therefore are chiefly
made ufe of for the preparation of this commodity ;
though, in want of them, the wood and leaves are
fometimes mixed.
The camphor is extracted by diftillation with water
in large iron pots filled with earthen heads fluffed with
ftraw.; greateft part of the camphor concretes among
the ftraw, but part paffes down into the receiver a-
mong the water. In this ftate it is found in fmall bits
like gray fak-petre, or common bay-falt; and requires
to be purified either by a fecond fublimation, or by
diffolution in Ipirit of wine, filtration, and exficcation.
If the firft method is followed, there will be fome dif¬
ficulty in giving it the form of a perfect tranfparent
cake. A difficulty of this kind indeed always occurs
in fublimations, and the only way is to keep the up¬
per part of the glafs of fuch a degree of heat as may
keep the fublimate in a half-melted ftate. Dr Lewis
recommends the depuration of camphor by fpirit of
wine, and then melting it into a cake in the bottom of
a glafs.
Camphor poflefles eonfiderable antifeptic virtues;
and is a good diaphoretic without heating the confti-
tution, with which intention it is often ufed in medi¬
cine. It is likewife employed in fire-works and feve-
ral other arts, particularly in making varnifhes. See
Varnish.
This fubftance diflblves eafily and plentifully in vi¬
nous fpirits and in oils; four ounces of fpirit of wine
will diffolve three of camphor. On diftiiling the mix¬
ture, the fpirit rifes firft, very little camphor coming
over with it. This fhows that camphor, however
volatile it may feem by its fmell, is very far from ha¬
ving the volatility Of ether, and confequently is impro¬
perly clafled with fubftances of that kind. It is dif-
folved, but not altered in the leaft, by the ftrongeft
mineral acids; always leparatingfrom them in its pro¬
per form, on the affufion of water. It may however
be changed into a fluid oil by repeated diftillations from
bole or other loamy earths.
S T R Y.
2. Empyreumatic Oils,. Under this name are com¬
prehended all thofe oils, from whatever fubftance ob¬
tained, which require a greater heat for their diftil¬
lation than that of boiling water. Thefe are partial¬
ly foluble in fpirit of wine, and become more and more
fo by repeated diftillations. The empyreumatic oils
obtained from animal fnbftances are at firft more fetid
than thofe procured from vegetables ; but by repeated
diftillations, they become exceedingly attenuated and
volatile, becoming almoft as white, thin, and vola¬
tile, as ether. They then acquire a property of abiing
upon the brain and nervous fyftem, and of allaying its
irregular movements, which is common to them with
all other inflammable matters when highly attenuated
and very volatile ; but this kind of oil is particularly
recommended in epileptic and convulfive affedlions.
It is given from four to 10 or 12 drops : but, though
prepared with the utmoft care, it is veiy fufceptible of
loling its whilenefs, and even its thinnefs, by a fliort
expofure to air ; which proceeds from the almoft in-
ftantaneous evaporation of its more thin and volatile
parts, and from the property which the lefs volatile
remainder has of acquiring colour. To avoid this in¬
convenience, it muft be put, as foon as it is made, into
very clean glafs bottles with glafs ftoppers, and ex-
pofed to the air as little as poflible.
The moft: important obfervations concerning the
method of making the pure animal oil are, firft to
change the veflels at each diftillation, or at leaft to
make them perfeftly clean; for a very fmall quantity
of the thicker and lefs volatile part is fufficient to fpoil
a large quantity of that which is more redlified. In
the fecond place, Mr Beaume has obferved, that this
operation may be greatly abridged, by taking care to
receive none but the moft volatile part in each diftil¬
lation, and to leave a large refiduum, which is to be
negledled, and only the more volatile part to be fur¬
ther rediified. By this method a confiderable quan¬
tity of fine oil may be obtained at three or four diftil¬
lations, which could not otherwife be obtained at fifty
or fixty.
3. Animal Fats. Though thefe differ confiderably
from one another in their external appearance, and
probably in their medicinal qualities,, they afford, on a
chemical analyfis, products fimilar in quality, and dif¬
fering but inconfiderably in quantity. They all yield
a large proportion of oil, and no volatile fait; in which
refpect they differ from all other animal fubftances.
Two ounces of hog’s lard yielded, according to Neu¬
man, two drachms of an empyreumatic liquor, and one
ounce five drachms and 50 grains of a clear brown-
coloured oil of a volatile fmell, fomewhat like horfe-
radifh. The caput mortuum was of a fliining black co¬
lour, and weighed ro grains..
Tallow being diftilled in the fame manner, two
drachms of empyreumatic liquor were obtained from
two ounces of it; of a clear brown oil, fmelling like
horfe-radilh, one ounce fix drachms and 12 grains.
The remaining coal was of a fliining black colour, and
weighed 18 grains.
The marrow of bones differs a little from fats,
when chemically examined. Four ounces of frelh
marrow, diftilled in the ufual manner, gave over three
drachms and afcruple of a liquor which fmelled like tal¬
low ;
'893
492
Empyreti-
matic oils.
How i e&i»
tied.
.494.
Animal
fats.
495
Tallow.
1S94
C H E M I
Practice low; twofcruplesand an half of a liquor which had more
7 of an empyrdlimatic and a fourilh fmt ll; two ounces and
an half of a yellowilli-brown, butyraceous oil, which
1'melled like hqrfe-radifli; and fix drachms and an half
of a blackilh-brown oil of the fame fmell. The caput
mortuum weighed four fcruples.
All animal fats, when perfectly pure, burn totally
away without leaving any feces, and have no particu¬
lar fmell. In the ftate in which we commonly find
4<37 them, however, they are exceedingly apt to turn ran-
Randd oils cid,and emit a moft dilagreeable and noxious fmell; and
purified. t0 tjiey are peculiarly liable, when long kept in
a gentle degree of heat. Id this ftate, too, an inflam¬
mable vapour arifes from them, which when on fire is
capable of producing explofions. Hence, in thofe
works where large bellows are ufed, they have been
often fuddenly burft by the inflammable vapours ari-
fing from the rancid oil employed for fofteiiing the
leather. The exprefled umftuous oils of vegetables
are fubjedl to the fame changes: but from this ranci-
' dity they may all be freed moft effectually, by the Am¬
ple procefs of agitating them well with water; which
is to be drawn off, and frefli quantities added, till it
comes off, at laft, clear and infipid, without any ill fmell.
The proper inftrument for performing this operation in
large, is a barrel-churn, having in it four rows of nar¬
row iplit deals, from the center to the circumference,
each piece let at obtufe angles to the other, in order
to give different directions to the oil and water as the
churn turns round, thereby to mix them more inti¬
mately. The churn is to be fwiftly turned round for
a few minutes ; and muft then be left at reft, till the
oil and water have fully feparated ; which will be in
X 5 or 20 minutes, more or lefs, according to the fize
of the churn. When this water is drawn off, frelh
water is to be put in, and the churn again turned
round, and this continued till the oil is perfeClly
fweet. If the oil and water are allowed to ftand to¬
gether for fome days, a gelatinous fnbftance is found
between them, which is not very eafily mifcible either
with oil or water. Chalk, quicklime, and alkaline
falts, are found alfo capable of taking off the rancidity
from oils and flits; but have the inconvenience of de-
ftroying a part of their fubftance.
IV. Resins and Balsams.
Thefe are commonly reckoned to be compoled of
an effential oil thickened by an acid; as the effential
oils themfelves are found to be convertible into a fi-
milar fubftance, by the exhalation of their more vola¬
tile parts. True refins are generally tranfparent in a
confiderable degree; foluble in fpirit of wine ; and pof-
498 fie fled of a confiderable. degree of flavour.
Whence Refins are originally produced by infpiflating the
procured, natural juices which flow from incifions made in
the Items of growing vegetables, and are in that
ftate called balfams. The balfams may be confidered
as effential oils thickened by lofing fome of their
odoriferous principle, and of their fineft and rnoft vo¬
latile part. There are feveral kinds of balfams;
which, however, differ from each other only in the
fmell, and degree of confiftence ; and, therefore, all
yield fimilar produces on dillillation. An analyfis of
turpentine therefore will be fuflicient as an example
S T R Y. Partn-
of the analyfis and natural properties of all the reft. Practic_e
The true turpentine-tree is found in Spain and the 499
fouthern parts of France, as well as in the ifland of t;^gP^j0i
Chio and in the Indies. It is a middling fized ever¬
green tree, with leaves like thofe of the bay, bearing
purplifti, imperfect flowers; and, on feparate pedicles,
hard, umftuous berries, like thofe of juniper. It is ex¬
tremely refinous ; and, unlefs the refin is difcharged,
decays, produces fungous excrefcences, fwells, burfts,
and dies; the prevention of which confilts wholly in
plentiful bleeding, both in the trunk and branches.
The juice is the Chio or Cyprus turpentine of the
fhops. This fort is quite of a thick confiftence, of a
grcenifli white colour, clear and tranfparent, and of
fcarcely any tafte or fmell. 50®
The kind now called Venice turpentine, is no other Venice,
than a mixture of eight parts of common yellow or
black rofin with five parts of oil of turpentine. What
was originally Venice turpentine is now unknown.
Neuman relates, that the Venice turpentine fold in
his country was no other than that prepared from the
larix tree, which "grows plentifully in fome parts of
France, as alfo in Auftria, T'yrol, Italy, Spain, ire. Of
this there are two kinds; the young trees yielding a
thin limpid juice, refembling balfam of copaiba ; the
older, a yellower and thicker one. sot
The Strajburgh turpentine is extracted from the Strafburg.
filver-fir. Dr Lewis takes notice that fome of the ex¬
otic firs afford balfams, or refins, fuperior to thofe ob¬
tained from the native European ones; as particular¬
ly that called balm of Gilead fir, Which is Sow natu¬
ralized to our own climate. A large quantity of an
elegant refinous juice may be collefted from the cones
of this tree: the leaves alfo, when rubbed, emit a
fragrant fmell; and yield, w’ith rectified fpirit, an
agreeable refinous extraift. 502
The common turpentine is prepared from different Common,
forts of the pine ; and is quite thick, white, and opaque.
Even this is often counterfeited by mixtures of rofin
and common expreffed oils. 503
All the turpentines yield a confiderable proportion Phenome-
of elfential oil. From fixteen ounces of Venice tur- ’l*0!1
pentine, Neuman obtained, by diftillation with wa- tl atlon*
ter, four ounces, and three drachms of oil. The fame
quantity diftilled, without addition, in the heat of a
water bath, gave but two ounces and an half; and
from the refiduum treated with water, only an ounce
could be obtained. The water remaining in the ftill
is found to have imbibed nothing from the turpentine :
on the contrary, the turpentine is found to imbibe
part of the water; the refiduumtandthe oil amount¬
ing to a full ounce on the pound more than the tur¬
pentine employed. When turpentine is diftilled, or
boiled with water till it becomes folid, it appears yel-
lowilh; when the procefs is further continued, of a
reddifli brown colour : in the firft ftate, it is called
boiled turpentine; and in the latter, colophony, or
rofin. '
On diftilling fixteen ounces of turpentine in a re¬
tort with an open fire, increaled by degrees, we ob¬
tain firft four ounces of a limpid colourlefs oil; then
two ounces and two drachms of a yellowilh one;
four ounces and three drachms of a thicker yellow
oil; and two ounces and one drachm of a dark brown-
ifli
Part II.
Practicj
504
EfTential
oil difficult
of folution.
505
Benzoin.
; 506
Soluble in
jfpirit of
507
Flowers of
benzoin.
G H E M
ilh red empyreumatic oil, of the confiltence of balfam,
and commonly called baijam of turpentine. -
The limpid eflential oil caWeA fpirit of turpetitine,
is exceedingly difficult of folution in fpirit of wine ;
though turpentine itfelf diflblves with great eafe. One
part of the oil may indeed be dilfolved in feven parts
of rectified fpirit; but, on ftanding for fbme time,
the greateft part of the oil fubfides to the bottom, a
much greater proportion of fpirit being requifite to
keep it diffolved.
2. Benzoin.' This is a very brittle browniffi refin,
of an exceedingly fragrant fmell. The tree which
produces benzoin is a native of the Eaft Indies ; parti¬
cularly of Siam, and the iiland of Sumatra. It is ne¬
ver permitted to exceed the fixth year; being, after
this time, unfit for producing the benzoin. It is then
cut down, and its place fupplied by a young tree rai-
fed commonly from the fruit. One tree does not
yield above three pounds of benzoin.
A tree fuppofed to be the fame with that which af¬
fords benzoin in the Eaft Indies, is plentiful alfo in
Virginia and Carolina ; from whence it has been
brought into England, where it grows with vigour in
the open ground. The bark and the leaves have
the fmell of benzoin ; and yield with rectified fpirit a
refin of the fame fmell: but no refin has been obler-
ved to iffue from it naturally in this climate; nor has
any benzoin been collected from it in America.
Benzoin diffolves totally in fpirit of wine into a
blood-red liquor, leaving only the impurities, which
commonly amount to no more than a fcruple on an
ounce. To water, it gives out a portion of faline mat¬
ter of a peculiar kind, volatile and fublimable in the
fire; and'which is moft effeiftually freed by fublima-
tion.
This fubftance, called flowers of benzoin, is beft pre¬
pared by moiftening benzoin, grofsly powdered, with
fpirit of wine ; and then proceeding to diftillation with
a very gentle heat, in a wide-necked glafs-retort.
The flowers arife immediately after the fpirit, partly
in a concrete faline form, and partly in that of a white
butter. The receiver being now changed, and the fire
increafed, a fmall portion of brown-coloured flowers
fublimes ; followed, firft, by a fubtile oil; afterwards
by a brownifh oil; and laft of all by a black, thick, em¬
pyreumatic one, together with an acid fpirit. If the
flowers and butter be diffolved in diftilled water, over
a gentle fire, the folution filtered, and fet in the cold,
the faline matter fhoots into cryftalline concretions of
a fine filver whitenefs; this fait, like tartar, being dif¬
ficult of folution; and, when diffolved in hot water,
feparating again as the liquor cools. The diffolution
and filtration fhould be performed as expeditioufly,
and the veflel kept as much covered, as poffible, to
prevent any confiderable diflipation of the volatile
matter. The fait ftill retains, even after this purifi¬
cation, a portion of oil;, as appears from its penetra¬
ting fmell, and from its burning in the fire. The fpi¬
rit of wine, u'hich arifes at firft in the diftillation, is
impregnated with a little of the fait. The oil which
follows the flowers, re-diftilled from earthy powders,
or with water, may be ufed as an eflential oil of ben¬
zoin ; for it has little or nothing of an empyreumatic
taint. From 16 ounces of benzoin are obtained two
I S T R Y. 1895
ounces of rough flowers, nine ounces of oil, and feven Practice
fcruples of an acid fpirit. The refiduum weighs two "
ounces and an half.
The principal ufe of refins is in the making of lac¬
quers, varniflies, ire. See Varnish.
V. Bi t u m e n s.
Thefe are inflammable mineral bodies, not fulphu-
reous, dr only cafually impregnated with fulphur.
They are of various degrees of confiftency; and feem,
in the mineral kingdom, to correfpond with the oils
and refins in the vegetable. 50g
Concerning the origin of bitumens, chemifts are not Origin of
at all agreed. Some chemical writers, particularly bitumens.
Mr M.icquer, imagine bitumens to be no other than
vegetable refins altered in a particular manner by the
admixture of fome of the mineral acids in the earth ;
but Dr Lewis is of a contrary opinion, for the follow¬
ing reafons.
“ Mineral bitumens are very different in their qua¬
lities from vegetable refins ; and, in the mineral king¬
dom, we find a fluid oil very different from vege¬
table oils. The mineral oil is changed by mineral a-
cids into a fubftance greatly refembling bitumens; and
the vegetable oils are changed by the fame acids into
fubftances greatly refembling the natural refins.”
(Here we cannot help differing from the Doctor, as
we have never feen or heard of any inftance of fuch
a change taking place, on mixing a mineral acid
with any vegetable oil, either expreffed or diftilled.}:
“ From bitumens we obtain, by diftillatidn, the mine¬
ral oil, and from refins the vegetable oil, diftinft in
their qualities as at firft. Vegetable oils and refins
have been treated with all the known mineral acids;.
but have never yielded any thing fimilar to the mine¬
ral bitumens. It feems, therefore, as if the oily pro-
duifts of the two kingdoms were eflentially and fpeci-
fically different. The laws of chemical inquiries at
leaft demand, that we do not look upon them any
otherwife, till we ar? able to produce from one a fub¬
ftance fimilar to the other. When this fliall be done,
and not before, the prefumption that nature effects the
fame change in the bowels of the earth, will be of
fome weight.” 509
There is a perfectly fluid, thin bitumen, or mine- Naphtha.,
ral oil, called naphtha, clear and colourlefs as cryftal;
of a ftrong fmell; extremely fubtile; fo light as to fwim
on all known liquors, ether perhaps excepted ; fpread-
ing to a vaft furface on water, and exhibiting rain¬
bow-colours ; highly inflammable : formerly made ufe
of in the compofition of the fuppofed inextinguilhable
greek fire. 5r»
Next to this in confiftence is the oleum petra, or pe- Petroleum,.
troleunt; which is grolfer and thicker than naphtha,
of a yellowifh, reddifli, or brownilh colour ; but very
light, fo as to fwim even on fpirit of wine. By diftilla¬
tion, the petroleum becomes thinner and more fubtile, a
grofs matter being left behind ; it does not, however,
eafily arife, nor does it totally lofe its colour by this
procefs, without particular managements or additions.
Both naphtha and petroleum are found plentifully
in fome parts of Perfia, trickling through rocks, or
fwimming on the furface of waters. Kempfer gives
an account of two fprings near Baku; one affording
naphtha*
1896
Pr actice naphtha, which it receives in drops from fubterrane-
ous veins; the other, a blackilh and more fetid pe¬
troleum, which comes from Mount Caucafus. The
naphtha is collected for making varnhhes; the petro¬
leum is colledied in pits, and lent to different places
for lamps and torches.
Native petrolea are likewife found in many differ¬
ent places, but are not to be: had in the fhops; what
is fold there for petroleum, being generally oil of tur¬
pentine coloured with alkanet root. The true naph¬
tha is recommended againft diforders of the nerves,
pains, cramps, and contractions of the limbs, ire.; but
genuine naphtha is rarely or never brought to this
country.
There are fome bitumens, fuch as amber, amber-
greafe, pit-coal, and jet, perfectly folid ; others, fuch
as Barbadoes tar, of a middle confiftence between
fluid and folid. Turf and peat are likewife thought
5x1 to belong to this clafs.
Amber. 1. Amber. This fubftance melts, and burns in the
fire, emitting a ftrong peculiar fmell. Diftilled in a
ftrong heat, it yields a phlegm; an oil; and a particu¬
lar fpecies of acid fait, (n° 313,-315). The diflillation
is performed in earthen or glafs-retorts, frequently
with the addition of fand, fea-falt, coals, Crr. which
may break the tenacity of the melted mafs, fo as to
keep it from fwelling up, which it is apt to do by it-
felf. Thefe additions, however, make a perceptible
difference in the produce of the diflillation : with fome,
the fait proves yellowifh and dry ; with others,
brownilh or blackilh, and unCluous or foft like an ex¬
tract : with fome, the oil is throughout of a dark-brown
colour; with others, it proves externally green, or
greenilh ; with elixated allies, in particular, it is of a line
green. The quantity of oil and phlegm isgreateft when
512 coals are tiled, and that of fait when fea-falt is ufed.
Moftadvan- The moll advantageous method of diflilling amber,
however, is without any addition; and this, is the me-
withovrt ad- t'10c' ‘n ^ru^a> whel'e the greatell quantities of
dition. fak and oil of amber are made. At firfl a phlegma¬
tic liquor dillils ; then a fluid oil; afterwards one that
is thicker and more ponderous; and lall of all, an oil
Hill more ponderous along with the fait. In order to
coiled the fait more perfectly, the receiver is fre¬
quently changed; and the phlegm, and light oil, which
arife at firll, are kept by themfelves. The fait is pu¬
rified, by being kept fome time on bibulous paper,
which abforbs a part of the oil; and changing the pa¬
per as long as it receives any oily llain. For the fur-
tlier depuration as well as the nature of this fait, fee
Succinum.
Amber- 2. Ambergrcafe. This concrete, which is only ufed
greafe. as a perfume, yields, on dillillation, products of a fimi-
lar nature to that of amber, excepting that the vola-
514 tile fait is in much lefs quantity. See Ambergrease.
Pit-coal. 3. Pit-coal. [See the articles Coaleries and
Lithanthrax]. This fubftance yields by diftil-
lation, according to the tranllator of the Chemical
Dictionary, x. a phlegm, or water ; 2. a very a-
cid liquor ; 3. a thin oil, like naphtha ; 4. a thicker
oil, refembling petroleum, which falls to the bottom
of the former, and which riles with a violent fire ;
5. an acid, concrete fait; 6. at: uninflammable earth,
(we fuppofe he means a piece of charred coal, or cin-
Partll.
der), remains in the retort. The fluid oil obtained Practice
from coals is faid to be exceedingly inflammable, fo as ‘
to burn upon the furface of water, like naphtha itfelf. 5x5
4. Peat. There are very confiderable difl'erences Peat,
in this fubftance, proceeding probably from the ad¬
mixture of different minerals : for the fubftance of
peat is plainly of vegetable origin; whence it is found
to anfwer for the fmelting of ores, and the reduClion
of metallic calces, nearly in the fame manner as coals
of wood. Some forts yield, in burning, a very difa-
greeable fmell, which extends to a great diftance ;
whilft others are inoffenfive. Some burn into grey
or white, and others into red, ferruginous allies. The
alhes yield, on elixation, a fmall quantity of alkaline,
and fome neutral fait. 516
The fmoke of peat does not preferve or harden Phenomena
flelh like that of wood ; and the foot into which it °.n ddtilla-
condenfes is more apt to liquefy in moift weather. On tl0n’
diltilling peat in clofe veffels, there arifes a clear in-
fipid phlegm; an acid liquor; which is fucceeded by an
alkaline one, and a dark-coloured oil. The oil has a*
very pungent tafte, and an empyreumatic fmell ; lefs
fetid than that of animal fubftances, but more fo than
that of mineral bitumens. It congeals, in the coldj
into a pitchy mafs, which liquefies in a fmall heat: it’
readily catches fire from a candle ; but burns lefs vehe¬
mently than other oils, and immediately goes out up¬
on removing the external flame. It difl'olves almoft
totally in rectified fpirit of wine, into a dark, brownifh-
red, liquor.
VI. Charcoal. ji7
This is the form to which all inflammable matters Differences
are reducible, by being fubjedted to the moft vehe- between the
ment adlion of fire in clofe veffels ; but though all the coals of dif-
coals are nearly fimilar to one another in appearance, u “
there is neverthelefs a very confiderable difference
among them as to their qualities. Thus the charcoal
of vegetables parts with its phlogifton very readily,
and is eafily reducible to white allies; charred pit-
coal, or, as it is commonly called, coak, much more
difficultly; and the coals of burnt animal-fubftances,
far more difficultly than either of the two. Mr Mac-
quer acquaints us, that the coal of bullock’s blood parts
with its phlogifton with the utmoft difficulty. He
kept it very red, in a {hallow crucible, furrounded with
charcoal, for fix hours and more, ftirring it conftantly
that it might be all expofed to the air, without being
able to reduce it to white, or even grey alhes. It ftill
remained very black, and full of phlogifton. The
coals of pure oils, or concrete oily fubftances, and foot,
which is a kind of coal raifed during the inflammation
of oils, are as difficultly burnt as animal coals. Thefe
coals contain very little faline matter, and their alhes
furnilli no alkali. Thefe coals, which are fo difficultly
burnt, are alfo lefs capable of inflaming with nitre
than others more combuftible ; and fome of them, in
a great meafure, refill even the a cl ion of nitre itfelf. ^ jg
Charcoal is the moft refractory fubftance in nature; Charcoal
no inftance having been known of its ever being melt- perfeftly
ed, or Ihewing the lead difpofition to fufion, either refra<fteT'
by itfelf, or with additions: hence, charcoal is found
to be the moft proper fupport for fuch bodies as are
to be expofed to the focus of a large burning glafs.
The
CHEMISTRY.
Part II. C H E M I S T R Y. 1897
Practice The only true folvent of churcovA k heparfulphuris.
See n° 325.
The different quantities of phlogifton contained in
different coals, and perhaps fome other circumitances,
render fome kinds of charcoal much leis fit to be ufed
in reviving metals from their calces, or in fmelting
them originally from their ores. The coals of vege¬
table fiibltances are found to anfwer belt for this pur-
pol'e. See Metallurgy.
Sect. V. Vegetable and Animal Subftances.
The only fubftances afforded by vegetables or ani¬
mals, which we have not yet examined, are the muci¬
laginous, or gummy ; and the colouring parts obtained
by ihfiifion, or boiling in water. The la.ll of thefe are
treated of under the article Colour- Making, to
which we refer ; and in this fedtion fliall only confi-
519 der the nature of mucilage, or gum.
Mucilage. The mucilage of vegetables is a clear tranfparent
fubltance, which has little or no taffe or fmell, the
confiltence of which is thick, ropy, and tenacious,
when united with a certain quantity of fupera-
bundant water. It is entirely and intimately fo-
■ luble in water, and contains no difengaged acid or al¬
kali.
When mucilage is diffolved in a large quantity of
water, is does not fenfibly alter the conliitence of the
liquor: but, by evaporation, the water grows more
and more thick; and, at laft, the matter acquires the
confiftence of gum-arabic, or glue ; and this without
lofing its tranfparency, provided a heat not exceed-
520 jug that of boiling water has been ufed.
Phenome- Gums, and folid mucilages, when well dried and
tilladon very hard, are not liquefied in the fire like refins, but
fw'ell, and emit many watery fumes; which are, at
firfi:, watery; then oily, fuliginous, and acrid. Diftil-
led in clofe veffels, an aqueous acid liquor comes over,
CHE
CHEMNITZ (Martin), a famous Lutheran divine,
the difciple of Mtlandlhon, was born at Britzen in
Brandenburg, in 1522. He was employed in feveral
important negociations by the princes of the fame
communion ; and died in 1389. His principal work is,
the Examen of the Council of Trent, in Latin.
CHEMOSH. See Chamos.
CHEMOSIS, a difeafe of the eyes, proceeding from
an inflammation; wherein the white of the eye Ewells
above the black, and overtops it to fuch a degree, that
there appears a fort of gap between them. Others
define it to be an elevation of the membrane which
furrounds the eye, and is called the white; being an
affection of the eye, like white fleffi.
CHENOPODIUM, Goose-koot, or Wild O-
rach ; a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the
pentandria clafs of plants. There are 18 fpecies, 13 of
which are natives of Britain. The moft remarkable are
the following: 1. The bonus henricus, or common En-
glifli mercury, found growing naturally in fhady lanes
in many places in Britain. It has large triangular, ar-;
row-pointed, entire leaves; upright, thick, flriated
italks, garnWhed with triangular leaves, and terminated
by dole fpikes of apetaious yeilowifli-gre.en flowers
VOL. III.
along with an empyreumatic oil, as from other vege- Ptractioe
table fubflances ; a confiderable quantity of coal re- 
mains, which burns to allies with difficulty.
Mucilages and gums are not foluble either by oils,
fpirit of wine, alkalies, or acids, except in fo far as
they diflblve in thefe liquors by means of the water
in which the alkali or acid are diffolved. They are,
however, the moll e fie dual means of uniting oil with
water. Three parts of mucilage, poured upon one
part of oil, will incorporate with it by trituration or
agitation; and the compound will be foluble in water.
Vegetable gums are ufed in medicine, as w’dl as the
mechanic arts: but the particular lifts to which each
of them is applicable, will be mentioned under the
name of each particular gum.
The mucilage obtained from animal fubftances, jeiiy ailj
when not too thick, is called jelly, ov gelatinous mat- glue.
ter; when further infpiffated, the matter becomes
quite folid in the cold, and is called glue. If the eva¬
poration is ftill further continued, the matter acquires
the confiftence of horn.
This gelatinous fubftance feems to be the only true
animal one; for all parts of the body, by long conti¬
nued boiling, are reducible to a jelly, the hardeft
bones not excepted. Animal jelly, as well as vege¬
table mucilage, is almoft infipid and inodorous; but,
though it is difficult to deferibe the difference betwixt
them when apart, it is very eafily perceived when
they are both together. Acids and alkalies, particu¬
larly the latter, diflblve animal jellies with great eafe ;
but the nature of thefe combinations is not yet under-
flood. The other properties of this fubftance are
common to it with the vegetable gums, except only
that the animal mucilage forms a much ftronger ce¬
ment than any vegetable gum ; and is therefore much
employed for mechanical purpofes, under the name of
glue. , See Glue, and Isinglass..
C H E
in June and July, which are fucceeded by ripe feeds
in Auguft. 2. The fcoparia, belvedere, or annual
mock-cyprefs. The merit of this coafilts in its beauti¬
ful pyramidal form, refembling a young cyprefs tree.
3. The botrys, or oak of Jerufalem. 4. The ambro-
foides, or oak of Cappadocia. All thefe are very
eafily propagated from feeds; and will thrive beft in
a rich light earth. Moft of the fpecies have an aro¬
matic fmell. A fpecies which grows near the Medi¬
terranean is ufed by the Egyptians in faflads, on ac¬
count of its faltifh aromatic tafte. From the fame
plant, kelp is made in other countries. The firft fpe¬
cies, or Engliih mercury, was formerly ufed as fpi-
nach; but is now difufed, as being greatly inferior
to that herb. As an article of the materia medica, it
is ranked among the emollient herbs, but rarely made
ufe of in practice. The leaves are applied by the
common people for healing flight wounds, deanfing
old ulcers, and other like purpofes. The roots are
given to flteep that have a cough. Goats and fheep
are not fond of the herb ; cows, horfes, and fwine
refufe it.
CHEPELIO, an ifland in the bay of Panama and
province of Darien, in South America, lituated about
11 H three
Chepftou
Chernies.
CHE [ 1898 ] CHE
three leagues from the city of Panama, which it fup-
plies with provifions. W. Long. 8i°. N. Lat. 90.
CHEPSTOW, a market-town of Monmoufhfhire
in England, feated on the river Wye near its mouth,
in W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 51. 40.
CHEQy or Ch erif, the prince of Mecca, who is,
as it were, high prieft of the law, and fovereign pon¬
tiff of all the Mahometans of whatever left or country
they be. See Califh.
The grand fignior, fophis, moguls, khans of Tarta¬
ry, <£rr. fend him yearly prefents, efpecially tapeftry
to cover Mahomet’s tomb withal, together with a
fumptuous tent for himfelf, and vaft fums of money
to provide for all the pilgrims during the I 7 days of
their devotion.
CHERASCO, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Italy, in Piedmont, and capital of a territory of the
fame name, with a ftrong citadel belonging to the
king of Sardinia, where he retired in 1706, during
the fiege of Turin. It is feated at the confluence of
the rivers Sturia and Tanaro, upon a mountain. E.
Long. 7. 55. N. Lat. 44. 35.
CHERBURG, a fea-port town of France, in Nor¬
mandy, with a harbour and Auguftine abbey. It is
remarkable for the fea-fight between the Englifh and
French fleets in 1692, when the latter were beat, and
upwards of twenty of their men of war burnt near
Cape la Hogue. The Britifh landed here in Auguft
175S, and took the town, with the fliips in the bafon,
demolifhed the fortifications, and ruined the other
works which had been long carried on for enlarging
the harbour and rendering it more fafe and conveni¬
ent. E. Long. 1. 38. N. Lat. 49. 38.
CHEREM, among the Jews, is ufed to fignify a
fpecies of annihilation. See Annihilation.
The Hebrew word cherem, fignifies properly to
“ deftroy, exterminate, devote, or anathematife.”
Cherem is likewife fometimes taken for that which
is confecrated, vowed, or offered to the Lord, fo that
it may no longer be employed in common or profane
ufes. No devoted thing that a man fhall devote unto
the Lord, of all that he hath of man and beaft, and
of the Held of his pofleflion, fhall be fold or redeemed ;
every devoted thing is rboft holy to the Lord : none
devoted, which fhall be devoted of men, fhall be re¬
deemed, but fhall fureiy be put to death. There are
feme who afl'ert that the perfons thus devoted were
put to death ; whereof Jephtha’s daughter is a me¬
morable example.. Judg. xi. 29, tec.
Chere.m is alfo ufed for a kind of excommunica¬
tion in ufe among the Jews. See Nidbui.
CHERESOUL, or Chahrzul, a town of Turky
in Afia, capital of Curdiflan, and the feat of a beg-
lerbeg. E* Long. 45. 15. N. Lat. 36. o.
CHERILUS, of Samos, a Greek poet, flourifhed
479 years before ChrifL He fung the victory gained
by the Athenians over Xerxes,, and was rewarded
with a piece of gold for every verfe. His poem had
afterwards the honour of being rehcarfed yearly with
the works of Homer.
C H ERLESQUI OR, in Turkifh affairs, denotes a
lieutenant general of the grand fignior’s armies.
CHERMES, in zoology, a genus of infedts belong¬
ing to the order of infecta hemiptera. The roftrum
is fituate on the breaft; the feelers are longer than the Chermes
breafl; the four wings are defledted; the breaft is #
gibbous; and the feet are of the jumping kind. There Cherutv
are 17 fpecies; and the trivial names are taken from
the plants which they frequent, as the chermes gra-
minis, or grafs-bug; the chermes ulmi, or elm-bug, dSfc.
Chermes Mineral. See Kermes.
CHERRYiisland, an ifland in the northern ocean,
lying between Norway and Greenland, in E. Long.
20. 5. N. Lat. 75. o.
CherrY-7Vi?<?, in botany. See Prunes.
CHERSO, an ifland in the gulph of Venice, with
a town of the fame name near Croatia, belonging to
the Venetians. The air is good, but the foil ftony;
however, it abounds in wine, cattle, oil, and excel¬
lent honey. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 45. 8.
CHERSONESUS, among modern geographers, the
fame with a peninfula *. In ancient geography, it * See fY»
was applied to feveral peninfulas; as the Cherfonefus »*'«/»/"-
Aurea, Cimbrica, Taurica, and Thracia, now thought
to be Malacca, Jutland, Crim Tartary, and Romania.
CHERTSEY, a market-town of Suit ey in England,
about feven miles weft from Kingfton-upon Thames.
W. Long. 30'. N. Lat. 51. 2J.
CHERUB, (plural. Cherubim) ; a celeflial fpirit,
which in the hierarchy is placed next to the feraphim.
See Hierarchy.
The term cherub in Hebrew, is fometimes taken;
for a calf or ox. Ezekiel lets down the face of a che¬
rub as fynonymous to the face of an ox. The word.
cherub in Syriac and Chaldee, fignifies to till or plotut
which is the proper work of oxen. Cherub alio fig¬
nifies jlroiig and powerful. Grotius fays, that the
cherubim were figures much like that of a calf. Bo-
chart thinks likewife, that the cherubim were more
like to the figure of an ox than to any thing befides;
and Spencer is of the fame opinion. Lallly, St John, in
the Revelations, calls cherubim beafls. Jofephus fays,
the cherubim were extraordinary creatures, of a fi¬
gure unknown to mankind. Clemens of Alexandria
believes, that the Egyptians imitated the cherubim of
the Hebrews in the reprefentations of their fphinxes
and their hieroglyphical animals. All the feveral dc-
fcriptiojis which the Scripture gives us of cherubim
differ from one another; but all agree in reprefenfing
them as a figure compofed of various creatures, as a
man, an ox, an eagle, and a lion. Such were the
cherubim deferibed by Ezekiel. Thofe which Ifaiah
faw, and are called feraphim by him, had the figure
of a man with fix wings; with two whereof they
covered their faces, with two more they covered’
their feet, and with the two others they flew.
Thofe which Solomon placed in the temple of Jernfa-
lem, are fuppofed to have been nearly of the Tame
form. Thole which St John deferibes in the Reveln--
tions, were all eyes before and behind, and had each
fix wings. The firft was in the form of a lion, the
fecond in that of a calf, the third of a man, and the
fourth of an eagle. The figure of the cherubim was-
not always uniform, fince they are differently deferi¬
bed in the fhapes of men, eagles, oxen, lions, and in
a compofition of all thefe figures put together. Mofes
likewife calls thefe fymbolical or hieroglyphical re¬
prefentations, which were embroidered on the veils
e£
CHE [ 1899 ] CHE
Chervil of the tabernacle, cherubim of coftly work. Such
. were the fymbolical figures which the Egyptians pla-
- -'ne' ced at the gates of their temples, and the images of
the generality of their gods, which were commonly
nothing but ftatues compofed of men and animals.
CHERVIL, in botany. See Ch-ZErophyllum.
CHESHIRE, a maritime county of England, bound¬
ed by Lancalhire on the north; Shroplhire and part
of Flintfliire, on the fouth ; Derbylhire and Stafford-
fhire, on the eaft and fouth-eaft; and Denbighlhire, and
part of Flintlhire, bn the weft and north-weft. It ex¬
tends in length about 44 miles, in breadth 25; and is
fuppofed to contain 125,000 inhabitants. Both the
air and foil in general are good; In many places of
the country are peat-moffes, in which are often found
trunks of fir-trees, fometimes feveral feet under
ground, that are ufed by the inhabitants both for fuel
and candles. Here alfo are many lakes and pools well
ftored with fifh ; belides the rivers Merfee, Weaver,
and Dee, which laft falls into a creek of the Irifli
fea near Chefter. This county alfo abounds with
Wood; but what it is chiefly remarkable for, is its
cheefe, which has a peculiar flavour, generally thought
not to be inferior to any in Europe. Many conjec¬
tures have been formed concerning the reafon of this
• Political flavour ; but Dr Campbell *, with great probability,
GHkhafn afcribeS it to the fait-rocks which abound here, and
I.'326. ’ which a great quantity is annually lent to Liver¬
pool, to be there manufactured into fait. As a proof
of this, he tells us, that as the brine-fpring at Nampt-
wich is the richeft in the whole county, and produces
the faireft fait; fo the town and its neighbourhood is
remarkable for the beft cheefe in all Chefliire. The
principal towns are Chefter the capital, Cholmondely,
Namptwich, trc.
William the Conqueror ereCted this county into a
palatinate, or county-palatine, in favour of his nephew
Hugh Lupus, to whom he granted the fame fove-
reignty and jurifdiClion in it that he himfelf had in
the reft of the ifland. By virtue of this grant, the
town of Chefter enjoyed fovereign jurifdiiftion with¬
in its own precinCts; and that in fo high a degree,
that the earls held parliaments, confifting of their
barons and tenants, which were not bound by the aCts
of the Englilh parliament: but this exorbitant power
of the palatinates was at laft reduced by Henry VIII.;
however, all cafes and crimes, except thofe of error,
foreign-plea, foreign-voucher, and high-treafon, are
ftill heard and determined within the fhire. The earls
were anciently fuperiors of the whole county, and all
the land-holders wore mediately or immediately their
vaffals, and under the like fovereign allegiance to
them as they were to the kings of England ; but the
earldom was united to the crown by Edward III. fince
which time, the eldeft Tons of kings of England have
always been earls of Chefter, as well as princes of
Wales. Cbefhire fends four members to parliament j
two for the county, and two for the capital.
CHESNE (Andrew du), ftyled the father of French
hiftory, was born in 1584. He wrote, r. A hiftory
of the popes. 2. An hiftory of England. 3. An in¬
quiry into the antiquities of the towns of France. 4.
An hiftory of the cardinals. 5. A bibliotheca of the
authors who have written the hiftory and topogra¬
phy of France, be. He was crulhed to death by a Chcfiiut
cart, in going from Paris to his country-fioufe at Ver- II
riere, in 1640. c '>er°'
CHESNUT-tree. See Fagus.
CHESS, an ingenious game performed with diffe¬
rent pieces of wood, on a board divided into 64 fquares
or houfes; in which chance has fo fmall a fhare, that
it may be doubted whether a perfon ever loft a game
but by his own fault.
Each gamefter has eight dignified pieces, viz. a
king, a queen, two bifhops, two knights, and two
rooks, alfo eight pawns: all which, for diftinction’s
fake, are painted of two different colours, as white
and black.
As to their difpofition on the board, the white king
is to be placed on the fourth black houfe from the.
corner of the board, in the firft and lower rank; and
the black king is to be placed on the fourth white houfe
on the oppolite, or adverfary’s end of the board. The
queens are to be placed next to the kings, on houfes
of their own colour. Next to the king and queen,
on each hand, place the two bifhops ; next to them,
the two knights; and laft of ail, on the corners of the
board, the two rooks. As to the pawns, they are
placed without diftimilion, on the fecond rank of the
houfe, one before each of the dignified pieces.
Having thus difpofed the men, the onfet is com¬
monly begun by the pawns, which march ftraight for¬
ward in their own file, one houfe at a timej except
the firft move, when it can advance two houfes, but
never moves backwards: the manner of their taking
the adverfary’s men, is fide-ways, in the next houfe
forwards; where having captivated the enemy, they
move forward as before. The rook goes forward or
crofs-ways through the whole file, and back again.
The knight fkips backward and forward to the next
houfe, fave: one, of a different colour, with a fidling
march, or a Hope, and thus kills his enemies that fall
in his way, or guards his friends that may be expofed
on that fide. The bifhop walks always in the fame
colour of the field that he is placed in at firft, forward
and backward, aflope, or diagonally, as far as he lifts.
The queen’s walk is more univerfal, as fhe takes all
the fteps of the before mentioned pieces, excepting
that of the knight ; and as to the king’s motion, it is
one houfe at a time, and that, either forward, back¬
ward, Hoping, or fide-ways.
As to the value of the different pieces, next to the
king is the queen, after her the rooks, then the bi-
fliops, and laft of the dignified pieces comes the knight.
The difference of the worth of pawns, is not fb great
as that of noblemen ; only, it muft be obferved, that
the king’s bifhop’s pawn is the beft in the field, and
therefore the fkilful gamefter will be careful of him.
It ought alfo to be obferved, that whereas any man
may be taken, when he falls within the reach of any
of the adverfary’s pieces, it is otherwife with the king,
who, in fuch a cafe, is only to be fainted with the
word check, warning him of his danger, out of which
it is abfolutely neceflary that he move ; and, if it fo
happen that he cannot move without expofing himfelf
to the like inconveniency, it is check-mate, and the
game is loft.
Sarrafmhasan exprefs treatife on the different opi-
11 H 2 nions
CHE [ iqoo ] CHE
Chefs nions of the origin of the Latin fchacchi, whence the
fl French ethccs, and our chefs, is formed. Menage is
Cheih alfo very full on the fame head. Leunclavius takes it
to come from Ufcoches, famous Turkifh robbers : P.
Sirmond, from the German fcachhe, “"theft;” and that
from calculus. He takes chefs to be the fame with
the luclus latrunculorum of the Romans, but mif-
takenly. This opinion is countenanced by Voffius
and Salmafius, who derive the word from calculus,
as ufed for lutrunculus. G. Tolofanus derives it from
the Hebrew,/r/W/1, vallavit et ?nat mortuus; whence
check and check-mate. Fabricius fays, a celebrated
Perfian aftronomer, one Schatrenfcha, invented the
game of chefs; and gave it his own name, which it
Hill bears in that country. Nicod derives it from
fcheque, or xeque, a Moorilh word for lord, king, and
prince. Bochart adds, that fcach is originally Perfian ;
and that fcachmat, in that language, fignifies the king
is dead.—The opinion of Nicod and Bochart, ^vhich is
likewife that of Scriverius, appears the moft probable.
Donatus, on Terence’s Eunuch, obferves, that
Pyrrhus, the moft knowing and expert prince of his
age at ranging a battle, made ufe of the men at chefs
to form his deligns, and to fhew the fecrets thereof
to others. Vopifcus, in his life of Proculus, informs
us, that one of the Roman emperors had the title Au-
guftus given him, becaule of his gaining ten games at
chefs fucceffively. Tamerlane is recorded as a very
expert gamefter at chefs.—Chefs is doubtlefs a moft
ancient and univerfal game : the common opinion is,
that it was invented by Palamedes at the fiege of
Troy. Others attribute the invention to Diomedes,
who lived in the time of Alexander : the romance of
the Rofe aferibes it to one Attains ; but the truth is,
the game is fo very ancient, there is no tracing its
author. In China, it makes a confiderable part of the
education of their maids ; and Teems to take the
place of dancing among us. In Spain, whole cities
challenge each other at chefs. John of Salilbury re¬
lates, that in a battle between the French and En-
glifli in 1117, an Englifh knight feizing the bridle of
Louis le Gros, and crying to his comrades, The king
is take?!, that prince ftruck him to the ground with
his fword, faying, Nc feats tu pas qu' anx echecs on
tie prendpas le roy? “ Doft thou not know, that at
chefs the king is never taken ? ” The reafon is, that
when the king is reduced to fuch a pals that there is
4. no way for him to efcape, the game ends, without
expoling the royal piece to further aifrout.
Cardinal Cajetan, and other cafuilts, rank chefs in
the number of prohibited games, as requiring too
much application: and Montaign blames it as too fe-
rious for a game.
CHESS-Trrrr, taqnets d'aniure-, two pieces of wood
bolted perpendicularly, one on the ftarboard, and a-
nother on the larboard fide of the fliip. They are
ufed to confine the clue, or lower corners of the main-
fail ; for which purpofe there is a hole in the upper
part, through which the rope paffes that ufually ex¬
tends the clue of the fail to windward. See Tack.
The chefs-trees are commonly placed as far before
the main-maft as the length of the main-beam.
CHEST, in commerce, a kind of meafure, contain¬
ing an uncertain quantity of feveral commodities.
A theft of fugar, v. g. contains from ten to fifteen Chfft
hundred weight; a cheft of glafs, from two hundred i! '
to three hundred feet ; of Caftile foap, from two and lfV“1
an half to three hundred weight; of indigo, from one
and an half to two hundred weight, five fcore to the
hundred.
Chest, or Thorax, in anatomy. See there,
Part V.
CHESTER, commonly called Weft-Chefier, to dif-
tinguilh it from many other Chefters in the kingdom ;
the capital of Chefhire, in England. It is a very an¬
cient city, fuppofed to have been founded by the Ro¬
mans ; and plainly appears to have been a Roman fta-
tion by the many antiquities which have been and are
ftill difeovered in and about the town. It was among
the laft places the Romans quitted ; and here the Bri¬
tons maintained their liberty long after the Saxons had
got pofteflion of the reft of their country. At prefent
it is a large well-built wealthy city, and carries on a
confiderable trade. Mr Pennant calls it “ a city with¬
out parallel,” on account of the lingular ftrudture of
the four principal ftreets. They are as if excavated
out of the earth, and.funk many fee‘t beneath the fur-
face : the carriages drive far beneath the level of the
kitchens, on a line with ranges of Ihops. The houfes
are moftly of wood, with galleries, piazzas, and co¬
vered walls before them, by which not only the Ihops,
but thofe who are walking about the town, are fo hid,
that one would imagine there were fcarce any inhabi¬
tants in it, though it is very .populous. But though
by this contrivance, fuch as walk the ftreets are
fereened from rain, hrc. yet the Ihops are thereby
rendered dark and .inconvenient. The back courts of
all the houfes are on a level with the ground ; but to
go into any of the four principal ftreets, it is neceflary
to defeend a flight of feveral fteps. W. Long. 3. o.
N. Lat. 53. 12.
Nciv Ch e stek, a town of Pennfylvania in America,
and capital of a county of that name. It is feated on
the Delawar; and has a fine capacious harbour, ad¬
mitting veffels of any burthen. W. Long. 74. 7.
N. Lat. 40. 15.
CHESTERFIELD, a market-town of Derbyfhire
in England, pleafimtly fituated on a hill between two
fmall rivers. It has the title of an earldom ; and a
confiderable market for corn, lead, and other country
commodities. The houfes are, for the moft part, built
of rough ftone, and covered withilate. W. Long. 1. zj.
N. Lat. 53. 20.
Chesterfield (Earl of.) See Stanhope.
CHEVAL -T".Frisk, a large.piece of timber pier¬
ced, and traverfed with wooden Tpikes, armed or
.pointed with iron, five or fix feet long. See Plate
LX XXIV. fig. 8.
The term is French, and properly fignifies a Frief-
land horfs ; as having been firft invented in that coun¬
try.—It is alfo called a Turnpike or Turniquet. See
Turnpike.
Its ufe is to defend a pafiage, flop a breach, or make
a retrenchment to flop the cavalry. It is fometimes
alfo mounted on wheels, with artificial fires, to roll
down in an affualt. Errard obferves, that the prince
of Orange ufed to inclofe his camp with Chevaux de
Frife, placing them one over another.
CHEVALER,
CHE [ ig
Chevaler CHEVALRR, in the menage, is faicl of a horfe,
II when, in paffaging upon a *valk or trot, his off fore-
cheyne. ]e„ cro(pes or overlaps the near fore-leg every lecond
motion.
CHEVALIER, a French term, ordinarily fignifying
a knight. ' See Knight. The word is formed of the
French cheval, “ horfeand the barbarous Latin ca-
v alius.
It is ufed, in heraldy, to fignify any cavalitr, or
horfeman armed at all points'; by the Romans called
cataphraClus eques : now out of ufe, and only to be
feen in coat-armour.
CHEVAUX ds Frise. See Cheval de Frife.
CHEV1N, a name ufed in fome parts of England
for the Chub.
CHEVIOT,(or Tiviot) hills, run from north to
Touth through Cumberland ; and were formerly the
borders or boundaries between England and Scotland,
where many a bloody battle has been fought between
the two nations; one of which is recorded in the bal¬
lad of Chevy-chafe, See Chase.
CHEVISANCE, in law, denotes an agreement or
compofition, as an end or order let down between a
.creditor and his debitor, ire. In the llatutes, this
word is moll commonly ufed for an unlawful bargain
or contract.
CHEVREAU(Urban),alearned writer,born atLun-
dun in 1613. He diftinguifhed himfelf in his youth
by his knowledge of the belles lettres ; and became fe-
cretary of Hate to queen Chriftina of Sweden. Seve¬
ral German princes invited him to their courts; and
Charles-Lewis, the elector palatine, retained him un¬
der the title of counfellor. After the death of that
prince, he returned to France, and became preceptor
to the duke of Maine. At length retiring to Lundun,
he died there in 1701, aged 88. He was the author
of feveral books ; and among!!: others, of an Univerfal
Hiltory, which has been often reprinted.
CHEVRON, or Cheveron, in heraldry. See
there, n° 23, 24.
CHEWING-balls, a kind of balls made of afafas-
tida, liver of antimony, bay-wood, juniper-wood, and
pellitory of Spain ; which being dried in the fun, and
wrapped in a linen cloth, are tied to the bit of the
bridle for the horfe to chew : they create an appetite;
and it is faid, that balls of Venice-treacle may be ufed
in the fame manner with good fuccefs.
CHEYKS. See Bengal, n° 6.
CHEYNE (Dr George), a phyfician of great learn¬
ing and abilities, born in Scotland in 1671, and edu¬
cated at Edinburgh under the great Dr Pitcairn. He
.paffed his youth in clofe fludy, and with great tem¬
perance : but coming to fettle at London, when about
30, and finding the younger gentry and free-livers to
be the mart eafy of accefs and mod fufceptible of
friendlhip, he changed on a hidden his former manner
of living in order to force a trade, having obferved
this method to fucceed with fome others. The con-
fequence was, that he grew daily in bulk, and in in¬
timacy with his gay acquaintance ; fwelling to fuch an
enormous fize, that he exceeded 32 (tone weight; and
he was forced to have the whole fide of-his chariot
made open to receive him into it: he grew (liprt-
breathed, lethargic, nervous, and fcorbutic j fo that
01 ] CHE
his life became an intolerable burden. In this deplo- Chiabrera
rable condition, after having tried all the power of II
medicine in vain, he refolved to try a milk and vege- ^‘avenna‘
table diet ; the good efftdis of which quickly appear,
ed. His (ize was reduced almoit a third ; and he re¬
covered his ftrength, activity, and cheerfulnefs; with
the perfect ufe of all his faculties. In fliort, by a re¬
gular adherence to this regimen, he lived to a mature
period, dying at Bath in 1748, aged 77. He wrote fe¬
veral treatifes that were well received ; particularly,
“ an effay on Health and Long Life;” and “ the
Englifh Malady, or a treatife of Nervous Difeafes ■”
both the refult of his own experience.
CHIABRERA (Gabriel), efteemed the Pindar of
Italy, was born at Savona in 1J52, and went to ftudy
at Rome. The Italian princes, and Urban VIII. gave
him public marks of their elleem. He wrote a great
number of poems ; but his lyric verfes are molt admi¬
red. He died at Savona in 1638, aged 86.
CHIAN earth, in pharmacy, one of the medici¬
nal earths of the ancients, the name of which is pre¬
ferred in the catalogues of the materia mediea, but of
which nothing more than the name has been known
for many ages in the (hops.
It is a very denfe and compafl earth ; and is fent
hither in fmall flat pieces from the ifland of Chios, in
which it is found in great plenty at this time. It
Hands recommended to us as an aftringent. They tell
us, it is the greateft of all cofmetics; and that it gives a *
whitenefs and fmOothnefs to the {kin, and prevents
wrinkles, beyond any of the other fubftances that have
been celebrated for the fame purpofes.
CHIAOUS, a word in the original Turkifh, fignify¬
ing “ envoys,” are officers to the number of five or lix
hundred in the grand fignior’s court, under the com¬
mand of a chiaous bafehi. They frequently meet in
the grand vizier’s palace, that they may be in readi-
nefs to execute his orders, and carry his difpaches in¬
to all the provinces of the empire. The chiaous baf¬
ehi aflifts at the divan, and introduces thofe who have
bufinefs there.
CHIAPA, the capital of a province of the fame
name in Mexico, fituated about' 300 miles eaft of A-
capulco. W. Long. 98. o. N. Lat. 16. 30.
Chiapa el Real, a town of North America, in
Mexico, a province of the fame name, with a bilhop’s
fee. Its principal trade confifts in chocolate-nuts, cot¬
ton, and fugar. W. Long. 98. 35. N. Lat. 16. 20.
Chiapas de los hides, a large and rich town of
North America, in Mexico, and in a province of
the fame name. The governor and mod of the in¬
habitants are originally Americans. W. Long. 98. 5.
N. Lat. tj. 6.
CHIARI ( Jofeph), a celebrated Italian painter, was
the difcipleof Carlo Maratti; and adorned the churches
and palaces of Rome with a great number of fine
paintings. He died of an apoplexy in 1727, aged 73.
Chiari, a town of Italy, in the province of Brefcia,
and territory of Venice, 7 miles weft of Brefcia, arid
27 eaft of Milan. Here the Imperialifts gained a vic¬
tory over the French in 1701. E. Long. 18.18.
N. Lat. 45. 30.
CHIARO-scuro. See Q.x.hv.o-Ohfcuro.
CHI A VENN A, a handfome, populous, and large
town
Chiimfi
. Chief.
CHI [ 1902 ] CHI
town of Swiflerland, in the country of the Grifons.
it is a.trading place, efpecially in wine and delicate
fruits. The governor’s palace, and the churches, are
very magnificent, and the inhabitants are Roman Ca¬
tholics. It is feated near the lake Como. E. Long.
9. 29. N. Lat. 46. 15.
CHIAUSI, among the Turks, officers employed in
executing the vizirs, baihaws, and other great men :
the orders for doing this, the grand fignior fends
them wrapped up in a black cloth ; on the reception
of which, they immediately perform their office.
CHICANE, or Chicanery, in law, an abufe of
judiciary proceeding, tending to delay the caufe, to
puzzle the judge, or impofe upon the parties.
Chicane, in the fchools, is applied to vain fo-
phifms, diftinftions, and fubtleties, which protraft dif-
putes, and obfcure the truth.
CHICHESTER, the capital city of the county of
Suffex, is furrounded with a wall, which has four
gates, anfwering to the four cardinal points; from
which run two iireets, that crofs one another in the
middle and form a fquare, where the market is kept,
and where there is a fine Hone piazza built by biffiop
Read. The fpace between the weft and fouth gates
is taken up with the cathedral church and the bifhop’s
palace. It has five parifh-churches; and is feated on
the little river Lavant, which waflies it on all fides
except the north. This city would have been in a
much more flourifhing condition if it had been built by
the fea-fide; however, the inhabitants have endea¬
voured to fupply this defeft in fome meafure by cut¬
ting a canal from the city down into the bay. The
principal manufaftures of the town are malt and
needles. The market of Chichefter is noted for fiffi,
wheat, barley, malt, and oats: the fineft lobfters in
England are bred in the Lavant; and it is obfervable,
that this river, unlike moft others, is very low in
winter, but in fummer often overflows its banks.
Chichefter is a city and a county of itfelf; the govern¬
ment being veiled in a mayor, recorder, aldermen,
common-council without limitation, and four juftices
of the peace chofen out of the aldermen. It is a bi-
Ihop’s fee, and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 50. N. Lat. 50. yo.
CHICK, or Chicken, in zoology, denotes the
young of the gallinaceous order of birds, efpecially the
commonlien. See Phasianus.
Chicken-Tcx. See (Index fuhjoined to) Medi¬
cine.
CmcK-Weed, in botany. See Alsine.
CHICKLING-pea, in botany, a name given to the
Lathyrus.
CHICUITOS, a province of South America, in the
government of Santo-Cruz de la Sierra. The chief
riches confift of honey and wax ; and the original in¬
habitants are very voluptuous, yet very warlike. They
maintained bloody wars with the Spaniards till 1690;
fmce which, fome of them have become Chriftians. It
is bounded by la Plata on the N. E. and by Chili on
the W.
CHIDLEY, or Chimley, a market-town of De-
vonlhire, fituated in W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. yi. o.
CHIEF, a term fignifying the head or principal part
of a thing or perfon. Thus we lay, the chief of a
party, the chief of a family, ire. The word is formed
of the French chef, “ headof the Greek xitpahv, ca¬
put, “ head; ” though Menage derives it from the Ita- _
lian capo, formed of the Latin caput.
Chief, in heraldry, is that which takes up all the
upper part of the efcutcheon from fide to fide, and re-
prefents a man’s head : fee Heraldry, n° 15.—In
chief, imports fomething borne in the chief part or top
of the efcutcheon.
CHIEFTAIN, denotes the captain or chief of any
clafs, family, or body of men. Thus the chieftains or
chiefs of the Highland clans, were the principal no¬
blemen or gentlemen of their refpedtive clans. See
Clans.
CHIELEFA, a ftrong town of Turky in Europe, in
the Morea. It was taken by the Venetians in 1685 p
but after that the Turks retook it, with all the Morea.
E. Long. 22. 21. N. Lat. 26. 50.
CHILBLAIN, (pernio), in medicine, a tumour affec¬
ting the feet and hands ; accompanied with an inflam¬
mation, pains, and fometimes an ulcer or folution of
continuity : in which cafe it takes the denomination of
chapi on the hands, and of kibes on the heels. Chil¬
blain is compounded of chill and blain; q. d. a blain
or fore contracted by cold. Pernio is the Latin name
adopted by phyficians ; and is derived by Voffius from
perna “ a gammon of bacon,” on account of fome f e-
femblance. Chap alludes to gape, both in found and
appearance. Kibes, in Wellh kibws, may be derived
from the German kerbcsi, “ to cutthe Ikin, when
broke, appearing like a cut.
Chilblains are occafioned by exceffive cold Hopping
the motion of the blood in the capillary arteries. See
the article Pernio.
CHILD, a term of relation to parent. See Parent
and Children.
Bartholine, Pare, Licetus, and many other writers,
give an account of a petrified child, which has feemed
wholly incredible to fome people. The child, how¬
ever, which they deferibe, is ftill in being; and is kept
as a great rarity in the king of Denmark’s mufeum
at Copenhagen. The woman who was big with this,
lived at Sens in Champaign in the year 1582 ; it was
cut out of her belly, and was univerfally fuppofed to
have lain there about 20 years. That it is a real hu¬
man fetus, and not artificial, is evident to the eyes of
any obferver ; and the upper part of it, when exami¬
ned, is found to be of a fuhftance refembling the gyp-
fum, or ftone whereof they make the plafter of Pa¬
ris : the lower part is much harder; the thighs and
buttocks being a perfecl ftone of a reddifti colour, and
as hard as common quarry-ftone: the grain and fur-
face of this part appears exadlly like that of the cal¬
culi, or Hones taken out of human bladders; and the
whole fubftance examined ever fo nearly, and felt
ever fo carefully, appears to be abfolute ftone. It
was carried from Sens to Paris, and there purchafed
by a goldfmitb of Venice ; and Frederic III. king of
Denmark, purchafed it of this man at Venice for a
very large fum, and added it to his colledlion of ra¬
rities.
Child-5^, 7 gee Midwifery.
CnvLV-Birth. 3
Child-^Ti/, a power to take a fine of a bond-wo¬
man
Chief
Child-wit.
CHI [ 1903 ] CHI
CWlder- man unlawfully gotten with child, that is, without
mafs-day conlent of her lord. Every reputed father of a bafe
child got within the manor of Writtel in Elfex, pays
 1 Ien' to the lord a fine of 3 s. 4d.; where, it feeins, child-
wit extends to free, as well as bond women.
CHILDERMAS-day, or Innocents-D«/, an an-
niverfary held by the church of England on the 28th
of December, in commemoration of the children of
Bethlehem mafiacred by order of Herod.
CHILDREN, the plural of Child.
Mr Derham computes, that marriages, one with
another, produce four children, not only in England,
but in other parts alfo.
In the genealogical hiftory of Tufcany, wrote by
Gamarini, mention is made of a nobleman of Sienna,
named Pichi, who of three wives had 150 children;
and that, being fent ambaffador to the pope and the
emperor, he had 48 of his Tons in his retinue. In a
monument in the church-yard of St Innocent, at Pa¬
ris, erected to a woman who died at 88 years of age,
it is recorded, that Ihe might have feen 288 children
diredlly iflued from her. This exceeds what Hake-
well relates of Mrs Honeywood, a gentlewoman of
Kent, born in the year 1527, and married at 16 to
her only hulband R. Honey wood, of Charing, Efq ;
and died in her 93d year. She had 16 children of her
own body ; of which three died young, and a fourth
had no illue : yet her grandchildren, in the fecond
generation, amounted to 114 ; in the third, to 228 ;
though in the fourth, they fell to 9. The whole num¬
ber Ihe might have feen in her life-time being 367.
16+1 i4+228+9r:367. So that file could fay the
fame as the diltich does of one of the Dalburg’s fa¬
mily at Bafil:
1 2 3 4
Mater ait nata die natce filia nata?ny
5 6
Ut nieiieat, uatae, plangere, fiUolam.
Management of Children-. See Infant.
Overlaying of Children, is a misfortune that fre¬
quently happens; to prevent which, the Florentines
have contrived an inftrument called arcuccio. See
Arcuccio.
Children are, in law, a man’s ilfue begotten on
his wife. As to illegitimate1 children, fee Bastard.
For the legal duties of parents to their children,
fee Parent and Bastard.
As to the duties of children to their parents, they
arife from a principle of natural jullice and retribu¬
tion. For to thole who gave us exiftence, we natu¬
rally owe fubjedlion and obedience during our mino¬
rity, and honour and reverence ever after : they who
protected the weaknefs of our infancy, are intitled to
our protection in the infirmity of their age ; they
Who by fultenance and education have enabled their
offspring to profper, ought, in return, to be fupported
by that offspring, in cafe they Hand in need of aflif-
tance. Upon this principle proceed all the duties of
children to their parents, which are enjoined by pofi-
tive laws. And the Athenian laws carried this prin¬
ciple into praCtice with a fcrupulous kind of nicety :
obliging all children to provide for their father when
fallen into poverty; with an exception to fpurious
children, to thofe whofe chafiity had been proftituted
with confent of their father, and to thofe whom he children
had not put in any way of gaining a livelihood. The ||
legiflature, fays baron Montefquieu, confidered, that. Chili,
in the firll cafe, the father, being uncertain, had ren- "
dered the natural obligation precarious ; that, in the
fecond cale, he had iullied the life he had given, and
done his children the greatelt of injuries, in depri¬
ving them of their reputation ; and that, in the third-
cafe, he had rendered their life, (fo far as in him lay),
an infupportable burden, by furnilhing them with no
means of fubfiftence.
Our laws agree with thofe of Athens, with regard
to the firft only of thefe particulars, the cafe of Ipu-
rious iflue. In the other cafes, the law does not hold
the tie of nature to be dillblved by any milbehaviour
of the parent; and therefore a child is equallyjulli-
fiable in defending the perfon, or maintaining the
caul'e or fuit, of a bad parent, as of a good one ; and is
equally compellable, if of fufficient ability, to maintain
and provide for a wicked and unnatural progenitor,
as for one who has Ihown the greuteft tendernefs and
parental piety.
CHILI, a province of South America, bounded by-
Peru on the north, by the province of La Plata on
the call, by Patagonia on the fouth, and by the Pacific
ocean on the welt, lying between 75 and 85 degrees
of \veft longitude, and between 25 and 45 degrees of
fouth latitude ; though fome comprehend in this pro¬
vince, Patagonia and Terra del Fuego.
The firft attempt of the Spaniards upon this coun¬
try was made by Almagro in the year 1535, after he
and Pizarro had completed the conquelt of Peru. He
fet out on his expedition to Chili with a confiderable
body of Spaniards and auxiliary Indians. For 200
leagues, he was well accommodated with every ne-
ceffary by the Indians, who had been fubjedts of the
emperors of Peru : but reaching the barren country
of Charcas, his troops became difeontented through
the hardlhips they fuffered ; which determined Alma¬
gro to climb the mountains called Cordilleras, in order
to get the fooner into Chili; being ignorant of the in¬
valuable mines of Potofi, contained in the province of
Charcas where he then was. At that time the Cor¬
dilleras w-ere covered with fnow, the depth of which
obliged him to dig his way through it. The cold
made fuch an impreflion on his naked Indians, that it
is computed no lefs than 1 o,oco of them periflied on
thefe dreadful mountains, 150 of the Spaniards Iharing
the fame fate ; while many of the furvivors loft their
fingers and toes through the excefs of cold. At laft, af¬
ter encountering incredible difficulties, Almagro readi¬
ed a fine, temperate, and fertile plain on the oppolite
fide of the Cordilleras, where he was received with
the greateft kindnefs by the natives. Thefe poor
lavages, taking the Spaniards for deputies of their god
Virachoca, immediately collected for them an offering
of gold and filver worth 200,000 ducats : and foon
after brought a prefent to Almagro worth 300,000
more. Thefe offerings only determined him to con¬
quer the whole country as foon as poflible. The
Indian^ among whom he now was, had acknowledged
the authority of the Peruvian incas, or emperors, and
confequently gave Almagro no trouble. He therefore
marched immediately again ft thofe who had never
been
t: H I [ 1904 ] CHI
Chili. been conquered by the Peruvians, and inhabited the
fouthern parts of Chili. Thefe lavages fought with
great rel'olution, and difputed every inch of ground :
but in five months time the Spaniards had made fuch
progrefs, that they mull infallibly have reduced the
Whole province in a very little time, had not Almagro
returned to Peru, in confequence of a commiffion lent
him from Spain.
In 1540, Pizarro having overcome and put Aima-
gro to death, fent into Chili, Baldwin, or Valdivia,
who had learned the rudiments of war in Italy, and
Was reckoned one of the beft officers in the Spanilh
lervice. As he penetrated fouthwards, however, he
met with much oppolition : the confederated caziques
frequently gave him battle, and difplayed great cou¬
rage and refolution ; but could not prevent him from
penetrating to the valley of Mafiocho, which he found
incredibly fertile and populous. Here he founded the
city of St Jago ; and finding gold mines in the neigh¬
bourhood, forced the Indians to work in them ; at the
fame time building a caltle for the fafety and protec¬
tion of his new colony. The natives, exafperated at
this llavery, immediately took up arms; attacked the
fort; a riel, though defeated and repulfed, fet fire to
the outworks, which contained all the provifions of the
Spaniards. Nor were they difeouraged by this and
many other defeats, but Hill continued to carry on the
war with vigour. At lafi, Valdivia, having overcome
them in many battles, forced the inhabitants of the
Vale to fubmit; upon which he immediately let them
to work in the mines of Qailotra. This indignity
offered to their countrymen redoubled the fury of thole
who remained at liberty. Their utmoll efforts, how¬
ever, were as yet unable to Hop Valdivia’s progrefs.
Having croffed the large rivers Maulle and Hata, he
traverfed a vaft tra<5i of country, and founded the city
of La Conception on the South-fea-coaft. He eredted
fortreffes in feveral parts of the country, in order to
keep the natives hi awe; and built the city called Im¬
perial, about 40 leagues to the fouthward of Concep¬
tion. The Spanilh writers fay, that the neighbouring
valley contained 80,000 inhabitants Of a peaceable dif-
polition ; and who were even fo tame as to fuffer Val¬
divia to parcel out their lands among his followers,
while they themfelves remained in a Hate of inactivity.
About x 6 leagues to the ealtward of Imperial, the Spa-
nilh general laid the foundations of the city Villa Rica,
fo called on account of tire rich gold mines he found
there. But his ambition and avarice had now involved
himfelf in difficulties from which he Could never be ex¬
tricated : He had extended his conquelts beyond what
his Itrength was capable of maintaining. The Chilefians
Were ftill as defirous as ever of recovering their liber¬
ties. The horfes, fire-arms, and armourof the Spaniards,
indeed, appeared dreadful to them but the thoughts of
endlefs llavery were Hill more fo. In thecourfe of the
war they had dilcovered that the Spaniards were vul¬
nerable and mortal men like themfelves; they hoped,
therefore, by dint of their fuperiority in numbers, to
be able to expel the tyrannical ufurpers. Had all the
nations joined in this refolution, the Spaniards had
certainly been exterminated ; but fome of them were
of a pacific and fearful difpofition, while others confi-
dered fervitude as the greatefl of all poffible calami¬
ties. Of this laft opinion were the Aracceans, the Chili. '
molt intrepid people in Chili, and who had given Val- ————
divia the greatelt trouble. They all role to a man,
and chofe Capaiilican, a renowned hero among them,
for their leader. Valdivia, however, received'notice
of their revolt fooner than they intended he ffiould,
and returned with all expedition to the vale of Arac-
cea ; but before he arrived, 14,000 of the Chilelians
were there aflembled under the conduct of Capaulican.
He attacked them with his cavalry, and forced them
to retreat into the woods ; but could not obtain a com¬
plete victory, as they kept continually fallying out and
harraffmg his men. At laff Capaulican, having obfer-
ved that fighting with fuch a number of undifeiplined
troops only ferved to contribute to the defeat and con-
fulion of the whole, divided bis forces into bodies of
1000 each. Thefe he diredled to attack the enemy
by turns; and, though he did not expert that a fingle
thoufand would put them to flight, he directed them
to make as long a Hand as they could ; when they
were to be relieved and fupported by another body ;
and thus the Spaniards would be at laff wearied out
and overcome. The event fully anfwered his expec¬
tations. The Chilefians maintained a fight for feven
or eight hours, until the Spaniards, growing faint for
want of refrelhment, retired precipitately. Valdivia
ordered them to pofl’efs a pafs at fome diftance from
the field, to Hop the purfuit; but this defign being
dilcovered to the Chilefians by the treachery of Ms
page, who was a native of that country, the Spaniards
were furrounded on all fides, and cut in pieces by the
Indians. The general was taken and put to death ;
fome fay with the tortures ufualiy inflidled by thofe
favages on their prifoners*; others, that he had melt- * See Ame-
ed gold poured down his throat ; but all agree, that tica, n° 35.
the Indians made flutes and other inftruments of his
bones, and preferved his Ikull as a monument of their
victory, which they celebrated by an annual feftival.
After this victory the Chilefians had another engage¬
ment with their enemies ; in which alfo they proved
victorious, defeating the Spaniards with the lofs of
near 3000 men ; and upon this they bent their whole
force againft the colonies. The city of Conception,
being abandoned by the Spaniards, was taken and de- ‘
ffroyed: but the Indians were forced to raife the fiege
of Imperial; and their progrefs was at laft Hopped
by Garcia de Mendoza, who defeated Capaulican, took
him prifoner, and put him to death. No defeats, how¬
ever, could difpirit the Chilefians. They continued the
war for 50 years; and to this day they remain uncou-
quered, and give the .Spaniards more trouble than any
other American nation. Their moft irreconcileable
enemies are the inhabitants of Araccea and Tucapel,
thofe to the fouth of the river Bobio, or whofe country
extends towards the Cordilleras.—The manners of
thel’e people greatly refemble thofe of North America,
which we have already deferibed under the article
America ; but feem to have a more warlike difpofi¬
tion. It is a conHant rule with the Chilefians never to
fue for peace. The Spaniards are obliged not only to
make the firft overtures, but to purchafe it by prefents.
They have at laft been obliged to abandon all thoughts
of extending their conquefts, and reduced to cover
their frontiers by erecting forts at proper diftances.
The
CHI [ 1905 ] CHI
■Chili. The Spanilh colonies in Chili are difperfed on the
' borders of the South-fea. They are parted from Peru
by a defert 80 leagues in breadth; and bounded by the
iiland of Chiloe, at the extremity next the llraits of
Magellan. There are no fettlements on the coaft ex¬
cept thofe of Baldivia, Conception-ifland, Valparaifo,
and Coquimbo or La Serena, which are all fea-ports.
In the inland country is St Jago, the capital of the co¬
lony. There is no culture nor habitation at any di-
ftance from thefe towns. The buildings in the whole
province are low, made of unburnt brick, and rnoftly
thatched. This practice is obferved on account of the
frequent earthquakes; and is properly adapted to the
nature of the climate, as well as the indolence of the
■inhabitants.
The climate of Chili is one of the moft wholefome
in the whole world. The vicinity of the Cordilleras
gives it fuch a delightful temperature as could not
other wife be expected in that latitude. Though gold
mines are found in it, their richnefs has been too much
extolled ; their produce never exceeds L. 218,750.
The foil is prodigioufly fertile. All the European
fruits have improved in that happy climate. The
wine would be excellent if nature were properly af-
fifted by art: and the corn-harveft is reckoned a bad
one when it does not yield a hundred fold. With all
thefe advantages, Chili has no direct intercourfe with
the mother-country. Their trade is confined to Peru,
Paraguay, and the favages on their frontiers. With
thefe lalt they exchange their lefs valuable commodi¬
ties, for oxen, horfes, and their own.children, whom
they are ready to part with for the moll: trifling things.
This province fupplies Peru with great plenty of hides,
dried fruit, copper, falt-meat, horfes, hemp, lard,
wheat, and gold. In exchange it receives tobacco,
fugar, cocoa, earthen-ware, woollen-cloth, linen, hats
made at Quito, and every article of luxury brought
from Europe. The Ihips lent from Callao on this traf¬
fic were formerly bound to Conception Bay, but now
come to Valparaifo. The commerce between this
province and Paraguay is carried on by land, though
it is a journey of 360 leagues, 40 of which lie through
the fnows and precipices of Cordilleras ; but if it was
carried on by fea, they muft either pafs the ftraits
of Magellan, or double Cape Horn, which the Spa¬
niards always avoid as much as poffible. To Para¬
guay are fent fome woollen fluffs called ponchos,
which are ufed for cloak's; alfo wines, brandy, oil,
and chiefly gold. In return they receive wax, a
kind of tallow fit to make foap, European goods, , and
negroes.
Chili is governed by a chief, who is abfolute in all
civil, political, and military affairs, and is alfo inde¬
pendent of the viceroy. The latter has no authority
except when a governor dies ; in which cafe he may
appoint one in his room for a time, till the mother-
country names a fuccelfor. If, on fome occafions, the
viceroy has interfered in the government of Chili, it
was when he has been either authorifed by a particu¬
lar trull repofed in him by the court, or by the defe¬
rence paid to the eminence of his office ; or when he
has been actuated by his own ambition to extend his
authority. In the whole province of Chili there are
not 20,000 white men, and hot more than 60,000 ne-
Vol. III.
gfoes, or Indians, able to bear arms. The military Chiliad
eftablifhment amounted formerly to 2000 men ; but r, J.
the maintaining of them being found too expenfive, wonb.
they were reduced to 500 at the beginning of this  —
century.
CHILIAD, an affemblage of feveral things ranged
by thoulands. The word is formed of the Greek
millc, a thoufand.
CHILIARCHA, or Chii-Iarchus, an officer in
the armies of the ancients, who had the command of
a thoufand men.
CHILIAGON, in geometry, a regular plain figure
of 100 fide* and angles. Though the imagination can¬
not form the idea of fuch a figure, yet we may have
a very clear notion of it in the mind, and can eafily
demonftrate that the fum of all its angles is equal to
1996 right ones: for the internal angles of every plane
figure are equal to twice as many right ones as the fi¬
gure hath fides, except thofe four which are about the
centre of the figure, from whence it may be refolved
into as many triangles as it has fides. The author of
Vart de Penfer, p. 44. has brought this inftance to
fhew the diftinftion between imagination and con¬
ceiving.
CHILIASTS, in church-hiftory See Millena-
RIA NS.
CHILLINGWORTH (William), an eminent di¬
vine of the church of England, was born at Oxford in
1602, and bred there. He made early great profi¬
ciency in his fludies^ being of a very quick genius.
He was an expert mathematician, as well as an able di¬
vine, and a very good poet. Study and converfation
at the univerfity turning upon the controverfy between
the church of England and that of Rome, on account
of the king’s marriage with Henrietta daughter to
Henry IV. king of France, Mr Chillingworth forfook
the church of England, and embraced the Romifh re¬
ligion. Dr Laud, then bifliop of London, hearing of
this, and being greatly concerned at it, wrote Mr
Chillingworth ; who expreffing a great deal of can¬
dour and impartiality, that prelate continued to cor-
refpond with him. This fet Mr Chillingworth on a
new inquiry; and at laft determined him to return
to his former religion. In 1634 he wrote a confuta¬
tion of the arguments which had induced him to go
over to the qhurch of Rome. He fpoke freely to his
friends of all the difficulties that occurred to him ;
which gave occafion to a groundlefs report, that he
had turned Papifl a fecond time, and then Proteftant
again. His return to the communion of the church
of England made a great noife, and engaged him in
feveral difputes with thofe of the Romifli perfuafion.
But in 1635 he engaged in a work which gave him a
for greater opportunity to confute the principles of the
church of Rome, and to vindicate the Proteftant re¬
ligion, under the title of “ The Religion of Prote-
flants a fafe Way to Salvation.” Sir Thomas Coven¬
try, lord keeper of the great feal, offering him pre¬
ferment, Mr Chillingworth refufed to accept it on ac¬
count of his fcruples with regard to the fubfcription of
the 39 articles. However he at laft furmounted thefe
fcruples; and being promoted to the chancellorlhip
of the church of Sarum, with the prebend of Brix-
worth in Northamptonfhire annexed to it, he com-
11 I plied
CHI [ 1906 ] CHI
Chilminar plied with the ufual fubicription. Mr Chillingworth
.1 was zealoufly attached to the royal party ; andj in
C> Auguft 1643, was prefent in king Charles I.’s army at
the liege of Glouceller, where he advifecl and direc¬
ted the making certain engines for affaulting the town.
Soon after, having accompanied the Lord Hopton,
general of the king’s forces in the weft, to Arundel
caftle in Suflex, he was there taken prifoner by the
parliamentary forces under the command of Sir Wil¬
liam Waller, who obliged the caftle to fur render.
But his illnei’s increafmg, he obtained leave to be con¬
veyed to Chichefter, where he was lodged at the
bilhop’s palace; and, after a Ihort ficknefs, died in
1644. He hath left feveral excellent works behind him.
CHILMINAR. See Persepolis.
CHILO, one of the feven fages of Greece, and of
the ephori of Sparta the place of his birth, fiourilhed
about J56 years before Chrift. He was accuftomed to
fay, that there were three things very difficult: “ To
“ keep a fecret; to know how beft to employ our
“ time ; and to fuffer injuries without murmuring.”
According to Pliny, it wras he who caufed the fhort
fentence, Know thyfelf, to be written in letters of gold
in the temple of Delphos. It is faid that he died with
joy, while embracing his fon, who had been crowned
at the Olympic games.
CHILOE, an ifland lying near the coaft of Chili, in
South America, under the 43d degree of fouth lati¬
tude. It is the chief of an archipelago of 40 iflands,
and its principal town is Caftro. It rains here almoft
all the year, infomuch that nothing but Indian corn,
or fome fuch grain, that requires but little heat to ri¬
pen it, can ever come to perfection. They have ex¬
cellent fhell-fifh, very good wild-fowl, hogs, fheep, and
beeves. As alfo a great deal of honey and wax.
They carry on a trade with Peru and Chili; whither
.they fend boards of cedar, of which they have vaft
for efts.
CHILTERN, a chain of chalky hills, running from
eaft to weft through Bqckinghamfhire.
CHIMAlRA, a port-town of Turky in Europe, fi-
tuated at the entrance of the gulph of Venice, in the
province of Epirus, about 32 miles north of the city
Corfu, near which are the mountains of Chimaera,
which divide Epirus from Theffaly. E. Long. 20. 40.
N- Lat. 40. 20.
Chimera, a fabulous monfter, which the poets
feign to have the head of a lion, the body of a goat,
and the tail of a dragon ; and add, that this odd beaft
was killed by Bellerophon. According to authors, the
foundation of the fable was, that in Lycia there was
a burning mountain or volcano of this name ; that the
top of this mountain was feldom without lions, nor
the middle, which had very good grafs, without goats;
that ferpents bred at the bottom, which was marfhy ;
and that Bellerophon rendered the mountain habi¬
table.
By a chimera, among the philofophers, is under-
ftood a mere creature of the imagination, compofed of
fuch contradictions and abfurdities as cannot poflibly
any where exift but in thought.
CHIMES of ^ C l o c k , a kind of periodical mufic, pro¬
duced at equal intervals of time, by means of a parti¬
cular apparatus added to a clock..
In order to calculate numbers for the chimes, and Chimes,
adapt the chime-barrel, it muft be obferved, that the i
barrel muft turn round in the fame time that the tune
it is to play requires in linging. As for the chime-
barrel, it may be made up of certain bars that run
athwart it, with a convenient number of holes punch¬
ed in them to put in the pins that are to draw each
hammer : and thefe pins, in order to play the time of
the tune rightly, mull: ftand upright, or hang down
from the bar, fome more, fome lefs. To place the
pins rightly, you may proceed by the way of changes
on bells, viz. 1, 2, 3, 4; or rather make ufe of the
mulical notes. Oblerve what is the compafs of your
tune, and divide the barrel accordingly from end to
end.
Thus in the examples on Plate LXXIX. fig. 1, 2.
each of the tunes are eight notes in compafs; and ac¬
cordingly, the barrel is divided into eight parts. Thefe
divifions are ftruck round the barrel; oppofite to
which are the hammer-tails.
We fpeak here as if there were only one hammer
to each bell, that it may be more clearly apprehend¬
ed ; but when two notes of the fame found come to¬
gether in a tune, there muft be two hammers to the
bell to ftrike it : fo that if, in all the tunes you intend
to chime of eight notes compafs, there fliould happen
to be fuch double notes on every hell; inftead of eight,
you muft have fixteen hammers^ and accordingly you
muft divide the barrel, and ftrike fixteen ftrokes round
it, oppofite to each hammer-tail : then you are to di¬
vide it round about, into as many divifions as there
are mufical bars, femibreves, minims, ire. in the
tune.
Thus the hundredtb-pfalm tune has 2.0 femibreves,
and each divifion of it is a femibreve: the firft note
of it alfo is a femibreve ; and, therefore, on the chime-
barrel muft be a whole divifion, from five to five ; as
you may underftand plainly, if you conceive the fur-
face of a chime-barrel to be reprelented by. the above
figures, as if the cylindrical fuperficies of the barrel
were ftretched out at length, or extended on a plane :
and then fuch a table, fo divided, if it were to be
wrapped round the barrel, would fliew the places
where all the pins are to ftand in the barrel : for the
dots running about the table, are the places of the pins
that play the tune.
Indeed, if the chimes are to be complete, you ought
to have a fet of bells to the gamut notes; fo as that,
each bell having the true found of fol, la, vii,fa, you
may play any tune with its flats and fliarps : nay, you,
may by this means play both the bafs and treble with
one barrel: and by fetting the names of your bells at
the head of any tune, that tune may eafily be tranf-
ferred to the chime-barrel, without any (kill in mufic :
but it muft be obferved, that each line in the mufic is
three notes diftant; that is, there is a note between
each line, as well as upon it. „
CHIMNEY, in architecture, a particular part of a
houfe, where the fire is made, having a tube or fun¬
nel to carry off the fmoke.
Method of Building Chimneys that will, not fmokc.
—Workmen have different methods of drawing up the*
funnels of chimneys, generally according to their own.
fancies, and judgments, and fometimes according to the
cuftoms
CHI [ 1907 ] CHI
Chimney cuftoms of places. They are feldom directed by found
1 and rational principles. It will be found for the moli
c^‘na' part, that the fmoking of chimneys is owing to their
being carried up narrower near the top than below,
or, zig-zag, all in angles: in fome cafes, indeed, it is
owing to accidental caufes; but, for the moft part,
to thole two above mentioned. Where they are car¬
ried up in the pyramid or tapering form, elpecialiy if
the houfe be of a confiderable. height, it is ten to one
but they fometimes fmoke. The air in the rooms,
being rarefied, is forced into the funnel of the chim¬
ney, and receives from the fire an additional force to
carry up the fmoke. Now it is evident, that the fur¬
ther up the fmoke flies, the lefs is the force that drives
it, the flower it muff move, and confequently the
more room in proportion it fhould have to move in;
whereas in the ufuai way it has lefs, by the fides of
the chimney being gathered clofer and clofer toge¬
ther.
The method here propofed of carrying up chim¬
neys will be objected to by fome thus: The wider a
chimney is at the top, fay they, the more liberty has
the wind to blow down. Very true; but is it not re¬
futed in going down, both by the form of the chim¬
ney and other evident caufes, fo that it muft return
again ? In the other way, when the wind blows down,
the refiftance being lefs, the wind and fmoke are, if
we may ufe the expreflion, imprifoned, and make the
fmoke puff- out below. This method has proved ef¬
fectual after all others had failed; and that in a houfe
placed in the worit fituation poffible, namely, under a
high mountain to the fputhward, from which itrong
blafts blow down upon it. A vent was carried up
without angles, as perpendicular as poffible ; and was
made about three or four inches wider at top than at
the bottom : the funnel was gathered in a throat di-
reCtly above the fire-place, and fo widening upwards.
Since that time the houfe has not only ceafed to fmoke,
but, when the doors fland open, the draught is fo ftrong
that it will carry a piece of paper out at the chimney-
head. See more on this fubjeCl under the article
Smoke.
ChimnRY-Momy, otherwife called Hearth-money,
a duty to the crown on houfes. By flat. 14. Char. II.
cap. 2- every fire-hearth, and ftove of every dwelling
or other houfe, within England and Wales (except
fuch as pay not to church and poor), was chargeable
with 2 s. per annum, payable at Michaelmas and Lady-
day to the king and his heirs and fucceffors, ire. ;
which payment was commonly called chimney-money.
This tax, being much complained of as burthenfome
to the people, has been lince taken off, and others
impofed in its Head ; among which that on win¬
dows has by fome been efteemed almofl equally grie¬
vous.
1 CHIMPANZEE, in natural hiflory. SeeSiMiA.
Boundaries, CHINA, a country of Afia, fituated on the moft
extent, ire. gafterly part of that continent. It is bounded on the
north by Tartary ; from which it is divided, partly by
a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length, and partly
by high, craggy, and inacceffible mountains. On the
eaft, it is bounded by the ocean ; on the weft, by part
of the Mogul’s empire, and India beyond the Ganges,
from which it is parted byoher ridges of high moun¬
tains and fandy deferts. On the fouth, it is bounded China,
partly by the kingdoms of Lao, Tonquin, Ava, and
Cochin-China, and partly by the fouthern or Indian
fea, which flows between it and the Philippine iflands.
There are leveral ways of computing its length and
breadth. According to fome of thefe, it is reckoned
1269, 1600, or 1800 miles in length and as much in
breadth : however, by the heft and lateft accounts,
this vaft country is fomewhat of an oval form, the
breadth being lei’s than the length, by little more „
than a fourth-part. It contains 15 provinces, exclu- Divifcm
five of that of Lyau-tong, which is fituated without the into pro-
great wall, though, under the lame dominion. Their vinccs.
names are, .1. Shenfi ; 2. Shanfi ; 3. Pecheli: which
are fituated on the north fide, along the wall. 4. Shan-
tong ; 5. Kyan-nang ; 6. Che-kyang ; 7. Fo-kyert :
which are fituated along the eaftem ocean. 8. Quang-
tong ; 9. Quang-li; 10. Yu-nan; 11. Se-chueri :
which ftretch themfelves towards the fouth and fouth*
weft. And, 12. Ho-nan ; 13. Hu-quand ; 14. Qtiey*
chew ; 15. Kyang-fi : which take up the middle part.
For a particular defeription of all thefe, fee their pro¬
per articles.
The origin of all nations is involved in obfeurity Chinefe
and fable ; but that of the Cbinefe much more fo than pretenfions
any other. Every nation is inclined to aftiime too t0 anti<lu‘tT
high an antiquity to itfelf, but the Chinefe carry theirs
beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on
earth are more exadl in keeping records of every mer
morable tranfatftion, yet fuch is the genius of the Chi¬
nefe for fuperftition and fable, that the firft part of
their hiftory is defervedly contemned by every ratio- ^
nal perfon. What contributes mere to the uncertain- why their
ty of the Chinefe hiftory is, that neither we, nor they hiftory is fo
themfelves, have any thing but fragments of their an- uncertain,
cient hiftorical books; for about 213 years before Chrift,
the reigning emperor Si-ivhatig-ti caufed all the bookS
in the empire to be burned, except thofe written by
lawyers and phyficians. Nay, the more efFetftually
to deftroy the memory of every thing contained in
them, he commanded a great number of learned men
to be buried alive, left, from their memories, they
fhould commit to writing fomething of the true me¬
moirs of the empire. The inaccuracy of the Chinefe
annals is complained of even by their moft refpetfted
author, Confucius himfelf; who alfo affirms, that, be¬
fore his time, many of the oldeft materials for writing
fuch annals had been deflroyed.
According to the Chinefe hiftories, the firft monarch Fabulous
of the whole univerfe, (that is, of China), was called hiftory of
Puon-ku, or Pueu-cu. This, according to fome, was China,
the firft man but according to Bayer and Menze-
lius, two of the greateft critics in Chinefe litera¬
ture that have hitherto appeared, the word fignifies
the higheft antiquity. Puon-ku was fucceeded by
Tiene-hoang, which fignifies the emperor of heaven.
They call him alfo the intelligent heaven, the fupreme
king of the middle heaven, dsV. According to fome
of their hiftorians, he was the inventor of letters, and
of the Cyclic characters by which they determine the
place of the year, ire. Tiene-hoang was lucceeded
by Ti-hoang, (the emperor of the earth), who'divi¬
ded the day and night, appointing 30 days to make
one momr and fixed the winter 1'olltice to the 11'll
11 I 2 moon.
CHI [ 1908 ] CHI
Chin*, meon. Ti-hoang was fucceeckd by Gine-hoang, (fo-
 vereign of men), who with his nine brothers fliared
the government among them. They built cities, and
furrounded them with walls ; made a diltindlion be¬
tween the fovereign and fubjedlsj inllituted marriage,
ire.
The reigns of thefe four emperors make up one of
what the Chinefe called ki, “ ages,'” or “ periods,” of
which there were nine before Fo-hi, whom their moil
fenfible people acknowledge as the founder of their
empire.
The hiftory of the fecond ki, contradi&s almoft eve¬
ry thing laid of the firft ; for though we have but jull
now been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built
cities furrounded with walls; yet, in the fucceeding
age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees
as it were in nefts. Of the third ki we hear nothing ;
and in the fourth, it feems matters had been ftill worle,
as 'yve are told that men were then only taught to re¬
tire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and fixth
we have no accounts. Thefe fix periods, accord¬
ing to fome writers contained 90,000 years; accord¬
ing to others, 1,100,750.
In the feventh and eighth ki, they tell us over again
what they had laid of the firfi; namely, that men be¬
gan to leave their caves and dwell in houles, and were
taught to prepare clothes, ire. Tchine-fang, the firll
monarch of the eighth ki, taught his fubjedls to take
off the hair from Ikins with rollers of wood, and co¬
ver themfelves with the Ikins fo prepared. He taught
them alfo to make a kind of web of their hair, to fefve
as a covering to their heads againft rain. They obeyed
his orders with joy, and he called his fubjedts people
clothed with jkins. His reign lafted 350 years ; that
of one of his fucceffors, alfo, named Yeou-tfao-chi,
lafted more than 300 ; and his family continued for
12 or 18,000 years. But what is very furprifing, all
thefe thoufands and millions of years had elapfed
without mankinds having any knowledge of fire.
This was not difeovered till towards the clofe of this
period, by one Souigine. After fo ufeful a difeovery,
he taught the people to drefs their victuals; whereas
before, they had devoured the flelh of animals quite
raw, drank their blood, and (wallowed even their hair
and feathers. He is alfo faid to have been the inven¬
tor of filhing, letters, ire.
In the ninth period we find the invention, or at
leaft the origin, of letters, attributed to one Tfang-hie,
who received them from a divine tortoife that carried
them on his (hell, and delivered them into the hands
of Tfang-hie. During this period alfo, mufic, money,
carriages, merchandize and commerce, ire. were in¬
vented. There are various calculations of the length
of thefe ki or periods. Some make the time from
Puan-ku to Confucius, who fkmriflied about 479 years
before Chrift, to contain 276,000 years; others,
2,276,000; fome, 2,759,86oyears; others, 3,276,000;
6 and fome no lefs than 96,961,740 years.
Fabulous Thefe extravagant accounts are by fome thought
hiftory ex- to contain obfeure and imperfeeft hints concerning the
plained. cofmogony, and creation of the world, ire. Puon-ku,
the firft emperor, they think reprefents eternity pre¬
ceding the duration of the world. The fucceeding
onesj Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they
imagine, fignify the creation of the heavens and earth, China,
and the formation of man. The ten ki, or ages, nine
of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations
preceding Noah. This may very poffibly be the cafe;
for about 300 years before Chrift, fome Jews travel¬
led into China, who might have made the Mofaic wri¬
tings known there.
What we Have now related, contains the fubftance
of that part of the Chinefe hiftory which is entirely
fabulous. After the nine ki or “ ages” already taken
notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-hi ; and the
hiftory, though ftill very dark, obfeure, and fabulous,
begins to grow fomewhat more confiftent and intel- 7
ligible. Fo-hi was born in the province of Shenfi. Reign of
His mother walking upon the bank of a lake in that P°-bi*
province, faw a very large print of a man’s foot in
the find there ; and, being furrounded by an iris or
rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named
Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his country¬
men elected king on account of his fuperior merit,
and ftyled Tyent-tfe, that is “ the fon of heaven.” He
invented the eight qua, or fymbols, confiding of three
lines each, which, differently combined, formed 64 cha¬
racters that were made ufe of to exprefs every thing.
To give thefe the greater credit, he pretended that
he had feen them inferibed on the back of a dragon-
horfe, (an animal (haped like a horfe, with the wings
and (bales of a dragon), which arofe from the bottom
of a lake. Having gained great reputation among
his countrymen by this prodigy, he is faid to have
created mandarins or officers, under the name of dra¬
gons. Hence we may alfign a reafon why the empe¬
rors of China always carry a dragon in their banners,.
He alfo inftituted marriage, invented mufic, ire. Ha¬
ving eftablilhed a prime minifter, he divided the go¬
vernment of his dominions among four mandarins,,
and died after a reign of 115 years. g
After Fo-hi followed a fucceffion of emperors, of Miraculous-
whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that in folftfce.
the reign of Tan, the feventh after Fo-hi, the fun did
not fet for 10 days, fo that the Chinefe were afraid of 9
a general conflagration. This event the compilers of Hypothefis
the Univerfal hiftory take to be the fame with that men- concerning
tioned in the book of Jofhua, when the fun and moon ril1?
flood ftill for about the fpace of a day. Fo-hi, they and
will have to be the fame with Noah. They imagine,
that after the deluge, this patriarch remained fome time
with his defeendents; but on their wicked combination
to build the tower of Babel, he feparated himfelf from-
them with as many as he could perfuade to go along-
with him ; and that, ftill travelling eaftward, he at
laft entered the fertile country of China, and laid
the foundation of that vaft empire.—But, leaving
thefe fabulous and conjectural times, we (hall pro¬
ceed to give fome account of that part of the Chi¬
nefe hiftory, which may be more certainly depended
on.
As the Chinefe, contrary to the practice of al¬
moft all nations, have never fought to conquer other
countries, but rather to improve and content them¬
felves with their own, their hiftory for many ages
furnilhes nothing remarkable. The whole of their
emperors, abftradiing from thofe who are faid to
have reigned in the fabulous times, are comprehend¬
ed
C H I
[ I9°9 ]
C H I
ed in 22 dynafties,
“ table :
1. Hya, containing
2. Shaug, or Ingy
3. Chew,
t TA
6. Hew-han,
7. Tfm,
8. Sou’,
9' V<>
10. Lyang,
ix. Chin,
12. Swi,
13. Twang,
14. Hew-lyang,
15. Hew-tang,
16. Hew-tfn,
17. Hew-han,
18. Hcw-chew,
19. Song,
20. Iwen,
21.
22. TJing,
mentioned in the following defign of making pofterity believe that he himfelf had China.
been the firft Chinefe emperor that ever fat on the
throne. For this purpofe, he ordered all the hifto-
rical writings to be burnt, and caufed many of
the learned' 5to be put to death, as already mention¬
ed.
What effedt the great wall for fome time had in
preventing the invafions of the Tartars, we are not
told ; but in the tenth century of the Chriftian sera, I2
thofe of Kitan or Lyau got a footing in China. The Kitan Tar-
Kitan were a people of Faftern Tartary, who dwelt to tars fftde
the north and north-eaft of the province of Pecheli in ‘“China.
China, particularly in that of Layu-tong lying without
the great wall. Thefe people having fubdued the
country between Korea and Kalhgar, became much
more troublefome to the Chinefe than all the other
Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year
9x6, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyun-ti, fecond empe¬
ror of the t4th Chinefe dynafty called Hew-lyang. In
946, Mingt-fong, fecond emperor of the 15th dyna-
Ity, being dead, Sheking-tang, his fon-in-law, rebelled
again ft Mingt-fong, his fon and fucceffor, whom he de¬
prived of his crown and life. This he accomplifhed
by means of an army of 50,000 men furnifhed by the
Kitan. Fi-ti, the fon of Mingt-fong, being unable to
refift the ufurper, fled to the city Ghey-chew ; where
fhutting himfelf up with his family and all his valuable
the accounts of effects, he let fire to the palace and was burnt to
Emperors.
J7
28
35
4
25
Before Chrift.
2207.
1766.
1X22.
248.
206.
After Chrift.
220.
265.
420.
479-
502.
55 7- .
6x8.
907.
923.
93(’*
947-
951.
960.
1280.
1368.
1645.
This table is formed according
the Jefuit Du Halde, and is commonly reckoned to afhes. On his death, Sheking-tang affumed the title
" ^ ' of emperor; founded the x6ttl dynafly; and changed
his name to that of Kaut-fu. But the Kitan general
refufing to acknowledge him, he was obliged to pur-
chafe a peace by yielding up to the Tartars 16 cities
in the province of Pecheli, befides a yearly prefent-
of 300,000 pieces of filk.
This fubmiffion ferved only to enflame the avarice
and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the
treaty when leaft expected, and invaded the empire
afrefh. Tfi-vang, the emperor at that time, oppofed
be the molt authentic; but according to the above
mentioned hypothefis of the compilers of the Univer-
fal Hiftory, who make Tau cotemporary with Jofltua,
the dynaliy of Hya did not commence till the year be¬
fore Chrift 1357; and to accommodate the hiftory to
their hypothefis, great alterations muft be made in
10 the duration of the dynafties.
Incurfions The molt interefting particulars of the Chinefe hif-
of the Tar- tory relate only to the incurfions of the Tartars, who
laft conquered the whole empire, and who ftill con¬
tinue to hold the fovereignty ; though by transferring them with a formidable army; but through the treach-
the feat of the empire to Peking, and adopting tfie
Chinefe language, mariners, lac. Tartary would
feem rather to have been conquered by China, than
China by Tartary. Thefe incurfions are faid to have
begun very early ; even in the time of the emperor
Shun, fucceffor to Yau above mentioned, in whole
reign the miraculous foiftice happened. At this time,
however, the Tartars were repulfed, and obliged to
retire into their own territories. From time to time,
however, they continued to threaten the empire with
invafions, and the northern provinces were often ac¬
tually ravaged by the Tartars in the neighbourhood.
About the year before Chrift 213-, Shi-whang-ti, ha¬
ving fully fubdued all the princes, or kings, as they
were called, of the different provinces, became em¬
peror of China with unlimited" power. He divided the
whole empire into 36 provinces; and finding the
northern part of his dominions much incommoded by
the invafions of the neighbouring barbarians, he fent
M a formidable army againft them which drove them
Great wall far beyond the boundaries of China. To prevent
built. their return, he built the famous wall already men¬
tioned, which feparates China from Tartary. After
this, being elated with his own exploits, he formed a
ery of his general Lyew-chi-ywen, the Tartars were
allowed to take him prifoner. On this, Tfi-vang was
glad to recover his liberty by accepting of a fmall
principality ; while the traitor became emperor of all
China, and, changing his name to Kaut-fu, founded
the 17th dynafty. The Tartars, in the mean time,
ravaged all the northern provinces without oppofition,.
and then marched into the fouthern. But being here
flopped by fome bodies of Chinefe troops, the gene¬
ral thought proper to retire with his booty into Tar—
tary. In 962, Kaut-fu, dying, was fucceeded by his
fon In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportu¬
nity to the eunuchs to raife commotions; efpecially
as the army was employed-at a diftance in repelling
the invafions of the Tartars. This army was com¬
manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in fe-
veral battles, and thus reftored peace to the northern
provinces. In the meantime, In-ti was flain by his
eunuchs, and the emprefs placed his brother on the
throne : but Ko-ghey, returning in triumph, was fa-
luted emperor by his victorious army, and the em¬
prefs beingunabte to (bpport the rights of her fon, was
obliged to fubmit, while Ko-ghey, afluming the name
of Tay-tfu, founded the 18 th dynafty. Nine years
after.
CHI [19
China, after this, however, the grandees of the empire, fet-
— ting afide Kong-ti, the third in fucceflion from Tay-
tfu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guar¬
dian, named Chau-quang-yu> emperor; who, aiiiim-
ing the name of Kau-tlu, founded the 19th dynafty,
called Song, or Tfong.
Under this monarch the empire began to recover
itfelf; but the Kitan hill continued their incurfions;
The fncceffors of Kau-tfu oppofed them with various
fuccefs; but at laft, in 978, the barbarians became fo
ftrong as to lay ftege to a confiderable city. Tay-
flong, fucceffor to Kau-tfu, detached qoo foldiers,
each carrying a light in his hand, againft them in the
night-time, with orders to approach as near as pof-
lible to the Tartar camp. The barbarians, imagining,
by the number of lights, that the whole Chinefe ar¬
my was at hand, immediately fled, and, falling into
the ambufeades laid for them by the Chinefe general,
were almoft all cut to pieces.
This check, however, did not long put a flop to
the ravages of the Kitan. In the year ^99, they laid
fiege to a city in the province.of Peche-li; but Ching-
tfong, fuccc flbr to Tay-tfong, came upon them with
his army fo fuddenly, that they betook themfelves to
flight. The emperor was advifed to take advantage
of their confternation, and recover the country which
had been yielded to them; but inftead of pnrfuing his
victory, he bought a peace, by confenting to pay an¬
nually 100,000 tael, (about L. 34,000), and 200,000
pieces of fllk. The youth and pacific difpofition of
Jin-tfong, fucceffor to Cbing-tfong, revived the cou¬
rage of the Kitan; and, in 1035, v/ar would have
been renewed, had not the emperor condefcended to
as (hameful a treaty as that concluded by his father.
Two years after, the Tartars demanded reftitution of
ten cities in the province of Peche-li, which had been
taken by Ko-ghey founder of the 18 th dynarty ; upon
which Jin-tfong engaged to pay them an annual tri¬
bute of 200,000 taels of fiivers, and 300,000 pieces
13 of filk in lieu of thefe cities.
Kitan dri- From this time, the Kitan remained in peaceable
ven °'it by polfeffion of their Chinefe dominions till the year 1117.
Tartars6™ Whey-tfong, at that time emperor, being able nei¬
ther to bear their ravages, nor by himfelf to put a
flop to them, refolved upon a remedy which at lafl:
proved worfe than the difeafe. This was to call in
the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eaflern Tartars, to deftroy
the kingdom of the Kitan. From this he was diffiia-
ded by the king of Korea, and moft of his own mini-
flers; but, difregarding their falutary advice, he join¬
ed his forces to thofe of the Nu-che. The Kitan were
then every where defeated; and at lafl: reduced to
fuch extremity, that thofe who remained were forced
to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the
14 weft.
Who af- Thus the empire of the Kitan was totally deftroyed,
mme 0/ bnt notfiing to the advantage of the Chinefe ; for the
Kin and Tartar general, elated with his conqueft, gave the
invade Chi- name of Kin to his new dominion, affumed the title
na. of emperor, and began t6 think of aggrandizing him¬
felf and enlarging his empire. For this purpofe, he
immediattly broke the treaties concluded with the
Chinefe emperor; and, invading the provinces of Pe¬
che-li and Slien-fi, made himielf mafler of the greater
ro ] CHI
part of them. Whey-tfong, finding himfelf in danger China,
of loling his dominions, made i’everal advantageous ————
propofals to the Tartar; who, feeming to comply
with them, invited him to come and fettle matters by
a perfonal conference. The Chinefe monarch com¬
plied : but, on his return, the terms agreed on feemed
intolerable to his minifters; fo that they told him the
treaty could not fubfift, and that the moft cruel war
was preferable to fuch an ignominious peace. The
Kin monarch,, being informed of all that palfed, had
recourfe to arms, and took feveral cities. Whey-
tfong was weak enough to go in perfon to hold a fe-
cond conference ; but, on his arrival, was immediate- [14J
ly feized by the Tartar. He was kept prifoner un- They take
tier a ftrong guard during the remaining part of his tlle emPe*
life; and ended his days in 1126, in the defert of ^ Frif°n“
Shamo, having nominated his eldeft fon Kin-tfong to
fucceed him.
Kin-tfong began his reign with putting to death fix
minifters of ftate, who had betrayed his father into
the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in
the mean time purfued their conquefts without oppo-
fition. They crofted the Whang-ho, or Yellow River,
which an handful of troops might have prevented; and I5
marching directly towards the imperial city, took and Imperial ci-
plundered it. Then feizing the emperor and his con- ty and ano-
fort, they carried them away captives: hut many of tner^e^nFe*
the principal lords, and feveral of the minifters, prefer- ror a ta‘
ring death to Inch an ignominious bondage, killed them¬
felves. The Kin being informed by the emprefs
Meug that Ihe had been divorced, they left her be¬
hind. . This proved the means of laving the empire;
for by her wifdom and prudence Ihe got the crown
placed on the head of Kau-tfong, ninth fon of the em¬
peror Whey-tfong by his divorced emprefs.
Kau-tfong fixed his court at Nanking the capital of
Kyarig-nan ; but foon after was obliged to remove it
to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made feveral ef¬
forts to recover fume of his provinces from the Kin,
but without effedl. Ili-tfong the Kin monarch, in the
mean time, endeavoured to gain the efteem of his
Chinefe fubjedts by paying a regard to their learning
and learned men, and honouring the memory of Con¬
fucius. Some time after, he advanced to Nanking,
from whence Kau-tfong had retired, and took it: bur,
receiving advice that Yo-fi, general of the Song, or
fouthern Chinefe, was advancing by long marches to
the relief of that city, they fet fire to the palace, and l6
retired northward. However, Yo-fi arrived time progrefs of
enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which fuffered the Kin
very much; and from this time the Kin never dared checked,
to crofs the river Kyang. In a few years afterwards
the Chinefe emperor fubmitted to become tributary to
the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon yery
dilhonourable terms. This fubmiffion, however, was
of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the
peace; and, invading the fouthern province with a for¬
midable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The
king, having approached the river Kyang, near its
mouth, where it is wideft as well as moft rapid, com¬
manded his troops to crofs it, threatening with his
drawn fword to kill thofe who refilled. On recei¬
ving Inch an unreafonable command, the whole ar¬
my mutinied; and the king being killed in the be¬
ginning
CHI [ 1911 ] CHI
China, ginning of the tumult, the army immediately reti-
*—red.
They are From this time to the year 12 to, nothing remark-
attacked by able occurs in the Chinefe hiftory ; but this year,
Jenghiz- Jenghiz-khan, chief of the wellern Tartars, Moguls,
the*king of or Mungls, quarelled with Yong-tfi emperor of the
Hya. S Kin; and at the fame time the king of Hya, difgufted
at being refufed affiitance againft Jenghiz-khan, threat¬
ened him with an invalion on the weit-fide. Yong-tfi
prepared for his defence ; but in 1211, receiving news
that Jenghiz-khan was advancing fouthward with his
,8 whole army, he was feized with fear, and made pro-
Great wall polals of peace, which were rejected.: In 1212, the
forced by Mogul generals forced the great wall; or, according to
Jenghiz- fome writers, had one of the gates treacheroully open-
un- ed to them, to the north of Shanfi ; and made incur-
fions as far as Peking the capital of the Kin empire.
At the fame time the province of Lyau-tong was al-
moft totally reduced by feveral Kitan lords who had
joined Jenghiz-khan ; feveral ftrong places were ta¬
ken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the Mo¬
guls. In autumn they laid fiege to the city of Tay-
tong-fu; where, although the governor Hujaku fled,
yet Jenghiz-khan met with confiderable refiftance.
Having loft a vaft number of men,- and being himfelf
wounded by an arrow, he was obliged to raife the
fiege and retire into Tartary; after which the Kin re¬
took feveral cities. The next year, however, Jeng¬
hiz-khan re-entered China; retook the cities which the
Kin had reduced the year before ; and overthrew their
armies in two bloody battles, in one of which the
ground was ftrewed with dead bodies for upwards of
four leagues.
The lame year Yong-tfi was flain by his general
Hujaku ; and Sun, a prince of the blood, advanced in
his room. After this the Moguls, attacking the empire
with four armies at once, laid wafte the provinces of
Shanfi, Honan, Pecbeli, and Shantung. In 1214 Jeng¬
hiz-khan fat down before Peking ; but inftead of af-
faulting the city, oft'ered terms of peace, which were
accepted, and the Moguls retired into Tartary. After
their departure, the emperor, leaving his fon at Pe¬
king, removed his court to Pyen-lyang near Kay-
fong-fu, the capital of Honan. At this Jenghiz-khan
19 being offended, immediately lent troops to befiege Pe-
Peking ta- king. The city held out to the fifth month of the year
lten‘ 1215, and then furrendered. At the fame time the
Moguls finilhed the conqueft of Lyau-tong; and the
Song refhfed to pay the ufual tribute to the Kin.
In 1216, Jenghiz-khan returned to purfue liis. con-
quefts in the weft of Alia, where he ft aid feven years;
during which time his general Muhuli made great
Southern progrefs in China againft the Kin emperor. He was
Chinefede- greatly aflifted by the motions of Ning-tfong emperor
elare war of the Song, or fouthern China ; who, incenfed by the
againll the frequent perfidies of the Kin, had declared war againft
^in' them, and would hearken to no terms of peace, though
very advantageous propofals were made. Notwith-
ftanding this, however, in 1220, the Kin, exerting
tbemfelves, raifed two great armies, one in Sbenfi,
and the other in Shang-tong. The former baffled the
attempts of the Song and king of Hya, who had united
againft them; but the latter, though no fewer than
200,000, were entirely defeated by Muhuli. In 1221,
that officer pafled the Whang-ho, and died after con- China,
quering fevera! cities. ~—^ 
In 1224, the Kin emperor died; and Was fucceeded Jenghiz-
by his fon Shew, who made peace with the klhg of khan de-
Hya : but next year, that kingdom was entirely de- fkoys the
ftroyed by Jenghiz-khan. In 1226, Oktay fon to kingdom of
Jenghiz-khan marched into Honan, and befieged Kay- ^a'
Song-fu, capital of the Kin empire ; but was obliged to
withdraw into Shenfi, where he took feveral cities, and 22
cut in pieces an army of 30,000 men. In 1227 Jeng- Ai,,] 4|;es,
hiz-khan died, after having defired his fons to demand
a palfige for their army through the dominions of the
Song, without which he laid they could not eafily vari-
quifh the Kin.
After the death of that great conqueror, the war
was carried on with various fuccefs; hut though the
Moguls took above 60 important ports in the province
of Shenfi, they found it impoffible to force Tong-quan,
which it behoved them to do in order to penetrate effec¬
tually into Honan. In April 1231 they took the capi¬
tal of Shenfi, and defeated the Kin army Which came
to its relief. Here one of the officers defired prince
Toley to demand a paftage from the Song through
the country of Han-chong-fu. This propolal Toley
communicated to his brother Oktay, who approved of
it as being conformable to the dying advice of Jeng¬
hiz-khan. Hereupon Toley, having affembled all his 2j
forces, fent a meflenger to the Song generals to de- Moguls
mand a paflage through their territories. This, how- quarrel
ever, they not only refufed, but put the meflenger t6 Wlth tiie
death; which fo enraged Toley that he fwore t6 Soil^‘
make them repent of it, and was foon as good as his 24
word. He decamped in Auguft 1231; and having for- Exploits of
ced the paffages, put to the fword the inhabitants of Toley.
Wha-yang and Long-chew, two cities in the diftri&
of Han-chong-fu. Then having cut down rocks to
fill up deep abyfies, and made roads through places
almoft inaccefllble, he came and befieged the city of
Han-chong-fu itfelf. The miferable inhabitants fled
to the mountains on his approach, and more that!
100,000 of them periffied. After this, Toley divided
his forces, confifting of 30,000 horfe, into two bodies.
One of thefe went weftward to Myen-chew : front
thence, after opening the pnffages of the mountains,
they arrived at the river Kyalingy which runs into
the great Kyang. This they croffed on rafts made
of the wood of demoliffied houfes ; and then, march*
ing along its banks, feized many important ports, .
At laft, having deftroyed more than 140 cities, towns,
or fortrefl'es, they returned to the army. The fecond’
detachment feized an important port in the mountains,
called Tautbng, lix or feven leagues to the eaftward
of Han-chong-fu. On the other fide Oktay advanced;,
in Odtober, towards Pu-cbew a city of Shan-fi; which
being taken alter a vigorous defence, he prepared to
pafs the Whang-ho. Toley, after furmounting incre¬
dible difficulties, arrived in December on the borders
of Honan, and made a ffiew as if he defigned to at¬
tack the capital of the Kin empire. On his firft ap¬
pearance in Honan through a paffage fo little fufpec-
ted, every body was filled with terror and aftoniffi-
tnent, fo that he proceeded for fome time without
oppofition. At laft the emperor ordered his generals,.
Hota, Uapua,. and others, to march againft the enemy,
Toley
C H I
[ I912 ]
C H I
China. Toley boldly attacked them; but was obliged to retire,
  which he did in good order. Hota was for purfuing
him, faying that the Mogul army did not exceed
30,000 men, and that they teemed not to have eaten
any thing for two or three days. Ilapua, however,
Was of opinion that there was no occafion for being
fo hafty, as the Moguls were inclofed between the
rivers Han and Whang-ho, fo that they could not
efcape. This negligence they foon had occafion to re¬
pent of: for Toley, by a ftratagem,.made himfelf
mailer of their heavy baggage; which accident ob¬
liged them to retire to Tang-chew. From thence
they fent a meifenger to acquaint the emperor that
they had gained the battle, but concealed the lofs of
their baggage. This good news filled the court with
joy ; and the people who had retired into the capital
for its defence, left it again, and went into the coun¬
try : but, in a few days after, the vanguard of the Mo¬
guls, who had been fent by the emperor Oktay,appear¬
ed in the field, and carried off a great number of thofe
2J that had quitted the city.
Capital of In January 1232, Oktay pafling the Whang-ho; en-
theKinem- camped in the diilridt of Kay-fong-fu, capital of the
pire befieg- Kin empire, and fent his general Suputay to befiege
C * .the city. At that time the place was near 30 miles
in circumference: but having only 40,000 foldiers to
defend it, as many more from the neighbouring cities,
and 20,000 peafants, were ordered into it; while the
emperor publifhed an affecting declaration, animating
the people to defend it to the laft extremity. Oktay,
having heard with joy of Toley’s entrance into Ho¬
nan, ordered him to fend fuccours to Suputay. On the
other hand, the Kin generals advanced with 150,000
men to relieve the city ; but being obliged to divide
their forces in order to avoid in part the great road
which Toley had obftru&ed with trees, they were
attacked by that prince at a difad vantage, and, after
a faint refillance, defeated with great daughter, and
the lofs of both their generals, one killed and the
other taken. The emperor now ordered the army at
Tong-quan and other fortified places, to march,to the
relief of Kay-fong-fu. They affembled accordingly,
to the number of 1 to,000 foot and 15,000 horl'e ;
and were followed by vafl numbers of people who
^xpetiled by their means to be protefled from the
enemy. But many of thofe troops having deferted,
and the reft being enfeebled by the fatigues of their
march, they difperfed on the approach of their pur-
fuers, who killed all they found in the highways. Af¬
ter this the Moguls took Tong-quan and fome other
confiderable polls; but were obliged to raife the fieges
of £)ney-te-fu and Loyang, by the bravery of the go¬
vernors. Kyang-fhin, governor of Loyang, had only
3 or 4000 foldiers under him, while his enemies were
30,000 ftrong. He placed his worft foldiers on the
walls, putting himfelf at the head of 400 brave men ;
whom he ordered to go naked, and whom he led to
all dangerous attacks. He invented engines to caft
large ftones, which required but few hands to play
them, and aimed fo true as to hit at too paces dif-
tance. When their arrows failed, he cut thofe (hot
by the enemy into four pieces ; pointed them with
pieces of brafs coin ; and difeharged them from wooden
tubes with as much force as bullets are from a mufquet.
Thus he harraffed the Moguls for three months fo grie-
voufly, that they were obliged, notwithftanding their
numbers, to abandon the enterprize.
Oktay, at laft, notwithftanding his fuccefles, refol-
ved to return to Tartary ; and ofiered the Kin empe¬
ror peace, provided he became tributary, and deli¬
vered up to him 27 families which he named. Thefe
offers were very ogreeable to the emperor; butSuputay,
taking no notice of the treaty, pulhed on the liege of
the capital with more vigour than ever. By the help
of the Chinefe Haves in his army, the Mogul general
foon filled the ditch; but all his efforts feemed only to
infpire the befieged with new vigour. The Moguls
at that time made ufe of artillery, but were unable to
make the leaft impreffion upon the city walls. They
railed walls round thofe they befieged, which they
fortified with ditches, rowers, and battlements. They
proceeded alfo to fap the walls of the city; but were
very much annoyed by the artillery of the befieged,
efpecially by their bombs, which finking into the gal¬
leries, and burfting under ground, made great havock
among the miners. For 16 days and nights the at¬
tacks continued without intermiflion; during which
time an incredible number of men perifhed on both
fides: at length/ Suputay, finding that he could
not take the city, withdrew his troops, under pretence
of conferences being on foot. Soon after, the plague
began in Kay-fong-fu ; and raged with fuch violence,
that, in 50 days, 900,000 biers were carried out, be-
fides a vaft multitude of the poorer fort who could not
afford any.
In a Ihort time, two unlucky accidents occafioned a
renewal of the war; which now put an end to the
empire of the Kin. Gan-yong, a young Mogul lord,
having affumed the government of fome cities in
Kyang-nan, and killed the officer fent to take poflef-
fion of them, declared for the Kin. The emperor
unwarily took Gan-yong into his fervice, and gave
him the title of Prince. Upon this Oktay fent an en¬
voy, attended by 30 other perfons, to inquire into the
affair; but the Kin officers killed them all, without
being punifhed by the emperor. Suputay, having in¬
formed his mafter of all thefe proceedings, was or¬
dered to continue the war in Honan. Shew-fu now
commanded his officers to unite their troops for the
defence of the capital; but before his orders could be
obeyed, they were attacked and defeated, one after
another, by the Moguls. This obliged him to raife
foldiers from among the peafants, for whofe fub-
fiftence the people were taxed of the rice they
poffefied. The city began now to be diftreffed for
want of provifions ; and as it was but in a bad pofture
of defence, the emperor inarched with an army a-
gainft the Moguls. His expedition proved unfortu¬
nate ; for, fending part of his army to befiege a city
called Why-chew, it was totally cut in pieces, and
Suputay a fecond time fat down before the capital.
On hearing this bad news, the emperor repaffed
the Whang-ho, and retired to Quey-te-fu. Here he
had not been long, before the capital was delivered
up by treachery, and Suputay put all the males of the
imperial race to death; but, by the exprefs command
of Oktay, fpared the inhabitants, who are faid to have
amounted to 1,400,000 families. After this difafter
the
China.
26
Bravery of
the befieg¬
ed.
27
Peace con¬
cluded ;
28
And brok¬
en.
29
Capital a-
gain befieg¬
ed.
.
And taken, t
CHI [ 1913 ] CHI
China, the unhappy monarch left his troops at Quey-te-fn,
’—  and retired to Juning-fu, a city in the Ibutiiern part
5iege of °f Honan, attended only by 400 perfons. Here the
Juning-fu. diilance of the Moguls made him think of living at
eafe ; but while he flattered himfelf with thefe vain
hopes, the enemy’s army arrived before the city and
inverted it. The garrifon were terrified at their ap¬
proach ; but were encouraged by the emperor, mid his
brave general Hu-fye-hu, to hold out to the laft. As
there were not in the city a fufficient number of men,
the women, drefled in mens clothes, were employed
to carry wood, ftones, and other necefl’ary materials
to the walls. All their efforts, however, were ineffec¬
tual. They were reduced to fuch extremities, that
for three months they fed on human fleih ; killing the
old and feeble, as well as many prifoners, for food.
This being known to the Moguls, they made a general
aflault in January 1234. The attack continued from
morning till night; but at laft the aflailants were re-
pulfed. In this action, however, the Kin loft all their
beft officers; upon which the emperor refigned the
crown to Cheng-lin a prince of the blood. Next mor¬
ning, while the ceremony of inverting the new em¬
peror was performing, the enemy mounted the fouth
walls, which were defended only by 200 men ; and
the fouth gate being at the fame time abandoned, the
whole army broke in. They were oppofed, how-
22 ever, by Hu-fye-hu; who, with 1000 foldiers, conti-
Xlnhappy nued to fight with amazing intrepidity. In the mean
fate of the time Shew-fn, feeing every thing irreparably loft,
emperor, lodged the feal of the empire in a houi'e ; and then
caufing flieaves of ftraw to be fet round it, ordered it
to be fet on fire as foon as he was dead. After giving
this order he hanged himfelf, and his commands were
executed by his domeftics. Hu-fye-hu, who ftill con¬
tinued fighting with great bravery, no foonef heard
of the tragical death of the emperor, than he drown¬
ed himfelf in the river Ju ; as did alfo 500 of his moft
refolute foldiers. The fame day the new emperor,
Diflblution Cheng-lin, was (lain in a tumult; and thus an end was
of the Kin put to the dominion of the Kin Tartars in China,
empire. The empire of China was now to be lhared between
the Song, or fouthern Chinefe, and the Moguls. It
had been agreed upon, that the province of Honan
ffiould be delivered up to the Song as foon as the war was
finilhed. But they, without waiting for the expira¬
tion of the term, or giving Gktay notice of their pro-
$54 ceedings, introduced their troops into Kay-fong-fu,
"War be- Lo-yang, and Other confiderable cities. On this the
tween the Mogul general refolved to attack them ; and re-paffing
tUM^'uls ^ie Whang-ho, cut in pieces part of the garrifon of
s ’ Lo-yang, while they were out in fearch of provifions.
The garrifon of Kay-fong-fu likewife abandoned that
place; and the Song emperor degraded the officers
who had been guilty of thofe irregularities, fending
ambaffadors to Oktay, at the fame time, to defire a
continuance of the peace. What Oktay’s anfwer was
we are not told, but the event fliewed that he was
not well pleafed ; for, in 1235, he ordered his fecond
fon prince Kotovan, and his general Chahay, to attack
the Song in Se-chwen, while others marched towards
the borders of Kyang-nan.
In 1236, the Moguls made great progrefs in the
province of Huquang, where they took feveral cities.
Vox.. III.
and put vaft numbers to the fword. This year they. Chins,
introduced paper or filk money, which had formerly  
been ufed by Chang-tfong, fixth emperor of the Kin.
Prince Kotovan forced the palfages into the diftribl of
Han-chong-fu in the province of Shenfi, which he en- 34
tered with an army of $00,000 men. Here a ter- Dreadful
rible battle was fought between the vaft army of the enSagc-
Moguls and the Chinel’e troops, who had been driven ment•
from the paflages they defended. The latter con-
fifted only of lo,ooohorfe and foot, who were almoft
entirely cut off; and the Moguls loft fuch a number
of men, that the blood is laid to have run for two
leagues together. After this vuftory the Moguls en¬
tered Sechwen, which they almoft entirely reduced,
committing fuch barbarities, that, in one city, 40,000
people thofe rather to put an end to their own lives
than fubmit to fuch cruel conquerors.
In 1237, the Moguls received a confiderable check
before the city of Gantong in Kyang-nan, the liege of
which they were obliged to raife with lofs. In 1238
they befieged Lu-chew, another city in the fame pro¬
vince. They furrounded it with a rampart of earth
and a double ditch ; but the Chinefe general ordered
their intrenchments to be filled with immenfe quan¬
tities of herbs fteeped in oil, and then fet on fire;
while he Ihot ftones upon them from a tower feven
ftories high. At the fame time a vigorous fally was
made ; and the Mogul army being thrown into the
utmoft diforder, were obliged finally to abandon the
liege, and retire northwards.
In 1239, thefe barbarians were oppofed by a ge¬
neral called Meng-kong, with great fuccefs; who this
and the following year, gained great honour by his
exploits. While he lived, the Moguls were never
able to make any conliderable progrefs : but his death,
in 1246, proved of the greateft detriment to the Chi¬
nefe affairs ; and foon after, the Tartars renewed the
war with more vigour and fuccefs than ever. In
125$, they re-entered the province of Se-chwen : but
ftill met with vigorous oppofition in this quarter, be-
caufe the Chinefe took care to have Se-chwen furnilh-
ed with good troops and generals. Though they
were always beaten, being greatly inferior in number
to their enemies, yet they generally retook the cities
the Moguls had reduced, as the latter were commonly
obliged to withdraw for want of provifions and fo-
rage. In 1259 they undertook the liege of Ho-chew, siege of
a Itrong city to the weft of Peking, defended by Vang- Ho-chew.
kyen, a very able officer, who commanded a nume¬
rous garrifon. The fiege continued from the month
of February till Auguft, during which time the Mo¬
guls loft an immenfe number of men. On the lot**
of Auguft they made a general aflault in the night.
They mounted the walls before the governor had in¬
telligence ; but were foon attacked by him with the
utmoft fury. The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, him-
fclf came to the fealade ; but his prefence was not
fulficient to overcome the valour of Vang-kyen. At 35
the fame time the fcaling-ladders of the Moguls were Moguls de-
blown down by a ftorm; upon which a terrible llaugh- feated, and
ter enfued, and among the reft fell the emperor him-
felf. Upon this difaftar the Mogul generals agreed lor 1 e ’
to raife the fiege, and retire towards Shen-fi.
On the death of Meng-ko, Hupilay, or Kublay Khan,
11 K who
CHI [ 1914 ] CHI
China, wbo facceecled hiin, laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu, a city
~  not far diltant from the capital of the Song empire.
At this the emperor being greatly alarmed, diftribu-
ted immenfe fums among his troops ; and having cau-
fed great levies to be made throughout the empire,
fent a formidable army to the relief of Vu-chang-fu.
Unfortunately the command of this army was com¬
mitted to the care of Kya-tfe-tau, a man without
either courage or experience in war. He was befides
very vain and vindictive in his temper ; often uling
the beft officers ill, and entirely overlooking their me¬
rit, which caufed many of them to go over to the
Moguls. The fiege of Vu-chang-fu was commenced,
and had continued a confiderable time, when Kya-tfe-
tau, afraid of its being.loft, and at the fame time not
daring to take any effectual ftep for its relief, made
propofals of peace. A treaty was accordingly con¬
cluded, by which Kya-tfe-tau engaged to pay an an¬
nual tribute of about L. 50,000 in filver,' and as much
in filk; acknowledging likewife the fovereignty of the
Moguls over the Song empire. In confequence of
this treaty, the Moguls retreated after the boundaries
of the two empires had been fixed, and repafled the
Kyang ;. but 170 of them having ftaid on the other
fide of the river, were put to death by Kya-tfe-tau.
Treachery This wicked minifter totally concealed from the
©f a Chi- emperor his having made fuch a fhameful treaty with
her! mUU' t^e ^°Sl^s 5 alK* t^ie 17° foldiers maflacred by his
order, gave occafion to a report that the enemy had
been defeated ; fo that the Song court believed that
they had been compelled to retreat by the-fuperior
valour and wifdom of Kya-tfe-tau. This proved the
ruin of the empire; for, in 1260, the Mogul empe¬
ror fent Hauking to the Chinefe court to execute the
treaty according to the terms agreed on with Kya-
tfe-tau,. The minifter, dreading the arrival of this
envoy, imprifoned him near Nanking; and took all
poffibje care that neither Hupilay, nor Li-tfong the
Chinefe emperor, ffiould ever hear any thing of him.
It was impoffible fuch unparalleled conduct could
fail to produce a new war. Hupilay’s courtiers- in-
ceffantly preffed him to revenge himfelf on the Song
for their treacherous behaviour; and he foon publilh-
ed a manifelto againft them) which was followed by
a renewal of hoftilities in 1268. The Mogul army
amounted to ;oo,ooomen; but notwithftanding their
numbers, little progrefs was made till the year 1271.
Syan-yang and Fan-ching, cities in the province of Se-
chew, had been befieged for a long time ineffectually;
but this year an Igur lord advifed Hupilay to fend for
feveral of thofe engineers out of the weft, who knew
how to caft (tones of 150 pounds weight out of their
engines, which made holes of feven or eiaht feet wide
in the Itrongeft walls. Two of thefe engineers were
accordingly fent for ; and after giving a fpecimen of
their art before Hupilay, were fent to the army in
1272. In the beginning of 1273 they planted their
engines againft the city of Fan-ching, and prefently
made a breach in the walls. After a bloody conffiCt
the fuburbs were taken ; and loon after the Moguls
made themfelves mailers of the walls and gates of the
38 city. Neverthelefs a Chinefe officer, with only too
Defperate foldiers, refolved to fight from ftreet to ftreet. This
cooflift. 5ie did for a long time with the greateft obftinacy,
killing vaft numbers of the Moguls; and both parties China,
are ('aid to have been fo much overcome with thirft, ————
that they drank human blood to quench it. The Chi¬
nefe fet fire to the houfes, that the great beams, fal¬
ling down, might embarrafs the way of their purfuers;
but at laft being quite wearied out, and filled with de-
fpair, they put an end to their own lives. After the
taking of Fan-ching, all the materials which had fer-
ved at the fiege were tranfported to Syen-yang.
The two engineers polted themfelves agairift a wooden
retrenchment raifed on the ramparts. This they
quickly demolifhed ; and the befieged were fo inti¬
midated by the noife and havock made by the ftones;
caft from thefe terrible engines, that they immedi¬
ately furrendered.
In 1274 Pe-yen, an officer of great valour, and en¬
dowed with many other good qualities, was promoted
to the Command of the Mogul army. His firft ex¬
ploits were the takhig of two ftrong cities ; after
whidi he paffed the great river Ky-ang, defeated the
Song army, and laid fiege to Vu-chang-fu. This city
was foon intimidated into a furrender; and Pe-yen, by
reftraining the barbarity of his foldiers, whom he
would not allow to hurt any body, foon gained the
hearts of the Chinefe fo much, that feveral cities fur-
rendered to him on the firft fummons. In the meant
time the treacherous Kya-tfe-tau, who was fent to op-
pofe Pe-yen, was not afhamed to propofe peace on.
the terms he had formerly concluded with Hupilay;
but thefe being reje<5ted, he was obliged at length to
come to an engagement. In this he was defeated,
and Pe-yen continued His conquefts with great rapi¬
dity, Having taken the city of Nanking, and feme
others, he marched towards Hang-chew-lii, the capi¬
tal of the Song empire. Peace was now again pro-
pofed, but rtjecled by the'Mogul general; and at laft
the emprefs was conftrained to put herfelf, with her Chinefe
fon, then an infant, into the hands of Pe-yen,. who im- Emprefi
mediately fent them to Hupilay. fubmits.
The fubmiftion of the emprefs did not yet put an
end to the war. Many of the chief officers fwore to
do their utmoft to refeue her from the hands of her
enemies. In confequence of this refolution they di-
ftributed their money among the foldiers, and foon
got together an army of 40,000 men. This army at¬
tacked the city where the young emperor Kong-
tfong was lodged, but without fuceefs; after which,
and feveral other vain attempts, they raifed one of
his brothers to the throne, who then took upon him
the name of Twon-tfong. He was but nine years of
age when he was raifed to the imperial dignity, and
enjoyed it but a very (hort time. In 1277 he was in
great danger of peri filing, by reafon of the fhip on
board which he then was being caft away. The
poor prince fell into the water, and was taken up half
dead with the fright. A great part of his troops pe¬
ri (bed at that time, and he foon after made offers of
fubmiffion to Hupilay. Thefe, however, were not
accepted; for, in 12 78, the unhappy Twon-tfong was-
obliged to retire into a little defert ifland on the coaft
of (buang-tong, where he died in the IIth year of his
age. 40
Notwithftanding the progrefs of the Moguls, vaft DifTolndoji
territories Hill remained to be fubdued before they of the Song
could emPire*
CHI [19
China, could become matters of all the Chinefe empire. On
 the death of Twon-tfong, therefore, the mandarins
railed to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at
that time but eight years of age. His army coriiifted
of no fewer than 200,000 men; but being utterly void
of dilcipline, and entirely ignorant of the art of war,
they were defeated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor
was the fleet more fuccefsful; for being put in con-
fufion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in dan¬
ger of falling into their hands, one of the officers ra¬
king him on his flioulders, jumped with him into the
fea, where they were both drowmed. Mott of the
mandarines followed this example, as did alto the em-
prefs and minifter, all the ladies and maids of honour,
and multitudes of others, infomuch that 100,000 people
are thought to have perilhed on that day. Thus end¬
ed the Chinefe race of emperors ; and the Mogul dy-
41 natty, known by the name of Twen, commenced.
Reign of Though no race of men that ever exitted were
tiupilay. more remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the
Moguls; yet it doth not appear, that the emperors of
the Ywen dynatty were in any refpedl worle than
their predeceffors. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the
Chinefe called Sh'i-tfu, found, the way of reconciling
the people to his government, and even of endearing
himfelf to them fo much, that the reign of his family
is to this day ttyled by the Chinefe the wife govern¬
ment. This he accomplilhed by keeping as dole as
poflible to their ancient laws and cuftoms ; by his mild
and juft government; and by his regard for their
learned men. He was indeed alhamed of the igno¬
rance and barbarity of his Mogul fubjeds, when com¬
pared with the Chinefe. The whole knowledge of
the former was fummed up in their Ikill in managing
their arms and horfes, being perfectly dettitute of
every art or fcience, or even of the knowledge of
letters. In 1269, he had caufed the Mogul charac¬
ters to be contrived. In 1280, he caufed fome mathe¬
maticians fearch for the fource of the river Whang-ho,
which at that time was unknown to the Chinefe them-
felves. In four months time they arrived in the
country where it rifes, and made a map of it, which
they prefented to his majefty. The fafne year a trea-
tife on attronomy was pnblilhed by his order ; and, in
1282, he ordered the learned men to repair from all
parts of the empire to examine the ftate of literature,
and take meafures for its advancement.
At his firft acceflion to the crown he fixed his re-
fidence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capital of Shen-fi; but
thought proper afterwards to remove it to Peking.
Here, being informed that the barks which brought
to court the tribute of the fouthern provinces, or car¬
ried on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come
by fea, and often fuffered Ihipwreck, he caufed that
celebrated canal to be made, which is at prefent one
of the wonders of the Chinefe empire, being 500
leagues in length. By this canal above 9000 imperial
barks tranfport with eafe, and at fmall expence, the tri¬
bute of grain, rice, filks, ire. which is annually paid
to the court. In the third year of his reign Shi-tfu
formed a defign of reducing the iflands of Japan, and
the kingdoms of Tonkquin and Cochin-china. Both
■thefe enterprizes ended unfortunately, but the firft:
-remarkably fo; for of too,000 perfous employed in
15 ] CHI
it, only four or five efcaped with the melancholy news China,
of the deftruftion of the reft, who all perilhed by {hip- '
wreck. Shi-tlu reigned 15 years, died in the 80th year 42
of his age, and was fuccetded by his grandfon. The Moguls de¬
throne continued in the Ywen family till the year 1367, ven out.
when Shun-ti the latt of that dynafty was driven out
by a Chinefe named Chu. During this period the
Tartars had become enervated by long profperity ;
and the Chinefe had been roufed into valour by their
fubjeclion. Shun-ti, the reigning prince, was quite
funk in floth and debauchery ; and the empire, belides,
was opprelfed by a wicked minifter named Ama. In Exploits of
June 1355, Chu, a Chinefe of mean extratftion, and Chu.
head of a fmall party, fet out from Ho-chew, palfed
the Kyang, and took Tay-ping. He then affociated
himlelf with fome other malcontents, at the head of
whom he reduced the city of Tit-chew, in Kyang-
nan. Soon after he made himfelf mafter of Nanking,
having defeated the Moguls who came to its relief. In
December 1356, he was able to raife 100,coo men,
at the head of whom Ite took the city of U-chew, in
the eatt borders of Quangii; and here, affembling his
generals, it was refolved neither to commit {laughters
nor to plunder. The moft formidable enemy he had
^to deal with was Chen-yew-lyang, ftyled “ emperor of
the Han.” This man being grieved at the progrefs
made by Chu, equipped a fleet, and raifed a formi¬
dable army, in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, a city
of Kyang-li, which his antagonift had made himfelf
mafter of. The governor, however, found means
to inform Chu of his danger, upon which that chief
caufed a fleet to be fitted out at Nanking, in which
he embarked 200,000 foldiers. As foon as Chen-yew-
lyang was informed of his enemy’s approach, he raifed
the liege of Nan-chang-fu, and gave orders for at¬
tacking Chit’s naval force. An engagement enfued
between a part of the fleets, in which Chu proved
victorious ; and next day, all the fquadrons having
joined, in order, to come to a general engagement,
Chu gained a fecond victory, and burnt 100 of the
enemy’s veflels. A third and fourth engagement hap¬
pened, in both which Chu gained the victory ; and in
the latt, Chen-yew-lyang himfelf was killed, his fon
taken prifoner, and his generals obliged to furrender
themielves,. with all their forces and veflels. ^
In January 1364, Chu’s generals propofed to have He is pro-
him proclaimed emperor ; but this he declined, and claimed
at firft contented himfelf with the title of King of U. kinS ^
In February he made himfelf mafter of Vu-chang-fu,
capital of Hu-quang ; wiiere, with his ufual humanity,
he relieved thofe in diftrefs, encouraged the literati^
and would allow his troops neither to plunder nor de-
ftroy. This wife conduct procured him an eafy con-
queft both of Kyang-fi and Hu-quang. The Chinefe
fuhmitted to him in crowds, and profefled the greateft
veneration and refpect for his perfon and govern¬
ment.
All this time Shun-ti, with an unaccountable negli¬
gence, never thought of exerting himfelf againft Chu;
but continued to employ his forces againft the rebels
who had taken up arms in various parts of the empire; ^
fo that Chu found himfelf in a condition to afftime the Becomes
title of emperor. This he chofe to do at Nanking on emperor of
the firft day of the year 1268. After this his troops Chin*-
11 K 2 entered
CHI [19
China, entered the province of Honan, which they prefentiy
■ reduced. In the third month, Chu, who had now
taken the title of Hong-vu or Tay-tfu, reduced the
fortrefs of Tong-qnan, after which his troops entered
Pecheli from Honan on the one fide, and hhan-tong
on the other. Here his generals defeated and killed
one of Shun-ti’s officers; alter which they took the city
of Tong-chew, and then prepared to attack the capi¬
tal, from which they were now but 12 miles difiant.
On their approach the emperor fled with all his family
46 beyond the great wall, and thus put an end to the dy-
Mogulsdri- nafty of Ywen. In 1370 he died, and was fucceeded
ven beyond by his fon, whom the fucceflor of Hong-vu drove be-
the defert. yoncj tiie K0bi or Great Defert, which feparates China
from Tartary. They continued their incurfions, how¬
ever, for many years; nor did they ceafe their at¬
tempts till 1583, wlten vaft numbers of them were cut
4y in pieces by the Chinefe troops.
Chinaagain The 21st dynafty of Chinefe emperors, founded in
conquered 1368 by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when they
tars1116^* were aga’n expelled by the Tartars. The lall Chi¬
nefe emperor was named Whay-tfong, and afcended
the throne in 1628. He was a great lover of tire fci-
ences, and a favourer of the Chriftians ; though much
addicted to the fuperftitions of the Bonzes. He found
himfelf engaged in a war with the Tartars, and a
number of rebels in different provinces. That he
might more effectually fupprefs the latter, he refolved
to make peace with the former ; and for that end fent
one of his generals, named Twin, into Tartary, at
the head of an army, with full power to negociate a
peace ; but that traitor made one upon fuch lhameful
terms, that the emperor refufed to ratify it. Ywen,
in order to oblige his mafter to comply with the terms
made by himfelf, poifoned his beft and moft faithful
general, named Mau-ven-long; and then defired the
Tartars to march direCily to Peking, by a road dif¬
ferent from that which he took with his army. This
they accordingly did, and laid fiege to the capital.
Ywen was ordered to come to its relief; button his
arrival, was put to the torture and ftrangled ; of which
tire Tartars were no fooner informed, than they raifed
the fiege, and returned to their own eountry.. In 1636,
the rebels above-mentioned compofed four great ar¬
mies, commanded hy as many generals; which, how¬
ever, were foon reduced to two, commanded by Li,
and Chang, Thefe agreed to divide the empire be¬
tween them ; Chang taking the weftern provinces,
and Li the eaftern ones. The latter feized on part of
Shen-fi, and then of Honan,' whofe capital, named
Kay-fong-fu, he laid fiege to, but was repulfed with
lofs. He renewed it fix months after, but without
fuccefs; the befieged chufing rather to feed on human
fieffi than furrender. The Imperial forces coming
foon after to its affiftance, the general made no doubt
ef being able to deitroy the rebels at once, by break¬
ing down the banks of the Yellow River ; but unfor¬
tunately the rebels efcaped to the mountains, while
the city was quite overflowed, and 300,000 of the in¬
habitants perilhed.
After this difafter, Li marched into the provinces
ef Shen-li and Honan ; where he put to death all the
mandarins, exacted great fums from the officers in
place, aad Ihewed no favour to any but the populace,
16 ] CHI
whom he freed from all taxes : by this means he drew china.
lb many to his intereit, that he thought himfelf ftrong  
enough to affume the title of emperor. He next ad¬
vanced towards the capital, which, though well gar-
riforied, was divided into factions. Li had taken care
to introduce before-hand a number of his men in dil-
guife ; and by thefe the gates were opened to him the
third day after his arrival. He entered the city in rnbappy
triumph at the head of 300,000 men; whilft the em- fate of the
peror kept himfelf ffiut up in his palace, bulled only emP.T0^
with his fuperftitions. It was not long, however, be- ^ his
fore he found himfelf betrayed ; and, under the great-
eft confternation, made an effort to get out of the pa¬
lace, attended by about 600 of his guards. He was
flill more furprifed to fee himfelf treacheroufly aban¬
doned by them, and 'deprived of all hopes'of efcaping
the infults of his fubjetfts. Upon this, preferring death
to the difgrace of falling alive into their hands, he im¬
mediately retired with his emprefs, whom he tenderly
loved, and the prlncefs her daughter, into a private
part of the garden. His grief was fogreat that he was.
not able to utter a word ; but {he foon underftood his
meaning, and, after a few lilent embraces, hanged-
herfelf on a tree in a filken firing. Her htilband {{aid,
only to u’rite thefe words on the border of. his veft r
“ I have been bafely defected by my fubjedts ; do
what you will with me, but fpare my people.” He
then cut off the young princefs’s head with one ftroke
of his feymitar, and hanged himfelf on another tree,
in the 17th year of his reign,.and 36th of his age. His
prime minifter,queens,and eunuchs, followed his exam¬
ple ; and thus ended the Chinefe monarchy, to give place
to that of the Tartars, which hath continued ever fince.
It was fome time before the body of the unfortu¬
nate monarch was found. At laft it was brought be¬
fore the rebel Li,, and by him ufed wdth the utmoft
indignity ; after which he caufed two of Whey-tfong’s
fons, ancj all his minifters, to be beheaded ; hut his
eldeft fon happily efcaped by flight. The whole empire
fubmitted peaceably to the ufurper, except prince U-
fan-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the
province of Lyau-tong. This brave prince, finding
himfelf unable to cope with the tifurper, invited the
Tartars to his afliftance, and Tfong-te their king im¬
mediately joined him with an army of 80,000 men.
Upon this the ufurper marched direeftly to Peking; but.
not thinking himfelf fafe there, plundered and burnt
the palace, and then fled with the immenfe treafure
he had got. What became of him afterwards we are
not told ; but the young Tartar monarch was imme¬
diately declared emperor of China, his father Tfong-
te having died almofi as foon as he fet his foot in that
empire.
The new emperor, named Shun-chi, or Xun-chiy
began his reign with rewarding U-lan-ghey, by con¬
ferring upon him the title of King ; and affigned him.
the city of Si-gnan-fu, capital of Shen-fi, for his refi-
dence. This, however, did not hinder U-fan-ghey-
from repenting of his error in calling in the Tartars, or,
as he himfelf ufed to phrafe it, “ in fending for lions to
drive away dogs.” In 1674., he formed a very ftrong*
alliance againft them, and had probably prevailed if
his allies had been faithful. But they treacheroufly
deferred him one after another; which fo aifeefted him,
thafc
China.
Empire to¬
tally redu-
50
Chriftianity
firft-eucou-
raged and
then perfe-
cuted.
Climate,
foil, ire. of
CHI [i9
that he died foon after. In i68r Hong-wha, fon to
U-fan-ghey, who continued his efforts againft the
Tartars, was reduced to fuch (traits that he put an
end to his own life.
During this fpace, there had been feme refinance
made to the Tartars in many of the provinces. Two
princes of Chinefe extraction had at different times
been proclaimed emperors ; but both of them were
overcome and put to death. In 1682, the whole 15
provinces were fo effectually fubdued, that the em¬
peror Kang-hi, fucceffor to Shun-chi, determined to
vifit his native dominions of Tartary. He was ac¬
companied by an army of 70,000 men, and continued
for fome months taking the diverfion of hunting.
This he continued to do for fome years ; and in his
journeys took father Verbieft along with him, by which
means we have a better defeription of thefe countries
than could poflibly have been otherwife obtained.
This prince was a great entourager of learning, and
of the Chrilfian religion ; in favour of which laff he
publilhed a decree, dated in 1692. In 1716, however, he
revived fome obfolete laws againft the Chriflians, nor
could the Jefuits with all their art preferve the footing
they had got in China. The caufes of this alteration
in his rfefolution are, by the miflionaries, faid to have
been the flanders of the mandarins; but, from the
known charatiler of the Jefuits, it will be readily be¬
lieved, that there was fomething more at bottom.
This emperor died in 1722, and was fucceeded by his
fon Yong-ehing; who not only gave no encouragement
to the miffionaries, but perfecuted all Chriftians of
whatever denomination, not excepting even thofe of
the imperial race. At the beginning of his reign he
baniflied all the Jefuits into the city of Canton, and in
1 752 they were banifhed from thence into Ma-kau, a
little ifland inhabited by the Portuguefe, but fubjedl
to China. He died in 1 736 ; but though the Jefuits
entertained great hopes from his fucceflbr, we have
not heard that they have yet met with any fuccefs.
Thus we have given an account of the moil memo¬
rable tranfactions recorded in the Chinefe hiftory. It
now remains only to deferibe the prefent ftate of the
empire and its- inhabitants, according to the heft and
lateft accounts.
The divifion of China into 1 y provinces, we have
already mentioned. In fuch a vaft track of country,
it is impoffible that either the climate or foil fhould be
alike in all places. The climate, however, is, in ge¬
neral, reckoned very moderate, except in the north¬
ern provinces, where the cold is extremely piercing,
owing to the high ridges of mountains with which
thofe parts are interfered, and which are always co¬
vered with ftiow. Even in thofe parts which lie un¬
der the tropics, the winds that blow from the northern
mountains, make the winter, wiiich continues for three
or fometimes four months, extremely cold and pier¬
cing. The fouthern parts are excefliveiy hot and dry;
but the heats are more ealily borne by means of the
cooling grottoes, groves, ire. to which the inhabitants
retire in the heat of the day, when there is the fame
univerfal filence and ceflation from bufinefs as if it
was midnight. Thefe parts have neither fro if nor
firow ; but are much troubled with (forms and violent
rains, about the time of the equinoxes, efpeciaHy the
17 ] CHI
autumnal, which is all the winter they have. They China.
enjoy a lerene fky all the reft of the year. It is, 
however, univerfally acknowledged, that where na¬
ture has been mod unequal in the diffribution of her 52
gifts, the inhabitants have remedied thefe inconveni- Prodigious'
ences as far as human induitry could go. In fome hfo’ftry of
provinces, they have levelled whole ridges of moun- a ^
tains; in others, they have railed artificial ones. In
fome, they have provided fences againft excellive colds;
in otliers, againft heats and droughts, &c. In fliort,
by varying their agriculture, manuring, and planting,
according to the differences of foils and climates, al-
moft every fpot throughout this vaft empire produces-
more than enough to make its inhabitants rich and
happy. All thefe advantages are farther improved by
the vaft number of canals cut from one river to ano¬
ther, and the innumerable carriages they keep up by
land, by which each canton may eafily communicate
its own peculiar produdl to all the reft. 55
On thefe accounts, the Chinefe entertained the moft Extreme
extraordinary opinion of themfelves and their coun- pride of the.-
try. The advantages they had over thofe neighbour- 11116 e*
ing nations they knew or heard of, appeared to them
fo eonfiderable, that they looked upon themfelves as
the only favourites of heaven, and the reft of man¬
kind as barbarians, whom they repreiented as mon-
fters, dwarfs, and contemptible creatures. They
looked upon their country to be placed in the centre
of the earth ; and themfelves as the only people wha
had a human fliape or form. Al! the other Jkingdoms
or nations, the number of which they imagined might
amount to 72, were fcattered about in finall iflands,.
the biggeft of which, according to their maps, was not
fo large as the leaft of the Chinefe provinces. Thefe
were ftuck round their empire, to which they gave a
quadrangular form, like as many fatellites, delignech
only to ferve and adorn it. They indeed gave the
preference to their four neighbouring kingdoms of.
Tartary, Japan, Ton-king, and Korea. The inhabi¬
tants of thefe, though reckoned barbarians, they (fill
looked upon as conliderably improved by their vici¬
nity to China : but as to the reft, they were looked
upon as outcafts into the extreme parts of the earth,,
and the refufe of nature; and as fuch they eharadlerifed
them in their maps, marking them by fqch emblems
as were moft fit to infpire their nation with diTdair*
and contempt. It was therefore no finall matter of
wonder, to them, when, upon their becoming ac¬
quainted with the Europeans, they found them not
only as polite and rationales themfelves, but far fiipe—
rior to them in all kinds of learning. From that time
they ufed to fay that “ the Chinefe had two eyes, the
Europeans one, and the reft of the world none at all.” 54-
When the country was fir ft dtfeovered by the Eu- China wHem
ropeans, they were no lefs furprifed at the ingenuity ^e^0~
and polftenefs of the Chinefe, than the latter were at
the learning of the Europeans. The firft traveller peans.
that we know of who vifited China, was Fra. Paulo,
more commonly known by the name of Patilus Vene-
tus, about the end of the 13th century. At that time
all Europe was immerfed'in fuch a ftate of barbariim,
that the riches and polite behaviour of the Chinefe
could not but appear very extraordinary in his eyes.
His accounts were not believed, but laughed at as a
romance^.
C H I
[ I9'
55
romance. When the Portuguefe discovered the fame
“ country by fea, above 200 years ago, they were al-
inoft as much furprifed as Paulus Venet.us had been.
Neither were their accounts credited, till the miffio-
naries whom the pope kept pouring in fince the year
1580 publifhed fo many accounts concerning the riches
of China that they could no longer be denied. It
muft be owned, however, that the Chinefe were vaft-
ly inferior to the Europeans in the liberal fciences ;
but, on the other hand, the former, to this day, as
much exceed them in opulence, manufactures, handi¬
crafts, agriculture, ire.
Incredible Another advantage for which this country hath been
numbers and iu which it certainly exceeds every other
^C°I> e* in the world, is the vaft number of its inhabitants.
In moft of the provinces, the cities, towns, and villages,
are fo thick crowded upon one another, that the whole
fee ms to be aimoft a continued town. All of them
fwarm with inhabitants, every one employed in feme
manufacture, traffic, or work. Their roads are crowd¬
ed with paffengers night and day, with coaches, car¬
riages, waggons, and fometimes whole caravans ; all
employed in carrying on fome ufeful commerce, and
hi conveying all forts of merchandizes, provifions, and
other wares, from one end of the kingdom to the
other. The number of armies, garrifons, and troops
neceffary for defending this vaft empire, far exceed
what is to be found in any other part of the world,
and indeed are aimoft incredible. According to fome
Chinefe regifters, the Whole number of males amount¬
ed to 59,788,364 ; at that time the army confifted of
902,054 foot, and 989,^67 horfe,-befides 767,970
men kept in garrifons. For thefe, as well as for the
accommodation of the mandarins and other officers
of the court, there are reckoned 1145 inns or places
of entertainment. In Ihort, to fpeak in the ftyle of
one of their wrjters, “ the Chinefe empire is fo im-
menfely populous, that its inhabitants are not to be
computed by thoufands, but by millions.” Many of
thefe live entirely in veflels on the canals, keeping
hogs, poultry, dogs, and other domeftic animals, on
board. Betides thefe vetfels, there is a prodigious
number of floats of_timber which perpetually go up
and down the canals and’rivers, carrying whole vil¬
lages of people upon them. Some of theie floats are
above a mile in length.' The people build huts upon
the floats, and live in them till they have difpoled of
their timber, which they fometimes carry 1000 miles.
From this defeription, it is natural to imagine that
, the Chinefe muft be the happieft nation in the whole
eft art^f wor^> ari^ t'laC poverty is fcarce known among them;
them-. but the cafe is far otherwife. This empire exceeds
other nations as much in the mifery of many of its in-
habitants, as it does in the number of them. This is
in a great me afore owing to the wickednefs and cor¬
ruption of their magiftrates. Every province has its
viceroy and feveral orders of mandarins, who are de-
ftgned to ferve as checks upon each other, and per-
vent the people from oppreffing one another, or being
opprefled by their governors. But the misfortune is,
that they all find it their intereft to wink at one ano¬
ther’s, crimes ; and thus the people are opprefled to a
degree beyond what they could he by any fingle go¬
vernor however bad. The fiift clafis of mandarins
56
Extreme
i8 ] CHI
are the judges of courts, who determine civil and cri- China.
minal caufes ; the next attend the affairs of the trea-
fury and revenue ; and the third command the mili¬
tia. All thefe, according to the Chinefe conftitution,
ought to keep their offices no longer than three years;
and are never to be natives of the province where
they officiate ; left, if they be of mean defeent, they
fhould be defpifed ; or, if rich, Ihould become too
much refpedled and powerful. They are allowed
fuffisient falaries, that they may be enabled to difeharge
their offices, and adminifter juftice without fees or bri¬
bery. Their palaces and places of refidence are allb
provided for them at the expence of government, to
prevent them from being too profufe in furniture, be.
But all thefe wife regulations they firtd means to elude ;
and there is not a nation on earth where extortion
and fraud are carried to a greater height, or more
univerfiiUy diffufed, than in China. Thus the court
at Peking extorts vaft foms from the viceroys of the
provinces, and theie again from the mandarins under
them. The mandarins of courfe muft fleece the in¬
ferior officers, and they again plunder the people, who
having none below them whom they can opprefs, are
reduced to the neceflity of cheating one another, or
thofe foreigners who trade with them. In this they
are fo expert, that it is commonly faief a Chinefe will
cheat a man of any other nation ; but none can cheat
a Chinefe, except one of his own country.
The confequence of this extortion is manifeft, in
the mifery to which the lower ranks of inhabitants
are reduced in years of dearth: which fometimes hap¬
pen through exceffive drought, or the devaftations of
the graffioppers; which, in fome parts of the empire,
at times, appear in foch numbers, as not only to de¬
vour every herb, leaf, or fruit, but even the fmall
wood of the branches, and fibres of the roots of trees.
In thefe calamitous cafes, the common people are of¬
ten obliged to expofe or deftrey their children, fell
them for Haves, and fometimes to rife in rebellion.
Even in their moft plenteous feafons, the poorer fort,
notwithftanding all their art and induftry, are glad to
fopport themfelves not only on the very refufe of
every kind of provifions, but even on dogs and cats,
though they die of old age or licknefs, rats, mice,
and other vermin; or on the garbage of any flelh,
filh, or fowl, they can purchafe; for thefe are fold in
the markets as well as thn more dainty meats ; and
there are cooks-lhops where the entrails of fifties,
fowls, be. are drefled, and whither thofe who can
afford no better are glad to repair. 57
The government of China is monarchical, and in the Govern-
higheft degree defpotic; and has been fo from the ment*
enrlieft ages. Nay, fo much were they inured to this
kind of government, and fo little notion had they of
any other, that when the Dutch ambaflador made his
firft application, he found it very difficult to make the
court underftand what he meant by the “ High and
mighty lords the ftates general, and the republic of
Holland.” Their laws are contained in fome books
which they call canonical; but their monarchs are the
foie interpreters of them ; fo that we may fay the
whole legiflative- power is lodged in their breaft, and
depends entirely on their will.
The revenue of the emperor is computed at about
50,000,000
CHI [19
China. JO,000,000 Sterling. Their puniftiments are either
  capital, as in caies of rebellion, murder, treafbn, &c.
\inim ^ or corPora^ anc* P&ctmiary in leffer crimes. Rebellion
nehts." anc^ trealon being elteemed the greatelt of all poffible
crimes are punifhed with the greateft rigour, viz.
by cutting the criminal into 10,000 pieces, in the fol¬
lowing manner : the executioner, having firft tied
him to a (lake, tears the Ikin off his head and fore¬
head, and lets it hang over his eyes, to prevent him,
according to feme, from feeing how dreadfully the
reft of his body is mangled. Then he proceeds to
flafh the other parts of his body with a kind of cot lace,
till he hath almoft cut all his fleflt in pieces; and then
abandons him to the populace, who commonly dif-
patch him in the fame butcherly manner. This pu-
nifhment, however, is feldotn executed with fuch ex¬
treme rigour, unlefs under forne cruel princes; for
the law only directs the body of the criminal to be
cut into feveral pieces, his belly ripped up, and his
entrails taken out, after which the carcafe is to be
thrown into a ditch or river, as is commonly done to
great malefactors.
Next to treafon or rebellion againft the emperor,
that againft parents is reckoned the greateft crime,
and is punished with equal feverity. In this cafe, if
a father accufes a fon before a magiftrate, no farther
proof is required, but the criminal is immediately ex¬
ecuted. This is done for mere obftinacy or difobe-
dience; but if the offender hath proceeded fo far as
mockery, infult, or lifting a hand, the whole country
is alarmed, and the punifhment of the criminal referved
for the emperor hujifelf. In this laft cafe, the magi-
ftrates of the place are turned out with difgrace, and
the whole neighbourhood is threatened with fome fe-
vere punifhment for having given birth to fuch a mon-
fter. The offender is then condemned to be cut like
a traitor or rebel, into 10,000 pieces, and afterwards
burnt; his lands, houfe, or honfes, to be deftroyed, and
to remain fo, as a monument of fuch a deteftable crime.
Murder is alfo capital, and is puniflied either by
beheading or ftrangl'mg the criminal. The former of
thefe is reckoned the moft difhonourable; becaufe, in
that cafe, the head, which is the moft honourable part, is
feparated from the body, and the perfon doth not go
out of the world'with the body intire, as when he
came into it. Adultery is fo far from being a capital
crime in China, that fome fond parents, out of com-
paflion to their daughter’s weaknefs, will contra<ft
with their future hufbands, in confideration of fome
valuable prefent, to allow her the liberty of now and
then indulging herfllf with a gallant, without being
called to an account for it. But where no fuch con-
trad! hath been made, the holband may inflidt a cor¬
poral punishment, or divorce a wife who proves un¬
faithful. Neither is theft capitally puniflied. Thofe
who are guilty of it, are either condemned to the ba-
ftinado, that is, to receive luch a number of blows
with a cudgel on their backs or buttocks as the magi¬
ftrate fliall appoint. After this, if the offender is able,
he muft kneel down before him, and thank him
for his kind corredVion ; though one blow would be
fufficient to lame a man, if the executioner was not
bribed. When the theft is of a higher nature, the
offender is condemned to the kan-ghe, or wooden
19 ] CHI
ruff. This is a kind of portable pillory, confiffing of China,
two pieces of wood hollowed out in the middle*, fq as
to fit the neck of the offender, and of fuch a breadth,
that the wearer can neither fee his own feet, nor put
his hand to his mouth, fo that he muft be beholden to
fome other perfon for his food. It is made lighter or
heavier according to the nature of the crime, or the
favour of the mandarin : the lighteft are about 40 or
jo pounds weight, but many weigh much more;
fome even 200 pounds; and fo troublefome and grie¬
vous are thefe collars, that the wearers often dte.
The time of wearing is likewife appointed by the
mandarin ; as aifo the place where it is to be worn.
When the time is expired, the offender is brought
back to the mandarin; and after a fuitable admonition,
and a found drubbing, which begins and ends every
punifhment of this kind, he is releafed from his bur¬
den, and let at Kberty.
There are two kinds of torture ufed in China, the-
ordinary and extraordinary. The firft is inffufted by
a kind of engine, which they clap on the hands or
feet, or both; and which diftorts the bones to
fiich a degree that the ankles are fometimes Iqneezed
quite flat by it. The extraordinary torture is feldom
ufed, except in cafes of treafon or rebellion, in or¬
der to make the criminal difeover his accomplices af¬
ter the faft has been proved. It is inflifted by cutting
flight gaffies in the body, and ftripping off the fkin in
narrow flips or fillets. One thing, however, muft be
faid in praffe of the Chinele, with regard to the treat¬
ment of their criminals, viz. that their prifotts are
much more capacious, airy, and fweet, than any of
the European ones. They are generally large fpa-
cious courts, on whofe four fides are the apartments
of the criminals, railed upon wooden columns, in the
form of a gallery; and on the four corners are fecu-
red the molt notorious rogues, in ftrong cells and fet¬
ters. The women are confined in a feparate court,
and no man is admitted to come or even fpeak to
them; except through a grate, or the turning-box,
through which their victuals, and other neceffaries
are conveyed. 6b
As to their perfons, the Chinefe are generally of Manners,
a middling ftature, broad faced, with black hair, fmall cuftoms,
black eyes, Ihort nofes, and thin beards. This 1’aft cir- ^rc'
eumftance is the effect of a very painful operation, e/z.
pulling up the greateft part of the beard by the roots
with tweezers. Since the acceffion of the Tartar mo-
marchs to the crown, they have forced the Chtnefe
to cut off all their hair except a lock on the crown like
the Mahometans. Near the tropic, their complexions
incline to tawny ; but in the northern parts, they are
as fair as other people under the fame parallel. The
women are efteemed for their little feet, which are
reckoned their greateft beauty: and in order to form
them little, they are bound up from their infancy fo
tight, that they cannot grow to the common fize;
the foot of a full grown woman not being bigger than
that of a child of four years old. The men wear a
cap of the fliape of a bell on their heads, which does
not cover their ears r they alfo wear a veft and fafti,
and over the veft a loofe coat or gown, and a kind of
filk boots quilted with cotton. In the fouthern pro¬
vinces the inhabitants> when at home, threw off eve¬
ry
CHI [ 1920 ] CHI
CMna. ry thing but a pair of drawers, and appear naked ;
as the common people alfo do on the ftreets. The
women drefs with their hair down, having nothing
on their heads, in the fouth. They generally wear a
(ilk veft, red, blue, or green j and over it a loofe
gown with white fleeves, and embroidered filk fhoes;
but, by reafon of the fmallnefs of their feet, hobble
prodigioufly when they walk. Here, as in moft other
■countries of the eaft, the married couple are brought
together without any previous acquaintance with
each other; the bargain being (truck by the parents,
or by fome go-between, and afterwards ratified by
prefents fent on both Tides. There is fcarce any
country in the world where grief for the dead is ma-
nifelled to fuch a degree , as in China, efpecially for
near relations; or where the mourning is fo deep,
and fo long continued. Every Chinefe keeps in his
houfe a table whereon are written the names of his
father, grandfather, and great-grandfather; before
which they frequently proftrate themfelves; and
when the father of a family dies, the name of the
great-grandfather is taken away, and that of the de-
■6, ceafed added to make up the number.
Religion. The Chinefe are faid to worfliip one fupreme God
along with feveral inferior deities, who appear to
have been men eminent in feveral ages; particularly
the inventors of arts and fciences. There are at this
day three fech in China. 1. The followers of La-lao-
kun, who lived above 500 years before Chrift. He
taught that God was corporeal, and had many fubor-
dinate deities under his government. His difciples
fludy magic, and pretend to'make a drink that will
confer immortality. The fecond is the fedt of the
learned, or .difciples of Confucius. He left many ad¬
mirable precepts in morality, and inftrudted the peo¬
ple in philofophy. He (peaks of God as a moft pure
and perfect principle, and the fountain and e(fence of
all beings. Though we are told that he prohibited
idolatry, he has temples and images eredted to him,
and is worfliipped with the moft profound veneration ;
as appears from the pope’s decree againft the Jefuits,
for indulging their converts in this idolatrous worfliip.
The third fedt, which is that of the idol Fo, or Fo-hi,
is much more numerous than either of the former.
They ftyle him the only faviour of the world. His
priefts, the bonzes, teach feveral' moral precepts,
and a ftate of rewards and pnnifliments after this life.
The punifliments confift chiefly in animating fome
vermin, or bead: of burden after death. They forbid
the drinking of wine ; and do not forget to inftrudt
their followers how much it is their duty to entertain
and nourifli their priefts, and to build them temples
and monafteries, and perform the penances they
enjoin. If thefe things are negledled, they threaten
them with the moft unhappy tranfmigrations. The
Chinefe have alfo an image of immortality, which they
worfhip under the ftiape of a monftrous fat man fitting
crofs-legged, with a huge prominent belly. There is
another called the Idalof Pleafurs, about 20 feet high;
and between thefe, in their temples is an image 30
feet high, gilded over, with a crown upon his head,
and richly drefled. The Chriftian religion, we are
told, was planted in this country, either by the apoftle
Thomas, or fome of Ids difciples. The Chinefe re¬
cords feeni to intimate that a man came there about China,
that time, who preached a heavenly dodtrine, and ”
confirmed it by miracles. There is alfo an ancient
marble pillar eredled in the province of Shen-(i, in me¬
mory of a man that brought Chriftianity thither in the
year 636. However, the miffionaries of the church of
Rome did not find, as we are told, the lead veftige of
Chriftianity on their arrival in China. 63
The learning of the Chinefe is, in a great meafure, Learning,
confined to the ftudy of their own language. Their
characters are a kind of (hort-hand, every one of
which (ignifies a wmrd or fentence. There are near
60,000 of thefe characters in all, but thofe in common
ufe do not exceed 3000. This vaft number of cha¬
racters, however, is reducible to a pure and fimple
alphabet like thofe of any other language : for a cha¬
racter is no more than a word written with its pro¬
per confonants and vowels ; not indeed at length as
we do, but intermingled one with another by fome
peculiar method known only to them, or perhaps only
to their learned men. They write from the top to
the bottom of the page. In all other refpeCts the
knowledge and learning of the Chinefe are very limi¬
ted. Some knowledge of aftronomy they certainly
had ; but that was exceedingly defeClive. They are
faid indeed tohaVe calculated the eclipfesof the fun and
moon for a vaft number of years ; but many of th*fe
calculations have been found by the Europeans who
vifited them to be falfe and erroneous, and whatever
progrefs they have made in that or other fciences muft
be attributed entirely to the Jefuit miffionaries. They
are, however, in fome things a very ingenious people.
The art of printing they have had from time imme¬
morial. It is true, this is only performed by wooden
blocks in the fame manner as cards are done among
us; but the vaft number of their characters renders
it impoffible to bring that art, to the fame perfection
which it hath attained in Europe. Their chief com¬
modities are, (Ilk, cotton, tea, china-ware, and cabi¬
nets or lacquered-ware. Their filks are exceedingly
fine; their atlas’s, gold and filver (tuffs, are not to be
paralleled ; but their porcelain is thought to be equal¬
led or even excelled by that of Drefden, and their
lacquered-ware is greatly excelled by that of Japan.
In hard-ware the Europeans excel them prodigioufly ;
the Chinefe being mere bunglers at making clocks,
watches, door and gun-locks, &c. They had the ufe
of gun-powder, and of the mariner’s compafs, for
many centuries before they were known in Europe ;
but through a negleCt unaccountable in fuch an inge¬
nious people they fcarce reaped one Angle advantage
either from the one or the other. ^
The Chinefe had no traffic with other nations, ex- Navigation,
cept thofe in their neighbourhood, till the Portuguefe
discovered their country by the way of the Cape of
Good Hope. Their junks, as they are called, are
many of them 1000 tons burthen, heavy failers, with
fquare heads and (terns. Some of them have two
marts, others three, but never any top-marts; and
their fails are made of matting, which they let down
upon the deck when they furl them. The hold of the
(hip is divided into many fmall partitions, which are
made fo tight, that if a leak happens in one of them it
goes no further, and the goods flowed in the other
partition’s
CHI [ 1921 ] CHI
China-root partitions receive no damage. The compilers of the
1 Univerfai Hdtory take notice, that the Chinefe veffels
Chio‘ are built according to the proportions of Noah’s ark ;
viz. fix breadths to a length: and this they will have
to be a proof that the Chinefe empire was founded by
Noah. They have no coin throughout the whole em¬
pire, except a copper one of very little value. Their
merchandize is bought with gold and filver cut for the
purpofe, from ingots or plates. The former is of lefs
value in China than in molt other nations; and there-
Tbre filver is advantageoufly exchanged by the Euro¬
peans for that precious metal.
Chin k-Rooty in the materia medica, the root of a
fpecies of Smilax, brought both from the Eaft and
Weft Indies; and thence diftinguilhed into oriental
and occidental. Both forts are longiftt, full of joints,
of a pale-reddiih colour, with no fmell, and very little
tafte. The oriental, which is the moft efteemed, is
confiderably harder and paler-coloured than the other.
Such flionld be chol’en as is frelh, clofe, heavy, and
upon being chewed appears full of a fat unctuous
juice. It is generally fuppofed to promote infenfible
perfpiration and the urinary difcharge, and by its
undtuous quality to obtund acrimonious juices. China-
root was firft brought into Europe in the year 153J,
and ufed as a fpecific againft venereal and cutaneous
diforders. With this view it was made ule of for
fome time ; but has long fince given place to more
powerful medicines.
Cniii\-lVare. See Porcelain.
CHINCA, a fea-port town of Peru in South Ame¬
rica, fituated in an extenfive valley of the fame name,
in W. Long. 76. o. S. Lat. 13. o.
CHIN-cough, a convulfive kind of cough to which
children are generally fubjedt. See (the Index fub-
fubjoined to) Medicine.
CHINESE, in general denotes any thing belonging
to China, or its inhabitants.
Chinese Swan pan. See Swanpan.
CHINKAPIN. See Fagus.
CHINGN, an ancient town of Tourain in France,
remarkable for the death of Henry 11. king of Eng¬
land, and for the birth of the famous Rabelais. It is
feated on the river Vienne, in a fertile and pleafant
country,, in E. Long. o. 18. N. Lat. 47. 2.
CHIO, or Chios, an Afiatic ifland lying near the
coaft of Natolia, oppofite to the peninfula of Ionia.
It was known to the ancients by the name of /Ethalia,
Macris, Pithyufa, ire. as well as that of Chios. Ac¬
cording to Herodotus, the ifiand of Chios was peopled
originally from Ionia. It was at firft governed by
kings, but afterwards the government affumed a re¬
publican form ; which, by the direction of Ifocrates,
was modelled after that of Athens. They were,
however, foon enflaved by tyrants, and afterwards
conquered by Cyrus king of Perfia. They joined the
other Grecians in the Ionian revolt; but were fhame-
fully abandoned by the Samians, Lefbians, and others
of their allies; fo that they were again reduced under
the yoke of the Perfians, who treated them with the
utmoft feverity. They continued fubjedl to them till
the battle of Mycale, when they were reftored to
their ancient liberty, which they enjoyed till the
downfal of the Perfian empire, when they became
Vol. III.
fubjeft to the Macedonian princes. In the time of Chionan.
the emperor Vefpafian the ifland was reduced to the thus
form of a Roman province ; but the inhabitants were ®
allowed to live according to their own laws under the
fuperintendance of a praetor. It is now fubjeft to the  
Turks* and is called Sc to; fee that article.
CHIONANTHUS, the Snow-drop tree ; a ge¬
nus of the monogynia order, belonging to the dian-
dria clafs of plants. There is but one fpecies parti¬
cularly deferibed by botanifts, viz. the Virginica or
fringe-tree. It is common in Virginia and South Ca¬
rolina, where it grows by the fides of rivulets. It
rifes to the height of ten feet; the leaves are as
large as thofe of the laurel, but much thinner. The
flowers come out in May, and are of a pure white ;
from whence it has the name of the /now-drop tree.
They hang down in large branches, and are cut into
narrow fegments ; from which it has got its other
name of the fringe-tree. After the flowers are fallen
off, the fruit appears, which grows to the fize of a
floe, having a ftone in the middle. The plants are
propagated from feeds fown on a hot-bed, and kept
in a ftove. Some have been raifed from layers; but
this method is very precarious, and therefore the
other is to be preferred. The feeds muft be procu¬
red from America, for they never come to perfedtion
in this country.
CHIOURLIC, an ancient town of Turky in Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with a fee of a Greek bifhop.
It is feated on a river of the fame name, in E. Long.
7. 47. N. Lat. 41. 18.
CHIOZZO, an ancient and handfome town of Italy,
in the territory of Venice, and in a fmall ifland, near the
Lagunes, with a podefta, a bifhop’s fee, and a harbour
defended by a fort. E. Long. 13. 23. N. Lat. 45. 17.
CHIPPENHAM, a town of Wiltfliire, feated on the
river Avon. It is a good thorough-fare town ; has a
handfome ftone-bridge over the river, confifting of
16 arches; and fends two members to parliament.
W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. Ji. 25.
CHIROGRAPH, was anciently a deed which, re¬
quiring a counterpart, was engroffed twice on the
fame piece of parchment, counter wife ; leaving a fpace
between,wherein was wroteCHiROGRAPH ; through
the middle whereof the parchment was cut, fome-
times ftraight, fometimes indentedly; and a moiety
given to each of the parties. This was afterwards
called dividenda, and chart a: divifee ; and was the fame
with what we now call charter-party. See Ch arter-
Party. The firft ufe of thefe chirographs with us,
was in the time of Hanry III.
Chirograph was alfo anciently ufed for a fine :
and the manner of engrofling the fines, and cutting
the parchment in two pieces, is ftill retained in the
office called the chirographePs office.
CHIROGRAPHER ^'Fines, an officer in the com¬
mon pleas, who engrofles fines acknowledged in
that court, into a perpetual record, (after they have
been examined, and paffed by other officers ;) and
writes and delivers the indentures thereof to the
party. He makes two indentures; one for the buyer,
the other for the feller ; and a third indented piece,
containing the effeift of the fine, and called the foot of
the fine / and delivers it to the cufics brevlum.—The
11 L fame
Chiroman¬
cy-
II
Chiron.
Burners
Mi!', of
Mufic.
CHI L 1922 ] CHI
fame officer alfo, or his deputy, proclaims all fines in
court every term, and endorles the proclamations on
the backfide of the foot; keeping, withal, the writ of
covenant, and the note of the fine.
CHIROMANCY, a fpecies of divination drawn
from the lines and lineaments of a perfon’s hand ; by
which means, it is pretended, the difpofitions may be
dilcovered. See Divination, n° 9.
CHIRON, a famous perlbnage of antiquity; ftyled
by Plutarch, in his dialogue on niufic, “ Thu wife Cen¬
taur” Sir Ifaac Newton places his birth in the firft
age after Deucalion’s deluge, commonly called the
Golden Age ; and adds, that he formed the conftella-
tions for the ufe of the Argonauts, when he was 88
years old ; for he was a practical aftronomer, as well
as his daughter Hippo : he may, therefore, be faid to
have flourifhed in the earlieft ages of Greece, as he
preceded the conqueft of the Golden Fleece, and the
Trojan war. He is generally called the fon of Saturn
and Philyra; and is faid to have been born in Thef-
faly among the Centaurs, who were the firft Greeks
that had acquired the art of breaking and riding hor-
fes: whence the poets, painters, and fculptors, have
reprefented them as a compound of man and horfe;
and perhaps it was at firft imagined by the Greeks, as
well as the Americans, when they firft faw cavalry,
that the horle and the rider conftitut'ed the fame ani¬
mal.
Chiron was reprefented by the ancients as' one of
the firft inventors of medicine, botany, and chirur-
gery ; a word which fome etymologifts have derived
from his name. He inhabited a grotto or cave in the
foot of Mount Pelion, which, from his wifdom and
great knowledge of all kinds, became the moft famous
and frequented fchool throughout Greece. Almoft
all the heroes of his time were fond of receiving his
inftnuftions; and Xenophon, who enumerates them,
names the following illuftrious perfonages among his
difciples: Cephalus, yE(’culapius,Melanion, Neftor, Am-
phiaraus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Thefeus, Hip-
politus, Palamedes, Ulyfles, Mneftheus, Diomedes, Ca-
ftor and Pollux, Machaon and Podalirius, Antilocbus,
/Eneas, and Achilles. From this catalogue it appears,
that Chiron frequently inftrucfted both fathers and
fons; and Xenophon has given a Ihort eulogium on
each, which may be read in his works, and which re¬
dounds to the honour of the preceptor. The Greek
hiftorian, however, has omitted naming feveral of his
fcholars, fuch as Bacchus, Phoenix, Cocyjus, Aryftaeus,
Jafon, and his fon Medeus, Ajax, and Protefilaus.
Of thefe we {hall only take notice of fuch as intereft
Chiron more particularly. It ia pretended that the
Grecian Bacchus was the favourite fcholar of the Cen¬
taur : and that he learned of this mafter the revels,
orgies, bacchanalia, and other ceremonies of his wor-
(iiip. According to Plutarch, it was likewife at the
fchool of Chiron that Hercules ftudied mufic, medi¬
cine, and juftice; though Diodorus Siculus tells us, that
Linus was the mufic-mafter of this hero. But among
all the heroes who have been difciples of this Centaur,
no one reflefted fo much honour upon him as Achilles,
whofe renown he in fome meafure fhared; and to
whofe education he in a particular manner attended,
being his grandfather, by the mother’s fide. Apollo-.
dorus tells us, that the ftudy of mufic employed a con-
fiderable part of the time which he bellowed upon his
young pupil, as an incitement to virtuous aiftions, and
a bridle to the impetuofity of his tempeY. One of
the belt remains of antique painting now exifting, is
a pitfture upon this fubjeift, dug out of the ruins of
Herculaneum, in which Chiron is teaching the young
Achilles to play on the lyre. The death of this phi-
lofophic mufician was occafioned, at an extreme old
age, by an accidental wound in the knee with a poi-
foned arrow, (hot by his fcholar Hercules at another.
He was placed after his death by Mufasus among the
conftellations, through refpebt for his virtues, and in
gratitude for the great fervices which he had render¬
ed the people of Greece. Sir Ifaac Newton fays*,
in proof of the conftellations being formed by Chiron
and Mufeus for the ufe and honour of the Argonauts,
that nothing later than the.expedition was delineated
on the fphere; according to the fame author, Chiron
lived till after the Argonautic expedition, in-which he
had two grandfons. The ancients have not failed to
attribute to him feveral writings ; among which, ac¬
cording to Suidas, are precepts, vnoQw.as, in verfe,
compofed for the ufe of Achilles; and a medicinal
treatife on the difeafes incident to horfes and other qua¬
drupeds, InniooTpx0''> the lexicographer even pretends,
that it-is from this work the Centaur derived his name.
Fabricius gives a lift of the works attributed to Chi¬
ron, and difcuffes the claims which have been made
for others to the fame writings; and in vol. xiii. he
gives him a diftinguilhed place in his catalogue of an¬
cient phyficians.
CHIRQNIA, in botany; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants*.
There are eight fpecies, of which the jrutefcens is the
moft remarkable. It is a native of the Cape of Good
Hope. The root is fibrous, and fpreads near the fur-
face of the ground. The ftalks are round, and incli¬
ning to be ligneous, but are of a very foft texture;
thefe rife from two to three feet high, fending out
feveral branches which grow eretft, and are garnilhed
with fucculent leaves an inch or more in length, and
about an eighth of an inch in breadth. At the end of
each Ihoot the flowers are produced, which are tubu-
lous, and fpread open at the top ; they are of a bright
red colour; and when there are a large number of
flowers open on the fame plant, they make a fine ap¬
pearance. The flowers are produced from June to
autumn ; and the feeds ripen in Oiftober. The plants
are propagated by feeds, which muft be fown in pots
filled with light fandy earth, and plunged in a mode¬
rate hot-bed. In fummer they may bo inured to the
open air; but muft always be Iheltered in winter.
CHIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of reprefent-
ing any paft tranfadtion by the geftures of the body,
more efpecially by the motions of the hands: this made
a part of liberal education ; it had the approbation of
Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the poli¬
tical virtues.
CHIROTONY, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes the impofition of hands ufed in conferring prieft-
ly orders. However, it is proper to remark, that
chirotony originally was a method of electing magi-
ftrates, by holding up the hands.
Chironla -
. #
Chirotony.
* ChronoL
p.151.
\
CHIRL’RGEON,
CHI [ 1923 ] CHI
Chirurgeon CHIRURGEON, or Surgeon. See Surgeon.
' » CHIRURGERY. See Surgery.
11va CHISLEY-land, in agriculture, a foil of a middle
nature between fandy and clayey land, with a large
admixture of pebbles.
CHISSEL, a well known inftrument much ufed in
carpentry, mafonry, joinery, fculpture, &c.
CHITAU, in the materia medica, a kind of lignum
aloes. See Lignum dloes.
CHITON, in zoology, a genus of the order of ver¬
mes teftacese. The name chiton is from Corica,
a coat of mail. The flxell is plated, and confifts of
many parts lying upon each other tranfverfely : the
inhabitant is a fpecies of the doris. They are com¬
mon on the fhores of Scarborough, Aberdeen, and
Lochbroom. See feveral fpecies reprefented of their
natural lize on Plate LXX1V.
CHITTRICK’s medicine for the stone. This
medicine was fome years ago kept as a fecret, and
had great reputation as a lithontriptic, which indeed
it feems in many cafes to deferve. It was dilcdvered
by Dr Blackrie to be no other than foap-lye, and the
following receipt for ufing it was procured by General
Dunbar : “ Take one tea-fpoonful of the ftrongeft
foap- lye, mixed in two table-fpoonfuls of fweet milk,
an hour before breakfalt, and at going to bed. Be¬
fore you take the medicine take a fup of pure milk,
and immediately after you have fwallowed the medi¬
cine take another. If you find this agrees with you
for two or three days, you may add half as much
more to the dole.”
CHIVALRY, in law, is ufed for a tenure of lands
by knight’s fervice ; whereby the knight was bound
to perform fervice in war unto the king, or the mefne
lord of whom he held by that tenure. And chivalry
was either general or fpecial: general, when it was
only in the feoffment that the tenant held per fervi-
tium militare, without any fpecification of fergeantry,
efcuage, tec.; fpecial, when it was declared particu¬
larly by what kind of knight-fervice the land was
held.
For the better underftanding of this tenure it hath
been obferved, that there is no law but is holden me¬
diately or immediately of the crown by fome fervice ;
and therefore all freeholds that are to us and our heirs,
are called feuda, or feoda, “ feesas proceeding from
the king for fome fmall yearly rent, and the perfor¬
mance of fuch fervices as were originally laid upon
the land at the donation thereof. For as the king
gave to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large
poITeffions forever, to hold of him for this or that fer¬
vice or rent; fo they, in time, parcelled out to fuch
others as they liked, the fame lands for rents and fer-
vices as they thought good : and thefe fervices were,
by Littleton, divided into two kinds, chivalry and fo~
cage ; the firft whereof was martial and military, the
other ruftical. Chivalry, therefore, was a tenure of
fervice, whereby the tenant was obliged to perform
fome noble or military office unto his lord : and it was
of two kinds; either regal, that is, held only of the
king; or common, whexe held of a common perfon.
That which might be held only of the king was called
fervitium, or fergeantia ; and was again divided into
grand and petit ferjeanty. The grand ferjeanty was
where one held lands of the king by fervice, which Chivalry,
he ought to do in his own perfon; as, to bear the
king’s banner or fpear, to lead his hoft, to find men
at arms to fight, fife. Petit ferjeanty was when a man
held lands of the king, to yield him annually fome
fmall thing towards his wars, as a fword, dagger,
bow, l$c. Chivalry that might be holden of a com¬
mon perfon was termed feutagium, “ efcuagethat is,
fervice of the Ihield ; which was either uncertain or
certain.
Efcuage uncertain, was likewife two-fold : firft,
where the tenant was bound to follow his lord, going
in perfon to the king’s wars, either himfelf, or fend¬
ing a fufficient man in his place, there to be main¬
tained at his expence, fo long as was agreed upon be¬
tween the lord and his firft tenant at the granting of
the fee ; and the days of fuch fervice feem to have
been rated by the quantity of land fo holden : as, if
it extended to a whole knight’s fee, then the tenant
was to follow his lord 40 days ; and if but to half a
knight’s fee, then 20 days ; if a fourth part, then
10 days, tec. The other kind of this efcuage was cal¬
led caftle-ward, where the tenant was obliged, by
himfelf or fome other, to defend a caftle as often as it
Ihould come to his turn. And thefe were called efcu¬
age uncertain ; becaufe it was uncertain how often a
man Ihould be called to follow his lord to the wars,
or to defend a caftle, and what his charge would be
therein.
Efcuage certain, was where the tenure was fet at
a certain fum of money to be paid in lieu of luch fer¬
vice; as that a man ffiould pay yearly for every knight’s
fee 20 s.; for half a knight’s fee 10 s. or fome like
rate ; and this fervice, becaufe it is drawn to a cer¬
tain rent, groweth to be of a mixed nature, not mere¬
ly focage, and yet focage in effect, being now neither
perfonal fervice nor uncertain. The tenure called
chivalry had other conditions annexed to it: but there
is a great alteration made in thefe things by the ftat. 12.
Car. 2. c. 24. whereby tenures by knight’s fervice of
the king, or any other perfon in capite, tec. and the
fruits and confequences thereof, are taken away and
difeharged ; and all tenures are to be conftrued and
adjudged to be free and common focage, tec.
Chivalry, properly fo called, and, under the idea
of a diftindt military order, conferred in the way of
inveftiture, and accompanied with the folemnity of an
oath, and other ceremonies, as deferibed in the old
hiftorians and romances, feems to have fprung imme¬
diately out of the feudal conftitution.
The firft and moft fenlible effeft of this conftitution Origin of
was the erection of a great number of petty tyran- chivalry,
nies. For the power given by it to the barons over
their numerous vaffals was fo great, that they all were
in truth 4 fort of abfolute fovereigns, at lealt with re¬
gard to one another. Hence, their mutual arms and
interefts often interfering, the feudal ftate was, in a
good degree, a ftate of war ; and their caftles were
fo many fortreffes, as well as palaces. In this ftate
of things, all imaginable encouragement was to be
given to the ufe of arms. And this condition of the
times gave rife to that military inftitution which we
know by the name of chivalry. Further, military dif-
cipline was not to be relaxed even in the intervals of
11 L 2 peace.
CHI [ ig:
Chivalry, peace. Hence the origin of jufts and tournaments,
 thole images of war. Chivalry was the natural, and
even fober, effect of the feudal policy.
Charafte- This conjecture of the rife of chivalry, from the
riltics and cireumftances of the feudal government, accounts
genius of for tjie (everal cliaracteriftics of this fingular profef-
chiv8lry> fion.
i. The pafiion for arms ; the fpirit of enterprife ;
the honour of knighthood ; the rewards of valour,
ambition, intereft, glory, all concurred, under fuch
circumdances, to produce thefe effects. When this
turn was given to the thoughts and paflions of men,
ufe and falhion would do the relt, and carry them to
all the excefles of military fanaticifm. One of the
ftrangeft circumltances in the old romances, and which
looks molt like a mere extravagance of the imagina¬
tion, is that of the women-ivarriors; yet in this they
did but copy from the manners of the times.
-2. Their romantic ideas of juftice ; their paffion
for adventures ; their eagernefs to run to fuecour
the diftrefl’ed ; and the pride they took in redrefling
wrongs, and removing grievances. The feudal ftate
being a Hate of ahnolt perpetual violence, rapine, and
plunder, it was unavoidable that numbers of the te¬
nants or followers of one baron fliould be carried away
by the followers of another : and the intereft each
had to protect his own, would, of courfe, introduce
the point of honour in attempting, by all, means, not
only to retaliate on the enemy, but to refcue the cap¬
tive {offerers out of the hands of their oppreffors. It
would be meritorious in the higheft degree to fly to
their afliftance, when they knew where they were to
be come at; or to leek them out with diligence, when
they did not. This laft fervice they called going hi
queji of adventures; which at firfl:, no doubt, was con¬
fined to thofc of their own party, but afterwards, by
the habit of acting on this principle, would be extended
much further. Sp that, in proceis of time, we find
the knights-errant, as they were now properly ftiled,
wandering the world over in fearch of occalions on
which to exercile their generous and dilinterefted va¬
lour.
3. The courtefy, affability, and gallantry, for which
thefe adventurers were fo famous, are but the natural
effects and confequences of their fituation. For the
eaftles of the barons were the courts of thefe little fo-
vereigns, as well as their fortrefies : the refort of
their vaflals thither, in honour of their chiefs, and for
their own proper fecurity, would make that civility
and politenefs which is feen at courts, and infenfibly
prevails there, a predominant part in the character of
thefe aflemblies. Further, the free commerce of the
ladies, in thefe knots and circles of the great, would
operate fo far on the fturdieft knights as to give birth
to the attentions of gallantry.
4. It only remains to account for that chara&er of
religion, which was fo deeply imprinted on the minds
of thefe knights, and was effential to their inftitution.
Two reafons are afligned for this fingularity. Firft,
the fuperftition of the times, which was fo great, that
no inftitution of a public nature could have found cre¬
dit that was not confecrated by churchmen and inter¬
woven with religion. Secondly, the condition of the
Chriftian world; which had butjuft recovered a breach-
!4 ] CHI
ing time from the brutal ravages of the Saracen ar- Chivalry,
mies. The remembrance of what they had lately fuf- ——————
fered from thefe enemies of their faith, made it natu¬
ral and even neceflary to engage a new military or¬
der on the fide of religion. And here, by the way,
the reafon appears why the Spaniards, of all the Euro¬
peans, were furtheft gooe in every charadtei iftic mad-
nefs of true chivalry. Their fanatidfm in every way
was efpeciaHy inftigated and kept alive by the me¬
mory and neighbourhood of their infidel invaders.
Such was the ftate of things in the weftern world,
when the crulades to the holy land were fet on foot.
Whence we fee how well prepared die minds of men
were for engaging in tliat enterprife.,
There is a remarkable correfpondence between The refem-
the manners of the old heroic times, as painted by their blance be-
great romancer Homer, and thole which are repre- ^rok’aul
fented to us in the modern books of knight-errantry. g^thTc3 *
A fad. of which no good account can be given, but by manners,
another not lels certain ; that the political ftates of
Greece, in the earlieft: periods of its ftory, was fimilir,
in many refpeds, to that of Europe, as broken by the
feudal fyftem, into an infinite number of petty indepen¬
dent governments..
Some obvious circumftances of agreement between
the heroic and Gothic manners may be worth putting
down.
1. The military enthufiafm of the barons, is but of
a piece with the fanaticifm of the heroes. Hence the
fame particularity of defcription in the accounts of
battles, wounds, deaths, in the Greek poet, as in the
Gothic romancers. Hence that minute curiofity in the
difplay of their drefles, arms, accoutrements. The
minds of all men being occupied with warlike images
and ideas, were much gratified by thofe details, which
appear cold and unafteding to modern readers.
We hear much of knights-errant encountering giants^
and quelling lavages, in books of chivalry. Theie
giants were oppreffive feudal lords, and every lord
was to be met with, like the giant, in his ftrong-hold
or caftle. Their dependents of a lower form, who
imitated the violence of their fuperiors, and had not
their caftles but lurking places, were the favages of
romance. The greater lord was called a giant for his
power; the lefs, a favage, for his brutality.
. Another terror of the Gothic ages, was monfters,.
dragons, and ferpents. Their ftories were received
in thofe days for feveral reafons: 1. From the vulgar
belief of enchantments : 2. From their being reported
on the faith of eaftern tradition, by adventurers from
the holy land : 3. In ftill later times from the ftrange
things told and believed on the difcovery of the new
world.
In all thefe refpeiffs, Greek antiquity refembles the
Gothic. For what are Homer’s Lteftrigons and Cy¬
clops, but bands of lawlefs favages, with each of them
a giant of enormous fize at their head ? And what are
the Grecian Bacchus, Hercules and The.feus, hut
knights-errant, the exaft counterparts of Sir Launce-
lot, and Amadis de Gaul ?
3. The oppreffions which it was the glory of the
knights to avenge, were frequently carried on, as we
are told, by the charms and enchantments of women.
Thefe charms, we may fuppqfe, are often metapho¬
rical ;
CHI [ 1925 ] CHI
Chivalry, rical; as exprefling only the blandHhments of the fex.
Sometimes they are taken to be real, the ignorance
of thole ages acquiefcing in Rich conceits. And are
not thefe itories matched by thofe of Calypfo and
Circe, the enchantrefles of the Greek Poet ?
4. Robbery and Piracy were honourable in both :
fo far were they from reflecting any di (credit on the
ancient or modern rsdrcffers of wrongs. What ac¬
count can be given of this, but that, in the feudal
times, and in the early days of Greece, when govern¬
ment was weak, and unable to redreis the injuries of
petty fovereigns, it would be glorious for private ad¬
venturers to undertake this work ; and, if they could
accomplifh it in no other way, to pay them in kind by
downright plunder and rapine ?
5. Baftardy was in credit with both. They were
extremely watchful over the chaliity of their own
women ; but Rich as they could feize upon in the ene¬
mies quarter, were lawful prize. Or if, at any time,
they tranfgrefled in this fort at home, the fault was
covered by an ingenious RCtion. The offspring was
reputed divine. Their greateft heroes were the
fruit of goddefles’approached by mortals ; juft as we
hear of the dbughtieft knights being born of fairies.
6. With the greateft fiercenefs and favagenefs of
character, the utmoft generofity, hofpitality, and cour-
tefy, was imputed to the heroic ages. Achilles was at
once the molt reientlefs, vindictive, implacable, and
the friendlielt of men. We have the very fame re-
prefentation in the Gothic romances. As in thofe law-
lefs times, dangers and diltrelles of all kinds abound¬
ed, there would be the fame demand for compaflion,
gentlenel’s, and generous attachments to the unfortu¬
nate, thole efpecially of their own clan, as of refent-
ment, rage, and anitnolity againft their enemies.
7. Again, the martial games ctdebrated in ancient
Greece, on great and fdemn occafions, had the fame
origin and the fame purpofe as the tournaments of the
Gothic warriors.
8. Laftly, the paflions for adventures fo natural
in their fituation, would be as naturally attended with
the love of praife and glory. Hence the fame encou¬
ragement in the old Greek and Gothic times, to pa-
negyrifts and poets. In the affairs of religion and gal¬
lantry, indeed, the refemblance between the hero and
the knight is not fo ftriking. But the religious cha¬
racter of the knight was an accident of the times, and
no proper effeCt of his civil condition. And that his
devotion for the fair fex fliould lb far furpafs that of
the hero, is a confirmation of the fyftem here advan¬
ced. For the confideratlon had of the females in the
feudal conftitution, will of itfelf account for this defe¬
rence. It made them capable of fucceeding to fiefs,
as well as the men. And does not one fee, on the
inftant, what refpeCt and dependence this privilege
would draw uoon them ?
It was of mighty confequence who Ihould obtain the
favour of a rich heirefs. And though, in the ftricf
feudal times, Ihe was fuppofed to be in the power and
at the difpofal of her fuperior lord, yet this rigid
Rate of things did not laft long. Hence we find'feme
diftreffed damfel was the fprihg and mover of every
knight’s adventure. She was to be refeued by his
arms, or won by the fame and admiration of his prow-
el’s. The plain meaning of all winch was this: That Chivalry,
as, in thefe turbulent times, a proteCtor was neceflary
to the weaknefs of the fex, fo the courteous and va¬
lorous knight was to approve himl’elf fully qualified for
that purpofe.
It may be obferved, that the two poems of Homer
were intended to expofe the mifehiefs and inconve¬
niences arifing from the political Rate of Old Greece:
the Iliad, the diffentions that naturally fpring up
among independent chiefs ; and the Odyjj'ey, the info-
lence of their greater fubjeCls, more elpecialiy when
unreftrained by the prefence of their lovereign. And
can any thing more exaCtly refemble the condition of
the feudal times, when, on occafion of any great en-
terprife, as that of the crufades, the defigns of the con¬
federate Chriftian Rates were perpetually fruftrated,
or interrupted at leaft, by rite diffentipns of their lead¬
ers ; and their affairs at home, as perpetually diftref-
fod and difordered by the rebellious ufurpations of their
greater vaffals ? Jerufalem was to the European, what
Troy had been to the Grecian princes.
Court of Chivalry, a court formerly held before
the lord high conftabie and earl marfnal of England
jointly, and having both civil and criminal jnrifdibtion :
but Race the attainder of Stafford duke of Bucking¬
ham under Henry VIII. and the confequent extin-
guilhment of the office of lord high conftabie, it hath
ufually, with refpedl to civil matters, been heard be¬
fore the earl marfhal only. This court by Rat. 13.
Ric. II. c. 2. hath cognizance of contracls and other
mattersy touchipg deeds of arms and war, as well out
of the realm as in it. And from its fentences lies an
immediate appeal to the king in perfon. This court
was in great reputation in the times of pure chivalry,
and afterwards during the Englifh connexions with
the continent, by the territories which their princes
held in France : but is now grown aim oft entirely out
of ufe, on account of the feeblenefs of its jurifdi<ftionr
and want of power to enforce its judgments ; as it
can neither line nor imprifon, not being a court of
record.
1. The civil jurifdkftion of this court of chivalry,
is principally in two points ; the redreffing injuries of.
honour ; and correcting encroachments in matters of
coat-armour, precedency, and other diftinCtions of fa¬
milies. As a court of honour, it is to give fatisfac-
tion to all Rich as are aggrieved in that point; a
point of a nature fo nice and delicate, that its wrongs
and injuries efeape the notice of the common law,
and yet are fit to be redreffed fomewhere. Such, for
inftance, as calling a man a coward, or giving him the
lie ; for which, as they are produCIive of no imme¬
diate damage to his perfon or property, no aeftion will
lie in the courts at Weftminfter : and yet they are
Rich injuries as will prompt every man of fpirit to
demand fome honourable amends; which, by the an¬
cient law of the land, was given in the court of chi¬
valry. But modern refolutions have determined, that
liow much foever a jurifdiCIion may be expedient, yet
no aCtion for words will at prefent lie therein. And
it hath always been moft clearly holden, that as this
court cannot meddle with any thing determinable by
common law, it therefore can give no pecuniary fa-
tisfaction or damages; in as ifiuch as the quantity and
determination
CHI [ 1926 ] C H O
Chivalry determination thereof is ever of common law cog-
Jl nizance. And therefore this court of chivalry can at
ClllUrn^ molt order reparation in point of honour; as, to
compel the defendant mendacium fibi ipfi imponere,
or to take the lie that he has given upon himfelf, or
to make fuch other fubmiffion as the laws of honqur
may require. As to the other point of its civil jurif-
diction, the redreffing of ufurpations and encroach¬
ments in matters of heraldry and coat-armour ; it is
the bufinefs of this court, according to Sir Matthew
Hale, to adjull the right and armorial enfigns, bear¬
ings, crefts, fupporters, pennons, sire.; and allb rights
of places or precedence, where the king’s patent or
a& of parliament, which cannot be over-ruled by this
court, have not already determined it. The pro¬
ceedings of this court are by petition in a fummary
way : and the trial not by a jury of twelve men, but
by witneffes, or by combat. But, as it cannot impri-
fon, not being a court of record; and as, by the refo-
lutions of the fuperior courts, it is now confined to fo
narrow and reftrained a jurifdhftion ; it has fallen into
contempt. The marfhalling of coat-armour, which
was formerly the pride and Ihidy of all the bell fa¬
milies in the kingdom, is now greatly difregarded ;
and has fallen into the hands of certain officers and at¬
tendants upon this court, called heralds, who confider
■* it only as a matter of lucre, and notof juftice : where¬
by fuch falfity and confufion have crept into their re¬
cords, (which ought to be the Handing evidence of fami¬
lies, delcents, and coat-armour), that though former¬
ly fome credit has been paid to their teftimony, now,
even their common feal will not be received as evi¬
dence in any court of juftice in the kingdom. But
their original vifitation books, compiled when pro-
grefles were folemnly and regularly made into every
part of the kingdom, to inquire into the ftate of fami¬
lies, and to regifter fuch marriages and defeents as
were verified to them upon oath, are allowed to be
good evidence of pedigrees.
2. As a criminal court, when held before the lord
high conftable of England jointly with the earl Mar-
ffial, it had jurifdiction over pleas of life and mem¬
ber, arifing in matters of arms and deeds of war, as
well out of the realm as within it. But die criminal,
as well as civil part of its authority, is fallen into en¬
tire difufe : there having been no permanent high
conftable of England, (but only pro hac vice, at coro¬
nations and the like), fince the attainder and ^execu¬
tion of Stafford duke of Buckingham, in the 13th year
of Henry VIII. ; the authority and charge, both in
war and peace, being deemed too ample for a fub-
jedt; fo ample, that when the chief juftice Fineux
was a iked by king Henry VIII. how far they ex¬
tended ? he declined anfwering ; and faid, the de-
cifion of that queftion belonged to the law of arms,
and not to the law of England.
CHIVES, in botany, are flender thread-like fub-
ftances, generally placed within the bloffom, and fur¬
rounding the Pointals. They are formed of the
woody fubftance of the plant.
CHIUM marmor, in the natural hiftory of the an¬
cients, the name of a black marble, called alio the
lapis objidiams. It is very hard, and of a fine black;
aiid, belide the many ufes which the ancients put ft to,
is well known among our goldfmiths by the name of Chium
the touch-ftone ; molt of them being furniffied with 9
nothing better for that purpofe than a piece of this : ocolate"
though the bafaltes, which might be had plentifully
enough, is greatly preferable for thofe ufes ; any black
marble, however, that is tolerably hard, will do.
There is a very fine and elegantly fmooth marble, of
a compact texture, and fine gloffy black, but ffiewing
no glittering particles when freih broken, as moft of
the black marbles do. It is extremely hard, and cuts
with difficulty, but is capable of the higheft polHh of
any marble. The ancients had it from Ethiopia and
the ifland of-Chios ; we have it from Italy.
Chium Vimtm, Chian wine, or wine of the growth
of the ifland of Chios, now Scio, is commended by
Diofcorides, as affording good nourilhment, fit to drink,
lefs difpofed to intoxicate, endued with the virtue of
reftraining defluxions, and a proper ingredient in oph¬
thalmic medicines. Hence Scribonius Largus directs
the dry ingredients in collyria for the eyes to be
made up with Chian wine.
CHLAMYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn by
the ancients over the Tunica. It belonged to the pa¬
tricians ; and was the fame in the time of war, that
the toga was in the time of peace. This fort of gown
Was called pill a, from the rich embroidery with fi¬
gures in Phrygian work; and purpurea, becaufe the
ground-work was purple. The chlamydes of the em¬
perors were all purple, adorned with a golden and
embroidered border.
CHLOROSIS, in Medicine, a difeafe, commonly
called the green-jichiefs, incident to young girls. See
(the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of pafte, or
cake, prepared of certain ingredients, the bafis of
which is cacao. See Cacao.
The Indians, in their firft making of chocolate, ufed
to roaft the cacao in earthen pots ; and having after¬
wards cleared it of the hulks, and bruifed it between
two ftones, they made it into cakes with their hands.
The Spaniards improved this method : when the cacao
is properly roafted, and well cleaned, they pound it
in a mortar, to reduce it into acoarfe mafs, which they
afterwards grind on a ftone till it be of the utmoft
finenefs: the pafte being fufficiently ground, is put
quite hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in a
very little time. The form of thefe moulds is arbi¬
trary : the cylindrical ones, holding two or three
poundsp are the moft proper ; becaufe the bigger the
cakes are, the longer they will keep. Obferve, that
thele cakes are very liable to take any good or bad
feent, and therefore they nmft be carefully wrapt up in
paper, and kept in a dry place. Complaints are made,
that the Spaniards mix with the cacao nuts too great
a quantity of doves and cinnamon, befides other drugs
without number, as mulk, ambergreafe, ire. The
grocers of Paris ufe few or none of thefe ingredients :
they only chufe the beft nuts, which are called carac-
ca, from the place from whence they are brought;
and with thefe they mix a very fmall quantity of cin¬
namon, the freflieft vanilla, and the fineft fugar, but
very feldom any cloves. In England, the chocolate
is made of the fimple cacao, excepting that fometimes
fugar and fometimes vanilla is added.
Chocolate
Chocolate
■ ' I!
Chondrop-
terygii.
C H O [ 1927 ] C H O
Chocolate ready made, and cacao pafte, are prohi¬
bited to be imported from any part beyond the leas.
If made and fold in Great Britain, it pays inland-duty
is. 6 d. per lb. avoirdupoife : it muit be inclofed in
papers containing one pound each, and produced at
the excife-office to be ftamped. Upon three days
notice given to the officer of excife, private families
may make chocolate for their own ufe, provided no
lefs than half an hundred weight of nuts be made at
one time.
The chocolate made in Portugal and Spain is not
near fo well prepared as the Englilh; depending per¬
haps on the machine employed there, viz. the double
cylinder, which feems very well calculated for exadt
triture. If perfedtly prepared, no oil appears on the
folution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the
foreign ; and it alfo may, in ibme meafure, depend
on the thicknefs of the preparation. The folution re¬
quires more care than is commonly imagined. It is
proper to break it down, and diflblve it thoroughly in
cold water by milling it with the chocolate Hick. If
heat is applied, it ffiould be done flowly : for, if fud-
denly, the heat will not only coagulate it, but fepa-
rate the oil; and therefore much boiling after it is
diflblved, is hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required
by people of weak ftomachs; but often rejedled for
want of proper preparation. When properly prepa¬
red, it is eaiily diifolved; and an excellent food
where a liquid nutrient vegetable one is required, and
is lefs flatulent than any of the farinacea.
Chocolate-A^//Tr^. See Cacao.
CHOEN1X, an ancient dry meafure, contain¬
ing the 48 th part of a medimnus, or fix bufhels.
CHOIR, that part of the church or cathedral where
choirifters fing divine fervice; it is feparated from the
chancel where the communion is celebrated, and al-
fio from the nave of the church where the people
are placed : the patron is laid to be obliged to repair
the choir of the church. It was in the time of Con-
ftantine that the choir was feparated from the nave.
In the twelfth century, they began to inclofe it with
walls ; but the ancient balullrades have been fince
rellored, out of a view to the beauty of architedlure.
Choir, in nunneries, is a large hall adjoining to
the body of the church, feparated by a grate, where
the nuns fing the office.
CHOISI (Francis Timoleonde), dean of the cathe¬
dral of Bayeux, and one of the forty of the French
academy, was born at Paris in 1644. In 1685:, he was
lent with the chevalier de Chaumont to the king of
Siam, and was ordained prieft in the Indies by the a-
poftolical vicar. He Wrote a great number of works,
in a polite, florid, and eafy ftyle; the principal of
which are, 1. Four dialogues on the Immortality of
the foul, ire. 2. Account of a voyage to Siam. 3. An
Ecclefiaftical Hiftory, in 11 vols, 4to. 4. Life of Da¬
vid, with an interpretation of the Pfalms. 5. Life
of Solomon, fffc. He died at Paris in 1724.
CHOLEDOCHUS, in Anatomy. See there, n°3 58.
CHOLER. See Bile.
CHOLERA morbus, a fudden eruption or over¬
flowing of the bile or bilious matters both upwards and
downwards. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
CHONDROPTERYG1I, in ichthyology, a term
formerly applied to the order of filhes now called
amphibia ?iantes by Linnaeus. See Amphibia.
CHOP-church, or Church-ch opper, a name,
or rather nick-name, given to parfons who make a
practice of exchanging benefices. See Permutation.
Chop-church occurs in an ancient ftatue as a lawful
trade or occupation ; and fome of the judges fay it
was a good addition. Brook holds that it was no occu¬
pation, but a thing permiffible by law.
CHOPIN, or Ch opine, a liquid meafure ufed both
in Scotland and France,- and equal to half th^ir pint.
See Pint and Me'asure.
Chopin (Rene), a famous civilian born at Bailleul
in Anjou in 1537. He was advocate in the parliament
of Paris, where he pleaded for a long time with great
reputation. He at lalt fliut himfelf up in his dofet;
and compofed many works, which have been colled-
ed together, and printed in 6 vols, folio. He died at
Paris in 1606.
CHORASSAN, or Khorassan, a province of
Perlia adjoining to Ufbec Tartary. This was the an¬
cient Badria, and the birth-place of Kouli Khan. .
CHORD, or cord, primarily denotes a flender
rope or cordage *. The word is formed of the La¬
tin, chorda, and that from the Greek, a gut,
whereof firings may be made.
Chord, in geometry, a right line drawn from one
part of an arch of a circle to another. Hence,
Chord of ats Arch, is a right line joining the ex¬
tremes of that arch.
Chord, in mufic, the union of two or more founds
uttered at the fame time, and forming together an
entire harmony.
The natural harmony produced by the refonance of
a founding body, is compofed of three different founds,,
without reckoning their odaves; which form among
themfelves the moft agreeable and perfed chord
that can poffibly be heard : for which reafon they are
called, on account of their excellence, perfett chords..
Hence, in order to render that harmony com¬
plete, it is neceflary that each chord Ihould at leafi.
confift of three founds. The trio is likewife found
by muficians to include the perfedion of harmony;
whether becaufe in this all the chords, and each in its
full perfedion, are ufed; or, becaufe upon fuch occa-
fions as render it improper to ufe them all,, and each
in its integrity, arts have been fuccefsfully pradifed
to deceive the ear, and to give it contrary perfuafion,
by deluding it with the principal founds of each chord,.
in fuch a manner as to render it forgetful of the other
founds necefiary to their completion. Yet the odave
of the principal found produces new relations, and
new confonances, by the completion of the intervals:
they commonly add this odave, to have the afl’em-
blage of all the confonances in one and the fame chord;■
(fee Consonance.) Moreover, the addition of
the diflbnance, (fee Discord,) producing, a fourth
found fuperadded to the perfed chord, it becomes in-
difpenfibly neceflary, if we would render the chord full,
that we fliouid include a fourth part to exprefs this dif-
fonance. Thus, the feries of chords can neither be
complete nor conneded but by means of four parts.
Chords are divided into perfed.and imperfeefi. The
per fell chord is that which we have lately deferibed y
which.
Chop
II
Chord.
* See Cor^
doge.
Chord.
C H O [ 1928 ] % C H O
which is compofed of the fundamental found below,
of its third, its fifth, and its oftave : they are likewife
fubdivided into major and minor, according as the
thirds which enter into their compofition are fiat or
iharp: (See Interval.) Some authors likewife
give the name of pet-fed to all chords, even to dilfo-
nances, whole fundamental founds are below. Im¬
perfect chords are thofe in which the fixth, inftead of
the fifth, prevails, and in general all thofe whofe low-
eft are hot their fundamental founds. Thefe deno¬
minations, which had been given before the fundamen¬
tal bafs was known, are now moft unhappily applied :
thofe of chords direct and reverfed, are much more
fuitable in the fame lenfe. (See the account of In¬
verted Chords')*.
Chords are once more divided into confonances and
diflbnances. The chords denominated confonances,
are the perfeCt chord, and its derivatives.- every
other chord is a dtffotiance.
A table of both, according to the fyftem of M. Ra¬
meau, may be feen in Roufleau’s Mufical Dictionary,
vol. I. p. 27.
After the table to which our readers have been re¬
mitted, Rouffeau adds the following ohfervations, which
are at the fame time fo juft and fo important, that we
fhould be very forry if they efcape the reader’s atten¬
tion.
At the words harmony, fundamental bafs, cotnpoft-
tion, &c. he protnifes to treat concerning the manner
of ufing all the chords to form regular harmony ; and
only adds, in this place, the fnbfequent reflections.
i. It is a capital error to imagine, that the methods
of inverting the fame chord are in all cafes equally
eligible for the harmony, and for- the expreflion.
There is not one of thefe different arrangements, but
has its proper character. Every one feels the con-
traft between the foftnefs of the falfe fifth, and the
grating found of the tritone, though the one of thefe
intervals is produced by a method of inverting the
other. With the feventh diminiftied, and the fecond
redundant, the cafe is the fame with the interval of the
fecond in general ufe, and the feventh. Who does
not feel how much more vocal and fonorous the fifth
appears when compared with the fourth ? The chord
of the great fixth, and that of the lefi'er fixth minor,
are two forms of the fame fundamental chord: but
how much lefs is the one harmonious than the other ?
On the contrary, the chord of the leffer fixth major is
much more pleafing and cheerful than that of the falfe
fifth ? And only to mention the moft fimple of all
chords, reflect on the majefty of the perfeCt chord,
the fweetnefs of that which is called the chord of the
fixth, and the infipidity of that which is compofed of
a fixth and a fourth ; all of them, however, compo¬
fed of the fame founds. In general, the redundant
intervals, the {harps in the higher part, are proper by
their feverity to exprefs violent emotions of mind,
fuch as anger and the rougher paflions. On the con¬
trary, flats in the higher parrs, and dtminilhed inter¬
vals, form a plaintive harmony, which melts the heart.
There are a multitude of fimilar obfervations, of
which when a mufician knows how to avail himfelf,
he may command at will the affeCtions of thofe who
hear him.
2. The choice of fimple intervals is fcarcely of lefs
importance than that of the chords, with regard to
the ftation& in which they ought to be placed. It is,
for inftance, in the lower parts that the fifth and oc¬
tave fhould be ufed in preference ; in the the upper
parts, the third and fixth are more proper. If you
tranfpofe this order, the harmony will be ruined even
though the fame chords are preferved.
3. In a word, the chords are rendered ftill more
harmonious, by being approximated and only divided
by the fmalleft practicable intervals, which are more
fuitable to the capacity of the ear than fuch as are re¬
mote. This is what we call cOntraCling the harmony,
an art which few compofers have Ikill and abilities
enough to put in practice. The limits in the natural
compafs of voices, afford an additional reafon for lef-
fening the diftance of the intervals, which compofe
the harmony of the chorus, as much as poffible. We
may affirm, that a chorus in improperly compofed,
when the diftance between the chords increafes; when
thofe who perform the different parts are obliged to
feream; when the voices rife above their natural ex¬
tent, and are fo remotely diftant one from the other
that the' perception of harmonical relations between
them is loft.
We fay likewife, that an inftrument is in concord,
when the intervals between its fixed founds are what
they ought to be; we fay in this lenfe, that the chords
of an inftrument are true or falfe, that it preferves
or does not preferve its chords. The fame form of
fpeaking is ufed for two voices which ling together,
or for two founds which are heard at the fame time,
whether in unifon or in parts.
Chords, or Cords^ of Mufical Jnfruments, are
firings, by the vibration of which the fenfation of
found is excited, and by the divifions of which the le-
veral degrees of tone are determined.
CHORDEE, in medicine and furgery, a fymptom
attending a gonorrhoea, confifting in a violent pain
under the frenum, and along the dueft of the urethra,
during the erection of the penis, which is incurvated
downwards. Thefe ereclions are frequent and invo¬
luntary.
CHOREA Sancti Viti. See Vitus’s Dance.
CHOREPISCOPUS, or Country-Bishop, an af-
fiftant to a bilhop, firft introduced into the church
when the diocefes became enlarged by the converfion
of the Pagans in the country and villages at a dif¬
tance from the mothef-church.
Chorepiscopus is alfo the name of a dignity in
fome cathedrals in Germany, fignifying the lame with
chori-epifcopus, or bilhop of the choir. The firft
chanter in the church of Cologne is called chori-epifco¬
pus.
CHOREUS, Xopej©-, a foot in the ancient poetry,
more commonly called troehaus. See Trochee.
CHORIAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a‘ foot confift¬
ing of four fyllables, whereof the firft and laft are
long, and the two middle ones are Ihort; or, which is
the fame thing, it is made up of a trochasus and iam¬
bus : fuch is the word nobilitas.
CHORION, in anatomy, the exterior membrane
which in veils the foetus in the uterus. See Fo-Etus.
CHOROBATA, or Chorobates, a kind of wa¬
ter
Chord
II
Chorion,
C H O [ 1929 ] C H R
Chorogra- ter level aitiong the ancients, of the figure of the let-
phy ter T, according to Vitruvius’s defeription.
c,ll CHOKOGRAPHY, the art of making a map of
0 e' fome country or province.
Chorography differs from geography, as the de¬
feription of a particular country does from that of the
whole earth; and from topography, as the deferip¬
tion of a country differs from that of a town or diftridt.
See the articles Geography, Topography, and
Map.
CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more per-
fons prefent on the ffage during the reprefentation,
and fuppofed to be by-ftanders without any fhare in
the aftion.
Tragedy in its origin was no more than a fmgle
chorus, who trod the ftage alone, and without any
adlors, finging dithyrambics or hymns in honour of
Bacchus. Thefpis, to relieve the chorus, added an
aftor, who rehearfed the adventures of fome of their
heroes; and ATJchylus, finding a fingle perfon too
dry an entertainment, added a fecond, at the fame
time reducing the finging of the chorus, to make more
room for the recitation. But when once tragedy be¬
gan to be formed, the recitative, which at firfi was
intended only as an acceffory part to give the chorus
a breathing time, become a principal part of the tra¬
gedy. At length, however, the chorus became in-
ferted and incorporated into the action : fometimes it
was to fpeak; and then their chief, whom they called
corryphxus, (poke in behalf of the reft: the finging
was performed by the whole company; fo that when
the corryphaeus flruck into a fong, the chorus imme¬
diately joined him.
The chorus fometimes alfo joined the adfors in the
courfe of the reprefentation, with their plaints and
lamentations on account of any unhappy accidents that
befel them; but the proper fun&ion, and that for
which it feemed chiefly retained, was to fhew the in¬
tervals of the ails: while the ailors were behind the
feenes, the chorus engaged the fpeilators; their fongs
ufually turned on what was exhibited, and were not
to contain any thing but what was fuited to the fub-
• jeil, and had a natural connexion with it; fo that the
chorus concurred with the aitors for advancing the
aclion. In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid a-
fide, and the fiddles fupply its place. Mr Dacier looks
on this retrenchment as of ill confequence, and thinks
it robs tragedy of a great part of its luftre; he there¬
fore judges it neceflary to re-eftablilh it, not only bn
account of the regularity of the piece, but alfo to cor-
rebl, by prudent and virtuous reflections, any extra¬
vagances that might fall from the mouths of the ac¬
tors when under any violent pafiion.
Mr Dacier obferved alio, that there was a chorus,
or grex, in the ancient comedy: but this is fuppreffed
in the new comedy, becaufe it was ufed to reprove
vices by attacking particular perfons ; as the chorus
of the tragedy was laid afide to give the greater pro¬
bability to thofe kinds, of intrigue which require fe-
crecy.
Chorus, in mufic, is when, at certain periods of a
fong, the whole company are to join the finger in re¬
peating certain couplets or verfes.
CHOSE, (Fr.) “ a thingufed in the common law
VOL. III.
with divers epithets; as choje local, chofc tranfitory, Chofroes
and chofe in allion. Chofe local is fuch a thing as is 8.
annexed to a place, as a mill and the like; chofe trail- c“rl
fitory is that thing which is moveable, and may be ta¬
ken away, or carried from place to place; and chofe
in action is a thing incorporeal, and only a right, as
an obligation for debt, annuity, ire. And generally
all caufes of fuit for any debt, duty, or wrong, are to
be accounted chofes in ablion: and it feems, chofe in
abtion may be alfo called chofe hi fufpence; becaufe
it hath no real exiflence or being, nor can properly
be laid to be in our pofleflion.
CHOSROES I. the Great, king of Perfia, after his
father Cabades, D. 532. He made peace with
the Romans; but broke it the third year, and forced
Juftinian to a difadvantageous peace. Afterward, he
was fo fwelled with his victories, as to bid the em¬
peror’s ambaflador follow him for audience to Csefa-
rea: but Tiberius fent an army under Juilinian ; who
made himfelf mailer of the country, and put Chofroes
to death in 586.
Chosroes II. His fubjeftsput his father Hormif-
das in prifon, and the fon upon the throne of Perfia.
He ufed his father tenderly at firft; but afterwards
caufed him to be put to death. This, together
with his killing fome of the nobility, obliged him to
fly: he gave his horfe the bridle, which canied
him into a town of the Romans, where Maurici-
us the emperor received him kindly, and fent an ar¬
my under Narfes, which fet him again upon the
throne. He took Jerufalem; after this he made him-
felf mafler of Libya and Egypt, and carried Carthage.
Heraclius fued for peace ; which was offered him on
condition, That he and his fubjells fhould deny Jefus
Chrift: Hereupon Heraclius attacked him with fuc-
cefs, and put him to flight. His own fon purfued him,
and he was ftarved in prifon in 627.
CHOUGH, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Corvu s.
CHOUS, in the eaftern military orders, the title
of the meffengers of the divan of janifaries. There
are feveral degrees of honour in this poll. When a
perfon is firll advanced to it, he is called a cuchuk,
or little chous ; after this he is advanced to be the al¬
loy chous; that is, the meflenger of ceremonies; and
from this, having pafled through the office ofpetelnia,
or procurator of the effedts of the body, he is advan¬
ced to be the has chous.
CHREMNITZ, the principal of the nine-towns in
Upper Hungary, fituated about 68 miles north-eaft
of Prelburg, and fubjedt to the houfe of Aullria. E.
Long. 190. and N. Lat. 48. 45.
CHRISM, oil confecrated by the bifliop, and ufed
in the Romifli and Greek churches in the adminiftra-
tion of baptifm, confirmation, ordination, and extreme
undlion.
CHRIST. See Christianity and Messiah.
Order of Christ, a military order, founded by
Dionyfius I. king of Portugal, to animate his nobles
againfl the Moors.—The arms of this order are gules,
patriarchal crofs, charged with another crofs argent:
they had their refidence at firft at Caftromarin ; after¬
wards they removed to the city of Thomar, as being
nearer to the Moors of Andalufia and Eftremadura.
11 M Christ
Chrift
I
ChrilUanity
By what
name the
apoftles
were firft
.eliftinguilh-
ed.
Delineation
of Chrilli-
C H R [ 1930 ] C H R
Christ is alfo the name of a military order in Li¬
vonia, inftituted in 1205 by Albert biftiop of Riga.
The end of this inftitution was to defend the new
Chriftians, who were converted every day in Livo¬
nia, but were perlecuted by the heathens. They
wore on their cloaks a fword with a crofs over it,
whence they were alfo denominated “ brothers of the
fword.”
CuRisT-Burgfi, a town of Poland, near the lake
Draufen, and about three Polifh miles from Marien-
burgh.
ChRisT-C/wr/i, a borough-town of Hampfliire,
30 miles fouth-weft of Wincelter, near the fea-coaft:
W. Long. 2°. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament.
CHRisx-TTiorw, in botany. SccRhamnus.
Mojt CHRISTIAN king, one of the titles of the
king of France.
The French antiquaries trace the origin of this ap¬
pellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a
letter to Charles Martel, occafionally gave him that
title, which his fucceffors have fince retained.
Christian Religiony that inllituted by Jefus Chrift.
See Christianity.
CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Chriftians. The
word is analogically derived, as other abftradts from
their concrets, from the adjedlive Chrijiian. This
again is derived from the name Xpror, Chrijhts, from
the word %pt«, 1 anoint. Chrift is called the anointed,
from a cultom which extenfively prevailed in anti¬
quity, and was originally faid to be of divine -inftitu¬
tion, of anointing perfons in the facerdotal or regal
character, as a public lignal of their confecration to
their important offices, and as a Teftimony that hea¬
ven itfelf was the guarrantee of that relation which
then commenced between the perfons thus confecra-
ted and their fubordinates.
The difciples of Jefus, after the death of their teach¬
er, had forsfome time been called Nazarenes, from
Nazareth in Galilee where he dwelt; which after¬
wards became the delignation of a particular fedt.
They, who adopted the principles, and profefied the
religion which he taught, were firft diftinguiffied by
the name of Chrijliam at Antioch. That profeffion,
and thofe dodtrines, we now proceed to delineate with
as much perfpicuity as the limits of our plan will ad¬
mit, yet with the concifenefs which a work fo multi¬
form and extenfive requires.
When a Chriftian is interrogated concerning the
nature and foundation of his faith and pradlice, his ul¬
timate reference, his laft appeal, is to the fadls, the doc¬
trines, and the injunctions, contained in the books of the
Old and New Teftament. ‘ From thefe, therefore, and
from thefe alone, muft every fair account, or the ma¬
terials of which it is compofed, be extradled or dedu¬
ced. Other formularies, or confeffions of faith, may,
according to the Chriftian, deferve more or lefs atten¬
tion, as they are more or lefs immediately contained
or implied in the fcriptures. But whatever is not ac¬
tually expreffed in, or deduced by fair and neceftary
conlequence from, thefe writings, muft be regarded as
merely human ; and can have no other title to our af-
fent and obfervation, than what they derive from
their conformity with the fcriptures, with the dic¬
tates and feelings of a reformed and cultivated mind, ChrifHanity :
or with thofe mealures which are found expedient and • ■ ■'   
ufeful in human life. But, as thefe books from'whence
the Chriftan inveftigates his principles of belief and
rules of condudl, have been varioufly interpreted by
different profelfors and commentators, thefe diverfi-
ties have given birth to a multiplicity of different
lefts. It cannot, therefore, be expefted, that any
one who undertakes to give an account of Chriftianity,
fliould comprehend all the writings and opinions which
have been propagated and exhibited by hiftorical, 1'yf-
tematical, or polemical authors. Theie, if at all con¬
tained in fuch a work as this, ffiould be ranged under
their proper articles, whether Icientifical, controver-
fial, or biographical. It is our prefent bufinefs, if
poflible, to confine ourfelves to a detail of fuch fafts
and doftrines as, in the ftrift and primitive fenfe of
the word, are catholic, or, in other expreffions, to fuch
as uniformly have been, and ftill are, recognifed and
admitted by the whole body of Chriftians. 4
W'e have already faid that thefe, or at leaft the Account of ■
greateft number of them, appeal to the fcriptures of Chnlhani- 1
the Old and New Teftament as the ultimate ftandard, ^educibl^* *
the only infallible rule of faith and manners. If you
afk them, by what authority theie books claim an ab-
folute right to determine the confciences and under-
ftandings of men with regard to what they, ffiould be¬
lieve and what they lliould do ? they will anlwer you,
that all fcriptnre, whether for doftrine, correftion, or
reproof, was given by immediate infpiration from
God. 5
If again you interrogate them how thofe books, The nature
which they call Scripture, are authenticated ? they re- of its evi- t
ply, that the evidences by which the Old and New ^ences* ,
Teftament are proved to be the Word of God, are
either external or internal. The external may again
be divided into direft or collateral. The direft evi¬
dences are fuch as arife from the nature, confiftency,
and probability, of the fafts; and from the limplicity,
uniformity, competency, and fidelity, of theteftimonies
by which they are fupported. The collateral events,
are either the fame occurrences fupported by Hea¬
then teftimonies, or others which concur with and
corroborate the hiftory of Chriftianity. Its internal
evidences arife either from its exaft conformity with
the charafter of God, from its aptitude to the frame
and circumftances of roan, or from thofe fupernatural
conviftions and affiftances which are impreffed on the
mind by the immediate operation of the divine Spirit.
Thefe can only be mentioned in a curl'ory manner in
a detail fo concife as the prefent. g
Such fafts as are related in the hiftory of his reli- How Chri-
gion, the Chriftian alferts to be not only confiftent IHauity is
each with itfelf, but likewife one with another. Hence fuf ported
it is, that, by a feries of antecedents and confequen- Hus¬
oes, they corroborate each other, and form a chain
which cannot be broken but by an abfolute liibver-
tion of all hiftorical authenticity. Nor is this all: for,
according to him, the fafts on which Chriftianity is
founded, not only conftitute a feries of themfelves,
but are likewife in feveral periods the beft refources
for fupplying the cbafms in the hiftory of our nature,
and preferving the tenor of its annals entire. The
fafts themfelves are either natural, or fupernaturah
G H R [ 1931 ] C H R
Cjhriflianlty By natural fa&s we mean fuch occurrences as happen
* or may happen from the various operations of mecha¬
nical powers, or from the interpolition of natural
agents without higher afliftants. Such are all the com¬
mon occurrences of hiftory, whether natural, biogra¬
phical, or civil. By fupernatural fa<5ls, we mean luch
as could not have been produced without the interpo-
fition of Deity, or at leaft of powers fuperior to the
laws of mechanifm or the agency of embodied fpirits.
Among thefe may be reckoned the immediate change
of water into wine, the inftantaneous cure of difeafes
without the intervention of medicine, the refufcitation
of the dead, and others of the fame kind. In this or¬
der of occurrences may likewife be numbered the ex¬
ertions and exhibitions of prophetic power, where the
perfons by whom thefe extraordinary talents were
difplayed could neither by penetration nor conjecture
unravel the mazes of futurity, and trace the events of
which they fpoke from their primary caul’es to their
remote completions. So that they mult have been
the paffive organs of fome fuperior Being to whom
the whole concatenation of caufes and etfeCts which
operate from the origin to the confummation of na-
7 ture, was obvious at a glance of thought.
Natural It has already been hinted, that the faCts which we
^a^s> w^at> have called natural, not only agree wKh the analogy
conducive human events, and corroborate each other, but in
i to the elu- a great many emergencies nobly illuftrate the hiftory
cidation of of nature in general. For this a Chriftian might offer
> hiftoiy. one inftance, of which philofophy will not perhaps be
able to produce any tolerable folution, without having
recourfe to the faCts upon which Chriftianity is founded.
For if mankind were originally defcended from one
pair alone, how fhould it have happened that long be¬
fore the date of authentic hiftory every nation had
its own diftinCt language ? Or if it be fuppofed, as
fome late philofophers have maintained, that man is
an indigenous animal in every country ; or, that he
was originally produced in, and created for, each par¬
ticular foil and climate which he inhabits; ftill it may
be demanded, whence the prodigious multiplicity, the
immenfe diverfity, of languages ? Is the language of
every nation intuitive, or were they dictated by exi¬
gences, and eftablilhed by convention ? If the laft of
thefe fuppofitions be true, what an immenfe period of
time mult have palled i How many revolutions of ma¬
terial and intellectual nature muft have happened ?
What acceffions of knowledge, refinement, civiliza¬
tion, muft human intercourfe have gained before the
formation and eftablilhment even of the moft fimple,
imperfect, and barbarous language ? Why is a period
fo vaft, obliterated fo entirely as to efcape the retro-
fpeit of hiftory, of tradition, and even of fable itfelf ?
Why was the acquifition and improvement of other
arts fo infinitely diftant from that of language, that
the tera of the latter is entirely loft, whilft we can
trace the former from their origin through the vari-
g ous gradations of their progrefs.
Tliis obfcu- Thefe difficulties, inextricable by all the lights of
rity inex- hiftory or philofophy, this more than Cimmerian dark-
b the Mo- ne^S *S innnediately diffipated by the Mofaic account
faic ac- °" die confufion of tongues ; wifely intended to fepa-
count. rate the tribes of men one from another, to repleniffi
the furface of the globe, and to give its multiplied in¬
habitants thofe opportunities of improvement which Chriftianity
might be derived from experiment and induftry, va-  
riouily exerted, according to the different fituations in
which they were placed, and the different employ¬
ments which thefe fituations dictated. Thus the time
of nature’s exiftence is limited to a period within the
ken of human intellect. Thus whatever has happen¬
ed might have happened during the prefent mode of
things; whereas, if we deduce the origin and diverfity
of language from a period fo remotely diftant as to be
abfolutely loft, and entirely detached from all the
known occurrences and viciffitudes of time, we muft
admit the prefent forms and arrangements of things
to have fublifted perhaps for a much longer duration .
than any mechanical philofopher will allow to be pof-
fible. Other inftances equally pregnant with convic¬
tion might be multiplied ; but, precluded by the limits
of our plan, we proceed to a fingle obfervation upon
the fadis which have been termed fupernatural. 9
Of thofe changes which happen in fenfible objedls, Miracles,
fenfation alone can be judge. Reafon has nothing to howcondu-
do in the matter. She may draw conclufions from CIve to
the teftimonies of fenfe, but can never refute them. ^r°t^e0f C
If, therefore, our fenfes inform us that fnow is white, cimftiani-
in vain would the moft learned and iubtile philofopher ty.
endeavour to convince us that it was of a contrary
colour. He might confound us, but never could per-
fuade us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to hap¬
pen in fenfible objedts, muft either be real or fallaci¬
ous. If real, the miracle is admitted ; if fallacious,
there muft be a caufe of deception equally unaccount¬
able from the powers of nature, and therefore equally
miraculous. If the veracity or competency of the
witnefles be queftioned, the Chriftian anfwers, that
they muft be competent, becaufe the fadis which they
relate are not beyond their capacity to determine.
They muft likewile be faithful, becaufe they had no
fecular motives for maintaining, but many for fuppref-
fing or difguifing, what they teftified. Now the Chri¬
ftian appeals to the whole feries of hiftory and expe¬
rience, whether fuch a man is or can be found, as will
offer a voluntary, folemn, and deliberate facrifice of
truth at-the fltrine of caprice. But fuch fadis as after pro h
a long continuance of time have been found exadlly evident by
agreeable to predidlions formerly emitted, muft fu- its own na-
perfede the fidelity of teftimony, and infallibly prove, ture !nde~
that the event was known to the Being by whom it Pcn<lent of
was foretold. In vain has it been urged, that pro¬
phecies are ambiguous and equivocal. For though
they may prefigure fubordinate events, yet if the
grand occurrences to which they ultimately relate, can
alone fulfil them in their various circumftances, and
in their utmoft extent, it is plain, that the Being by
whom they were revealed muft have been adlually
prefcient of thole events, and muft have had them in
view when the predidlions were uttered. For this
fee a learned and ingenious differstion on the Credi¬
bility of Gofpel-hiftory, by Dr M‘Knight; where the
evidences urged by the Chriftian in defence of his te¬
nets, which appear detached and fcattered through in¬
numerable volumes, are aflembled and arranged in
fuch a manner as to derive ftrength and lufture from
the method in which they are difpofed, without dimi-
nilhing the force of each in particular. See aifo the
11 M 2 works
C H R [ 1932 ] C H R
Chriftianity works of Dr Hurd : confult like wife thofe of Newton,
  Sherlock, Chandler, \3c. For the evidences of thofe
preternatural fa&s which have been termed miracles,
the reader may perufe a Ihort but elegant and conclu-
five defence of thefe aftonilhing phenomena, in anfwer
11 to Mr Hume, by the Rev. George Campbell, D. D.
Properties It muft be obvious to every refledling mind, that
common to whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion
om *Sl" a trtirt> or contemplate thofe which have been al¬
ready exhibited, certain facts, principles, or data, muft
be pre-eftablilhed, from whence will i*efult a particu¬
lar frame of mind and courfe of action fuitable to the
character and dignity of that Being by whom the re¬
ligion is enjoined, and adapted to the nature and fitu-
ation of thofe agents who are commanded to obferve
it. Hence Chrijiiauity may be divided into credenda
12 or doftrines, and agenda or precepts.
Chriftiau •» As the great foundation of his religion, therefore,
theology, the Chriftian believes the exiftence and government
of one eternal and infinite Effence, which for ever re¬
tains in itfelf the catife of its own exiftence, and inhe¬
rently pofleffes all thofe perfections which are com¬
patible with its nature: fuch are, its almighty power,
omnifeient wifdom, infinite juftice, boundlefs good-
nefs, and univerfal prefence. In this indivifibie ef¬
fence the Chriftian recognifes three diftinct fubfift-
- ences, yet diftinguiihed in fuch a manner as not to be
incompatible with effential unity or limplicity of be¬
ing. Nor is their effential union incompatible with
their perfonal diftinction. Each of them poffefles the
fame nature and properties to the fame extent. As,
therefore, they are conftituent of one God, if we may
ufe the expreffion, there is none of them fubordinate,
none fupreme. The only way by which the Chriftian
can diferiminate them, is by their various relations,
properties, and offices. Thus the Father is faid eter¬
nally to beget the Son, the Son to be eternally begot¬
ten of the Father, and the Holy Ghoft eternally to
proceed from both.
This infinite Being, though abfolutely independent
and for ever fufficient for his own beatitude, was gra-
cioufly pleafed to create an univerfe replete with in¬
ferior intelligences, who might for ever contemplate
and enjoy his glory, participate his happinefs, and imi¬
tate his perfections. But as freedom of will is effen-
tial to the nature of moral agents, that they may co¬
operate with God in their own improvement and hap¬
pinefs, fo their natures and powers are neceffarily li¬
mited, and by that conftitution rendered peccable.
This degeneracy firft took place in a rank of intelli¬
gence fuperior to man. But guilt is never ftationary.
Impatient of itfelf, and curfed with its own feelings, it
proceeds from bad to worfe, whilft the poignancy of
its torments'increafes-with the number of its perpe¬
trations. Such was the fituation of Satan and his apo-
ftate angels. They attempted to transfer their tur¬
pitude and mifery to man ; and were, alas ! but too
fuccefsful. Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcile-
able principles which operate in his nature. Hence
that inexplicable medley of wifdom and folly, of rec¬
titude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of fin-
cerity and fraud, exhibited through his whole con-
dueft. Hence the darknefs of his underftanding, the
. depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the ir¬
regularity of his affections, and the abfolute fubverfion Chriftianity >
of hi#whole internal oeconomy. Thefe feeds of per-     “ |
dition foon ripened into overt acts of guilt and horror.
All the hoftilities of nature were confronted, and the
whole fublunary creation became a theatre of difor-
der and mifehief.
Here the Chriftian once more appeals to fact and
experience. If thefe things are fo; if is the
veffel of guilt and the victim of mifery ; he demands
how this conftitution of things can be accounted for l
how can it be fuppofed, that a being fo wicked and
unhappy ffiould be the production of an infinitely per¬
fect Creator ? He therefore infifts, that human nature
muft have been difarranged and contaminated by
fome violent ftiock; and that, of confequence, without
the light diffufed ove/ the face of things by Chriftia¬
nity, all nature muft remain an infcrutable and inex¬
plicable myftery.
To redrefs thefe evils, to re-eftablifh the empire
of virtue and happinefs, to reftore the nature of
man to its primitive reeftitude, to fatisfy the re-
monftrances of infinite juftice, to purify every origi¬
nal or contraefted ftain, to expiate the guilt and de-
ftroy the power of vice, the eternal Son of God, the
fecond perfon of the facred Trinity, the Logos or di¬
vine Word, the Redeemer or Saviour of the world,
the Immanuel or God with us, from whom Chriftia-
nity takes its name, and to whom it owes its origin,
defeended from the- bofom of his Father ; affumed the
human nature; became the reprefentative of man ; en¬
dured a fevere probation in that character; exhibited
a pattern of perfect; righteoufnefs; and at laft ratified
his doeftrine, and fully accompliffied all the ends of his
miffion, by a cruel, unmerited, and ignominious death.
Before he left this world, he delivered the doeftrine of
human falvation, and the rules of human conducft, to
his apoftles, whom he empowered to inftrueft the
world in all that concerned their eternal felicity, and
whom he invefted with miraculous gifts to afeertain
the reality of what they taught. To them he like-
wife promifed another comforter, even the divine
Spirit, who ffiould relume the darknefs, confole the
woes, and purify the ftains, of human nature. Having
remained for a part of three days under the power
of death, he arofe again from the grave, difeovered
himfelf to his difciples, converfed with them for fome
time, then re-afeended to heaven ; from whence the
Chriftian expeefts him, according to his promile, to
appear as the Sovereign Judge of the living and the
dead, from whofe awards there is no appeal, and by
whofe fentence the deftiny of the pious and the wicked
lhall be eternally fixed.
Soon after his departure to the right hand of his
Father, where, in his human nature', he fits fupreme
of all created beings, and invefted with the abfolute
adminiftration of heaven and earth, the Spirit of grace
and confolation defeended on his apoftles with vifi-
ble fignatures of divine power and prefence. Nor
were his falutary operations confined to them, but
extended to all the rational world, who did not
by obftinate guilt repel his influences, and provoke
him to withdraw them. Thefe, indeed, were lefs
confpicuous than at the glorious asra when they were
vifibly exhibited in the perfons of the apoftles. But
though
C H R [ 1933 ] C H R
ChrifHanity though his energy is lefs obfervable, it is by no means
" " lefs effectual to all the purpofes of grace and mercy.
■ The Chriftian is convinced, that there is and lhall
continue to be a lociety upon earth, who worlhip God
as revealed in Jefus Chrift; who believe his doctrines;
who obferve his precepts; and who lhall be faved by
his death, and by the ufe of thefe external means of
13 falvation which he hath appointed.
The exter- Thefe are few and fimple. The facraments of
"r* baptifm and the eucharift, the interpretation and ap-
°. plication of fcripture, the habitual exercife of public
and how * and private devotion, are obvioufly calculated to dif-
promotive fufe and promote the interefts of truth and virtue, by
of their fuperinducing the falutary habits of faith, love, and re-
end. pentance.
The Chriftian is f rmly perfuaded, that at the con-
fummation of things, when the purpofes of providence
in the various revolutions of progreflive nature are
accompliflied, the whole human race lhall once more
iffue from their graves; fome to immortal felicity, from
the acftual perception and enjoyment of their Crea¬
tor’s prefence; others to everlafting lhame and mi-
14 fery-
Chriftian The two grand principles of aiftion, according to
morality, the Chriftian, are, The love of God, which is the fove-
reign paffion in every perfect mind ; and the love of
man, which regulates our actions according to the va¬
rious relations in which we Hand, whether to com¬
munities or individuals. This facred connection can
never be totally extinguilhed by any temporary in¬
jury. It ought to fubfift in fome degree even amongft
enemies. It requires that we Ihould pardon the of¬
fences of others, as we expeCl pardon for our own ;
and that we Ihould no further refill evil than is necef-
fary for the prefervation of perfonal rights and focial
happinefs. It diClates every relative and reciprocal
duty between parents and children, mailers and fer-
yants, governors and fubjeCls, friends and friends,
men and men. Nor does it merely enjoin the obfer-
vation of equity, but likewife infpires the moll fub-
lime and extenfive charity, a boundlefs and difinte-
refted effufion of tendernefs for the whole fpecies,
which feels their diftrefs and operates for their relief
and improvement. Thefe celeftial difpofitions, and
the different duties which are their natural exertions,
are the various gradations by which the Chriftian
hopes to attain the perfeClion of his nature and the
15 molt exquifite happinefs of which it is fufceptible.
This fyf- Such are the fpeculative, and fuch the pradtical
tem, afler- principles of Chriliianity. From the former, its vo¬
ted by the taries contend, that the origin, oeconomy, and revolu-
Chnflian, tjons 0p intelligent nature alone can be rationally ex-
the'excel” pla>necl* From the latter, they aflert, that the na-
lence of its tare of man, whether confidered in its individual or
nature, and focial capacity, can alone be condudled to its higheft
the evi- perfection and happinefs. With the determined A-
realit ° to" they fcarcely deign to expoftulate. For, ac-
aU others! cording to them, philofophers who can deduce the ori¬
gin and conftitution of things from cafual rencounters
or mechanical necclfity, are capable of deducing any
conclufion from any premifes. Nor can a more gla¬
ring inftance of abfurdity be produced, than the idea
of a contingent or felf-originated univerfe. When
Deifts and other fedtarians upbraid them with, my lie-
rious or incompatible principles, they without he fit a- ChrifHanity
tion remit fuch cavillers to the creed of natural re- ’
ligion. They demand why any reafoner Ihould re-
fule to believe three dillimit fubfiftences in one indivi-
fible elfence, who admits that a being may be omni-
prefent without extenfion; or that he can imprefs
motion upon other things, whilft he himfelf is necef-
farily immoveable. They alk the fage, why it Ihould
be thought more extraordinary, that the Son of God
Ihould be fent to this world, that he fhould unite the
human nature to his own, that he fliould fuffer and die
for the relief of his degenerate creatures, than that an
exiftence whofe felicity is eternal, inherent, and in¬
finite, Ihould have any motive for creating beings ex¬
terior to himfelf. Is it not, fays the Chriftian, equally
worthy of the divine interpofition to reftore order
and happinefs where they are loft, as to communicate
them where they never have been ? Is not infinite
goodnefs equally confpicuous in relieving mifery as in
diffufing happinefs ? Is not the exiftence of what we
call evil in the world, under the tuition of an infinite¬
ly perfedl Being, as infcrutable as the means exhibited
by Chriftianity for its abolition. Vicarious punifh-
ment, imputed guilt and righteoufnefs, merit or de¬
merit transferred, are certainly not lefs reconcileable
to human reafon, a priori, than the exiftence of vice
and punilhment in the productions of infinite wifdom,
power, and goodnefs: particularly, when it is confi¬
dered, that the virtues exerted and difplayed by a
perfect Being in a ftate of humiliation and fuffering,
muft be meritorious, and may therefore be rewarded
by the reftored felicity of inferior creatures, in pro¬
portion to their glory and excellence ; and that fuch
merit may apply the bleffings which it has defervedr
in whatever manner, in whatever degree, and to
whomfoever it pleafes, without being under any ne-
ceffity to violate the freedom of moral agents, in re¬
calling them to the paths of virtue and happinels by
a mechanical and irrefiftible force.
It will be granted to philofophy by the Chriftian, Miraculous;
that as no theory of mechanical nature can be formed as poffible,
without prefuppofing facred and eftablifhed laws from 311(1 P«r-
which fhe ought rarely or never to deviate, fo in faift ^P*ras n^~
flie tenacioufly purfues thefe general inftitutions, and a*
from their conllant obfervance refult the order and vents,
regularity of things. But he cannot admit, that the
important ends of moral and intelledlual improvement
may be uniformly obtained by the fame means. He
affirms, that if the hand of God fliould either remain
always entirely invifible, or at leaft only perceptible
in the operation of fecond caufes, intelligent beings-
would be apt in the courfe of time to refolve the inter-
pofitions of Deity into the general laws of mechanifm ;
to forget his connection with nature, and confequently
their dependence upon him. Hence,, according to the
dictates of common-fenfe, and to the unanimous voice-
of every religion in every age or clime, for the pur¬
pofes of wifdom and benevolence, God may not only
control, but has actually controlled, the common courfe
and/general operations of nature. So that, as in the
material world the law of caufe and effefi is gene¬
rally and fcrupuloufly obferved for the purpofes of na¬
tural fnbfiftence and accommodation? thusfufpenfes and
changes of that univeffal law are equally neceflary for
C H R [ 1934 ] C H R
Ciiriftianity the advancement of moral and intellectual perfec-
tion.
chriftiani. ®ut t'ie difciple of Jefus not only contends, that no
ty not only fyftem of religion has ever yet been exhibited fo con-
explains the fiftent with itlelf, fo congruous to philofophy and the
phenome- common fenle of mankind, as Chriftianity. He like-
m,-but^con- wjpe averSj tiiat it is inhnitely more productive of real
iniferies6 of and fenlible confolation than any other religious or
human na- philofophical tenets, which have ever entered into the
ture. foul, or been applied to the heart of man. For what
is death-to that mind which confiders eternity as the
carreer of its exigence ? What are the frowns of for¬
tune to him who claims an eternal world as his inhe¬
ritance ? What are the lofs of friends to that heart
which feels, with more than natural conviction, that
it ftiall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate,
and permanent iutercourfe than any of which the pre-
fent life is fufceptible ? What are the fluctuations and
viciffitudes of external things to a mind which ftrong-
ly and uniformly anticipates a flate of endlefs and im¬
mutable felicity ? What are mortifications, difappoint-
ments, and infults, to a fpirit which is confcious of be¬
ing the original offspring and adopted child of God ;
which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in pro¬
per time, effectually alTert the dignity and privileges
of its nature ? In a word, as earth is but a Ipeck of
creation, as time is not an inftant in proportion to
eternity, fuch are the hopes and profpeCts of the Chri-
ftian in comparifon of every fublunafy misfortune or
difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgment, the eternal
wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man,
that a religion fo worthy of God, fo fuitable to the-
frame and circumftances of our nature, fo confonant
to all the dictates of reafon, To friendly to the dignity
and improvement of intelligent beings, pregnant with
genuine comfort and delight, Ihould be rejeCted and
defpifed. Were there a poflibility of fufpenfe or he-
fitation between this and any other religion extant, he
could freely trull the determination of a queftion fo
important to the candid decifion of real virtue and
impartial philofophy.
Thus have we given what we hope will be efteem-
ed a genuine, though (hort, account of thofe principles
of faith and rules of aCtion which are received by the
generality of Chriftians. Such points as are either
difputable or have been controverted by different feCis,
we have induftrioufly endeavoured to avoid. But
every man who profoundly reflects will eafily fee,
that this plan, in its full extent, was impracticable. A
more minute detail of its origin, progrefs, and efta-
blilhment, is given under the article Messiah.
CHRISTIANS, thofe who profefs the religion
of Chrift. See Christianity, and M e s-
s 1 a h.
The firft Chriltians diftinguilhed themfelves in the
molt remarkable manner by their conduCl and their
virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching of St Pe¬
ter had converted,hearkened attentively to the exhor¬
tations of the Apoftles, who failed not carefully to in-
ItruCt them, as perfons who were entering upon an
entirely new life. They went every day to the temple
with one heart and one mind, and continued in prayers;
doing nothing different from the other Jews, becaufe
it was not yet time to feparate from them. But they
made a ftill greater progrefs in virtue ; for they fold Chriftiatfs.
all that they poflefied, and diftributed their goods in  
proportion to the wants of their brethren. They eat
their meat with gladnefs and fmglenefs of heart, praifmg
Cod, and having favour with all the people. St Chry-
foftom, examining from what fource the eminent vir¬
tue of the firft Chriftians flowed, aferibes it principally
to their diverting themfelves of their pofleffions; “ For
“ (fays that father) perfons from whom all that they
<l have is taken away are not fubjeCt to fin : where-
“ as, whoever has large pofleffions wants not a devil
“ or a tempter to draw him into hell by a thouland
“ ways.”
The Jews were the firft, and the moft inveterate^
enemies the Chriftians had. They put them to death
as often as they had it in their power : and, when
they revolted againft the Romans in the time of the
emperor Adrian, Barchochebas, the head of that re¬
volt, employed againft the Chriftians the moft rigo¬
rous punilhments, to compel them to blafpheme and
renounce Jefus Chrift. And we find that, even in
the 3d century, they endeavoured to get into their
hands Chriftian women, in order to fcourge and ftone
them in their fynagogues. They curled the Chriftians
folemnly three times a day in their fynagogues, and
their rabbins would not fuffer them to converfe with
Chriftians upon any occafion. Nor were they con¬
tented to hate and deteft them ; but they difpatched
emiflaries all over the world to defame the Chriftians,
and 1'pread all forts of calumnies againft them. They
accufed them, among other things, of worlhipping the
fun, and the head of an afs. They reproached them
with idlenefs, and being an ufelefs race of people.
They charged them with treafon, and endeavouring
to ereCt a new monarchy againft that of the Romans.
They affirmed, that, in celebrating their myfteries,
they ufed to kill a child, and eat its flelh. They ac¬
cufed them of the moft Ihooking incefts, of impudence,
avarice, and fometimes of prodigality, and of intem¬
perance in their feafts of charity. But the lives and
behaviour of the firft Chriftians were fufficient to re¬
fute all that was faid againft them, and evidently de-
monftrated, that thefe accufations were meer calumny,
and the effect of inveterate malice.
PJiny the younger, who was governor of Pontus and
Bithynia, between the years 103 and 105, gives a
very particular account of the Chriftians in that pro¬
vince, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Tra¬
jan, of which the following is an extra<5t : “ I take
“ the liberty. Sir, to give you an account of every
“ difficulty which arifes to me. I have never been
u prefent at the examination of the Chriftians; for
“ which reafon I know not what queftions have been
“ put to them, nor in what manner they have been
“ punilhed. My behaviour towards thofe who have ..
“ been accufed to me has been this : I have interro-
“ gated them, in order to know whether they were
<( really Chriftians. When they have confeffed it, I
“ have repeated the fame queftion two or three
“ times, threatening them with death, if they did
“ not renounce this religion. Thofe who have per-
“ fifted in their confeffion, have been, by my order,
“ led to punilhment. I have even met with fome
“ Roman citizens guilty of this phrenfy, whom, in
“ regard
C H R [ 1935 ] C H R
Chriftians. “ regard to their quality, I have fet apart from the
- “ relt, in order to lend them to Rome. Thefe per-
“ Ions declare, that their whole crime, if they are
“ guilty, conlilts in this; that, on certain days, they
“ allemble before lun-rife, to ling alternately the
“ praifes of Clirilt, as of a God, and to oblige them-
** 1'elves, by the performance of their religious rites,
“ not to be guilty of theft, or adultery, to obferve in-
“ violably their word, and to be true to their truff.
“ This depofition has obliged me to endeavour to in-
“ form mylelf Hill farther of this matter, by putting
<f to the torture two of their womeh-fervants, whom
“ they call deaconelfcs : but I could learn nothing
“ more from them, than that the fuperltition of thele
“ people is as ridiculous, as their attachment to it is
“ prodigious.”
There is extant a jollification, or rather panegyric,
of the Chriltians, pronounced by the mouth of a Fa¬
gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus,
written in the year 152, in anfwer to the Hates of
Afia, who had accufed the Chriltians of being the
caufe of lome earthquakes which had happened in that
part of the world. The emperor adviles them to
“ take care, lelt, in torturing and punilhing thole,
whom they accufed of atheilin, (meaning the Chrifli-
ans), they Ihould render them more obHinate, ihliead
of prevailing upon them to change their opinion;
Cnee their religion taught them to fuffer with plea-
fure for the fake of God.” As to the earthquakes
that had happened, he puts them in mind, that “ they
themfelves are always difeouraged, and link under
fuch misfortunes; whereas the ChriHians never difeo-
vered more cheerfulnefs and confidence in God, than
upon fuch occafions.” He tells them, that “ they pay
no regard to religion, and neglecH the worlhip of the
eternal; and, becaufe the ChriHians honour and adore
him, therefore they^are jealous of them, and perfe-
cute them even to death.” He concludes : “ many of
the governors of provinces have formerly written to
my father concerning them, and his anfwer always
was, that they Ihould not be moleHed or dilturbed,
provided they quietly fubmitted to the authority of
the government. Many perfons have likewife con-
fulted me upon this affair, and I have returned the
fame anfwer to them all ; namely, that, if any one
accufes a Chriltian merely on account of his religion,
the accufed perfon lhall be acquitted, and the accnfer
himfelf punilhed.” This ordinance, according to Eu-
febius, was publicly fixed up at Ephefus, in an alfem-
bly of the Hates.
It is no difficult matter to difeover the caufes of the
many perfecutions, to which the ChriHians were ex-
pofed during the three firH centuries. The purity of
the chriHian morality, directly oppofite to the corrup¬
tion of the Pagans, was cloubtlefs one of the molt
powerful motives of the public avcrlion. To this
may be added, the many calumnies unjullly fpread
about concerning them, by their enemies, particularly
the Jews. And this occafioned fo flrong a prejudice
againH them, that the Pagans condemned them without
inquiring into their doctrine, or permitting them to
defend themfelves. Befides, their worlhipping Jefus
.ChriH, as God, was contrary to one of the moH an-
tient laws of the Roman empire, which exprefsly for¬
bad the acknowledging of any god, which had not Chriftians.
been approved by the fenate. *  
But, notwithHanding the violent oppofition made to
the eflabliffiment of the ChriHian Religion, it gained
ground daily, and very loon made a lurprifing pro-
grefs in the Roman empire. In the 3d century, there
were Chriftians in the camp, in the fenate, in the pa¬
lace, in fhort every where, but in the temples, and
the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the
iflands. Men and women, of all ages and conditions,
and even thofe of the firH dignities embraced the
faith; infomuch that the Pagans complained, that the
revenues of their temples were ruined. They were
in fuch great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertul-
lian exprelfes it) were they to have retired into another
country, they would have left the Romans only a
frightful folitude.
The primitive ChriHians were not only remarkable
for the practice of every virtue : they were alfo very
eminently diHinguilhed by the many miraculous gifts,
and graces, bellowed by God upon them. “ Some
of the ChriHians (fays Irenasus) drive out devils, not
in appearance only, but fo as that they never return ;
whence it often happens, that thofe, who are difpof-
fefled of evil fpirits, embrace the faith, and are re¬
ceived into the Church. Others know what is to
come, fee vifions, and deliver oracles as prophets.
Others heal the lick by laying their hands on them,
and reHore them to perfect health: and we find feme,
who even raife the dead. It is iinpoffible to reckon
up the gifts and graces, which the Church has recei¬
ved from God—what they have freely received they
as freely befiow. They obtain thefe gifjs by prayer
alone, and invocation of the name of Jelus ChriH,
without any mixture of enchantment, or 1'uperHition.”
We Ihall here fubjoin tbe remarkable Hory attefled
by Pagan authors themfelves, concerning the Chrijlian
Legian in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius*
That prince, having led his forces againlt the Quadi,
a people on the other fide of the Danube, was fur-
rounded and hemmed in by the enemy, in a difadvan-
tageous place, and where they could find no water.
The Romans were greatly embarrafled, and, being;
prelfcd by the enemy, were obliged to continue un¬
der arms, expofed to the violent heat of the fun, and
almoH dead with thirfl ; when, on a hidden, the clouds
gathered, and the rain fell in great abundance. The
foldiers received the water in their bucklers and hel¬
mets, and fatisfied both their own thirfi, and that oF
their horfes. The enemy, prelently after, attacked
them ; and fo great was the advantage they had over
them, that the Romans mufi have been overthrown,
had not heaven again interpofed by a violent .florin of
hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy,
and obliged them to retreat. It was found after¬
wards, that one of the legions, which confifled oF
ChriJHans, had, by their prayers, which they offered*
up on their knees before the battle, obtained this fa¬
vour from heaven : and from this event that legion
was firnamed the thundering Legion. See, however,,
the criticifm of Mr Moyle on this Hory, in his Works,
vol. ii. p. 81—390. See alio Mofheini s Church Hif-
tory, vol. i. p. 124.
Such were the primitive ChriHians, whofe religion
ha&
C H R [ 1936 ] C H R
Chriftians has by degrees fpread itfelf over all parts of the world,
| . though not with equal purity in all. And though, by
^ ^ t^e P1'ov*^ence God, Mohammedans and Idolaters
a have beenfuffered to poffel's themfelves of thole places
in Greece, Afia, and Africa, where the Chrillian re¬
ligion formerly moft flourilhed ; yet they are ftill fuch
remains of the Chriftian religion among them, as to
give them opportunity fufficient to be converted.
For, in the dominions of the Turk in Europe, the
Chriltians make two third parts at leait of the inha¬
bitants ; and in Conftantinople itfelf there are above
twenty Chriftian churches, and above thirty in Thef-
falonica. Philadelphia, now called Ala-lhahir, has no
fewer than twelve Chriftian churches. The whole
illand of Chio is governed by Chriftians : and Tome
illands of the Archipelago are inhabited only by Chri¬
ftians. In Africa, befides the Chriftians living in E-
gypt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the
illands upon the weftern coafts are inhabited by Chri¬
ftians; and the vaft kingdom of Abyflinia, fuppofed
to be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy,
put together, is pofleffed by Chriftians. In Afia, moft
part of the empire of Ruffia, the countries of Cir-
caffia and Mingrelia, Georgia, and mount Libanus,
are inhabited only by Chriftiahs. In America, it is
notorious, that the Chriftians are very numerous, and
fprea'd over moft parts of that vaft continent.
Christians of St John, a fe<5t of Chriftians very
numerous in Balfara and the neighbouring towns:
they formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where
St John baptized, and it was from thence they had
their name. They hold an anniverfary feaft of five
days’; during whtcha they all go to the bifhop, who
baptizes them with the baptifm of St John. Their
baptifm is alfo performed in rivers, and that only on
Sundays : they have no notion of the third Perlbn in
the Trinity ; nor have they any canonical book, but
abundance full of charms, ire. Their bilhoprics de-
feend by inheritance, as our eftates do, though they
have the ceremony of an ele&ion.
Christians of St Thomas, a fort of Chriftians in
a peninfula of India, on this fide of the gulf: they in¬
habit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring,
country : thefe admit of no images ; and receive on¬
ly the crofs, to which they pay a great veneration :
they affirm, that the fouls of the faints do not fee
God till after the day of judgment: they acknowledge
but three fact aments, t/iz. baptifm, orders, and the
eucharift: they make no nfe of holy oils in the admi-
niftratiori of baptifm ; but, after the ceremony, anoint
the infant with an unction compofed of oil and wal¬
nuts, without any benediction. In the eucharift, they
confecrate with little cakes made of oil and fait, and
inftead of wine make ufe of water in which raifins
have been infufed.
CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Aggerhuys, fituated on a bay of the fea. E.
Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 59. 3c.
CHRIST1ANOPLE, a port-town of Sweden, fitua¬
ted on the Baltic fea, in the territory of Blecking,
and province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 40.
N. Lat. 570.
CHRISTIANSTADT, a town of Sweden; fituated
on the river Helles, in the territory of Blecking, and
province of South Gothland. E. Long. 14. 40. N. Ctmifina.
Lat. $6. 30.
CHRISTINA, daughter of Guftavus Adolphus king
of Sweden, was born in 1626 ; and fucceeded to the
crown in 1633, when only feven years of age. This
princefs difeovered even in her infancy what ffie af¬
terwards exprelled in her memoirs, an invincible an¬
tipathy for the employments and converfation of wo¬
men ; and Hie had the natural aukwardnefs of a man,
with refpeCt to all the little works which generally
fall to their Ihare. She was, on the contrary, fond
of violent exercifes, and fuch amufements as confift in
feats of {L ength and adlivity; ffie had alfo both abili¬
ty and tafte for abftraCted fpeculations; and amufed
herfelf with language and the feiences, particularly
that of legiflature and government. She derived her
knowledge of ancient hiftory from its fource; and
Polybius and Thucydides were her favourite authors.
As ffie was the fovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is
not ftrange that almoft all the princes in Europe al’pi- 1
red to her bed : Among -others, were the Prince of
Denmark, the EleCtor Palatine, the Elector of Bran¬
denburg, the king of Spain, the king of the Romans,
Don John of Auitria ; Sigifmund of Rockocci, count
and general of Caflbvia ; Staniflaus, king of Poland;
John Caffimir, his brother; and Charles Guftavus,
duke of Deux Pouts, of the Bavarian Palatinate fami¬
ly, fon of her father the great Guftavus’s filler, and
confequently her firft coufin. To this nobleman, as
well as to all h’is competitors, ffie conftantly refufed
her hand; but ffie caufed him to be appointed her
fucceflbr by the ftates. Polmcal interefts, differences
of religion, and contrariety of manners, furniffied
Chriftina with pretences for reje£ling all her fuitors ;
but her true motives were the love of independence,
and a ftrong averfion ffie had conceived, even in her
infancy, from the marriage yoke. “ Do not force
me to marry, (faid (lie to the ftates); for if I ffiould
have a fon, it is not more probable that he ffiould be
an Auguftus than a Nero.”
An accident happened in the beginning of her reign
which gave her a remarkable opportunity of difplay-
ing the ftrength and equanimity of her mind. As Ihe
was at the chapel of the caftle of Stockholm, affifting
at divine fervice with the principal lords of her
court, a poor wretch, who was difordefed in his mind,
came to the place with a defign to aflaffinate her.
This man who'was preceptor of the college, and in
the full vigour of his age, chofe, for the execution of *
his defign, the moment in which the aflembly was
performing what in the Swediffi church is called an
ail of rccolUttion, a filent and feparate adl of devo¬
tion performed by each individual kneeling and
hiding the face with the hand. Taking this oppor¬
tunity, he rallied through the crowd, and mounted a
balluftrade within which the queen was upon her
knees: the baron Braki, chief juftice of Sweden, was
alarmed, and cried out; and the guards crofltd their
partifans, to prevent his coming further: but he
ftruckthem furioufly on one fide ; leaped over the bar¬
rier ; and,' being then clofe to the queen, made a blow
at her with a knife which he had concealed without
a (heath in his fleeve. The queen avoided the blow,
and puffied the captain of her guards, who inftantly
threw
C H R [ 1937 ] C H R
Chriftiiia. threw himfelf upon the aflalfin, and feized him by the
hajjfc All this happened in lei’s than a moment of
time. The man was known to be mad, and there¬
fore nobody fuppofed he had any accomplices: they
therefore contented themielves with locking him up;
and the queen returned to her devotion without the
leall emotion that could be perceived by the people,
who were much more frightened than herielf.
One of the great affairs that employed Chriftina
while Ihe was upon the throne, was the peace of
Weftphalia, in which many clalhing interefts were to
be reconciled, and many claims to be afcertained. It
was concluded in the month of Otftober 1648. The
fuccefs of the Swedilh arms rendered Chriilina the ar-
bitrefs of this treaty; at leaft as to the affairs of Swe¬
den, to which this peace confirmed the poifeffion of
many important countries. No public event of im¬
portance took place during the reft of Chriftina’s
reign; for there were neither wars abroad, nor
troubles at home. This quiet might be the effeft of
chance; but it might alfo be the effedl of a good ad-
miniftration, and the great reputation of the queen;
and the love her people had for her ought to lead us
to this determination. Her reign was that of learn¬
ing and genius. She drew about her, wherever Ihe
was, all the diftinguifhed characters of her time :
Grotius, Pafcal, Bochart, Deftartes, Gaflendi, Sau-
maife, Naude, Voflius, Heinfius, Meibom, Scudery,
Menage, Lucas, Holftenius, Lambecius, Bayle, ma¬
dam Dacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts
never fail to immortalize the prince who protects
them ; and almoft all thefe illuftrious perfons have ce¬
lebrated Chriftina, either in poems, letters, or litera¬
ry productions of fome other kind* the greater part
of w’hich are now forgotten. They form, however,
a general cry of praile, and a mafs of teftimenials
which may be confidered as a folid bafis of reputa¬
tion. Chriftina, however, may be juftly reproached
with want of tafte, in not properly affigning the
rank of all thefe perfons, whole merits, though ac¬
knowledged, were yet unequal; particularly for not
having been fufficiently fenfible of the fuperiority of
Defcartes, ,whom Ihe difgufted, and at laft wholly
neglected. The rapid fortune which the adventurer
Michon, known by the name of Bourdeht, accpiired
by her countenance and liberality, was alfo a great
fcandal to literature. He had no pretenlions to learn¬
ing ; and though fprightly, was yet indecent. He
was brought to court by the learned Saumaife; and,
for a time, drove literary merit entirely out of it, ma¬
king learning the object of his ridicule, and exacting
front Chriftina an exorbitant tribute to the weaknefs
and inconftancy ofher fex; for even Chriftina, with
refpect to this man, Ihewed herfelf to be weak and
inconftanti At laft Ihe was compelled, by the public
indignation, to banilh this unworthy minion ; and he
Was no fooner gone, than her regard for him was at
an end. She was alhamed of the favour Ihe had Ihewn
him ; and, in a (hort time, thought of him with hatred
or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his alcenden-
cy over the queen, had fupplanted count Magnus de la
- Gardie, fon of the conftable of Sweden, who was a
relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover of Chrif¬
tina. M. de Motteville, who had feen him am-
Vol. HI.
baffador in France, fays, in his memoirs, that he Chriftina.
fpoke of his queen in terms fo paffionate and relpedl-
ful, .that every one concluded his attachment to her
to be more ardent and tender, than a more fenie of
duty can produce. This nobleman fell into difgrace
becaufe he Ihewed an inclination to govern ; while M.
Bourdelot feemed to aim at nothing more than to a-
mufe, and concealed, under the unfufpected charac¬
ter of a droll, the real afcendency which he exercifcd
over the queen’s mind.
About this time, an accident happened to Chriftina
which brought her into ftill greater danger than that
which has been related already. Having given or¬
ders for fome fhips of war to be built at the port of
Stockholm, Ihe went to fee them when they were
finilhed; and as Ihe was going on board of them, crols
a narrow plank, with admiral Fleming, his foot flip¬
ping, he fell, and drew the queen with him into the
fea, which in that place was near 90 feet deep. An¬
thony Steinberg, the queen’s firft equerry, inftantly
threw himfelf into the water, laid hold of her robe,
and, with fuch alfiftance as was given him, got the
queen alhore: during this accident, her recollection
was fuch, that the moment her lips were above wa¬
ter, Ihe cried out, “ Take care of the Admiral.”
When Ihe was got out of the water, Ihe difeovered
no emotion either by her gefture or countenance ;
and (he dined the fame day in public, where Ihe gave
a humorous account of her adventure.
But, though at firft Ihe was fond of the power and
fplendor of royalty, yet Ihe began at length to feel that
it embarraffed her; and the fame love of indepen¬
dence and liberty which had determined her againft
marriage, at laft made her weary ofher crown. As,
after her firft difguft, it grew more and more irkfome
to her, Ihe refolved to abdicate; and, in 1652, com¬
municated her refolution to the fenate. The fenate
zealoufly remonftrated againft it; and was joined by
the people; and even by Charles Guftavus himfelf,
who was to fuccefed her : Ihe yielded to their impor¬
tunities, and continued to facrifice her own plealure to
the will of the public till the year 1654, and then Ihe
carried her delign into execution. It appears by one
of her letters to M. Canut, in whom Ihe put great
confidence, that Ihe had meditated this project for
more than eight years; and that flie had communica¬
ted it to him five years before it took place.
The ceremony ofher abdication was a mournful fo-
lemnity, a mixture of pomp and fadnefs, in which
fcarce any eyes but her own were dry. She conti¬
nued firm and compofed through the whole; and, as
loon as it was over, prepared to remove into a coun¬
try more favourable to fcience than Sweden was.
Concerning the merit of this aHion, the world has al¬
ways been divided in opinion; it has been condemned
alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifler
and the fage. It was admired, however, by the
great Qpnde: il How great was the magaanimity of
this princefs, (faid he)., who could fo eafily give
up that for which the reft of mankind are continually
deftroying each other, and which fo many, through¬
out their whole lives purfue, without attaining!” It
appears, by the works of St Evremond, that the abdi¬
cation of Chriftina was at that time the univerfal to-
11 N pic
C H R [ 1938 ] C H R
Cfiriftlna. pic Gf fpeculatioir and debate in France. Chriftina,
' befides abdicating her crown, abjured her religion :
but this adt was univerfally approved by one party
and cenfured by another ; the Papifts triumphed, and
the Proteftants were offended. No prince, after a
long imprifonment, ever {hewed fo much joy upon
being reflored to his kingdom, as Chriftina did in
quitting hers. When fhe came to a little brook, which
feparates Sweden from Denmark, fhe got out of her
carriage ; and leaping to the other fide, cried out in
a tranfport of joy, “ At laft I am free, and out of
Sweden, whither, I hope, I lhall never return.”
She difmiffed her women, and laid by the habit of
her fex : “ I would become a man, (faid fhe); yet I
do not love men becaufe they are men, but becaufe
they are not women.” She made her abjuration at
Bruffels ; where fhe faw the great Conde, who, after
his defection, made that city his afylum. “ Coufin,
(faid fhe), who would have thought, ten years ago,
that we fhould have met at this diftance from our
countries ?”
The inconftancy of Chriftina’s temper appeared in
her going continually from place to place: from Bruf¬
fels fhe went to Rome ; from Rome to France, and
from France fhe returned to Rome again ; after this
fhe went to Sweden, where fhe Was not very well re¬
ceived ; from Sweden fhe went to Hamburgh, where
fhe continued a year, and then went again to Rome;
from Rome fhe returned to Hamburgh; and again to
Sweden, where fhe was ftill worfe received than be¬
fore ; upon which fhe went back to Hamburgh, and
from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended an¬
other journey to Sweden ; but it did not take {dace,
any more than an expedition to England, where
Cromwell did not feetri well difpofed to receive
her; and after many wanderings, and many pur-
pofes of wandering flill more, die at lafl died at
Rome in 1689.
It mufi: be acknowledged, that her journeys to
Sweden had a motive of neceffity ; for her appoint¬
ments were very ill paid, though the ftates often con¬
firmed them after her abdication : but to other places
fhe was led merely by a roving difpofition ; and,
what is more to her difcredit, fhe always difturbed
the quiet of every place'fhe came into, by exa&ing
greater deference to her rank as queen than fhe had
a right to expect, by her total non-conformity to
the cuftoms of the place, and by continually exciting
and fomenting intrigues of fiate. She was indeed al¬
ways too bufy, even when fhe was upon the throne ;
for there was no event in Europe in which fhe was not
ambitious of adting a principal part. During the trou¬
bles in France by the fadtion called the Fronde, fhe
wrote with great eagernefs to all the interefled par¬
ties, officioufly offering her mediation to reconcile
their interefts, and calm their paffions, the fecret
fprings of which it was impoffible fhe -fhould know.
This was firfi thought a dangerous, and afterwards a
ridiculous behaviour. During her refidence in France
Hie gave univerfal difguft, not only by violating all the
oufior.m of the country, but by praclifing others di-
redily oppofite. She treated the ladies of the court
with the greateft rudenefs and contempt: when they
came to embrace her, fhe, being in man’s habit, cried
out, “ What a ftrange eagernefs have thefe women Chriflina
to kifs me ! is it becaufe 1 look like a man ?” _ H
But though fhe ridiculed the manners of the French Chriftmas.
court, fhe was very folicitous to enter into its in¬
trigues. Lewis XIV. then very young, was ena¬
moured of Mademoifelle de Mancini, niece to cardinal
Mazarine; Chriftina flattered their paflion, and offer¬
ed her fervice. “ 1 would fain be your confident,
(faid fhe ;) if you love, you muff marry.”
The murder of Monaldefchi is, to this hour, an in-
fcrutable myftery. It is, however, of a piece with
the expreflions conffantly ufed by Chriffina in her
letters, with refpedi to thofe with whom fhe was of¬
fended ; for fhe fcarce ever fignified her difpleafure
without threatening the life of the offender. “ If
you fail in your duty, (faid fhe to her fecretary, whom
fhe fent to Stockholm after her abdication), not all the
power of the king of Sweden fhall fave your life,though
you fhould take fhelter in his arms.” A mufician ha¬
ving quitted her fervice for that of the duke of Savoy,
fhe was fo tranfported with rage as to clifgrace her-
felf by thefe words, in a letter written with her owm
hand : “ He lives only for me ; and if he does not
fing for me, he fhall not ling long for any body.”
Bayle was alfo threatened for having faid that the
letter which Chriftina wrote, upon the revocation of
the edidt of Nantes, was “ a remain of Proteffan-
tifm;” but he made his peace by apologies and lub-
miflion. See the.article Bayle.
Upon the whole, fne appears to have been an un¬
common mixture of faults and great qualities; which,
however it might excite fear and refpeii, was by no
means amiable. She had wit, tafte, parts, and learn¬
ing : fhe was indefatigable upon the throne ; great in
private life.; firm in misfortunes; impatient of contra¬
diction; and, except in her love of letters, inconflant
in her inclinations. The moft remarkable inffance of
this ficklenefs is. That after file had abdicated the
crown of Sweden, fhe intrigued for that of Poland*
She was, in every aClion and purfnit, violent and ar¬
dent in the higheft degree ; impetuous in her defires,
dreadful in her refentment, and fickle in her conduct.
She fays of herfelf, that “ fhe was miftruftful, ambi¬
tious, paffionate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous,
fatyrical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and vio¬
lent temper, and extremely amorous;” a difpofition,.
however, to which, if fhe may be believed, her pride
and her virtue were always fuperior. In general, her
failings were thofe of her fex, and her virtues the vir¬
tues of ours.
&?«/rf-CHRisTiNA,one of the Marquesas 1/lands.
CHRISTMAS-day, a feftival of the Chriftian
church; obferved on the 25th of December, in me¬
mory of the nativity or birth of Jefus Chrift. As to
the antiquity of this feftival, the in ft footfteps we find
of it are in the fecond century, about the time of the
emperor Commodns. The decretial epiftles indeed
carry it up a little higher ; and fay that Telefphorus,
who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered di¬
vine fervice to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn
to be fung, the night before the nativity of our Savi¬
our. However, that it was kept before the times of
Conftantine we have a melancholy proof: for whilft
the perfmition raged under Dioclefian, who then
C H R [ 1939 ] C H II
Chrifto- kept his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other
phers a^ts of cruelty, finding multitudes of Chrilfians aflem-
8 . bled together, to celebrate Chrift’s nat|vity, com-.
romatic. man(je(j church-doors where they were met, to
be Ihut, and fire to be put to it, which, in a ihort time,
reduced them and the church to alhes.
CHRISTOPHERS, St. one of the Caribbee iflands,
in America, lying to the north-well of Nevis, and about
60 miles well of Antigua. It was formerly inhabited
by the French and Englilh ; but, in 1713, it was ced¬
ed to the latter. It is about 20 miles in breadth, and
7 in length ; and has high mountains in the middle,
whence rivulets run down. Between the mountains
are dreadful rocks, horrid precipices, and thick woods;
and in the fouth-well part of the ifland, hot fulphurous
fprings at the foot of them. The air is good ; the foil
light, Tandy, and fruitful; but the ifland is fubjedt to
hurricanes. The produce is chiefly (ugar, cotton, gin¬
ger, indigo, and the tropical fruits. W. Long. 62. 32.
N. Lat. 1 7. 30.
CHROASTACES, in natural hiftory, a genus of
pellucid gems, comprehending all thole of variable
colours, as viewed in different lights; of which kinds
are the opal and the afieria or oculus cati. See Opal,
and Asteria.
CHROMATIC, a kind of mufic which proceeds
by feveral femitones in fucceflion. The word is de¬
rived from the Greek xfuPx> which fignifies colour.
For this denomination feveral caufes are afligned, of
which none appear certain, and all equally unfatisfac-
tory. Inflead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we fhall
offer a conje&ure of our own ; which, however, we
do not impofe upon the reader, as more worthy of his
attention than any of the former. may per¬
haps not only fignify a colour, but that fhade of a colour
by which it melts into another, or what the French
call nuance. If this interpretation be admitted, it will
be highly applicable to femitones ; which being the
fmallell interval allowed in the diatonic fcale, will
rnoft eafily ruft one into another. To find the reafons
afligned by the ancients for this denomination, and
their various divifions of the chromatic fpecies, the
reader may have recourfe to the fame article in
Roufieau’s Mufical Dictionary. At prefent, that fpe-
eies confifts in giving fuch a procedure to the funda¬
mental bafs, that the parts in the harmony, or at lead
fome of them, may proceed by femitones, as well in
rifing as defcending ; which is mod frequently found
in the minor mode, from the alterations to which the
fixth and feventh note are fubjefted, by the nature of
the mode itfelf.
C H R O M
THAT part of optics which explains the feveral
properties of the colours of light, and of natural
. bodies.
Different Before the time of Sir Ifaac Newton, we find no hy-
hypothefes pothefis concerning colours of any confequence. The
concerning opinions of the old philofophers, however, we fhall
colours. briefly mention, in order to gratify the curiofity of our
readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the fupcrficies
The fucceffive femitones ufed in the chrvfnatic chromatic,
fpecies are rarely of the fame kind ; but alternatively 
major and minor, that is to fay, chromatic and diato¬
nic : for the internal of a minor tone contains a
minor or chromatic femitone, and another which is
major or diatonic; a meafure which temperament
renders common to all tones: fo that we cannot pro¬
ceed by two minor femitones which are conjunctive
in fucceflion, without entering into the enharmonic
fpecies ; but two major femitones twice follow each
other in the chromatic order of the fcale.
The molt certain procedure of the fundamental bafs
tq generate the chromatic elements in afcent, is al¬
ternately to defcend by thirds, and rife by fourths,
whilft all the chords carry the third major. If the
fundamental bafs proceeds from dominant to dominant
by perfect cadences avoided, it produces the chro-
watic in defcending. To produce both at once, you
interweave the perfedl and broken cadences, but at
the fame time avoid them.
As at every note in the chromatic fpecies one muft
change the tone, that fucceflion ought to be regulated
and limited for fear of deviation. For this purpofe,
it will be proper to recollecl, that the fpace molt fuit-
able to chromatic movements, is between the ex¬
tremes of the dominant and the tonic in afcending,
and between the tonic and "the dominant in defcend¬
ing. In the major mode, one may alfo chromatically
' defcend from the dominant upon the fecond note.
This tranfition is very common in Italy; and, notwith-
ftanding its beauty, begins to be a little too common
amonglt us.
The chromatic fpecies is admirably fitted to exprefs
grief and affliction : thefe founds boldly Itruck in af¬
cending tear the foul. Their power is no lefs magi¬
cal in defcending ; it is then that the ear leems to be
pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper
harmony, this fpecies appears proper to exprel’s eve¬
ry thing: but its completion, by concealing the melo¬
dy, facrifices a part of its expreflion ; and for this dif¬
ad vantage, arifmg from the fullnefs of the harmony,
it can only be compenfated by the nature and genius
of the movement. We may add, that, in proportion
to the energy of this fpecies, the compofer ought to
ufe it with greater cautiomand parfimony. Like thofe
delicate viands, which, when profufely adminillered,
immediately furfeit us with their abundance : as much
as they delight us when enjoyed with temperance, fo
much do they difgull when devoured with prodiga-
_ lity.
Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic.
A T I C S ;
of body. Plato faid that it wa$ a flame iflliing from
them. According to Zeno, it is the firlt configuration
of matter ; and Ariftotle find it was that which moved
bodies aClually tranfparent, Defcartes aflerted, that
colour is a modification of light; but he imagined, that
the difference of colour proceeds from the prevalence
of the direct or rotatory motion of the particles of
light. Father Grimaldi, Dechales, and many others,
11 N 2 thought
I940 C H R O M
thought the differences of colour depended upon the
quick or flow vibrations of a certain elaftic medium
filling the whole univerfe. Rohault imagined, that
the different colours were made by the rays of light
entering the eye at different angles with refpetif to
the optic axis ; and from the phenomenon of the rain¬
bow he pretended to calculate the precife quantity of
the angle that conftituted each particular colour. Lalt-
ly. Dr Hooke, the rival of Newton, imagined that
colour is caufed by the fenfation of the oblique or un¬
even pulfe of light; and this being capable of no more
than two varieties, he concluded there could be no
2 more than two primary colours.
This fubjefl ln the year 1666, Sir Ifaac Newton began to invef-
invefligated tigate this lubjetil; and finding the coloured image of
by Sir Ifaac the fun, formed by a glafs prii’m, to be of an oblong,
Newton. an[j not 0p a circuiar form, as, according to the laws
of refraction, it ought to be, he began to conjecture
that light is not homogemal; but that it confifts of
rays, i'ome of which are much more refrangible than
others. See this difcovery fully explained and afcer-
tained under the article Optics.
This method of accounting for the different colours
of bodies, from their refleiting this or that kind of
rays molt copioufly, is fo eafy and natural, that Sir
Ifaac’s 1'yflem quickly overcame all objections, and to
this day continues to be almolt univerfally believed.
It is now acknowledged, that the light of the fun,
which to us 1'eems perfectly homogenea! and white, is
compofed of no fewer than feven different colours,
viz. red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and
violet or indigo. A body which appears of a red co¬
lour, hath the property^ of reflediing the red rays more
powerfully than any of the others; andfo of the orange,
yellow, green, ire. A body which is of a black co¬
lour, inftead of relieving, abforbs all or the greateft
part of the rays that fall upon it; and, on the contrary,
a body which appears white, reflects the greateft
part of the rays indifcriminately, without feparating
the one from the other.
The foundation of a rational theory of colours being
thus laid, it next became natural to inquire, by what
peculiar mechanifm in the ftruifture of each particular
body it was fitted to reflect one kind of rays more
than another. This Sir Ifaac Newton attributes to
the denfity of thefe bodies. Dr Hooke had remarked,
that thin tranfparent fubftances, particularly water and
foap blown into bubbles, exhibited various colours
according to their thinnefs; though, when they have a
confiderable degree of thicknefs, they appear colour-
kfs; and Sir Ifaac himfejf had obfcrved, that as he
was comprefting two prifms hard together, in order
to make their fides (which happened to be a little con-
3 vex) to touch one another, in the place of con-tail they
Colours ap- were both perfeilly-tranlparenr, as if they had been
peanng be- but one continued piece of glafs. Round the point of
elafiplates. cont:i^> where the glaffes were a little feparated from
p ‘ each other, rings of different colours appeared. To
obferve more nicely the order of the colours produced
in this manner, he took two objeil-glaffes; one of
them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 foot re-
fracling telefcope, and the other a large double con¬
vex one for a telefcope of about 50 feet ; and laying
the former of them upon the latter, with its plain fide
a t 1 c s.
downwards, he preffed them flowly together; by
which means the colours very foon emerged, and ap¬
peared diftinit to a confiderable diftance. Next to
the pellucid central fpot, made by the con tail of the
glaffes, lucceeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The
blue was very little in quantity, nor could he difcera
any violet in it; but the yellow and red were very co¬
pious, extending about as far as the white, and four or
five times as far as the blue. The next circuit imme¬
diately furrounding thefe, confifted of violet, blue,
green, yellow, and red: all thefe were copious and
vivid except the green, which was very little in quan¬
tity, and feemed, more faint and dilute than the other
colours. Of the other four the violet was the leaft in
extent; and the blue lefs than the yellow or red. The
third circle of colours was purple, blue, green, yellow,^
and red. In this the purple feemed more reddilh than
the violet in the former circuit, and the green was
more confpicuous •, being as brilk and copious as any
of the other colours, except the yellow ; but the red
began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple.
The fourth circle confifted of green and red ; and of
thefe the green was very copious and lively, inclining
on the one fide to blue, and on the other to yellow;
but in this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue,
nor yellow, and the red was very imperfetft and dirty.
All the fucceeding. colours grew more and more im-
perfedl and dilute, till, after three or four revolutions,
they ended in perfect whitenefs.
As the colours were thus found to vary,, according Supnofed to
to the different diftances of the glafs-plates from each arile from
other, our author thought that they proceeded from denfity.
the different thicknefs of the plate of air intercepted
between the gkiffes ; this plate of air, being by the
mere circumftance of thinnefs or thjcknel's, dilpofed
to refledl or tranfmit this or that particular colour.
From this he concluded, as already obferyed, that the
colours of all natural bodies depended on their denfi¬
ty, or the bignefs of their component particles. He
alfo conftruited a table wherein the thicknefs of a
plate neceffary to reflect any particular colour was ex-
preffed in parts of an inch divided into r,000,000 parts.
Sir Ifaac Newton, purfuing his difeoveries concern- Colours ty¬
ing the colours of thin fubftances,, found that the fame refleAion.
were alfo produced by plates of a confiderable thick-
nefs. There is no glafs or fpeculum, he obferves,
how well polifhed foever, but) be fides the lighj: which
it refraHs or reflects regularly, fcatters every way ir¬
regularly a faint light ; by means of which the po-
liflied furface, when illuminated in a dark room by a
beam of the fun’s light, may eafily be feen in all po-r
fitions of the eye. It was with this fcattered light,
that the colours in the- following experiments were
produced.
The fun fhining into his darkened chamber through
a hole in the fliuttcr one inch wide, he let the beam
of light fall perpendicularly upon a glafs fpeculum con¬
cave on one fide and convex on the other, ground to a
fphere of five feet eleven inches radius, and qnickfilver-
ed over on the convex fide. Then, holding a quire of
white paper at the centre of the fphere to which the
fpeculums were ground, in fuch a manner as that the
beam of light might pafs through a little hole made
in the middle of the paper, to the Ipeculum, and thence-
be
C H R O M
be reflected back to tbe fame hole, he obferved on the
paper four or five concentric rings of colours, like
rainbows furrounding the hole, very much like thofe
which appeared in the thin plates above-mentioned,
but larger and fainter. Thefe rings, as they grew
larger and larger, became more dilute, fo that the
fifth was hardly vifible ; and yet fometimes, when the
fun flione very clear, there appeared faint traces of a
g lixth and feventh.
Colours by We have already taken notice, that the thin plates
refrafti n made ufe of in the former experiments refledled fome
and refiec- kinds of rays in particular parts, and tranfmitted
ratednUmC" otllers >n the lame parts. Hence the coloured rings
appeared varioully difpofed, according as they were
viewed by tranfmitted or reflected light; that is, ac¬
cording as the plates were held up between the light
and the eye, or not. For the better underltanding of
which we fubjoin the following table, wherein on one
fide are mentioned the colours appearing on the plates
by reflefted light, and on the other thofe which were
oppolite to them, and which became vifible when the
glaffes were held up between the eye and the win¬
dow. We have already obferved, that the centre,
when the glalfes were in full contact,, was perfeiflly
tranfparent.. This loot, therefore, when viewed by
refleifled light, appeared black, becaufe it tranl'mitted
all the rays; and for the fame reafon it appeared
white when viewed by tranfmitted light.
Colours by Rcfleflcd
Light.
Black
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
-Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow 7
Red 5
Green
Red
Greenilh-blue
Red.
Colours bv Tranfmitted
Light.
White
Yellowifh-red
Black
Violet
Blpe
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Y ellow
Red
Bluilh-green
Red
Bluifh-green
Red.
The colours of the rings produced from reflection
by the thick plates, followed the order of thofe pro¬
duced by tranfiniffion through the thin ones; and by
the analogy of their phenomena with thofe produced
from the thin plates, Sir Ifaac Newton concluded that
they were produced in a fimilar manner. For he
found, that if the quickfilver was rubbed off from the
back of the fpeculum, the glafs alone would produce
the fame rings, but much more faint than before ; fo
that the phenomenon did not depend upon the quick-
filver, except in as far as, by increafing the reflexion
at the back of the glafs, it increafed the light of the
coloured rings. He alfo found that a fpeculum of me¬
tal only, produced none of thofe rings; which made
A T I C S. 1941
him conclude, that they did not arife from one furface
only, but depended on the two furfaces of the plate
of glafs of which the fpeculum was made, and upon
the thicknefs of the glafs between them. 7
From thefe experiments and oblervations, it will be General
eafy to underftand the Newtonian theory of colours, theory of
Every fubltance in nature feems to be tranfparent,
provided it is made fufficiently thin. Gold, the molt ^ewton>
denfe fubltance wm know, when reduced into thin
leaves, tranfmits a bluilh green light through it. If
therefore we luppofe any body, gold, for inltance, to
be-divided into a valt number of plates, fo thin as to
be almolt perfectly tranfpartnt, it is e vident, that all
or greatelt part of the rays will pafs through the up¬
per plates, and when they lofe their force will be re¬
flected from the under ones. They will then have
the fame number of plates to pafs through, which they
had penetrated before ; and thus, according to the
number of thofe plates through which they are obli¬
ged to pafs, the obJeCt appears of this • r that colour,
juft as the rings of colours appeared different in the
experiment of the two plates, according to their di-
ftance from one another, or the thicknefs of the plate.
of air between them. 8
This theory is adopted by Edward Hulfey Delaval, Mr Dels-
in his Experimental Inquiry, into the canl’e of the val’s expe—
changes of colours in opaque and coloured bodies. ,u
He endeavours to confirm it by a number of expert- t;on 0f !t,.
ments on the infufions of flowers of different colours ;
but his ftrongeft arguments fee.m to be thofe derived
from the different tinges given to g’afs by metallic
fubftances. Here he obferves, that each metal gives
a tinge according to its fpecific denfity ; the more
denfe metals producing the lefs refrangible colours,
and the lighter ones thofe colours which are more
eafily refrangible. Gold, which is the denleft of all
metals, imparts a red colour to glafs, whenever it can
be divided into particles fo minute, that it is capable
of being mixed with the materials of which glafs is
made. It feems indifferent by what means it is re¬
duced to this ftate, nor can it by any means be made
to produce another colout;. If it is mixed in large
maffes without being minutely divided, it imparts no
colour to the glafs, but remains in its metallic form.
Lead, the metal whofe denlity is next in order to
that of gold, affords a glafs of. the colour of the hya¬
cinth ; a gem whofe diftinguilhing charatfteriftic is,
that it is red with an admixture of yellow, the fame
colour which is ufually called orange. Glafs of lead
is mentioned by feveral authors as a compofition pro¬
per, without the addition of any other ingredient, for
imitating the hyacinth. Silver, next in denfity to
lead, can only be made to communicate a yellow co¬
lour to glafs. If ftie metal is calcined with fulphur,
it readily communicates this colour. Leaf-filver laid
upon red-hot glafs likewife tinges it yellow. When
we meet with authors who mention a blue or green-
ifh colour communicated by filver, the caufe muft have
been, that the filver ufed in fuch procefles was mixed
with copper. Mr Delaval affures us, from his own’
experience, that filver purified by the teft retains fo
much copper, that, when melted feveral times with
nitre and borax, it always imparted a green colour at-
the firft and. fecond melting j though afterwards no
fuchi
1942
C H R O M
fuch colour was obtainable from it. The only colour
produced by copper is green. It is indifferent in what
manner the cupper is prepared in order to tinge the
glafs, provided it is expofed without any other ingre¬
dient to a fufficient degree of heat. If a quantity of
1'alts are added in the preparation, they will, by atte¬
nuating the mixture, make the glafs incline to blue,
the colour next in order ; but this happens only when
the fire is moderate : for, in a greater degree of heat,
the redundant falts, even thofe of the moil fixed na¬
ture, are expelled. It is true, that copper is men¬
tioned by fome writers as an ingredient in red glafs
and enamel: but the red, which is the colour of the
metal not diffolved or mixed with- the glals, remains
•only while the compoiition is expofed to fuch a degree
of heat as is too fmall to melt and incorporate it; for,
if it be fuffered to remain in the furnace a few mi¬
nutes after the copper is added, the mafs will turn
out green inftead of red. Iron, the metal next in
denfity to copper, is apt to be calcined, or reduced to
a ruddy crocus, (imilar to that rnft which it contracts
fpontaneoufly in the air. In this ftate it requires a
confiderable degree of heat to diffolve and incorporate
it with glafs : till that heat-is applied, it retains its
ruddy colour : by increafing the heat, it paffes through
the intermediate colours, till it arrives at its permanent
one which is blue ; this being effeifted in the greatefl:
degree of heat the glafs will bear, without loling all
colour whatever. Iron vitrified per fe, is converted
into a blue glafs. In fhort, it is indubitable, that iron
is the only metal which will, without any addition,
impart to the glafs a blue colour : for copper will not
communicate that colour without the addition of a
confiderable quantity of fairs, or fome other matter
that ^ttenufttes it; and the other metals cannot by
9 any means be made to produce it at all.
Sir Ifaac's Theie are the principal of Mr Delaval’s argu-
*he°ry ments in favour of Sir Ifaac Newton’s theory of co-
Dr Pried- ^ours being formed by denfity. Dr Prieftley too hath
Icy. mentioned fome which deferve attention. “ It was a
difcovery of Sir Ifaac Newton, (fays he), that the co¬
lours of bodies depend upon the thicknei's of the fine
plates which compofe their fin-faces. -He hath fliown,
that a change of the thicknefs of rhefe plates occafions
a change in the colour of the body; rays of a differ¬
ent colour being thereby difpofed to be tranfinitted
through it ; and confequently rays of a different co¬
lour refledled at the fame place, fo as to preient an
image of a different colour to the eye. A variation
in the denfiry occafions a variation in the colour ; but
ftill a medium of any denfity will exhibit all the co¬
lours, according to the thicknefs of it. Thefe obfer-
vations he confirmed by experiments on plates of air,
water, and glafs. He likewife mentions the colours
which arife on polifhed fteel by heating it, as likewife
on bell-metal, and fome other metalline fubftances,
when melted and poured on the ground, where they
may cool in the open air ; and he afcribes them to
the fcoruc or vitrified parts of the metal, which, he
fays, moff metals, when heated or melted, do continu¬
ally protrude and fend out to their furfaces, covering
them in the form of a thin glaffy fkin. This great
dilcovery concerning the colours of bodies depending
on the thicknefs of the fine plates which compofe their
A T I C S.
furfaces, of whatever denfity thefe plates may be, I
have been fo happy as to hit upon a method of iliu-
firating and confirming by means of electrical explo- I0
fions. A number of theie being received on the fur- His experi-.
face of any piece of metal, change the colour of it to meats. j
a confiderable diftance from the fpot on which they
were dilcharged ; fo that the whole circular fpace is
divided into a number of concentric rings, each of
which confifts of all the prifmatic colours, and perhaps
as vivid as they can be produced in any method what- j t \
ever. Upon fhewing thefe coloured rings to Mr Mr Can-
Canton, I was agreeably furprifed to find, that he had ton's expe-
likewife produced all the prifmatic colours from all Aments,
the metals, but by a different operation. He ex¬
tended fine wires of all the different metals along the
furfaces of pieces of glafs, ivory, wood, ire.; and
when the wire was exploded, he always found them
tinged with all the colours. They are not difpofed
in fo regular and beautiful a manner as in the rings I
produced, but they equally demonfirate that none of
the metals thus exploded difeovers the leaft prefe¬
rence to one colour more than to another. In what
manner thefe colours are formed may not be eafy to
conjecture. In Mr Canton’s method of producing
them, the metal, or the calcined and vitrified parts of
it feem to be difperfed in all directions from the place
of explofion, in the form of fpheres of a very great
variety of fizes, tinged with all the variety of colours,
and fome of them frqaller than can be dillinCtly feen
by any magnifier. In my method of making thefe
colours, they feem to be produced in a manner fimi-
lar to the production of colours on fteel and other me¬
tals by heat; i. e. the furface is affeCted without the
parts of it being removed from their places, certain
plates or laminre being formed of a thicknefs proper
to exhibit the refpeClive colours.”- I2
But, however well fupported this doCtrine of the Newtonian !
formation of colours by denfity may be, we find the theory im- i
lame author (Dr Prieftley), whom we have juft now by j
feen arguing ior it in-his hiftory of eleCIricity, arguing p Ue " i
again!! it in his hiftory of vifion. “ There are (fays J
he) no optical experiments with which Sir Ifaac New¬
ton feems to have taken more pains than thole rela¬
ting to the rings of colours which appear in thin plates;
and in all his oblervations and inveftigations concern-
1 ing them, he difeovers the greateft fagacity both as a
philofopher and mathematician ; and yet in no lubjeCl
to which he gave his attention, does he feem to have
overlooked more important circumftances in the ap¬
pearances he obferved, or to have been more mifta-
ken with regard to their caufes. The former will be
evident from the obfervations of thqfe who fucceeded
him in thefe inquiries, particularly thofe of the Abbe ^
Mazeas. This gentleman, endeavouring to give a Curious ex- :
very high polilh to the flat fide of an objeCt-glafs, hap- periments
pened to be rubbing it againft another piece of flat by the Abbe j
and fmooth glafs; whence was furprifed to find, that MasceaSi '
after this friction, they adhered very firmly together,
till at laft he could not move the one upon the other.
But he was much more furprifed to obierve the fame
colours between thefe plane glaftcs that Newton ob¬
ferved between the convex objeCl-glafs of a telefcope
and another that was plane. Thefe colours between
the plane glaffes, the Abbe obferveS, were in propor¬
tion
1943
CHROMATICS.
tion to their adhefion. The refemblance between
them and the colours produced by Newton induced
him to give a very particular attention to them ; and
his obfervations and experiments are as follow :
“ If the Turfaces of the pieces of glafs are tranfpa-
rent, and well polilhed, fuch as are ufed for mirrors,
and the prelfure be as equal as pollible on every part
of the two furfaces, a refinance, he fays, will foon be
perceived when one of them is made to Hide over
the other; fometimes towards the middle, and fome-
times towards the edges ; but wherever the refiftance
is felt, two or three very fine curve lines will be per¬
ceived, fome of a pale red, and others of a faint green.
Continuing the fridtion, thefe red and green lines in-
creafe in number at the place of contact, the colours
being fometimes mixed without any order, and fome¬
times difpofed in a regular manner. In the laft cafe,
the coloured lines are generally concentric circles, or
ellipfes; or rather ovals, more or lefs elongated as the
furfaces are more or lefs united. Thefe figures will
not fail to appear, if the glaffes are well wiped and
warmed before the fridtion.
“ When the colours are formed, the glafies adhere
with confiderable force, and would ahvays continue
fo without any change in the colours. In the centre
of all thofe ovals, the longer diameter of which gene¬
rally exceeds ten lines, there appears a fmall plate of
the fame figure, exadtly like a plate of gold interpofed
between the glaffes ; and in the centre of it there is
often a dark fpot, which abforbs all the rays of light
except the violet ; for this colour appears very vivid
through a prifm.
“ If the glaffes are feparated fuddenly, either by
Aiding them horizontally over one another, or by the
adtion of fire, as will be explained hereafter, the co¬
lours will appear immediately upon their being put to¬
gether again, without the lealt fridfion.
“ Beginning by the Aighteft touch, and increafing
the preffure by infenfible degrees, there firA appears
an oval plate of a faint red, and in the miclft of it a
fpot of light green, which enlarges by the prelfure,
and becomes a green oval, with a red fpot in the
centre; and this, enlarging in its turn, difcovers a
green fpot in its centre. Thus the red and the green
fucceed one another in turns, affuming different Aiades,
and having other colours mixed with them, which will
be diltinguifhed prefently.
The greateft difference between thefe colours
exhibited between plane furfaces and thofe formed
by curve ones is, that in the former cafe preffure alone
will not produce them, except in the cafe above men¬
tioned. With whatever force he compreifed them,
his attempts to produce the colours were in vain with¬
out previous friction. But the reafon of this plainly
was, that without Aiding one of the glaffes over the
other, they could not be brought to approach near
enough for the purpofe.
“ Having made thefe obfervations with plates of
glafs whofe fides were nearly parallel, he got two
prifms with very fmall refradting angles; and rub¬
bing them together, whe n they were fo joined as to
form a paralleilopiped, the colours appeared with a
furprifmg luftre at the places of contadf, owing, he
did not doubt, to the feparatidn of the rays of light
by the prifm. In this cafe, differently coloured ova’s
appeared, but the plate of gold in them was much
whiter, and only appeared yellow about its edges.
This plate having a black fpot in its centre, was bor¬
dered by a deep purple. He could not perceive any
violet by his naked eye, but it might be perceived by
the help of a lens with a weak light. It appeared in a
very fmall quantity at the confines of the purple and
the blue, and feemed to him to be only a mixture of
thefe two colours. It was very vifible in each of the
coloured rings by inclining the glaffes to the light of
the moon. Next to the purple and violet appeared
blue, orange, red tinged with purple, light green, and
faint purple. The other rings appeared to the naked
eye to confift of nothing but faint reds and greens;
and they were fo fhaded that it was not eafy to mark
their terminations. That the order of thefe may be
compared with Newton’s, he gives a view of both it*
the following table:
Order I.
Order of the Colours in the
Plane Glaffes.
f Black fpot
\ WhitiAi oval
1 Yellow border
^ Deep purple
C Blue
. < Orange
(_ Purple
' GreeniAi blue
< Yellowifh green
^ Purpled red
Order of the Colours in
Newt. Object Glaffes.
Black
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Green
Red
GreeniAi blue
Red
GreeniAi blue
Red
Greenifh blue
Pale red
Order IV.
o'd-v- [fiisr
Order VII j ^7 faint green «
^ Very famt red.
“ When thefe coloured glaffes were fnfpended over
the flame of a candle, the colours difappeared fiuU
denly, though the glaffes ftill continued to adhere to
one another when they.were parallel to ^ie horizon.
When they were fuffered to cool, the colours return¬
ed by degrees to their former places, in the order of
the preceding table.
“ After this the Abbe took two plates much thicker
than the former, in order to obferve at his leifure the
action of fire upon the matter which he fuppofed to
produce the colours; and obferved, that as they grew
warm, the colours retired to the edges of the glaffes,
and’there became narrower and narrower till they
were reduced to imperceptible lines. Withdrawing
the flame, they returned to their place. This expe¬
riment he continued till the glaffes were bent by the
violence of the heat. It was pleafant,'he fays, to ob¬
ferve thefe colours glide over the furface of the glafs
as they were puriued by the flame.
“At
1944
C H R O M
<( At the firft, our author had no doubt but that thefe
colours were owing to a thin plate of air between the
glalfes, to which Newton has afcribed them ; but the
remarkable difference in the circumflances attending
thofe produced by the flat plates, and thofe produced
by the objedt-glaffes of Newton, convinced him that
the air was not the caufe of this appearance. The
colours of the flat plates vaniftied at the approach of
flame, but thofe of the objeft-glaflTes did not. He
■even heated the latter till that which was next the
flame was cracked by the heat, before he could ob-
ferve the leaft dilatation of the coloured rings. This
difference was not owing to the plane glaffes being
lei's ccmprefied than the convex ones ; for though the
former were comprefled ever fo much by a pair of
forceps, it did not in the leaft hinder the effect of the
flame.
“ Afterwards he put both the plane glafles and the
convex ones, into the receiver of an air-pump, fuf-
pending the former by a thread, and keeping the
latter comprefled by two firings ; but he obferved no
change in the colours of either of them in the moft
perfect vacuum he could make.
“ Notwithflanding thefe experiments feemed to be
conclufive againft the hypothefis of thefe colours being
.formed by a plate of air, the Abbe frankly acknow¬
ledges, that the air may adhere fo obflinately to the
furface of the glaffes as not to be feparated from them
by the force of the pump; which, indeed, is agree¬
able to other appearances : but the following expe¬
riments of our author make it ftiil more improbable
that the air fhould be the caufe of thefe colours.
“ To try the utmoft eft’eft of heat upon thefe co¬
loured plates, after warming them gradually, he laid
them upon burning coals; but though they were nearly
red, yet when he rubbed them together, bymeans of
an iron rod, he obferved the fame coloured circles and
ovals as before. When he ceafed to prefs upon them,
the colours feemed to vanlfh ; but, when he repeated
the friction, they returned, and continued till the pie¬
ces of glafs began to be red-hot, and their furfaces to
be united by fuflpn.
“ When the outward furface of one of his plates
of glafs was quitkfllvered, none of thofe colours were
vifible, though the glafles continued to adhere with
the fame force. This he afcribed to the flronger
impreflion made on the eye by tire greater quantity
of light reflected from the quickfilver.
“ fudging from the refemblance between his ex¬
periments and thofe of Sir Ifaac Newton, that the co¬
lours were owing to the thicknefs of fome matter,
whatever that was, interpofed between the glafles,
the Abbe, in order to verify his hypothefls, tried the
experiment on thicker fubltances. He put between
his glalfes a little ball of fuet, about a fourth of a line
in diameter, and prefled it between the two furfaces,
warming them at the fame time, in order to difperfe
the fuet; but, though he rubbed them together as be¬
fore, and ufed other foft fubltances befides fuet, his
endeavours to produce the colours had no effetft. But,
rubbing them with more violence in a circular man¬
ner, he was furprifed, on looking at a candle through
them, to fee it furrounded with two or three concen¬
tric .rings, very broad, and with very lively delicate
A T I C S.
colours ; namely, a red inclining to a yellow, and a
green inclining to that of an emerald. At that time
he obferved only thefe two colours; but continuing the
fridtion, the rings alfumed the colours of blue,yellow,
and violet, efpecially when he looked through the
glafles on bodies diredtly oppofed to the fun. If, after
having rubbed the glafles, the thicknefs was confide-
rably diminifhed, the colours grew weaker by tranf-
mitted light, but they feemed to be much ftronger by
reflection, and to gain on one fide what they loft on
the other. 14
“ Gur author was confirmed in his opinion, that Newtonian
there muft be fome error in Newton’s hypothefis, by hypothefis 1
confidering, that, according to his mealures, the co- 0PPoic£h
lours of the plates varied with the difference of a
millionth part of an inch, whereas he was fatisfied
that there muft have been much greater differences
in the diftance between his glafles, when the colours
remained unchanged.
“ If the colour depended upon the thicknefs only,
he thought that the matter interpofed between the
glafles ought to have given the fame colour when it
was reduced to a thin plate by fimple fufion as well as
by friCtion, and that, in rubbing two plates together,
warming them at different times, and comprefling
them with a confiderable force, other colours would
have appeared befides thofe above-mentioned.
“ Thefe circumftances made him fufpeCt, that the
different thicknefles of the fubftance interpofed be¬
tween the glafles ferved only to make them more or
lefs tranfparent, which was an effential condition in
the experiment; and he imagined that the friCtion
diffufed over the furface of the thin fubftance a kind
of matter on which the colours are formed by reflec¬
ted light ; for when he held the plates (which gave
the colours when the fuet was between them) over
the flame of a fmall candle, the colours fled with great
precipitation, and returned to their place without his
being able to perceive the leaft alteration in the fuet.
“ He was confirmed in his conjectures, by fre¬
quently obferving, that when the glaffes were fepara¬
ted, at the moment the colours difappeared, they
were covered with the fame greafy matter, and that
it feemed to be in the very fame ftate as when they
were feparated without warming. - Befides, having
often repeated the fame experiment with different
kinds of matter, he found that the degree of heat that
difperfed the colours was not always fufficient to melt
it; which difference was more fenfible in proportion
as the matter interpofed was made thinner.
“ Inftead of the fuet, he fometimes made ufe of
Spanilh wax, refin, common wax, and the fediment
of urine. He began with Spanifti wax, on account of
its remarkable tranfparency in Mr Haukfbee’s eledtri-
cal experiments; but he had much difficulty in ma¬
king it fufflciently thin by friction, being often obliged
to warm his glaffes, to feize the moment of fufion,
which continued but a flrort time, and to hazard the
burning of his fingers.
“ The experiment at length fucceeding, the Spa-
•nifh wax appeared with its opacity and natural colour
when it reflefted the light, but they both difappeared
in the tranfmitted light^ He obferved the fame rings
in it as in the fuet; and Indeed he could perceive but
little
x945
CHROMATICS.
little difFerence between the colours of fuet, Spanifli
wax, common wax, or refm; except that this lait fub-
ffance did not make the colours fo vivid, on account
of the too great tranfparency of its particles.
“ The fediment of urine had fomething more par¬
ticular in its appearance, as its colours were more
lively. Holding it above the flame, its colours difap-
peared ; and, keeping it in that fituation, there were
formed, upon its furface, ramifications, like thofe of
the hoar-froft, which difappeared as the glafles grew
cold. There were the fame ramifications both upon
the fuet and the wax, but they were not fo confide-
rable. The glafles which had Spaniih wax and refm
between them adhered with fo much-force, that they
could not be feparated without the help of fire; and
when they began to grow warm, they feparated with
a noife like that of a glafs breaking in the fire, though
the glafles were not broken, and the matter between
them was not melted.
“ Separating the glafles which he firft ufed very
fuddenly, he obferved upon their furface very thin
vapours, which formed different colours, but prefent-
ly vanilhed altogether.
“ To try the effect of vapour, he breathed upon
one of his plates of gkfs, and obferved that the va¬
pours which adhered to the glafles fometimes formed,
before they were entirely difperfed, a furprifing va¬
riety of colours. This experiment, he obferves, does
. not always fucceed at the firfl trial. The glafs muft
be breathed upon feveral times, and care muft be ta¬
ken to wipe it every time with one’s hand, both to
take off the moifture, and alfo to make upon the glafs
a kind of furrows, which contribute very much to the
variety of colours, by making inequalities in the thick-
nefles of the vapours. It is neceflary, alfo, that the
glafles on which thefe experiments are made have no
quicktilver upon them.
“ When the particles of water which formed this
vapour were too thick to exhibit thefe colours, he
ftruck them feveral times with his pencil, in order to
attenuate them ; and then he faw an infinity of fmall
coloured threads which fucceeded one another with
great rapidity.
“ Putting a drop of water between two pieces of
common glafs, he obferved that the compreflion of
them produced no colour; but if, while they were
cpmprefled, the water was made to pafs from one
place to another, it left behind it large fpots, red,
yellow, green, purple, ire. and the ,fpots aifumed
different colours with a furprifing rapidity, and pre-
fented to the eye a moft beautiful variety of fliades.
“ In order to determine with greater certainty
whether they were vapours that caul’ed the colours in
his firft obfervations, he firft breathed upon one of his
plates of glafs, and then rubbed them againft one ano¬
ther, when the colours appeared in the fame order as
before, but darker, and difperfed in confufion in the
places occupied by the vapours ; but when he made
ufe of fire to diffipate the watery particles, the co¬
lours refumed their luftre.
“ Newton, having introduced a drop of water be¬
tween his two objedt-gkfles, obferved, that in pro¬
portion as the water infmuated itfelf between the
glafles, the colours grew fainter, and the rings were
Vol. III.
contraifted ; and aferibing thefe colours to the thick-
nefs of the plate of water, as he aferibed the Jormer
to that of the plate of air, he meafured the diameters
of the coloured rings made by the plate of water,
and concluded that the intervals between the glafles
at the fimilar rings of thefe two mediums were nearly
as three to four ; and thence he inferred that, in all
cafes, thele intervals would be as the fines of the re¬
fractions of thefe mediums.
“ The Abbe Mazeas, in order to affure himfelf
whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of
his glafles depended upon the thicknefs of the water
only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glafles
in a veflel of water, having taken care to wipe and
warm them well before he produced his colours by
friCtion. The water was a confiderable time in
riling as high as the glafles ; and in proportion as it
afeended, he perceived a very thin plate of water,
which feemed to pafs over the matter, which he thought
produced the colours, without mixing with it ; for
beyond this plate of water, he ftill perceived the co¬
lours in the fame place and order, but deeper and
darker; and holding the glafles above the flame of a
candle, he faw the colours go and come feveral times
as he moved them nearer to or farther from the flame.
He then moiftened both the glafles more than before i
and rubbing them as ufual, he always faw the fame
appearance; and feizing the moment when the co¬
lours had difappeared to feparate the glafles, he al¬
ways found that they were wet. On this account,
he thought that it could not be the water on which
the colour depended, but fome fubftance much more
fenfible to heat. He alfo thought that thefe coloured
rings could not be owing to the compreflion of the
glafles; or that, if this circumftance did contribute any
thing to them, it ferved rather to modify than to ge¬
nerate them.
“ M. du Tour gave particular attention to the pre- M. du
ceding obfervations of the Abbe Mazeas. He repeat- Tour’s ob-
ed the experiments wTith fome variation of circum- f«l'vations.
fiances, particularly comparing them with thofe of
Sir Ilaac Newton. He is fo far from fuppofing a plate
of air to be neceflary to the formation of thefe co¬
loured rings, that he thinks the reafon of their not ap¬
pearing between the flat plates of glafs is the adher¬
ing of the air to their furfaces ; and that mere pref-
fure is not fufficient to expel it; except, as the Abbe
Mazeas obferved, the rings had before been made in
the fame place ; in which cafe, fimple appofition with¬
out frkftion is fufficient; the air, probably, not having
had time to apply itfelf fo clofely to the furface of the
glafs. The contact of fome other fubftances, M. du
Tour obferves, is not fo prejudicial in this experiment
as that of air ; for he found, that, if he only gave the
plates a flight coating of any kind of greafe, the rings
would appear without friiftion. Alfo dipping them
flightly in water, or wiping them with his finger,
would anfwer the fame purpofe. He verified' his
conjectures by means of the air-pump; for, dipping
two pieces of glafs in water, one of which had been
wiped, and the other not, the former appeared to
have no bubbles adhering to it when the air was ex-
haufted, whereas the other had.
“ When one of the glafles is convex, our author ob-
11 O ferves.
1946
16
colours by
refieftion.
CHROMAT ICS.
ferves, that the particles of air may more eafily make
their efcape by preflure only ; whereas their retreat
is in a manner cut off when they are comprefled be¬
tween two flat furfaces. The air-pump, he found,
was not able to detach thefe particles of air from the
furfaces to which they adhere ; leaving thefe flat
plates for a confiderable tithe in an exhaulted receiver,
was not fr.fHcient to prepare them fo well for the ex¬
periment, as wiping them.
“ Befides the obfervations on the colours of thin
plates, it has been feen that Sir Ifaac Newton ima¬
gined he could account for the colours exhibited by
thick ones in fome cafes in a iimilar manner ; parti¬
cularly in thofe ciudous experiments in which .he ad¬
mitted a beam of light through a hole in a piece of
palteboard, and obferved the rings of colours reflected
back upon it by a concave glafs mirror of equal thick-
nefs in all places. Thefe experiments were refumed,
and happily purfued by the Duke de Chaulnes, who
afcribed thefe colours to the inflection of light*. Chance
led the duke to obferve, that when the nearer furface
of the glafs mirror was clouded by breathing upon it,
fo as lightly to tarnifli it, a white diffufed and vivid
light was feen upon the pafteboard, and all the co¬
lours of the rings became much ftronger, and more
diftinCt. Tins appearance he made conftant by moi-
ftening the iurfaceof the mirror with a little milk and
water, and fuffering it to dry upon it.
“ In all his experiments upon this fubjed;, he found,
that when the ray fell converging on the furface of
the mirror, the rings were hardly vifible ; when they
fell parallel upon it, as they muft have done in all the
experiments of Newton, they appeared fufficiently
diltind ; but when, by means of a convex lens pla¬
ced in the hole of the window', they were made to
diverge from the centre of the fphere to which the
mirror was ground, fo that they fell perpendicularly
on the furface of the mirror, the colours were as vi¬
vid as he could make them. In this cafe he could re¬
move the refleded image to a great diftance from the
hole, without making the rings difappear ; and he
could plainly perceive them to arife from their central
fpots, which changed their colours feveral times.
“ The efleCt of tarnifliing the mirror convinced him,,
that thefe coloured rings depended on the firlt fur¬
face of the mirror ; and that the fecond furface, or
that wdiich reflected them after they had paffed the
firft, only ferved to colleCt them and throw them up¬
on the pafteboard in a quantity fuflicient to make them
vifible, and he was confirmed in his fuppofition by the
following experiments.
“ He took a plano-convex objeCt-glafs, of fix feet
focus, and placed it fix feet from the pafteboard with
its convex fide towards it. By this means the rays
which fell upon that furface, after being refraCted
there, were tranfmitted through the thicknefs of the
glafs, parallel to one another, and fell perpendicularly
on the plane furface that reflected them, and, in their
return, would be collected upon the pafteboard. In
thefe circumftances the rings appeared very diftinCt
after he had tarnifhed the convex furface, wdiich in
this pofition was next to the light.
“ Turning the fame glafs the contrary way, fo that
the plane furface was towards the pafteboard, he could
perceive none of the rings at the diftance of fix feet 5
but they were vifible at the diftance of three feet:
becaufe at that diftance the fecond furface reflected
the rays by its concavity direClly towards the pafte¬
board.
“ Thefe two experiments demonftrate the ufe of the
fecond furface of the mirror, and fliew the manner of
placing it to molt advantage. Thofe that follow fliew
the ufe of the firft furface with refpeCt to thefe rings ;
and he was led to make them by the cafual oblerva-
tion above-mentioned.
“ Newton, he obferves, had remarked that when
he made ufe of a mirror of the fame focus with the
firft he had ufed, but of twice the thicknefs, he found
the diameter of the rings much fmaller than before.
This obfervation the duke thought favourable to his
own conclufions ; for if thefe rings depend upon the
firft &rface, the nearer it is to the fecond, which only
refleCls the ray tranfmitted from it, the larger they
ought to appear upon the pafteboard.
“ To afcertain this fact, he thought of making ufe
of two moveable furfaces ; and to make ufe of a mi¬
crometer to meafure the diftance between them with
exaCtnefs. For this purpofe he took a metallic mir¬
ror belonging to a reflecting telefcope, being part of
a fphere of ten feet radius ; and he fixed it firm upon
a foot in which was a groove that carried a light frame,
to which was faltened a thin piece of talc tarnifhed
with milk and water. The frame that fupported the
piece of talc could either be brought into contaCI with
the mirror, or be removed to the diftance of eight or
nine inches from it, and the micrometer fliewed to the
utmoft exaClnefs the leaft motion of the frame.
“ Having placed this mirror ten feet from the
pafteboard, that is, at the diftance of -the radius of its-
own fphere, he obferved the rings to appear very di-
ftinct ; the form of his mirror being very true : but
the diameter of the rings upon the pafteboard varied
with the diftance of the talc from the mirror, fo that
they were very large when the talc was near the
mirror, and very fmall when it was placed at the di¬
ftance of feven or eight inches.
“ Thefe experiments proved, that the rings were
formed by the firft furface, and refleCled by the fe¬
cond ; but it rtill remained to be determined in what
manner they were formed. He imagined, that the
fmall pencils of rays that were tranfmitt^d through
the pores of the glafs,. or any other tranfparent fub-
ftance, might fufler a kind of inflection, which might
change the cylinder which they formed into a trun¬
cated cone, either by means of their different de grees
of inflexibility, or by the different diftances at which
they pafs by-the edges of the fmall hole through which
they are tranlmitted. Purfuing this idea, he thought:
of making ufe of fome body, the pores of which were-
of a known and determined fnape. Inftead, therefore,
of the piece of talc, he placed a piece of fine linen
in'the above mentioned frame, llretching it as even as-
poffible, to make the pores formed by the threads
more exact and more permeable by the light; and he
form found, with great .pleafure, that his conjecture
was verified : for, inftead of the circular rings which
he had before,, they were now manifeftly fquare,
though their angles were a little rounded; and they
•were
1547
CHROMAT ICS.
were coloured as the others, though the light was not
very vivid, on account of the quantity that was flopped
by the muflin.
“ When, inftead of the muflin, he flxetched acrofs
his frame fine iilver wires exaclly parallel, at the di-
ftance of about three quarters of a line, or a whole
line from one another, without any other wires acrofs
them ; inilead of the rings which he had feen before,
there was nothing upon the pafteboard but a gleam of
white light divided by many fma.ll ftreaks, coloured
in a very vivid manner, and in the fame manner as
the rings.”
Another Thus we have another hypothefis of the-formation
theory of of colours, namely, by the inflection of light in its
■colours. paffage out from between the folid and impenetrable
particles of which bodies are compofed. It is, how¬
ever, very difficult," upon the hypothefis either of Sir
Ifaac Newton, or that of the Duke de Chaulnes, to
give a reafon why bodies that are not entirely white,
Ihould not appear varioufly coloured. For, it appears
from Sir Ifaac Newton’s experiments, that plates of
different denfity are capable of exhibiting the fame
colours; and that where a plate is continually varying
in denfity, it will produce all the colours. Now it is
evident, that the plates of which we fuppofe all na¬
tural bodies to be compofed mull be fimilar to one
that is perpetually varying in its thicknefs; for fuppo-
fmg the plates of which any fubitance is compofed, to
be of any determinate thicknefs, 9 millionth parts of
an inch for inftance ; fuch of the rays as are reflected
from this plate will be red. But if any of them pe¬
netrate to the depth of ii~ of thefe parts, they will
be reflected of a violet colour, ire. and thus mult al¬
loy and obfeure the red ; and fo of others. If we
fuppofe the colours to be produced by inflection, it
will be equally difficult to account for fome particular
rays being infleCted and others not ; feeing we ob-
' ferve that all of them are' capable of being infleCted
by every fubllance whatever, when they pafs very
near it. In fome cafes too, colours are produced
when the light is neither refraCted nor infleCted as far
as we can judge ; and this feems to obfeure the theory
of chromatics more than any thing we have yet men¬
tioned.
As the experiments we are now about to mention
are of the greatell importance, and in direCt terms
contradiCt one of Sir Ifaac Newton’s, we Ihall give a
full account of them, from Prieltley’s hiftory of Vifion,
jg 6sfc. with his remarks thereon.
One of Sir The experiment in queftion is the eighth of New-
Ifaac New- ton’s fecund boolt of Optics: “ He (Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s expe- ton) found, he fays, that when light goes out of air
found* to be t'iroug*1 feveral contiguous refraCting mediums, a?
falfe. through water and glal’s, and thence goes out again
into air, whether the refraCting furfaces be parallel or
inclined to one another, that light, as often as, by con¬
trary refraCtions, it is fo corrected, that it emerges in
lines parallel to thofe in which it was incident, con¬
tinues ever after to be white ; but if the emergent
rays be inclined to the incident, the whitenefs of the
emerging light will, by degrees, in palling on from
the place of emergence, become tinged at its edges
with colours. This he tried by refraCting light with
prifins of glafs, placed within a prifmatic veffel ofwater.
“ By theorems deduced from this experiment, he
infers, that the refraCtion of the rays of every fort,
made out of any medium into air, are known by ha¬
ving the refraCtion of the rays of any one Ibrt; and al-
fo, that the refraCtion out of one medium into another
is found as often as we have the refractions out of
them both into any third medium.
“ On the contrary, a Swediflt philofcpher, (M. Klin- * S-weJ.
genltierna) obferves *, that, in this experiment, the dbhanti.
rays of light, after palling through the water and the vo**
glafs, though they come out parallel to the incident
rays, will be coloured ; but that the fmaller the glafs
prifm is, the nearer will the refult of it approach to
Newton’s defeription.
“ This paper of M. Klingenltierna, being commu¬
nicated to Mr Dollond by M. Mallet, made him enter¬
tain doubts concerning Newton’s report of the refult
of his experiment; and determined him to have i e-
courfe to experiments of his own.
“ He therefore cemented together two plates of
parallel glafs, at their edges, fo as to form a prifmatic
veflel when Hopped at the ends or bales; and the edge
being turned downwards, he placed in it a glafs prifm
with one of its edges upwards, and filled up the va¬
cancy with clear water ; lb that the refraCtion of the
prifm was contrived to be contrary to that of the wa¬
ter, in order that a ray of.light, tranfmitted through
both thefe refraCting mediums, might be affeCted by
the difference only between the two refraciions. As
he found the water to refract more or lefs than the
glafs prifm, he diminiflied or increafed the angle be¬
tween the glafs plates, till he found the two contrary
refraCtions to be equal, which he difeovered by view¬
ing an objeCt through this double prifm. For when
it appeared neither raifed nor deprelfed, he was fa-
tisfied that the refraCtions were equal, and that the
emergent rays were parallel to the incident.
“ Now, according to the prevailing opinion, he ob¬
ferves, that the objeCt Ihould have appeared through
this double prilm in its natural colour ; for if the dif¬
ference of refrangibility had been in all refpeCls
equal, in the two equal refraCtions, they would have
rectified each other. But this experiment fully proved Colours
the fallacy of the received opinion, by fliewing the produced
divergency of the light by the glafs prifm to be al- without re-
moft double of that by the water ; for the image °f fefl^aioB?r
the objeCt, though not at all refraCted, was yet as
much infeCted with prifmatic colours, as though it had
been feen through a glals wedge only whofe angle
was near 30 degrees.
“ This experiment is the very fame with that of
Sir Ifaac Newton above mentioned, notwithftanding
the refult was fo remarkably different: but Mr Dpl-
lond affures us, that he ufed all poflible precaution and
care in his procefs ; and he kept his apparatus by him,
that he might evince the truth of what he wrote,
whenever he Ihould be properly required to do it.
“ He plainly faw, however, that if the refraCting
angle of the water-veffel could have admitted of a
fufficient increafe, the divergency of the coloured rays
would have been greatly diminiffied, or entirely rec¬
tified ; and that there would have been a very great
refraCtion without colour, as he had already produced
a great difcolouring without refraCtion : but the in-
ii O 2 conveniency
1948 C H R O M
conveniency of fo large an angle as that of the prif-
matic vellel muft have been, to bring the light to an
equal divergency with that of the glals prifm, whofe
angle was about 6o°, made it neceflary to try fome
experiments of the fame kind with finaller angles.
“ Accordingly he got a wedge of plate-glafs, the
angle of which was only nine degrees; and, ufing it
in the fame circumllances, he increafed the angle of
the water-wedge, in which it was placed, till the diver¬
gency of the light by the water was equal to that by
the glafs ; that is, till the image of the objecl, though
confiderably refradted by the excefs of the refradlion
of the water, appeared neverthelefs quite free from
any colours proceeding from the different refrangibi-
lity of the light.
“ Notwithftanding it evidently appeared, I may
fay to almoft all philofophers, that Mr Dollond had
20 made a real difcovery of fomething not comprehended
Defences of in the optical principles of Sir Ifaac Newton, it did
Sir Ifaac. not appear to fo fenfible a man, and fo good a ma¬
thematician, as Mr Murdoch is univerfally acknow¬
ledged to be. Upon this occafion he interpofed in the
defence, as he imagined, of Sir Ifaac Newton ; main¬
taining, that Mr Dollond’s pofitions, which he fays,
he knows not by what mifhap, have been deemed pa¬
radoxes in Sir Ifaac’s theory of light, are really the
necelfary confequences of it. He alfo endeavours to
fhew, that Sir Ifaac might not be miftaken in his ac¬
count of the experiment above mentioned. But ad¬
mitting all tfiat he advances in this part of his defence,
Newton mull have made ufe of a prifm with a much
fmaller refracting angle than, from his own account
of his experiments, we have any reafon to believe he
ever did make ufe of.
“ The fact probably was, that Sir Ifaac deceived
himfelf in this cafe, by attending to what he imagined
to be the clear confequences of his other experiments;
and though the light he faw was certainly tinged with
colours, and he muft have feen it to be fo, yet lie might
imagine that this circumftance arofe from fome imper¬
fection in his prifms, or in the difpofition of them,
which he did not think it worth his while to exa¬
mine. It is alfo obfervable, that Sir Ifaac is not fo
particular in his defcription of his prifms, and other
parts of his apparatus, in his account of this experi¬
ment, as he generally is in other cafes, and therefore
probably wrote his account of it from his memory
only.
1.804, “ Much has been faid on this experiment; and it is
thought very extraordinary that a man of Sir Ifaac’s
accurate attention- fhould overlook a circumftance,
the eilecl of which now appears to be fo confiderahle.
But it has happily occurred to Mr Michell, that, as Sir
Ifaac Newton obferves he ufed to put faccharum fa-
turni into his water to increafe its refratflive power,
the,lead, even in tins form, might increafe the diffi-
pative refraction, as it does in the compofnion of glafs;
and if fo, that this would account for Newton’s not
finding the diffipative power of water lefs than that
of his glals prifms, which he otherwife ought to have
done, if he had tried the experiment as he faid he
did.
“ Accordingly he included a prifm of glafs in water,
A T I C S.
as highly impregnated with faccharum laturni as it
would bear, the proportion of faccharum to water be¬
ing about as 5 to 11. When the image, feen through
the water (fo impregnated) and a glafs pril’m, was in
its natural place, it ftill was coloured, though very
little : he thought not more than a fourth part as
much as when feen through plain water, and the prihn
in its natural place; fo that he had no doubt, but that,
if his prifm had had a little lefs of the dilperfmg power,
its errors would have been perfectly corre61ed.” 2J
From all thefe experiments we can only conclude Theory of
that the theory of colours feems not yet to be 'deter- colours Hilt
mined with certainty ; and very formidable, perhaps uncertain,
unanfwerable, objections, might be brought againft
every hypothefis on this fubjeCt that hath been inr
vented. The difeoveries of Sir Ifaac Newton, how¬
ever, are fufficient to juftify the following
APHORISMS.
1. All the colours in nature proceed from the rays
of light.
2. There are feven primary colours; which are
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
5. Every ray of light may be feparated into the
feven primary colours.
4. The rays of light in palling through the fame
medium have different degrees of refrangibility.
5. The difference in the colours of light ariles from-
its different refrangihility : that which is the leaft re¬
frangible producing red; and that which is the molt
refrangible, violet.
6. By compounding any two of the primary colours,
as red and yellow, or yellow and blue, the interme¬
diate colour, as orange or green, may be produced.
7. The colours of bodies arife from their difpofitions
to refleCt one fort of rays, and to abforb the other :
tbofe that refteCt the leaft refrangible rays appearing
red; and thofe that refleCt the moft refrangible, vio¬
let.
8. Such bodies as refleCt two or more forts of rays,
appear of various colours.
9. The whitenefs of bodies arifes from their difpo¬
fition to refleCl all the rays of light promifenoufly.
10. The blacknefs of bodies proceeds from their
incapacity to refleCt any of the rays of light *.
Entertaining Experiments, founded on the
preceding Principle's.
I. 0?/t of a fmgle colony lefs ray of light to produce feven-
other rays, which fhall paint, on a white body, the
feven primary colours of nature.
Procure of an optician a large glafs prifm DF.F, Pla. Ixxviik
well poliffied, two of whofe fules mult contain an *■
angle of about fixty-four degrees. - Make a room
quite dark, and in the window fhutter AB, cut a round
hole, about one-third of an inch in diameter at C,
through which a ray of light LI palling, falls on the
prifin DEFj by that it is refraCled out of the direc¬
tion IT, in which it wcSukl have proceeded into ano¬
ther GH ; andj.falling on the paper MNSX, will the re
form an oblong fpeCtrum P£F, whofe ends will be fe-
micircular, and' its fides ftrait; and if the diftance of
the.
From hence it arifes-that black bodies, when expofed to the fun, become fooner heated than all others.
i949
Eig. 2.
CHROMATICS.
the prifm from the paper be about eighteen feet, it will
be ten inches long, and two inches wide. This fpec-
trum will exhibit all the primary colours: the rays be¬
tween P and V, which are the moft refra&ed, will paint
a deep violet; thofe between V and I, indigo ; thofe
between I and B, blue; thofe between B aridG, green;
thofe between G and Y, yellow ; thofe between Y
and O, orange; and thofe between O and R, being
the leafl refracted, an intenfe- red. The colours be¬
tween thefe fpaces will not be every where equally
intenfe, but will incline to the neighbouring colour:
thus the part of the orange next to R, will incline to
a red; that next to Y, to a yellow ; and fo of the
reft.
11. From tivo or more of the primary colours, to com-
pofe others that Jhali, in appearance, refemble ihofe
of the former.
By mixing the two homogeneal colours red and
yellow, an orange will be produced, fnnilar in ap¬
pearance to that in the feries of primary colours;
but the light of the one being homogeneal, and that
of the other heterogeneal, if the former be viewed
through a prifm it will remain unalterated, but the
other will be refolved into its component colours red
and yellow. In like manner other contiguous homo-
genial colours may compound new colours; as by
mixing yellow and green, a colour between them is
formed; and if blue be added, there will appear a
green that is the middle colour of thofe three. For
the yellow and blue, if they are equal in quantity,
will draw the intermediate green equally toward
them, and keep it, as it were, in equilibrio, that it
verge not more to the one than to the other. To
this compound green there may be added fome red
and violet; and yet the green will not immediately
ceafe, but grow lefs vivid ; till by adding more red
and violet it will become more diluted ; and at.laft, by
the prevalence of the added colours, it will be over¬
come, and turned into fome anomalous colour.
If the fun’s white, compofed of all kind of rays, be
added to any homogeneal colour, that colour will not
vanilh, nor change its fpecies, but be diluted; and by
adding more white, it will become continually more
diluted. Laftly, if red and violet be mixed, there
will be generated,, according to their various propor¬
tions, various purples, fuch as are not like, in appear¬
ance, to the colour of any homogeneal light: and of
thefe purples, mixed with blue and yellow, other new
colours may be compofed.
HI. Out of three of the primary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, to produce all the other prifmatic colours,
and all that are intermediate to them.
Provide three panes of glafs of about five inches
fquare ; and divide each of them, by parallel lines,'
into five equal parts. Take three fheets of very thin
paper; which you muft paint, lightly, one blue, ano¬
ther yellow, and the third red*. Then pafte on
one of the glafles five pieces of the red paper,
one of which muft cover the whole glafs, the fe-
cond only the four lower diviiions, the third the
three lower, the fourth the two loweft, and the
fifth the laft divilion only. On the other two glalfes
five pieces of the blue and yellow papers muft be pall¬
ed in like manner. You mnft aJfo have a box of a-
bout fix inches long, and the fame depth and width
as the glalfes: it muft be black on the infide : let one
end be quite open, and in the oppofite end there muft
be a hole large enough to fee the glaffes completely.
It muft alfo open at the top, that the glafles may be
placed in it conveniently.
When you have put any one of thefe glafles in the
box, and the open end is turned toward the fun, you
will fee five diftimft {hades of the colour it contains.
If you place the blue and yellow glafles together, in a
fimilar direiftion, you will fee five {hades of green dif-
tinflfy formed. When the blue and *ed glafles are
placed, a bright violet will be produced; and by the
red and yellow, the feveral {hades of orange.
If, in (lead of placing thefe glaiTes in a fimilar pofi-
tion, you place the fide AB of the yellow glafs, againft
the fide BD of the blue, you will fee all the various
greens Lhat are produced by nature-f; if the blue and
red glaffes be placed in that manner, you will have
all the poffible varieties of purples, violets, ire. \ and
laftly, if the red and orange glalies be fo placed,
there will be all the intermediate colours, as the ma-
rygold, aurora, ire.
IV. By means of the- three primary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, together with light and Jhade, to produce
all the gradations of the prifmatic colours..
On feven fquare panes of glafs pafte papers that
are painted with the {’even prifmatie colours, in the
fame manner as in the laft experiment. The colours
for the orage, green, ifTdigo, and violet, may be
made by mixing the other three. Then with biftre^:,,
well diluted, {hade a {beet of very thin paper, by lay¬
ing it light on both its fides. With pieces of this pa¬
per cover four-fifths of a glafs, of the fame fize with
the others, by laying one piece on the four loweft di-
vifions, another on the three loweft, a third on the
two loweft, and the fourth on the loweftdivifion onlyr
and leaving the top divifion quite uncovered. When
one of the coloured glalfes is placed in the box, toge¬
ther with the glafs of {hades, fo that the fide AB of
the one be applied to the fide BC of the other, as in
fig. 3. the feveral gradations of colours will appear
{haded in the fame manner as a drapery judiciouflly
painted with {hat colour.
It is on this principle that certain French artifts
have proceeded in their endeavours to imitate, by
defigns printed in colours, paintings in- oil: which
they do by four plates of the fame fize; on each of
which is engraved the fame defign. One of thefe
contains all the {hades that are to be reprefented, and'
which are painted either black, of with a dark grey.
One
* You muft ufe water-colours for tins purpofe : the blue may be that of Pruffia, and very bright; the red, carmine; and the
yellow, gambooge, mixed with a little faffron. Thefe colours muft be laid very, light and even, on both fides of the paper.
f In the firft pofition of the glades the quantity of blue and yellow being equal, the fame fort of green was conftantly vifible..
but by thus inverting the glaftes, the quantity of the colours being conftantly unequal, a very pleafing. variety of tints is produced,,
f The hiftre here ufed muft be made of foot, not that in ftone.
Fig- 3-
l9S°
Fig. 4-
CHROMATICS
One of the three other plates is coloured with blue,
another with red, and the third with yellow; each of
them being engraved in thofe parts only which are to
reprelent that colour*, and the engraving is either
ftronger or weaker, in proportion to the tone of co¬
lour that is to be reprefented f.
Thefe four plates are then paffed alternately under
the prefs, and the mixture of their colours produces a
print that bears no fmall refemblance to a painting.
It muft be confefied, however, that what has been hi¬
therto done of this kind falls far fhort of that degree
of perfeftion of which this art appears fufceptible.
If they who engrave the bell in the manner of the
crayon were to apply themfelves to this art, there is
reafon to expedl they would produce far more finiflied
pieces than we have hitherto feen.
V. To make figures appear of different colours
fiuccsffively.
Make a hole in the window-fhutter of a dark
room, through which a broad beam of light may pafs,
that is to be refrailed by the large glafs prifm ABC,
which may be made of pieces of mirrors cemented
together, and filled with water,. Provide another
prifm DEF, made of three pieces of wood ; through
the middle of this there mull pafs an axis on which it
is to revolve. This prifm muft be covered with white
paper ; and each of its fides cut through in feveral
places, fo as to repefent different figures, and thole of
each fide fhould likewife be different. The infide of
this prifm is to be hollow, and made quite black, that
it may not reflect any of the light that pafles through
the fides into it. When this prifm is placed near to
that of glafs, as in the figure, with one of its fides EF
perpendicular to the ray of light, the figures on that
fide will appear perfeiftly white: but when it comes
into the pofition g k, the figures will appear yellow
and red ; and when it is in the pofition k /, they will
appear blue and violet. As the prifm is turned round
its axis, the other fides will have a fimilar appear¬
ance. If inftead of a prifm a four or five fided figure
be here ufed, the appearances will be (till further di-
verfified.
This phenomenon arifes from the different refrangi-
bility of the rays of light. For when the fide EF is in
the pofition g h, it is more ftrongly illuminated by the
leaft refrangible rays; and wherever they are predo-
niinant, the objeift will appear red or yellow. But
when it is on the pofition k /, the more refrangible rays
being then predominant, it will appear tinged with
blue and violet.
VI. The fiolar magic lantern.
Procure a box, of about a foot high, and 18
inches wide, or filch other fimilar dimenfions as you
fltall think fit; and about three inches deep. Two of
the oppofite fide.? of this box mufl: be quite open; and
in each of the other fides let there be a groove, wide
enough to pafs a ftiff paper or pafteboard. This box
muft be faftened againft a window on which the fun’s
rays fall diretft. The reft of the window fhould be
clofed up, that no light may enter. Provide feveral
fheets of ftiff paper, which muft be blacked on one
fide. On thefe papers cut out fuch 'figures as you
fhall think proper; and placing them alternately in the
grooves of the box, with their blacked fides towards
you, look at them through a large and clear glafs
prifm; and if the light be flrong, they will appear to
be painted with the molt lively colours in nature. If
you cut on one of thefe papers the form of the rain¬
bow, about three quarters of an inch wide, you will
have a lively reprefentation of that in the atmofphere.
This experiment may be further diverfified, by
parting very thin papers, lightly painted with different
colours, over fome of the parts that are cut out:
which will appear to change their colours, when view¬
ed through the prifm, and to ftand out from the pa¬
per, at different diftances, according to the different
degrees of refrangibility of the colours with which
they are painted. For greater convenience, the prifm
may be placed in a ftand on a table, at the height of
your eye, and made to turn round on an axis, that
when you have got an agreeable profpetft, you may
fix in that pofition.
VII. The prifimatic camera obfcura.
Make two holes F, f in the fhutter of a dark Fig.
chamber, near to each other ; and againft each hole
place a prifm ABC, and a b cfm-a. perpendicular direc¬
tion, that their fpedtrums NM may be call on the
paper in a horizontal line, and coincide with each
other ; the red and violet of the one being in the
fame part with thofe. of the other. The paper fhould
be placed at fuch a diftance from the prifms that the
fpe<Slrum may be fufficiently dilated. Provide feveral
papers nearly of the fame dimenfions with the fpec-
trum, crofs thefe papers, and draw lines parallel to the
divifions of the colours. In thefe divifions cut out
fuch figures as you fhall find will have an agreeable
effedt, as flowers, trees, animals, ire. When you
have placed one of thefe papers in its proper pofition,
hang a black cloth or paper behind it, that none of
the rays that pafs through may be reflected and con-
fufe the phenomenon. The figures cut on the paper
will then appear ftrongly illuminated with all the ori¬
ginal colours of nature. If while one of the prifms re¬
mains at reft, the other be revolved on its axis, the
continual alteration of the colours will afford a pleafing
variety ; which may be further increafed by turning
the prifm round in different directions.
When the prifms are fo placed that the two fpec-
trums become coincident in an inverted order of their
colours.
* When a red drapery is required, it is engraved on the plate afligned to that colour; and fo of yellow and blue: but if one
of the other colours be wanting, luppofe violet, it muft be engraved on thofe that print the red and blue : and fo of the reft.
The plates of this kind have been hitherto engraved in the manner of mezzotintb ; but thefe, unlefs they are Ikilfully managed,
foon become fmutty. Engravings in the manner of the crayon, will perhaps anfwer better.
f The principal difficulty in this fort of engraving arifes from want of a fkilful management, in giving each plate that precile
degree of engraving which will produce the tone of colour required. If a bright green is to be reprefented, there fhould be an
equal quantity of graving on the red and yellow plates : but if an olive green, the yellow plate Ihould be engraved much deeper
titan the red.
CHROMATICS.
colours, the red end of one falling on the violet end of
the other; if they be then viewed through a third
prifm DH, held parallel to their length, they will no
longer appear coincident, but in the form of two di-
ftiruit fpeiftrums, p t, and w in, (fig. 6.) croflihgone an¬
other in the middle, like the letter X': the red-of
one fpectrum and the violet of the other, which were
coincident at NM, being parted from each other by a
greater refradtion of the violet to /. and in, than that
of the red to n and /.
This experiment may be further diverftfied by ad¬
ding two other prifms, that fhall form a I'peCtrum
in the fame line, and contiguous to the other; by
which not only the variety of figures, but the vieiffi-
tude of colours, will be confiderably agumented.
VIII. The diatonic fcale of colours.
The illuftrious Newton, in the courfe of his in-
veftigations of the properties of light, difcovered that
the length of the fpaces which the feven primary co¬
lours poflefs in the fpedtrum, exaclly corresponds to
thofe of chords that found the feven notes in the dia¬
tonic fcale of mufic. As is evident by the following
experiment.
On a paper in a dark chamber, let a ray of light be
Fig. 7. largely refradled into the fpedlrum AFTMGP, and
mark the precife boundaries of the feveral colours, as
a, b, c, ire. Draw lines from thofe points perpendicu¬
lar to the oppofite fide, and you will find that the
fpaces M r f F, by which the red is bounded ; r g ef,
by which the orange is bounded ; q p e d, by which
the yellow is bounded, ire. will be in exatT proportion
to the divifions of a mufical chord for the notes of an
oelave; that is, as the intervals of thefe numbers x, |,
IX. Colorific mufic.
Father Castel, a Frenchman, in a curious book
he has publifhed on chromatics, fuppofes the note ut
to anfwer to blue in the prifmatic colours; the note
re to yellow, and mi to red. The other tones he re¬
fers to the intermediate colours, from whence he con-
ftrudts the following gamut of colorific mufic :
Ut Blue
Ut (harp Sea-green
Re Bright green
Re (harp Olive green
Mi Yellow
Fa Aurora
Fa (harp Orange
Sol Red
Sol (harp Crimfon
La Violet
La (harp Blue violet
Si Sky blue
Ut Blue
This gamut, according to his plan, is to be eonti-
fiued in the fame manner for the following odfave;
except that the colours are to be more vivid.
He fuppofes that thefe colours, by ftriking the eye
in the fame fuccefllon as the founds (to which he makes
them analogous) do the ear, and in the fame order of
time, they will produce a correfpondent fenfation of
I951
pleafure in the mind. It is on thefe general prin¬
ciples, which F. Caftel has dilucidated in his treatife,
that he has endeavoured, though with little fuecels, to
eltablilh his ocular harpfichord.
The conftrudtion of this indrument, as here ex¬
plained, will (how that the effedbs produced by colours
by no means anfwer thofe of founds, and that the
principal relation there is between them conhfls in
the duration of the time that they refpediively affedl
the fenfes.
Between two circles of pafteboard, of ten inches
diameter, AB and CD, inciofe a hollow padeboard Fig. 8.
cylinder E, iS inches long. Divide this cylinder
into fpaces half an inch wide, by a fpiral line that
runs round it from top to bottom, and divide its
furface into fix equal parts by parallel lines drawn
between its two extremities; as is expreded in the
figure.
Let the circle AB, at top, he open ; and let that at
bottom, CD, be doled, and fupported by an axis or
(crew, of half an inch diameter, which mud turn
freely in a nut placed at the bottom of a box we (hall
prefently deferibe. To the axis jud mentioned adjud
a wooden wheel G, of two inches and a half in dia¬
meter, and that has 12 or 15 teeth, which take the
endlefs ferew H. Let this cylinder be inclofed in a
box ILMN (fig. 9.) whole bafe is fquare, and at
whofe bottom there is a nut in which the axis F
turns. Obfcrve that the endlefs ferew H, (hould come
out of the box, that it may receive the handle O, by
which the cylinder is to be turned.
This box being doled all round, place over it a tin
covering A, which mud be perforated in different-
parts ; from this cover there mud hang three or four
lights, fo placed that they may drongiy illumine the
infide of the cylinder. In one fide of this box (which
(hould be covered with padeboard) cut- eight aper¬
tures, a, b, c, d, e,f,g, b, of half an inch wide, and Fig. 9.
i of an inch high; they mud be direclly over each
other, and the didance between them mud be exadly
two inches. It is by thefe openings, which here cor-
refpond to the mufical notes, that the various colours
analogous to them are to appear ; and which being
placed on the padeboard'cylinder, as we have (liown,
are refle&ed by means of the lights placed within it.
It is eafy to conceive, that when the handle O is
turned, the cylinder in confeqnenee rifing half an
inch, if it be turned five times round, it will fuccef-
fively (how, at the openings made in the fide of the
box, all thofe that are in the cylinder itfelf, and which;,
are ranged according to the direction of the inclined
lines drawn on it. It is therefore according to the-
duration of the notes which are to be expreffed, that
the aper- ures on the cylinder are to be cut. Obferve,
that the fpace between two of the parallel lines drawn
vertically on the cylinder, is equal to one meafnre of.
time ; therefore, for every turn of the cylinder, there-
are fix meafures, and thirty meafures for the air that
is to be played by this indrument.
The fe veral apertures being made in the fide of the
cylinder, in conformity to the notes of the tune that
is to be exprelfed, they are to be covered with double-
pieces of very thin paper, painted on both fides with
the colours that are to reprefent the mufical notes.
This.
C H R [ 1952 ] C H R
Chronic This experiment might be executed in a different pence, we have thought it fufficient to give the above Chronicles
i. manner, and with a much greater extent; but as the piece, by which the reader will be enabled to judge I
Chronicles. entertajnment Would not equal the trouble and ex- how far the analogy fuppofed by F. Cartel really exilts. ^°’
CHRONIC, or chronical, among phyficians, an
appellation given to difeafes that continue a long time;
in contradirtindtion to thofe that foon terminate, and
are called acute.
CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a fpecies
or kind of hiliory difpofed according to the order of
time, and agreeing in molt rel'pedls with annals. See
Annals.
Books of Chronicles, a canonical writing of the
Old Teftament. It is uncertain which were written
firft, The Books of Kings, or The Chronicles, lince they
each refer to the other. However it be, the latter
is often more full and comprehenfive than the former.
Whence the Greek interpreters call thefe two books
riapaAfiTro^Ei/a, Supplements, Additions, becaufe they
contain fome circumrtances which are omitted in the
other hiftorical books. The Jews make but one book
of the Chronicles, under the title of Dibrc-Haiarnim,
i. e. Journals or Annals. Ezra is generally believed
to be the author of thefe books. It is certain they
were written after the end of the Babylonilh capti¬
C H R O N
S the fdence that teaches the method of mea-
furing time and dijiinguijhing its parts. It is
more difficult, than may at lirft appear, to deter¬
mine the precife idea, and clearly to explain the
nature, of time. That ingenious and fubtile impo-
ftor Mahomet has given in his Alcoran fome traces
of very refined ideas of this lubjedt. But, leaving
thefe metaphyfical refearches, we lhall content our-
felves with faying, that by time we here mean the
duration and lucceffion of created beings. To deter¬
mine a fixed and fenlible meafure of duration, it is
neceffary to find fome motion that is conftantly uni¬
form, which may ferve as a fcale for that meafure.
From the creation of the world, it has been obferved
that the courfes of the heavenly bodies afford the moll
univerfal meafure of motion to all the inhabitants of
the earth. As it was originally imagined that the fun
turned round the earth, his annual and diurnal revo¬
lutions were fixed on for the common meafure of
time ; and by this meafure they divided the duration
of beings into years, months, weeks, days, hours, mi¬
nutes, and feconds. It may feem llrange to an allro-
nomer, or chronologill, to read, in the firft chapter
of Genelis, that God did not create the fun, moon,
and ftars, till the fourth day, and that there were days
and nights before there was any fun. But who can
fay what is there precifely meant by the word day ?
Mofes, who lived about 3000 years after the creation,
wrote the origin and hiliory of the Jews. In order
to which, he recurred to the origin of all things: he
began with the creation itfelf: but he wrote to men ;
and to men who were even lefs enlightened than we
are, pfpecially in matters of ailronoiny. He was.
vity, and the firft year of the reign of Cyrus, of whom
mention is made in the laft chapter of the fecond book.
The Chronicles, or Paraleipomena, are an abridge¬
ment of all the facred hiftory, from the beginning of
the Jewilh nation to their firft return from the capti¬
vity, taken out of thofe books of the Bible which we
ftill have, and out of other annals which the author
had then by him. The defign of the writer was to
give the Jews a feries of their hiftory. The firft
book relates the rife and propagation of the people of
Ifrael from Adam, and gives a pundlual and exadi ac¬
count of the reign of David. The fecond book lets
down the progrefs and end of the kingdom of Judah,
to the very year of their return from the Babylonilh
captivity.
CHRONOGRAM, a fpecies of falfe wit, confifting
in this, that a certain date or epocha is exprelfed by
numeral letters of one or more verfes; fuch is that
which makes the motto of a medal ftruck by Gultavus
Adolphus in 1632 :
ChrlftVs DVX ; ergo trIVMphVs.
O L O G Y
therefore, obliged to make ufe of expreffions that
were to them intelligible. The fcriptures were more¬
over given to mankind to ferve them as guides in
matters of religion, and not to teach them aftronomy ;
of which were they ignorant, they would be obliged
to believe, for example, that the fun moves round
the earth, and that it was flopped, though a thoufand
times greater than the whole terreftrial globe, by the
delire of Jolhua at Gibeon; and that the.moon halted
in the valley of Ajalon, ire. : all which is diredlly con¬
trary to the eternal laws of nature, and therefore, ta¬
ken in the ftridt letter, cannot be true. But who
knows what means Providence may have employed
to produce thefe appearances ? Without making fur¬
ther inquiry into thefe matters, let us acknowledge
the goodnefs of the Holy Spirit that has vouchfafed to
fpeak to mankind in a language adapted to their ca¬
pacities, in pointing out the path that leads to eternal
felicity ; where thofe dark clouds which now furround
the human underftahding lhall be difperfed, and it
will then perhaps difebver many of thofe pofitions to
be errors which philofophers and aftronomers now
regard as axioms or inconteftable truths.
The term chronology, when taken in its full ex¬
tent, has two objedts : the firft is the meafuring of
time and its different divifions. This part of chrono-
logy is regulated by aftronbmical calculation, and con-
fequently makes a part of mathematics; and it is by
this method that we are enabled to make complete ca¬
lendars or almanacs. The lecond part of chronology
confifts in fixing the dates of all thofe events that are
related in hiftory, and of ranging them in the feveral
divifions of time in which they occurred : and by this
means
953
CHRONOLOGY.
means chronology becomes one of the eflential parts
of hiftory. This fecond part draws its principles from
the firft; but it has need of other fupports, «js of cri-
ticifm, of the teliimony of authors, of ancient coins,
medals, infcriptions, of fuch epochs in hiftory as
are inconteftable ; of eclipfes of the fun and moon,
and other aftronomical obfervations, ire. The fub-
jecl of the firfl part has been treated under Astro¬
nomy. That of the fecond falls to be coniidered in
the prefent article.
Of Historic Chronology.
It is in this fcience that Julius Africanus, Eufebius
of Csefarea, George Cyncelle, John of Antioch, Denis,
Petau, Cluvier, Calvifius, Ulher, Simfon, John Mar-
Iham, and many other learned men, have excelled.
It confifts of four principal parts, that form the foun¬
dations on which all its learned refearches reft. Thele
are,
1. Aftronomic obfervations, and particularly on the
eclipfes of the fun and moon, combined with the cal¬
culations of mathematic chronology on the different
eras and years of different nations.
2. The teftimonies of credible authors.
3. Thole epochs in hiftory which arefo determined
and evident that no one has ever contefted them.
4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and infcrip¬
tions.
We fhall examine thefe four principal parts in the
order they here ftand; and conclude with fome re¬
flections on the uncertainty that ftill reigns, notwith-
ftanding thefe lights, in chronological hiftory.
I.
It is with great reafon that the eclipfes of the fun ,
and moon, and the afpeCts of the other planets, have
been called public and celeftial characters of the times,
as their calculations afford chronologers infallible proofs
of the precife epochs in which a great number of the
moft fignal events in hiftory have occurred. So that
in chronological matters we cannot make any great
progrefs, if we are ignorant of the ufe of aftronomic
tables, and the calculation of eclipfes. The ancients
regarded the latter as prognoftics of the fall of em¬
pires, of the lofs of battles, of the death of monarchs,
ire. And it is to. this fuperftition, to this wretched
ignorance, that we happily owe the vaft labour that
hiftorians have taken to record fo great a number of
them. The moft able chronologers have collected
them with ftill greater labour. Calvifius, for example,
founds his chronology on 144 eclipfes of the fun, and
127 of the moon, that he fays he had calculated. The
grand conjunction of the-two luperior planets, Saturn
and Jupiter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once
in 8co years in the fame point of the zodiac, and which
has happened only eight times fince the creation, (the
laft time in the month of December 1603), may alfo
furnifh chronology with inconteftable proofs. The
lame may be faid of the tranfit of Venus over the fun,
which has been obferved in our days, and all the other
uncommon pofitions of the planets. But among thefe
celeftial and natural characters of times, there are alfo
fome that are named civil or artificial, and which,
neverthelefs, depend on aftronomic calculation.
Vol. III.
Such are the folar and lunar cycles; the Roman
indiClion ; the feaft of Eafter; the bilfextile year; the
jubilees ; the fabbatic years ; the combats and Olym¬
pic games of the Greeks; and hegira of the Maho¬
metans, ire. And to thefe may be added the periods,
eras, epochs, and years of different nations, ancient
and modern. We lhall only remark on this occafion,
that the period or era of the Jews commences with
the creation of the world ; that of the ancient Romans
with the foundation of the city of Rome ; that of the
Greeks at the eftablilhment of the Olympic games ;
that of Nebuchadnezzar, with the advancement of
the firft king of Babylon to the throne; the Yczde-
gerdic years, with the laft king of the Perfians of
that name; the hegira of the Turks with the flight
of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, ire. The year
of the birth of Chrift was the 4713th year of the
Julian period, according to the common method of
reckoning. Aftronomical chronology teaches us to
calculate the precife year of the Julian period in which
each of thefe epochs happened. See Astronomy,
Sedt. xii.
« II.
The teftimony of authors is the fecond principal
part of hiftoric chronology. Though no man what¬
ever has a right to pretend to infallibility, or to
be regarded as a facred oracle, it would, however,
be making a very unjuft judgment of mankind, to
treat them all as dupes or impoftors ; and it would be
an injury offered to public integrity, were we to doubt
the veracity of authors univerfally efteemed, and of
fadts that are in themfelves right worthy of belief. It
would be even a kind of infatuation to doubt that
there have been fuch cities as Athens, Sparta, Rome,
Carthage, ire. or that Xerxes reigned in Perfia, and
Auguftus in Rome; whether Hannibal ever was in Italy;
or that the emperor Coriftantine .built Conftantino-
ple, ire. The unanimous teftimony of the moft re-
fpedtable hiftorians will not admit any doubt of thefe
matters. When an hiftorian is allowed to be com¬
pletely able to judge of an event, and to have no in¬
tent of deceiving by his relation, his teftimony is irre-
cufable. But to avoid the danger of adopting error
for truth, and to be fatisfied of a fadf that appears
doubtful in hiftory, we may make ufe of the four fol¬
lowing rules, as they are founded in reafon.
1. We ought to pay a particular regard to the
teftimonies of thofe who wrote at the fame time the
events happened, and that have hot been Contradidled
by any cotemporary author of known authority. Who
can doubt, for example, of the truth of the fadts re¬
lated by admiral Anfon, in the hiftory of his voyage
round the world ? The admiral faw all the fadls there
mentioned with his own eyes, and publiflied his book
when two hundred companions of his voyage were
ftill living in London, and could have contradidled
him immediately, if he had given any falfe or exag¬
gerated relations.
2. After the cotemporary authors, we fliould give
more credit to thofe who lived near the time the events
happened, than thofe who lived at a diftance.
3. Thofe doubtful hiftories, which are related by
authors that are but little known, can have no weight
11 P if
>954
C H R O N
if they are at variance with reafon, or eftabliflied
tradition.
4. We muft diftruft the truth of a hiftory that is re¬
lated by modern authors, when they do not agree a-
mong themfelves in feveral circumltances, nor with
ancient hiftorians, who are to be regarded as original
fources. We fliould efpecially doubt the truth of thofe
brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleafure by fuch
as never knew the perfons they are intended for, and
even made feveral centuries after their deceale.
The mofl pure and molt fruitful fource of ancient
hiftory is doubtlefs to be found in the Holy Bible. Let
us here for a moment ceafe to regard it as divine, and
let us prefume to confider it as a common hiftory.
Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the
Old Teftament, and confider them fometimes as au¬
thors, fometimes as ocular witnefles, and fometimes
as refpe<ftable hiftorians; whether we reflect on the
fimplicity of the narration, and the air of truth that
is there conftantly vifible ; or, when we confider the
care that the people, the governments, and the
learned men of all ages have taken to preferve the
true text of the Bible; or that we have regard to the
happy conformity of the chronology of the hbly Icrip-
tures with that of prophane hiftory ; or, if we obferve
the admirable harmony that is between thefe books
and the moft refpeiftable hiftorians, as Jofephus and
others ; and laftly, when we confider that the books
of the holy fcripture furnilh us alone with an accurate
hiftory of the world from the creation, through the
line of patriarchs, judges, kings and princes of the
Hebrews; and that we may, by its aid, form an al-
moft entire feries of events down to the birth of
Chrift, or the time of Auguftus, which comprehends a
fpace of about 4000 years, fome fmall interruptions
excepted, and which are eafiiy fupplied by profane
hiftory: when all thefe reflections are juftly made,
we muft conftantly allow that the fcriptures form
a book which merits the firft rank among all the
fources of ancient hiftory. It has been objected, that
this book contains contradictions ; but the moft able
interpreters have reconciled thefe feeming contradic¬
tions. It has been faid, that the chronology of the
Hebrew text and the Vulgate, do not agree with the
chronology of the verfion of the Septuagint; but the
foundeft critics have fhown that they may be made to
agree. It has been obferved, moreover, that the
fcriptures abound with miracles and prodigies; but
they are miracles that have really happened: and
what ancient hiftory is there that is not filled with
miracles and other marvellous events ? And do we for
that reject their authority ? Cannot the true God be
fuppofed to have performed thofe miracles which
Pagan hiftorians have attributed to their falfe divini¬
ties ? Muft we pay no regard to the writings of
Livy, becaufe his hiftory contains many fabulous re¬
lations ?
III.
The epochs form the third principal part of chro-
nok)gy. Thefe are thofe fixed points in hiftory that
have never been contefted, and of which there can,
in fact, be no doubt. Chronologers fix on the events
that are to ferve as epochs, in a manner quite arbi-
O L O G Y.
trary ; but this is of little confequence, provided the
dates of thefe epochs agree, and that there is no con-
tradidiion in the fadts themfelves. When we come
to treat exprefsly on hiftory, we fhall mention, in our
progrefs, all the principal epochs.
IV.
Medaes, monuments, and infcriptions, form the
fourth and laft principal part of chronology. It is
fcarce mor e than 150 years fince clofe application has
been made to the ftudy of thele; and we owe to the
celebrated Spanheim the greateft obligations, for the
progrefs that is made in this method ; his excel
lent work, De pnejlantia et ufu numifviatum anti¬
quarian, has fhown the great advantages of it; and
it is evident that thefe monuments are the moft au¬
thentic witneftes that can be produced. It is by the
aid of medals that M. Vaillant has compofed his judi¬
cious hiftory of the kings of Syria, from the time of
Alexander the Great to that of Pompey : they have
been, moreover, of the greateft fervice in elucidating
all ancient hiftory, efpecially that of the Romans; and
even fometimes that of the middle age. Their ufe is
more fully fpoken of in the article Medaxs. What
we here fay of medals, is to be underftood equally, in
its full force, of ancient infcriptions, and of all other
authentic monuments that have come down to us: as
the famous Arundel marbles, which the earl of Arun-<
del (from whom they have been denominated) pur-
chafed from the Turks in the Levant, by William
Petre, whom he lent thither for that purpole. Thefe
marbles, which were ranged at Lpndon in the rooms
and garden of that nobleman, on the border of the
Thames, were found in the illand of Paros; and con¬
tain a chronicle, wherein the principal epochs of the
'hiftory of the Athenians are exactly and diftindtly
marked, from the firft year of the reign of Cecrops,
which began 1582 years before the Chriftian era.
John Selden compofed a book in 1629, the title of
which is Marmora Arundelliana, wherein he explains
thefe valuable antiquities.
Every reader, endowed with a juft difeernment,
will readily allow that thefe four parts of chronology
afford clear lights, and are excellent guides to con¬
duct us through the thick darknefs of antiquity. That
impartiality, however, which directs us to give a
faithful relation of that which is true and falfe, of the
certainty and uncertainty of all the fciences, obliges
us here freely to confefs, that thefe guides are not in¬
fallible, nor the proofs that they afford mathematical
demonftrations. In fa£l, with regard to hiftory in
general, and ancient hiftory in particular, fomething
muft be always left to conjecture and biftoric faith. It
would be an offence againft common probity, were
we to fuffer ourfelves to pafs over in filence thofe
objections which authors of the greateft reputation
have made againft the certainty of chronology. We
fliall extraCt them from their own works; and we
hope that there is no magiftrate, theologian, or pu¬
blic profeffor in Europe, who would be mean enough
to accufe us of a crime, for not unworthily difguifing
the truth.
1. The prodigious difference there is between the
Septuagint Bible and the Vulgate, in point of chrono-
logy>
I955
Bielfield’s
Elements.
C H R O N
logy, occafions an ernbarraffment, which is the more
difficult to avoid, as we cannot pofitively fay on which
fide the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for ex¬
ample, from the creation of the world to the birth of
Abraham, 1500 years more than the Hebrew and La¬
tin Bibles, <tc. 2. How difficult is it to afeertain the
years of the judges of the Jewifh nation, in the Bible ?
What darknefs is fpread over the fucceffion of the
kings of Judah and Ifrael ? The calculation of time is
there fo inaccurate, that the feripture never marks if
they are current or complete years. For we cannot
fuppofe that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived ex-
aftly 60, 90, too, or 969 years, without any odd
months or days. 3. The different names that the
AlTyrians, Egyptians, Perfians, and Greeks, have gi¬
ven to the fame prince, have contributed not a little
to embarrafs all ancient chronology. Three or four
princes have borne the name of Alfuerus, though they
had alfo other names. If we did not know that Na-
bucodonofor, Nabucodrofor, and Nabucolalfar, were
the fame name, or the name of the fame man, we
Ihould fcarcely believe it. Sargon is Sennacherib ;
Ozias is Azarias ; Sedecias is Mathanias; Joachas is
alfo called Sellum ; A fir addon, which is pronounced
indifferently Efarhaddon and Afarhaddon, is called
Afenaphar by the Cuthxans; and by an oddity of which
we do not know the origin, Sardanapalus is called
by the Greeks Tenos Concoleros. 4. There remain
to us but few monuments of the firft monarchs of the
world. Numberlefs books have been loft, and thofe
which have come down to us are mutilated or altered
by tranferibers. The Greeks began to write very
late. Herodotus, their firft hiftorian, was of a credu¬
lous difpofition, and believed all the fables that were
related by the Egyptian priefts. The Greeks were
in general vain, partial, and held no nation in efteem
but their own. The Romans were ftill more infatu¬
ated with notions of their own merit and grandeur :
their hiftorians were altogether as unjuft as was their
fenate, toward other nations that were frequently far
more refpeiftable. 5. The eras, the years, the periods
and epochs, were not the fame in each nation ; and
they, moreover, began at different feafons of the year.
AH this has thrown fo mOch obfeurity over chronolo¬
gy, that it appears to be beyond aU human capacity
totally to difperfe it.
Chriftianity itfelf had fubfifted near 1200 years,
before they knew precifely how many years had
paffed llnce the birth of our Saviour. They faw
clearly that the vulgar era was defective, but it was
a long time before they could comprehend that it re¬
quired four whole years to make up the true period.
Abbe Denis the Little, who, in the year 532, was
the firft among the Chriftians, to form the era of that
grand epoch, and to count the years from that time,
in order to make their chronology altogether Chrif-
tian, erred in his calculation, and led all Europe into
his error. They count 13 2 contrary opinions of diffe¬
rent authors concerning the year in which the Meffiah
appeared on the earth. M. Vallemont names 64 of
them, and all celebrated writers. Among all thefe
authors, however, there is none that reckon more
than 7000, nor lefs than 3700 years. But even this
difference is enormous. The moft moderate fix the
O L O G Y.
birth of Chrift in the 4000th year of the world. The
reafons, however, on which they found their opinion,
appear to be fufficiently arbitrary.
Be thefe matters, however, as they may, the
wifdom of Providence has fo difpofed all things,
that there remain fufficient lights to enable us nearly
to connedt the feries of events: for in the firft 3000
years of the world, where profane hiftory is defec¬
tive, we have the chronology of the Bible to diredl
us; and after that period, where we find more obfeu¬
rity in the chronology of the holy feriptures, we have,
on the other hand, greater lights from profane au¬
thors. It is at this period that begin the time which
Varro calls hiftoric: as, fince the time of the Olym¬
piads, the truth of fuch events as have happened
Ihines clear in hiftory. Chronology, therefore, draws
its principal lights from hiftory; and, in return, ferves
it as a guide. Referring the reader, therefore, to
the article History, and the Chart thereto annexed,
_ we lhall conclude the prefent article with
A Chronological Table of Remarkable Events,
Difcoveries, and Inventions, from the Creation to
the prefent Time.
Bef. Chrift.
4004 The creation of the world, and Adam and Eve.
4003 The birth of Cain, the firft who was born of a
woman.
3017 Enoch, for his piety, is tranflated to Heaven.
2348 The old world is deftroyed by a deluge which
continued 377 days.
2247 The Tower of Babel is built about this time by
Noah’s pofterity, upon which God miraculoufly
confounds their language, and thus difperfes
them into different nations.
About the fame time, Noah is, with great pro¬
bability, fuppofed to have parted from his re¬
bellious offspring, and to have led a colony of
fome of the more traftable into the eaft, and
there either he or one of his fucceflbrs to have
founded the ancient Chinefe monarchy.
2234 The celeftial oblervations are begun at Babylon,
the city which firft gave birth to learning and
the fciences.
2188 Mifraim, the fon of Ham, founds the kingdom
of Egypt, which lafted 1663 years, down to
the conqueft of Cambyfes, in 52 5 before Chrift.
2059 Ninus, the fon of Belus, founds the kingdom of
Affyria, which lafted above 1000 years, and
out of its ruins were formed the Affyrians of
Babylon, thofe of Nineveh, and the kingdom
of the Medes.
1921 The covenant of God made with Abram, when
he leaves Haran to go into Canaan, which be¬
gins the 430 years of fojourning.
1897 The cities of Sodom and Gomora are deftroyed
for their wickednefs, by fire from heaven.
1856 The kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins un¬
der Inachus.
1822 Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters.
1715 Prometheus firft ftruck fire from flints.
1635 Jofeph dies in Egypt, which concludes the
book of Genefis, containing a period of 2369
years.
U P 2
1574
1956 C H R O N
Bef. Chnft. 1574 Aaron born in Egypt; 1490, appointed by God
firft high-prieft of the lifaelites.
1571 Mofes, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and
adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, who educates
him in all the learning of the Egyptians.
1556 Cecrops, brings a colony of Sai’tes from Egypt
into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens
in Greece.
1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and
begins the kingdom of Troy.
1493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece,
and built the citadel of Thebes.
1491 Moles performs a number of miracles in Egypt,
and departs from that kingdom, together with
600,000 Ifraelites, befides children, which
compleated the 430 years of Ibjourning. They
miraculoufly pals through the Red Sea, and
come to the defert of Sinai, where Mofes re-
* ceives from God, and delivers to the people, the
Ten Commandments, and the other laws, and
fets up the tabernacle, and in it the ark of the
covenant.
1485 The firft fhip that appeared in Greece, was
' brought from Egypt by Danaus, who arrived
at Rhodes, and brought with him his fifty
daughters.
1453 The firft Olympic games celebrated at Olympia
in Greece.
1452 The Pentateuch, or five firft books of Mofes,
are written in the land of Moab, where he
died the year following, aged no.
1451 The Ifraelites, after fojourning in the Wilder-
nefs forty years, and led under Jollxua into the
land of Canaan, where they fix themfelves,
after having fubdued the natives; and the pe¬
riod of the fabbatical year commences.
1406 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental
burning of the woods.
1198 The rape of Helen by Paris, which, in IX93,
gave rife to the Trojan war, and liege of
Troy, by the Greeks, which continued ten
years, when that city was taken and burnt.
1048 David is foie king of Ifrael.
1004 The Temple is folemnly dedicated by Solomon.
896 Elijah, the prophet, is tranllated to Heaven.
894 Money firft made of gold and filver at Argos.
869 The city of Carthage, in Africa, founded by
queen Dido.
8x4 The kingdom of Macedon begins.
753 JEra. of the building of Rome in Italy by Romu¬
lus, firft king of the Romans.
720 Samaria taken, after three years fiege, and the
kingdom of Ifrael finilhed, by Salmanafar, king
of Affyria, who carries the ten tribes into cap¬
tivity.
The firft eclipfe of the moon on record.
658 Byzantium (now Conftantinople) built by a co¬
lony of Athenians.
604 By order of Necho, king of Egypt, fome Phe-
nicians failed from the Red Sea round Africa,
and returned by the Mediterranean.
600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, confults
the priefts of Memphis, acquires the know¬
ledge of geometry, aftronomy, and phildfo-
O L O G Y.
phy; returns to Greece, calculates eelipfe?, Bef. Clmfq
gives general notions of the univerfe, and
maintains that an only fupreme Intelligence
regulates all its motions.
Maps, globes, and the fings of the Zodiac, in¬
vented by Anaximander, the fchoiar of Thales.
597 Jehoiakin, king of Judah, is carried away cap¬
tive, by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon.
58 7 The city of Jerufalem taken, after a fiege of
18 months.
562 The firft comedy at Athens acted upon a move-
able fcaffold.
559 Cyrus the firft king of Perfia. v
538 The kingdom of Babylon finifhed; that city be¬
ing taken by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an
edidt for the return of the Jews.
S35 The firft tragedy was adted at Athens, on a
waggon, by Thefpis.
526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and
a public library firft founded.
515 The fecond temple at Jerufalem is finifhed un¬
der Darius.
509 Tarquin, the feventh and laft king of the Ro¬
mans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by
two confuls, and other republican magiftrates,
till the battle of Pharfalia, being a fpace of
461 years.
504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which
gave occafion to the Perfian invafton of Greece.
486 ACfchylus, the Greek poet, firft gains the prize
of tragedy.
481 Xerxes the Great, king of Perfia, begins his
expedition againft Greece.
458 Ezra is fent from Babylon to Jerufalem, with
the captive Jews and the veftels of gold and
filver, ire. being feventy weeks of years, 'or
490 years before t he crucifixion of our Saviour.
454 The Romans fend to Athens for Solon’s laws.
451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws
of the twelve tables compiled and ratified.
430 The hiftory of the Old Teftament finilhes about
this time.
Malachi the laft of the prophets.
400 Socrates, the founder of moral philofophy among
the Greeks, believes the immortality of the
foul, a ftate of rewards and punilhments; for
which, and other fublime doeftrines, he is put
to death by the Athenians, who foon after re¬
pent, and eredt to his memory a ftatue of brafs.
331 Alexander the Great, king of Mr.cedon, con¬
quers Darius, king of Perfia, and other nations
of Alia. 323, Dies at Babylon, and his em¬
pire is divided by his generals into four king¬
doms.
285 Dionyfius, of Alexandria, began his aftronornical
asra on Monday June 26, being the firft wfio
found the exatft folar year to confift of 365'
days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes.
284 Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs
72 interpreters to tranflate the Old Teftament
into the Greek language, winch is called the
Septuagint.
269 The firft coining of filver at Rome.
264 The firft Punic war begins, and continues 23-
years.
C H R O N
Jef/thrift. years. The chronology of the Arundelian
marbles compofed.
260 The Romans firft concern themfelres in naval
affairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at fea.
237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, caufes his ion Han-
Snibal, at nine years old, to fwear eternal en¬
mity to the Romans.
218 The fecond Punic war begins, and continues 17
years. Hannibal paifes the Alps, and defeats
the Romans in feveral battles; but being amu-
fed by his women, does not improve his vic¬
tories by the ftorming of Rome.
190 The firft Roman army enters Afia, and from the
fpoils of Antiochus brings the Afiatic luxury
firft to Rome.
168 Perfeus defeated by the Romans, which ends the
Macedonian kingdom.
167 The firft library creeled at Rome, of books
brought from Macedonia.
163 The government of Judea under the Maccabees
begins, and continues 126 years.
146 Carthage, the rival to Rome, is razed to the
ground by the Romans.
135 The hiftory of the Apocrypha ends.
52 Julius Cad'ar makes his firft expedition into
Britain.
47 The battle of Pharfalia, between Caefar and
Pompey, in which the latter is defeated.
The Alexandrian library, confifting of 400,000
valuable books, burnt by accident.
4 J The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himfelf.
The folar year introduced by Cxfar.
44 Caefar, the greateft of the Roman conquerors,
after having^ fought fifty pitched battles, and
flain 1,192,000 men, is killed in the fenate-
houfe by confpirators.
31 The battle of Acftium fought, in which Mark
Anthony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by
Odtavius, nephew to Julius Csefar.
30 Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by Octavius, upon
which Anthony and Cleopatra put themfelves
to1 death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman
province.
27 Octavius, by a decree of the fenate, obtains the
title of Auguftus Csefar, and an abfolute ex¬
emption from the laws, and is properly the
firft Roman emperor.
8 Rome at this time is fifty miles in circumfe¬
rence, and contains 463,000 men fit to bear
arms.
The temple of Janus is Ihut by Auguftus, as an
emblem of univerfal peace, and
JESUS CHRIST is born, on Monday, Decem¬
ber 2y.
12  Dii'putes with the Doctors in the Temple ;
27 is baptized in the wildernefs by John,
33  and crucified on Friday, April 3. at 3 o’clock
P. M. his refurrediion on Sunday, April 5; his
Afcenfion, Thurfday May 14.
36 St Paul converted.
39 St Matthew writes his Gofpel.
Pontius Pilate kills himfelf.
40 The name of Chriftians firft given at Antioch to
the followers of Chrift.
O L O G Y. 1957
43 Claudius Caelar’s expedition into Britain. Aft. chrift.
44 St Mark writes his Gofpel.
49 London is founded by the Romans ; 368, fur-
rounded by ditto with a wall, fome parts of
which are ftill obfervable.
51 Caradacus, the Britilh king, is carried in chains
to Rome.
52 The council of the Apoftles at Jerufalem.
55 St Luke writes his gofpel.
59 Tire emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers
to death.
 Perfecutes the Druids in Britain.
61 Boadicia, the Britilh queen, defeats the Romans;
but is conquered foon after by Suetonius, go¬
vernor of Britain.
62 St Paul is fent in bonds to Rome—writes his
epiftles between 51 and 66.
63 The Adis of the Apoftles written.
Chriftianity is fuppofed to be introduced into
Britain by St Paul or fome of his difciples about
this time.
64 Rome fet on fire, and burned for fix days; upon
which began (under Nero) the firft perfecution
againft the Chriftians.
67 St Peter and St Paul put to death.
70 While the factious Jews are deftroying one an¬
other with mutual fury, Titus, the Roman ge¬
neral, takes Jerufalem, which is razed to the,
ground, and the plough made to pals over ir.
83 The philofophers expelled Rome by Domitian.
85 Julius Agricola, governor of South-Britain, to
protedt the civilized Britains from the incur-
fions of the‘Caledonians, builds a line of forts
between the rivers Forth and Clyde defeats
the Caledonians under Gaigacus on the Gram¬
pian hills ; and firft fails round Britain, which
he difcovers to be an illand.
96 St John the evangelift wrote his Revelation—
his Gofpel in 9 7.
121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all
the fouthern parts of Scotland ; upon which the
emperor Adrian builds a wall between New-
caftle and Carlifle ; but this alfo proving inef-
fectual, Pollius Urbicus, the Roman general,
about the year 144, repairs Agricola’s forts
which he joins by a wall four yards thick.
135 The fecond Jewilh war ends, when they were
all baniihed Judea.
139 Juftin writes his firft. Apology for the Chriftians.
141 A number of herefies appear about this time.
152 The emperor Antoninus Pius ftops the perfecn-
tion againft the Chriftians.
2x7 The Septuagint found in a calk.
222 About this time the Roman empire begins to
fink under its own weight. The Barbarians
begin their eruptions, and the Goths have an¬
nual tribute not to moleft the empire.
260 Valerius is taken prlfoner by Sapor, king of
Perfia, and Head alive.
274 Silk firft brought from India ; the manufactory
of it introduced into Europe by fome monks,
551 ; firft worn by the clergy in England,
1534-
291 Two emperors and two Caefars march to defend
the
1958 C H R O N
Aft. Chrlft. the four quarters of the empire.
306 Coniiantine the Great begins his reign.
308 Cardinals firlt began.
313 The tenth perfecution ends by an edi(ft of Con-
ftantine, who favours the Chriitians, and gives
full liberty to their religion.
314 Three bilhops, or fathers, are fent from Britain
to affift at the council of Arles.
325 The firlt general council at Nice, when 318 fa¬
thers attended, againlt Arius, the founder of
Arianiftn, where was compofed the famous
Nicene Creed, which we attribute to them.
328 Conftantine removes the feat of empire from
Rome to Byzantium, which is thereafter cal¬
led Conftantinople.
331 .. '■- orders all the heathen temples to be
dellroyed.
363 The Roman emperor Julian, furnamed the A-
poftate, endeavours in vain to rebuild the
temple of Jerufalem.
364 The Roman empire is divided into the eaflern
(Conltautinople the capital) and weftern, (of
which Rome continued to be the capital), each
being now under the government of different
emperors.
400 Bells invented by billiop Paulinus, of Campagpia.
404 The kingdom of Caledonia or Scotland revives
under Fergus.
406 The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, fpread into
France and Spain, by a conceffion of Honorius,
emperor of the Well.
410 Rome taken and plundered by Alaric, king of the
Vifi-Goths.
412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain.
420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower
Rhine, under Pharamond.
426 The Romans, reduced to extremities at home,
withdraw their troops from Britain, and never
return; advifing the Britons to arm in their
own defence, and trull to their own valour.
446 The Britons, now left to themfelves, are greatly
harafied by the Scots and Pidts, upon which
they once more make their complaint to the
Romans, (which they entitle. The Groans of
the Britons), but receive no affiitance from
that quarter.
447 Attila (furnamed the Scourge of God) with his
Huns ravage the Roman empire.
449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the Sax¬
ons into Britain, againlt the Scots and Pi£ts.
435 The Saxons having repulfed the Scots and Pi&s
invite over more of their countrymen, and be¬
gin to eltablilh rhemfelves in Kent, under
Hengill.
476 The wellern empire is finiflted, 523 years after
the battle of Pharfalia; upon the ruins of
which feveral new Hates arife in Italy and
other parts, confillingof Goths, Vandals, Huns,
and other barbarians, under whom literature
is exringuilhed, and the works of the learned
are dellroyed.
496 Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Chriltia-
nity begins in that kingdom.
508 Prince Arthur begins his reign over the Britons.
O L O G Y.
313 Conftantinople befieged by Vitalianus, whofe Aft Chrift
fleet is burnt by a Ipeculum of brafs.
516 The computing of time by the Chriltian asra is
introduced by Dionyfius the monk.
3 29 The codex of Jultinian, the eaftern emperor, is
publilhed.
537 A terrible plague all over Europe, Afia, and A-
frica, which continues near fifty years.
581 Latin ceafed to be fpoke about this time inltaly.
396 Auguftin the monk comes into England with
forty monks.
606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the
conceffions of Phocas, emperor of the Fall.
622 Mahomet, the falie prophet, flies from Mecca
to Medina, in Arabia, in the 44th year of his
age, and 10th of his miniftry, when he laid
the foundation of the Saracen empire, and from
whom the Mahometan princes to this day
claim their defcent. His followers compute
their time from this sera, which in Arabic is
called hegira, i. e. “ the Flight.”
637 Jerufalem is taken by the Saracens or followers
of Mahomet.
649 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the
grand library there burnt by order of Omar
their caliph or prince.
633 The Saracens now extend their conquefts on
every fide, and retaliate the barbarities of the
Goths and Vandals upon their pofterity.
664 Glafs invented in England by Benalt a monk.
683 The Britons, after a brave ftruggle of near 130
years, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and
drove into Wales and Cornwall.
713 The Saracens conquer Spain.
726 The controyerfy about images begins, and oc-
cafions many infurrections in the eaftern em¬
pire.
748 The computing of years from the birth of Chrift
began to be ufed in hiftory.
749 The race of Abbas became caliphs of the Sara¬
cens, and encourage learning.
762 The city qf Bagdad upon the Tigris, is made
the capital for the caliphs of the houfe of Ab¬
bas.
800 Charlemagne, king of France, begins the em¬
pire of Germany, afterwards called the Weft¬
ern empire ; gives the prefent names to the
winds and months; endeavours to reftore learn¬
ing in Europe, but mankind are not yet difpo-
fed for it, being folely engroffed in military
enterprizes.
826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his
fubjeils, for being a Chriftian.
828 Egbert, kingofWeffex, unites the heptarchy,
by the name of England.
836 The Flemings trade to Scotland for filh.
838 The Scots and Pidls have a decifive battle, in
which the former prevail, and both kingdoms
are united by Kenneth, which begins the fe-
cond period of the Scottifh hiftory.
867 The Danes begin their ravages in England.
896 Alfred the Great, after fubduing the Danilh in¬
vaders, (againft whom he fought 36 battles
by fea and land), compofes his body of laws;
divides
t. Chrifh
CHRONOLOGY.
divides England into counties, hundreds, ty-
things; erects county-courts, and founds the
univerlity of Oxford about this time.
915 The univerfity of Cambridge founded.
936 The Saracen empire is divided by ufurpation
into feven kingdoms.
97$ Pope Boniface Vil. is depofed and baniflied for
his crimes.
979 Coronation oath firft ufed in England.
Juries firft inftituted in ditto.
991 The figures in arithmetic are brought into Eu¬
rope by the Saracens from Arabia; letters of
the alphabet were hitherto ufed.
996 Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elec-
999 Boleflaus, the firft king of Poland.
IOOO Paper made of cotton rags was in ufe; that of
linen rags in 1x70; the manufactory introdu¬
ced into England at Dartford, 1588.
1005 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time
in a new manner of architecture.
1O15 Children forbidden by law to be fold by their
parents in England.
1017 Canute, king of Denmark, gets pofleflion of
England.
1040 The Danes, after feveral engagements with va¬
rious fuccefs, are about this time driven out of
Scotland, and never again return in a hoftile
manner.
1041 The Saxon line reftored under Edward the
Confeflbr.
1043 The Turks (a nation of adventurers from Tar-
tafy, ferving hitherto in the armies of con¬
tending princes) become formidable, and take
pofteffion of Perfia.
1054 Leo IX. the firft pope that kept up an army.
1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant
Macbeth at Dunlinane, and marries the princefs
Margaret, filler to Edgar Atheling.
1065 The Turks take Jerufalem from the Saracens.
1066 The cortqueft of England by William (furnamed
the Baftard) duke of Normandy, in the battle
of Haftings, where Harold is llain.
1070 William introduces the feudal law.
Mufical notes invented.
1075 Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope,
quarrel about the nomination of the German
bifhops. Henry, in penance, walks barefooted
to the pope towards the end of January.
1076 Juftices of the peace firft apppointed in Eng¬
land.
1080 Doomfday-book began to be compiled by order
of William, from a furvey of all the ellates in
England, and finiflied in 1086.
The Tower of London built by ditto, to curb
his Englilh lubjects ; numbers of whom fly to
Scotland, where they introduce the Saxon or
Englilh language, are prote&ed by Malcolm,
and have lands given them.
1091 The Saracens in Spain, being bard prefied by
the Spaniards, call to their afliftance Jofeph,
king of Morocco ; by which the Moors get
pofleflion of all the Saracen dominions in
Spain.
1096 The firft crufade to the Holy Land is begun un¬
der leveral Chriftian princes, to drive the in¬
fidels from Jerufahem.
11IO Edgar Atheling, the laft of the Saxon princes,
dies in Englahd,where he had been permitted
to refide as a (ubjeift.
1118 The order of the Knights Templar's inftituted,
to defend the Sepulchre at Jemfalem, and to
proteft Chriftian ftrangers.
iiji The canon law colledted by Gratian, a monk
of Bologna.
1x63 London bridge, confifting of 19 fmall arches,
firft built of ftone.
1164 The Teutonic order of religious knights begins
in Germany.
1172 Henry II. king of England, (and firft of the
Plantagenets) takespofielfionot*Ireland; which,
from that period, has been governed by an
Englilh vicetoy, or lord lieutenant.
1176 England is divided, by Henry, into fix circuits,
and juftice is difpenfed by itinerant judges.
ixSoGlafs windows began to be ufed in private
houfes in England.
1181 The laws of England are digefted about this
time by Glanville.
1182 Pope Alexander III. compelled the kings of
England and France to hold the ftirrups of his
faddle 'when he mounted his borf’e.
Il86 The great conjutldlion of the fun and moon and
all the planets in Libra, happened in September.
1192 The battle of Afcalon, in Judea, in which Ri¬
chard, king of England, defeats Saladin’s ar¬
my, eonfifting of 300,000 combatants.
1194 Dicu et nton Droit, firft ufed as a motto by Ri¬
chard, on a vidlory over the French.
1200 Chimnies were not known in England.
Surnames now began to be ufed ; fiift among
the nobility.
1208 London incorporated, and obtained their firft
charter for electing their Lord Mayor and o-
ther magiftrates from king John.
1215 Magna Charta is figned by king John and the
barons of England.
Court of common pleas eftablilhed.
1227 The Tartars, a new race of heroes, under Gin-
gis-Kan, emerge from the northern parts of
Alia, over-run all the Saracen empire ; and, in
imitation of former conquerors, cafry death,
and defolation wherever they march.
1233 The Inquifmon begun in 1204, is now trufted
to the Dominicans.
The houfes of London, and other cities in Eng¬
land, France, and Germany, ftill thatched With-
ft raw.
1253 The famous aftronomical tables are compofed
by Alonfo, king of Caftile.
1258 The Tartars take Bagdad, which finilhes the
empire of the Saracens.
1263 Acho, king of Norway, invades Scotland with
r6o fail, and lands 20,000 men at the mouth
of the Clyde, who are cut to pieces by Alex¬
ander III. who recovers the weftern iiles.
1264 The commons of England firft fummoned to par¬
liament about this time.
1269 The
I959
b Chrlfl.
i960
Aft. Chrift
c H R o N
, 1269 The Hamburgh company incorporated in Eng-
1273 The empire of the prefent Auftrian family be¬
gins in Germany. , , ,
1282 Lewellyn, prince of Wales, defeated and killed
by Edward I. who unites that principality to
England. - ' _ „ .
1284 Edward II. born at Carnarvon, is the hrit prince
of Wales. ,
1281 Alexander III. king of Scotland, dies, and that
kingdom is difputed by twelve candidates, who
fubmit their claims to the arbitration of Ed¬
ward, king of England ; which lays the foun¬
dation of a long and defolating war between
both nations.
1293 There is a regular fucceflion of Enghlh parlia¬
ments from this year, being the 22d of Ed¬
ward I.
1298 The prefent Turkilh empire begins in Bithyma
under Ottoman.
Silver-hafted knives, fpoons, and cups, a great
luxury.
Tallow candles fo great a luxury, that fplinters
of wood were tiled for lights.
Wine fold by apothecaries as a cordial.
1302 The mariner’s compafs invented, or improved
by Givia, of Naples.
1307 The beginning of the Swifs cantons.
1308 The popes remove to Avignon in France for
70 years.
1310 Lincoln’s inn fociety eflablillied.
1314 The battle of Bannockburn, between Edward II.
and Robert Bruce, which eltablilhes the latter
on the throne of Scotland.
The cardinals fet fire to the conclave and feparate.
A vacancy in the papal chair for two years.
1320 Gold firll coined in Chriftendom ; 1344 ditto in
England.
1336 Two Brabant weavers fettle at York, which,
fays Edward III may prove of great benefit
to us and our fubjedls.
1337 The firft comet whole courfe is defcribed with
an alixonomical exadnefs.
1340 Gunpowder and guns firft invented by Swartz,
a monk of Cologn ; 1 346 Edward III. had four
pieces of cannon, which gamed him the battle
of CrefTy; 1346, bombs and mortars were in¬
vented.
Oil painting firft made ufe of by John Vaneck.
Heralds college inftituted in England.
1344 The firft creation to titles by patents ufed by
Edward III.
1346 The battle of Durham, in which David, king
of Scots, is taken prifoner.
1349 The order of the Garter inftituted in England
by Edward HI. altered in 1557, and confifts
of 26 knights.
1352 The Turks firft enter Europe.
1354 The money in Scotland till now the fame as in
England.
1356 The battle of Poicliers, in which king John of
France and his fon are taken prifoners by Ed¬
ward the Black Prince.
1357 Coals firft brought to London.
O L O G Y.
1338 Arms of England and France firft quartered by Aft. Chri
Edward III.  
1362 The law pleadings in England changed from
French to Englifh as a favour of Edward III.
to his people.
John Wickliffe an Englifhman begins to call in
queftion the do&rines of the church of Rome
about this time, whofe followers are called
Lollards.
1386 A company of linen weavers from the Nether¬
lands eftablifhed in London.
Windfor caftle built by Edward III.
1388 The battle of Otterburn between Hotfpur and
the earl of Douglas.
1391 Cards invented in France for the king’s amufe-
ment.
1399 Weftminfter abbey rebuilt and enlarged—Weft-
minfter hall ditto.
Order of the Bath inftituted at the coronation
of Henry IV. renewed in 1725 j confiftingof
38 knights.
14x0 Guildhall, London, built.
1411 The univerfity of St Andrew’s in Scotland
founded.
1415 The battle of Agincourt gained over the French
by Henry V. of England.
1428 The fiege of Orleans, the firft blow to the Eng-
lifh power in France.
1440 Printing invented by L. Kofter at Harlaem in
Holland ; brought into England by W. Cax-
ton, a mercer of London, 1471.
1446 The Vatican library founded at Rome.
The fea breaks in at Dort, in Holland, and
and drowns 100,000 people.
1453 Conftantinople taken by the Turks, which ends
the eaftern empire, 1123 years from its dedi¬
cation by Conftantine the Great, and 2206
years from the foundation of Rome.
1454 The univerfity of Glafgow in Scotland founded.
1460 Engraving and etching on copper invented.
1477 The univerfity of Aberdeen in Scotland founded.
1483 Richard III. king of England, and laft of the
Plantagenets, is defeated and killed at the
battle of Bofworth, by Henry (Tudor) VII.
which puts an end to the civil wars between
the houfes of York and Lancafter, after a con-
tefl of 30 years, and the lofs ofioo,oco men.
i486 Henry eftabliflies fifty yeomen of the guards,
the firft ftanding army.
1489 Maps and fea charts firft brought to England
by Barth. Columbus.
1491 William Groceyn introduces the ftudy of the
Greek language into England.
The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to the
native Spaniards, are entirely fubdued by Fer¬
dinand, and become fubjedls to that prince on
certain conditions, which are ill obferved by
the Spaniards, whofe clergy ufe the Inquifition
in all its tortures; and in 1609, near one
million of the Moors are driven from Spain to
the oppofite coaft of Africa, from whence
they originally come.
1492 America firft difcovered by Columbus, a Ge-
xioefe, in the fervice of Spain.
1494 Algebra
CHRONOLOGY.
Aft Chrift. f 494 Algebra firft known in Europe.
1497 The Portugueie firft fail to the Eaft Indies by
the Cape of Good Hope.
South America difcovered by Americus Vefpu-
fius, from whom it has its name.
1499 North America difcovered, for Henry VII. by
Cabot, a Venetian.
I Jco Maximilian divides the empire of Germany in-
to fix circles, and adds four more in 1512.
1505 Shillings firft coined in England.
1509 Gardening introduced into England from the
Netherlands, from whence vegetables were
imported hitherto.
1513 The battle of Flowden, in which James IV.
king of Scotland is killed, with the flowfer of
his nobility.
IJ1 7 Martin Luther began the Reformation.
Egypt is conquered by the Turks.
1518 Magellan, in the fervice of Spain, firft difcovers
the ftraits of that name in South America.
1520 Henry VIII. for his writings in favour of popery,
receives the title of Defender of the Faith
from his Holinefs.
1^29 The name of Proteftant takes its rife from the
reformed protefting againft the church of
Rome, at the diet of Spires in Germany.
1534 The reformation takes place in England, under
Henry VIII.
1537 Religious houfes dilfolved by ditto.
1539 The fifft Englilh edition Of the Bible authori¬
zed; the prefent tranflation finifhed 1611.
About this time cannon began to be ufed in Ihips.
S543 Silk ftockings firft worn by the French king;
firft worn in England by queen Eliz. 1561 ; the
fteel frame for weaving invented by the Rev.
Mr Lee, of John’s College, Cambridge, 1589.
Pins firft ufed in England, before which time
the ladies ufed (kewers.
1544 Good lands let in England at one Ihillingper acre.
1545 The famous council of Trent begins, and conti¬
nues 18 years.
1546 Firft law in England eftablifhing the intereft of
money at 1 o per cent.
1549 L°r^s lieutenants of counties inftituted in Eng¬
land.
1550 Horfe guards inftituted in England.
1555 The Ruffian company eftablilhed in England.
1558 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign.
1560 The reformation in Scotland completed by John
Knox.
1563 Knives firft made in England.
1569 Royal Exchange firft built.
1572 The great maflacre of Proteftants at Paris.
1579 The Dutch fhake off the Spaniffi yoke, and the
republic of Holland begins.
Englilh Eaft-India company incorporated—efta¬
blilhed 1600.
 Turky company incorporated.
1580 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage
round the world, being the firft Englilh cir¬
cumnavigator.
Parochial regifter firft appointed in England.
1582 Pope Gregory introduces the New Stile in Ita¬
ly ; the 5th of October being counted 15.
VOL. III.
1583 Tobacco firft brought from Virginia into Eng¬
land.
1587 Mary queen of Scots is beheaded by order of
Elizabeth, after t8 years imprifohmfeht.
1588 The Spaniih Armada deftroyed by Drake and
other Englifll admirals.
Henry IV paffes the edidl of Nantes* tolera¬
ting the Proteftants.
1589 Coaches firft introduced into England; hackney
a«ft 1693 ; increafed to iooo, in 1770.
1590 Band of penfionefs inftituted in England.
1591 Trinity college, Dublin, founded.
1597 Watches firft brought into England from Ger¬
many.
1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.
1603 Queen Elizabeth (the lalt of the Tudors) dies,
and nominates James VI. of Scotladd (and
firft of the Stuarts) aS her fucceffor ; which
unites both kingdoms under the naitiB Of Great
Britain.
1605 The Gunpowder-plot difcovered at Weftmiu-
fter ; being a project of the Roman catholics
to blovV up the king and both houfes of Par¬
liament.
1606 Oaths of allegiance firft adminiftered in Eng¬
land.
1608 Galileo, of Florence, firft difcovers the fatel-
lites about the planet Saturn, by the telefcope,
then juft invented in Holland.
1610 Henry IV. is murdered at Paris, by Ravaillac,
a prieft.
i6it Baroftets firft created in England by James I.
1614 Napier of Mafchefton, in Scotland, invents the
logarithms.
Sir Hugh Middleton brings the new river to
London from Ware.
1616 The firft permanent liettlement in Virginia.
1619 W. Harvey, an Englilhman, Confirms the doc¬
trine of the circulation of the blood, which
had been firft broached by Servetius, a French
phyfician, in 1553.
1620 The broad filk manufacture from raw filk, in¬
troduced into England.
1621 New England planted by thC Puritans.
1625 Kirtg JameS dies, and is fuCceeded by his fon,
Charles 1.
The ill and of Barbadoes, the firft Englifh fettle-
ment in the Weft Indies, is planted.
1632 The battle of Lutzen, in which Guftavus Adol¬
phus, king of Sweden, and head of the Pro¬
teftants in Germany, is killed.
1635 Province of Maryland planted by lord Baltimore.
Regular pofts eftablilhed from London to Scot¬
land, Ireland, &c.
1640 King Charles difobliges his Scottilh fubjeCts, on
which their army, under general Lefley, en¬
ters England, and takes Newcaftle, being en¬
couraged by the malecoritehts in England.
The maffacre in Ireland, when 40,000 Englilli
Proteftants were killed.
1642 King Charles impfcaches five refractory mem¬
bers, which begins the civil wars in England.
1643 Excife on beer, ale, tec. firft impofed by par¬
liament.
it Q^ 1649 Charles
I961
Aft. Chrift.
1962 C H R O N
Aft. Chrift. 1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell, at Whitehall,
January 30, aged 49.
1654 Cromwell affumes the protedlorfliip.
1655 The Englilh, under admiral Penn, take Jamaica
from the Spaniards.
1658 Cromwell dies, and is fucceeded in the protec-
torlhip, by his fon Richard.
j66o King Charles II. is reltored by Monk, com¬
mander of the army, after an exile of twelve
years, in France and Holland.
The people of Denmark, being opprefled by
the nobles, furrender their privileges to Fre¬
deric III. who becomes abfolute.
1662 The Royal Society, eftablilhed at London, by
Charles II.
1663 Carolina planted ; 1728 divided into two fepa-
rate governments.
1664 The New Netherlands, in North America, con¬
quered from the Swedes and Dutch by the
Englilh.
1665 The plague rages in London, and carries off
68,000 perfons.
1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2, and
continued three days, in which were deftroyed
13,000 houfes, and 400 Itreets.
Tea fir ft ufed in England.
1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Eng¬
lilh the New Netherlands, now known by the
names of Penfylvania, New York, and New
Jerfey.
1668  ditto, Aix la Chapelle.
St James’s Park planted, and made a thorough¬
fare for public ufe by Charles II.
1670 The Englilh Hudfon’s Bay company incorpora¬
ted.
1672 Lewis XIV. over-runs great part of Holland,
when the Duch opened their flukes, being de¬
termined to drown their country, and retire
to their fettlements in the Eaft Indies.
African company eftablilhed.
1678 The peace of Nimeguen.
The habeas corpus aft palled.
1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearnefs
to our earth alarmed the inhabitants. It con¬
tinued vifible from Nov. 3, to March 9.
William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for
planting Penfylvania.
1683 India ftock Ibid from 360 to 500 per cent,
1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is fucceeded by
his brother James II.
The duke of Monmouth, natural fon to Charles II.
raifes a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle
of Sedgmore, and beheaded.
The edict of Nantes is revoked by Lewis XIV,
and the Proteftants are greatly diftrelfed.
1687 The palace of Verfailes, near Paris, finilhed by
Lewis XIV.
1688 The Revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5.
King James abdicates, and retires to France,
December 3.
King William and queen Mary, daughter and
fon-in-law to James, are proclaimed Februa¬
ry 16.
Vifcount Dundee Hands out for James in Scotland,
but is killed by general Mackey, at the battle
O L O G Y.
of Killycrankie, upon which the Highlanders, Aft. Chrift.
wearied with repeated misfortunes, (iifperfe.   
1689 The land-tax paffed in England.
The toleration aft paffed in ditto.
Several bilhops are deprived for not taking the
oaths to William.
William Fuller, who pretended to prove the
Prince of Wales 1’purioas, was voted by the
commons to be a notorious cheat, impoftor, and
falfe accufer.
1690 The battle of the Boyne, gained by William a-
gaintt James, in Ireland.
1691 The war in Ireland finifhed, by furrender of
Limerick to William.
1692 The Englilh and Dutch fleets, commanded by
Admiral Ruffell, defeat the French fleet off
La Hogue.
1693 Bayonets at the end of loaded mulkets firft ufed
by the French again!! the confederates in the
battle of Turin.
The duchy of Hanover made the ninth eleftorate.
Bank of England eftabliflied by king William.
The firft public lottery was drawn this year.
Maffacre of Highlanders at Glencoe, by king
William’s army.
^94 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William
reigns alone.
Stamp duties inftituted in England.
1696 The peace of Ryfwick.
1699 The Scots fettled a colony at the ifthmus of Da¬
rien, in America, and called it Caledonia.
1700 Charles XII. of Sweden, begins his reign.
King James II. dies at St Germains, in the 68,!i
year of his age.
1701 Prufiia erected into a kingdom.
Society for the propagation of the gofpel in fo-
reigns parts tftablilhed.
1702 King William dies, aged 50, and is fuceeeded by
queen Anne, daughter to James II. wlio, with
the Emperor and States General, renews the
war againft France and Spain.
X 704 Gil^altar taken from the Spaniards, by admiral
Rooke.
The battle of Blenheim, won by the duke of
Marlborough and allies, againft the French.
The court of Exchequer inftituted in England.
1706 The treaty of Union betwixt England and Scot¬
land, figned July 22.
The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1707 The firft Bridfh parliament.
1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by general"
Stanhope.
The battle of Oudenarde won by Marlborough
and the allies.
Sardinia erefted into a kingdom, and given to
the duke of Savoy.
1709 Peter the Great, czar of Mufcovy, defeats
Charles XII. at P'ultowa, who flies to Turky.
The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough
and the allies.
*7ioQueen Anne changes the Whig miniftry for
others more favourable to the intereft of her
brother, the late Pretender.
The
C H R O N
Aft. Chrift. 1710 The cathedral church of St Paul, London, re-
built by Sir Chriftopher Wren, in 37 years, at
one million expence, by a duty on coals.
The Engliih South-Sea company began.
171a Duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun killed in a
duel in Hyde-Park.
1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland,
Nova-Scotia, New-Britain, and Hudfon’s-Bay,
in North America, were yielded to Great Bri¬
tain ; Gibraltar and Minorca, in Europe, were
alfo confirmed to the laid crown by this treaty.
1714 Queen Anne dies, at the age of 50, and is fuc-
eeeded by George I.
Interelt reduced to five per cent.
1715 Lewis XIV. dies, and isfucceeded by bis great-
grandl'on Lewis XV. the late king of France.
The rebellion in Scotland begins in September
under the earl of Mar, in favour of the Pre¬
tender. The action of Sheriff-muir, and the
furrender of Prellon, both in November, when
the rebels difperfe.
1716 The Pretender married the princefs Sobielka,
grand-daughter of John Sobielki, late king of
Poland.
An adt palfed for leptennial parliaments.
1719 The Milhlippi fcheme at its height in France.
Lombe’s filk-throwing machine, containing
26,586 wheels, eredted at Derby: takes up
one-eighth of a mile; one water-wheel moves
fhe reft; and in 24 hours, it works 318,504,960
yards of organzine filk thread.
The South-Sea fcheme in England begun April 7.
was at its height at the end of June, and
quite funk about September 29.
1727 King George dies, in the 68th year of his age;
and is fucceeded by his only fon, George II.
Inoculation firft tried on criminals with fuccefs.
Ruffia, formerly a dukedom, is now eftablifhed
as an empire.
1732 Kouli Khan ufurps the Perfian throne, conquers
the Mogul empire, and returns with two hun¬
dred thirty-one millions Sterling.
Several public-fpirited gentlemen begin the fet-
tlement of Georgia, in North America.
1736 Capt. Porteous having ordered his foldiers to
fire upon the populace at an execution of a
fmuggler, is himfelf hanged by the mob at E-
d inburgh.
1738 Weftminfter bridge, confifting of 15 arches, be¬
gun ; finilhed in 1750, at the expence of
389,000!. defrayed by parliament.
1739 Letters of marque iflued out in Britain againft
Spain, July 2t, and war declared 0<5t. 23.
I 743 The battle of Dettingen won by the Englifh
and allies, in favour of the queen of Hungary.
1744 War declared againft France.—Commodore An-
fon returns from his voyage round the world.
1745 The allies lofe the battle at Fontenoy.
The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the
Pretender’s army defeated by the duke of
Cumberland, at Culloden, April 16, 1746.
1746 Britifh Linen Company erected.
1748 The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which a re-
ftitution of all places taken during the war,
was to be made on all Tides.
o L o G Y. ,96j
1749 intereft on the Britilh funds reduced to Aft. Chrift.
3 per cent.  
Britilh herring-filhery incorporated.
1751 Frederic, prince of Wales, father to hisprefent
majelty, died.
Antiquarian fociety at London incorporated.
1752 The new ftile introduced into Great Britain ;
the 3d of September being counted the 14th.
1753 The Britilh mufeum erected at Montague-houfe.
Society of arts, manufactures, and commerce,
inftituted in London.
1755 Lilbon deftroyed by an earthquake.
1756 146 Englifhmen are confined in the black hole
at Calcutta, in the Eaft Indies, by order of the
nabob, and 123 found dead next morning.
Marine fociety eftablifhed at London.
1757 Damien attempted to affaflinate the French king.
1 759 General Wolf is killed in the battle of Quebec,
which is gained by the Englilh.
1760 King George II. dies OCtober 25, in the 77th
year of his age, and is fucceeded by his pre-
fent majefty, who, on the 22d of September,
1761, married the princefs Charlotte, of Meck-
lenburgh Strelitz.
Black-friars bridge, confifting of 9 arches, be¬
gun ; finifhed r 7 70, at the expence of 15 2,8401.
to be difcharged by a toll.
X 762 War declared againft Spain.
Peter HI. emperor of Ruflia, is depofed, impri-
foned, and murdered.
American philolbphical fociety eftablifhed in Phi¬
ladelphia.
George Auguftus Frederic, prince of Wales,
born Aug 1 2.
1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great-
Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, conclu¬
ded at Paris, February 10, which confirms to
Great-Britain the extenfive provinces of Ca¬
nada, Eaft and Weft Florida, and part of Loui-
fiana, in North America; alfo the iflands of
Granada, St Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago,
in the Weft Indies.
1764 The parliament granted 10,0001. to Mr Har-
rifon, for his difcovery of the longitude by his
time-piece.
1765 His majefty’s royal charter palfed for incorpo¬
rating the fociety of artifts.
An adt paffed annexing the fovereignty of the
Hand of Man to the crown of Great Britain.
1766 April 21, a fpot or macula of the fun, more than
thrice the bignefs of our earth, palfed the fun’s
center.
1768 Academy of painting eftablifhed in London.
The Turks imprifon the Ruffian ambaflador, and
declare war againft that empire.
1771 Dr Solander and Mr Banks, in his majefty’s fliip
the Endeavour, lieut. Cooke, return from a
voyage round the world, having made feveral
important difcoveries in the South-Seas.
1772 The king of Sweden changes the conftitution
from ariftocracy to a limited monarchy.
The pretender marries a princefs of Germany,
grand-daughter of Thomas, late Earl of Aylef-
bury.
The emperor of Germany, emprefs of Ruffia,
I* 0.2 and
1964 c H R O N
Aft. Chfifi- and the king of Pruffia, ftrip the king of Po-
  land of a great part of his dominions, which
they divide among themfelves, in violation of
the moll folemn treaties.
1773 Captain Phipps is fent to explore the North
Pole, but having made 81 degrees, is in danger
of being locked up by the ice, and his attempt
to difcover a paffage in that quarter proves
fruitlefs.
The Jefuits expelled from the Pope’s dominions.
The Englifli Eaft India company having, by con-
queft or treaty, acquired the extenlive pro¬
vinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Bahar, contain¬
ing 15 millions'of inhabitants, great irregula¬
rities are committed by their fervants abroad ;
upon which government interferes, and fends
out judges, irr. for the better adminiftration
of juftice.
C H R
CHRONOMETER, in general, denotes any in-
ftrumentor machine ufed in meafuring time; fuch are
dials, clocks, watches, ire. See Dial, ire.
The term chrotiomi ter, however, is generally ufed
in a more limited fenfe, for a kind of clock fp contri¬
ved as to meafure a froall portion of time with great
exa&nefs, even to the fixteenth part of a fecond : of
fuch a one there is a defeription in Defagolier’s ex¬
perimental philofophy, invented by the late ingenious
Mr George Graham ; which muB be allowed to be
of great ufe for meafuring fmall portions of time in
aftronomical obfervations, the time of the fall of bo¬
dies, the velocity of running waters, ire. But long
fpaces of time cannot be meafured by it with fufficienf
exadinefs, unlefs its pendulum be made to vibrate in
a cycloid 5 becauffe, otherwife it is liable to err con-
fiderably, as all clocks are which have fhort pendu¬
lums that fwing in large arches of a circle.
There have been levcral machines contrived for
meafuring time, under the name of chronometers, up¬
on principles very different from thpfe on which
clocks and watches are conftrudfed.
Plate LXXXII. fig. 4. reprefbnts an air-chronome¬
ter, which is cpnftrudled in the following manner. Pro¬
vide a ghfs tube of about an inch in diameter, and three
or four feet Ipng : the diameter of the infide of this tube
muff be precifely equal in every part: at;thp bottom
muff be a final);hole, clofely covered with a valye. In
the tube place a pifton E, fig. 5. which made to fit it
exactly, and mu-ft be oiled, that it may move in the
tube with the greafeft freedom: in this pifton. there
is a cock that, fhuts quite clofe; and from the top of it
there- goes a cord F, whjch, palfes through the handle
G. The cock of the pifton being clofed, it is to be
let down to the bottom of the tube ; and being then
drawn, up to the top, the air will then rufh in by the
valve at the bottom of the tube, and fupport the pif¬
ton. You are then to turn the cock, fo as to make a.
very fmajl vent; and the air palling flowly through
that vent, the pillon will gradually defeend. and Ihew
the hour, either by lines cut in thp tube with a dia¬
mond, or marked with paint, or by fmall flips of pa¬
per, painted on the glafs. If this chronometer fliould
go too faff or too flow, it may be eafily regulated by
O L O G Y.
1773 The war between the Ruffians and the Turks Aft. Chtifh <
proves difgraceful to the latter, who lole the "*
iflands in the Archipelago, and by fea are
every where unfuccel’sful.
1774 Peace is proclaimed between the Ruffians and
Turks.
The Britilh parliament having paffed an a<ft,
laying a duty of 3 d. per pound upon all teas
imported into America ; the colonifts, confi-
dering this as a grievance, deny the right of
the Britilh parliament to tax them.
1775 The American colonies fend deputies to Phila¬
delphia, who aflume the title of The Congrefs
of the Thirteen United Provinces, and all the
powers of government.
1776 The congrels declare the United States of Ame¬
rica independent of the crown and parliament
of Great Britain.
C H R
altering the politico, of the cock in the piffon, as it is
on that the whole depends.
If, inftead of marking the tube, you would have
the time fhown by a dial, it may be eafily efleefted by
placing an axis to which the hand of the dial is fixed,
diredlly over the tube, and winding the firing to
which the pifton is joined, round that axis; for then,
as the pifton. defeenffs, the axis will gradually turn
the hand, and fhow the hour : but it muff be obferved,
that as the descent of the piffon is not conftantly re¬
gular, on account of the decrease of refinance from
the quantity of the fubjacent air as the piftoa defeends,
the axis therefor? muff not be a regular cylinder, but
conical like the fufee of a watch, as in fig. 6. by which
means the motion of the band of the dial will be con-
ftant and regular.
Fig. ?. repreleut? a lamprchronometer. It confifts
of a chamber lamp A, which is a cylindrical veflel a-
bout three inches high, and one. inch diameter, placed
in, the ftand B. The infide of this veffel muff be every
where exactly of the fame diameter. To the ftand
R, is fixed the handle G, which fupports the frame
DEFG, about I2; inches high, and four wide. This
frame Is to be covered with oiled paper, and divided!
into twelve equai parts by horizontal lines;, at the
end of which, are wrote the numbers for the hours,
from i to 12, and between the horizontal lines are
diagonals that are divided into halves, quarters, ire..
On the handle B, and clofe to the glafa, is; fi#ed the
ftyle or gnomon H. Now, as the dtffance of the
ffyle from the flame of the lamp is. only half an inch,,
if the diftance of the frame from, the ftyle is only fix
inches, then, while the float that com aka s the light
dfifeends, by the decreafe of the oil, one inch, the
lhadow of the. ftyle on the frame vvill afeend twelve
inches, that is, its. whole length, and fliow by its pro-
greffion the regular increafe of the hours, with their
feverai divifions. It is abfolutely neceflary, however,
that the oil ufed in this lamp, be always of the fame
fort and7 quite pure, and that the wick alfo be con-
ftandy of the fame fize and ftibftance, as it is on thefe
circumftances, and the uniform figure of the velfel,
that the regular progrefs of the lhadow depends.
Chronometer, among muficians, an inftrument
invented
C H R [ 1965^ ] C H R
Chronome- invented by Loulie, a French mufkian, for the pur-
tev pofe of meai’uring time by means of a pendulum. The
II form of the inftrument as del'cribed by him, is that of
iry 3 1S~- an Ionic pilafter, and is thus defct ibtd by Malcolm in his
treatil’e of Muiic, p. 407.—“ The chronometer confifts
of a large ruler or board, fix feet or 72 inches long,
to be fet on end ; it is divided into its inches, and the
numbers fet lo as to count upwards; and at every divi-
fion there is a fmall round hole, through whole een-
ter.the line of divifion runs. At the top of this ruler,
about an inch above the divifion 72, and perpendicu¬
lar to the ruler, is inferred a fmall piece of wood, in
the upper fide of which there is a groove, hollowed
along from the end that Hands out to that which is
fixed in the ruler, and near each end of it a hole is
made: through thefe holes a pendulum cord is drawn,
which runs in the groove : at that end of the cord
which comes through the hole furthefi: from the ruler,
the ball is hung; and at the other end there is a finall
wooden pin, which can be put in any of the holes of
the ruler : when the pin is in the upmoit hole at
72, then the pendulum from the top to the centre of
the ball muff be exactly 72 inches; and therefore,
whatever hole of the ruler it is put in, the pendulum
will be juft fa many incites; as that figure at the hole
denotes. The manner of ttfing the machine is this:
The compofer lengthens or Ihortens his pendulum, till
one vibration be equal to the defigned length of his
bar, ^ind then the pin Hands at a certain divifion,
which marks the length of the pendulum; and this
number being fet with the cliff at the beginning of
the fong, is a direction for others how to ufe the
ehropometer in naeafuring the time according to the
compofer’s defign: for with the number is fet the
note, crotchet, or minim, whofe value he would have
the vibration to be; which in hr ilk duple time is beft
a minim or half bar, or even a whole bar, when that
is but a minim; and in flow time, a crotchet. In
triple time, it would do well to be the third part or
half, or fourth parr of a bar; and in the fimple triples
that are allegro, let it be a whole bar. And if, in
every time that is allegro, the vibration is applied to
a whole or half bar, practice will teach us to fubdi-
vide it juftty and equally. Obferve, that, to make
this machine of univerial ufe, fom.e canonical meafure
of the divifions muft be agreed upon, that the figure
may give a certain direction for the length of the
pendulum.
CHROSTASIMA, in natural bdftory, a genus of
pellucid gems, comprehending aft thofe which appear
of one fimple and permanent colour in all lights; fuch
are the diamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, amethyft,
fapphire, beryl, emerald, and the topaz. See Dia¬
mond, Carbunche, &c.
CHRYSALIS, or Aurelia, in natural hiftory, a
ftate of reft and feeming infenfibtfity, which butter¬
flies, moths, and f'everal other kinds of infedis, muft
pafs through before they arrive at their winged or
mo ft perfect ftate.
In this ftate, no creatures afford fb beautiful a va¬
riety as the butterfly kinds, and they all pafs through
this middle ftate without one exception. The figure
of the aurelia or chryfalis generally approaches to that
of a cone, or at leaft the hinder part of it is in this
lhape; and the creature, while in this ftate, feems to Chryfalis.
have neither legs nor wings, nor has any power of 
walking. It feems indeed to have hardly'fb much as
life. It takes no nom ifhment in this ftate, nor has it any
organs for taking any ; and indeed its pofterior part is
all that feems animated, this having a power of giving
itlelf feme motions. The external covering of the
chryfalis is cartilaginous, and confiderably large, and
is ulually f'mooth and glofly : but fotne few of them
have a few hairs; feme are allb as hairy as the cater¬
pillars from which they are produced; and others
are rough, and, as it were, fhagt eened all over.
In all of thefe there may be diftinguifhed two fides;
the one of which is the back, the other the belly of the
animal. On the anterior part of the latter, there
may always be dtftinguifhed certain little elevations
running in ridges, and refemWing the fillets wound
about mummies: the part whence thefe have their
origin, is efteemed the head of the animal. The other
fide, or back, is fimooth, and of a rounded figure in
molt of the chryfalifes ; but ibme have ridges on the
anterior parr, and fides of this part; and thefe ulually
terminate in a point, and make an angular appear¬
ance on the chryl’alis.
From, this difference is drawn tire firft general dif-
tineftion of thefe bodies. They are by this divided into
two dalles; the round and the angular kinds. The
firft are, by the French naturaiifts, called; from
the common cuftom of calling the chryfalis of the filk-
wornt, which is round, by this name.
There is fomething more regular in this diftin&ion
than might at firft be conceived ; for the divifion is
continued from the fly-ftate : the rounded cbryfalifes
being altnoft all produced by the phaUna or moths;
and the angular ones by the pcipiliost or day-flies.
There are feveral fubordinate dil l inci ions of thefe
kinds ; but, in general, they are lefs different front
one another than the caterpillars from whence they
are produced.
The head of thofe of the firft clafs ufually termi¬
nates itfelf by two angular parts, which Hand feparate
one from the other, and refcmble a pair of horns.
On the back, eminences and marks are difeovered,
which imagination may form into eyes, nofe, chin,
and other parts of the human face.
There is a great variety and a great deal of beauty
in the figures and arrangement of the eminences and
fpots on the other part of the body of the chryfaliles of
different kinds. It is a general obfervation, that thofe
chryfalifes which are terminated by a fingle horn, af¬
ford day-butterflies of the kind of thofe which have
buttoned antennse, and whofe wings, in a ftate of reft,
cover the under part of their body, and which ufe all
their fix legs in walking, thofe of many other kinds
ufing only four of them. Thofe chryfalifes which are
terminated by two angular bodies, and which are co¬
vered with a great number of fpines, and have the fi¬
gure of a human face on their back in the greateft
perfection, afford butterflies of the day-kind ; and of
that clafs the characters of which are, their walking
on four legs, and ufing the other two, that is, the an¬
terior part, in the manner of arms or hands. The
chryfalifes which have two angular bodies on their
heads, but fhorter than thofe of the preceding, and
whofe
C H R [ 1966 ] C H R
Ciiryfalis- whofe back fliews but a faint Ikctch of the human face,
and which have fewer fpines, and tliofe lefs fliarp,
always turn to that fort of butterfly the upper wings
of which are divided into fegments, one of which is
fo long as to reprefent a tail, and whole under wings
are folded over the upper part of the back. A careful
obfervation will eltablilh many more rules of this kind,
which are not fo perfect as to be free from all excep¬
tions ; yet are of great ufe, as they teach us in gene¬
ral what fort "of fly we are to expert from the chry-
falis, of which we know not the caterpillar, and there¬
fore can only judge from appearances.
Thefe are the principal differences of the angular
thryfalifes; the round ones alfo have their different
-marks not lefs regular than thofe.
The greater number of the round chryfalifes have
the hinder part of their body of the figure of a cone ;
but the upper end, which ought to be its circular plane
bafe, is ufually bent and rounded into a fort of knee :
this is ufually called the head of the chryfalis ; but
thefe are alfo fome of this kind, the head of which is
terminated by a nearly plane furface: fome of the
creeping ten-legged caterpillars give chryfalifes of this
kind, which have each of them two eminences that
feem to bring them towards the angular kind.
Among the angular chryfalifes there are fome whofe
colours feem as worthy our obfervation as the fliapes
of the others. Many of them appear fuperbly clothed
in gold. Thefe elegant fpecies have obtained the
name of chryfalis and aurelia, which are derived from
Greek and Latin words, fignifying gold ; and from
thefe all other bodies of the fame kind have been cal¬
led by the fame names, though lefs, or not at all, en¬
titled to them. As fome kinds are thus gilded all
over, fo others are ornamented with this gay appear¬
ance in a more (paring manner, having only a few
fpots of it in different places on their back and belly.
Thefe obvious marks, however, are not to be de¬
pended upon as certain chara&ers of diftin&ion : for
accidents in the formation of the chryfalis may alter
them; and thofe which naturally would have been
gilded all over, may be fometimes only fo in part;
and either thefe or the others may, by accident, be fo
formed, as to fhew nothing of this kind at all, but be
only of a dulky brown. Thofe, however, which have
neither filver nor gold to recommend them to your
eyes, do not want other colours, and thofe beautifully
variegated. Some of them are all over of an elegant
green, as is the chryfalis of the fennel-caterpillar;
others of an elegant yellow ; and fome of a bright-
greenilh tinge, variegated with fpots of a fliining
black : we have a very beautiful inffance of this laft
kind in the chryfalis of the elegant cabbage-caterpillar.
The general colour of the chryfalis of the common
butterflies, however, is brown.
Some are alfo of a fine deep black; and of thefe
many are fo fmooth and glolfy, that they are equal to
the fineft Indian japan. The common caterpillar of
the fig-tree gives an inftance of one of thefe moft
beautiful glolfy ones; the caterpillar of the vine af¬
fords another of thefe fine black chryfalifes.
The rounded chryfalifes do not afford any thing of
that variety of colouring fo remarkably beautiful in
the angular ones; they are ufually of a duiky yellow,
in different fiiades, and are often varioufly fpotted Chryfalis.
with black: but thefe, as well as all other chryfalifes, —
before they arrive at their fixed colour, pafs through
feveral other temporary ones; fome being of a diffe¬
rent colour when firlt produced from the caterpillar,
from what they are a few days afterwards; and fome
varying fo greatly, though only in degree, as not to
be diffinguifliable, even by the moll: converfant eye,
from what they were when firlt produced. The
green rough caterpillar of the cabbage has a chryfalis
which is green at firft; and from that gradually goes
through all the fhades of green to a faint yellow,
which is its lafting colour; and one of the oak cater¬
pillars yields a chryfalis beautifully fpotted with red at
its firft appearance ; but thefe fpots change to brown
for their fixed colour : the third day from their for¬
mation ufually fixes their lafting colours ; and if they
are obferved to turn black in any part after tiffs time,
it is a fign that they are dead or dying.
The feveral fpecies of infecfts, as a fly, fpider, and
an ant, do not differ more evidently from one ano¬
ther in regard to appearance, than do a caterpillar,
its chryfalis, and a butterfly produced from it; yet it
is certain, that thefe are all the product of the fame
individual egg; and nothing is more certain, than
that the creature which was for a while a caterpillar,
is, after a certain time, a chryfalis, and then a but¬
terfly. Thefe great changes produced in fo fudden a
manner, feem like the met amorphofes recorded in the
fables of the ancients; and indeed it is not improbable
that thofe fables firft took their origin from fuch
changes.
The parts being diftinguilhable in the chryfalis, we
eafily find the difference of the fpecies of the fly that
is to proceed from it. The naked eye (hews whether
it be one of thofe that have, or of thofe that have not,
a trunk; and the affiftance of a microfcope Ihews the
antennas fo diftinfflly, that we are able to difcern whe¬
ther it belongs to the day or night-clafs; and often to
what genus, if not the very fpecies ; nay, in the plu-
mofe horned kinds, we may fee, by the antennas,
whether a male or female phakena is to be produced
from the chryfalis; the horns of the female being in
this ftate evidently narrower, and appearing lefs ele¬
vated above the common furface of the body, than
thofe of the male.
All thefe parts of the chryfalis, however, though
feen very diftin&ly, are laid clofe to one another, and '
feem to form only one mafs ; each of them is covered
with its own peculiar membrane in this ftate, and all
are furrouhded together by a common one ; and it is
only through thefe that we fee them ; or rather we
fee on thefe the figures of all the parts moulded within,
and therefore it requires attention to diftinguilh them.
The chryfalis is foft when firft produced, and is wet¬
ted on the front with a' vifcous liquor; its Ikin, though
very tender at firft, dries and hardens by degrees :
but this vifcous liquor which furrounds the wings,
legs, lac. hardens almoft immediately ; and in confe-
quence fattens all thofe limbs, lac. into a mafs, which
were before loofc from one another : this liquor, as
it hardens, lofes its tranfparence, and becomes brown ;
fo that it is only while it is yet moift that thefe parts
are to be feen diftind.
It
C H R [ 1967 ] C H R
fhryfalis. It is evident from the whole, that the chrylalis is
' ' no other than a butterfly, the parts of which are hid
under certain membranes which fallen them toge¬
ther ; and, when the limbs are arrived at their due
flrength, they become able to break through thefe
membranes, and then expand and arrange theml'elves
in their proper order.
The firft metamorphofis, therefore, differs nothing
from the fecond, except that the butterfly comes from
the body of the caterpillar in a weak ftate, with limbs
unable to perform their offices, whereas it comes from
the chryfalis perfect.
Biff, of In- M. Reaumur has given us many courious obferva-
fefis, vol.i. tions on the Hr nature and uies of the feveral cover-
p. 2,—28. jngS that attend the varieties of the caterpillar-kind in
this ftate.
The creatures in general remain wholly immove¬
able in this ftate, and feem to have no bufinefs in it
but a patient attendance on the time when they are
to become butterflies; and this is a change that can
happen to them, only as their parts, before extremely
foft and weak, are capable of hardening and becoming
firm by degrees, by tiie tranfpiration of that abundant
humidity which before kept them foft: and this is
proved by an experiment of M. Reaumur, who, inclo-
fing fome chryfalifes in a glafs tube, found, after ibme
time, a litnall quantity of water at the bottom of it;
which could have come there no other way, but from
the body of the inclofed animal. This tranfpiration
depends greatly on the temperature of the air ; it is
increafed by heat, and diminiffied by cold ; but it has
alfo its peculiarities in regard to the feveral fpecies
of butterfly to which the chryfalis belongs..
According to thefe obfervations, the time of the
duration of the animal in the chryfalis ftate muft be,
in different Ipecies, very different; and there is in¬
deed jthis wide difference in the extremes, that fome
fpecies remain only eight days in this ftate, and others
eight months.
We know that the caterpillar changes its Ikin four
or five times during its living in that ftate ; and that
all thefe fkins are at firft produced with it from the
egg, lying clofely over one another. It parts with,
or throws off all thefe one by one, as the butterfly,
which is the real animal, all this time within, grows
more and more perfect in the feveral firft changes.
When it throws off one, it appears in another Ikin ex¬
actly of the fame form ; but at its final change from
this appearance, that is, when it throws off the laft
Ikin, as the creature within is now arrived at fuch a
degree of perfection as to need no farther taking of
nouriffiment, there is no farther need of teeth, or any
of the other parts of a caterpillar. The creature, in
this laft change, proceeds in the very fame manner as
in all the former, the ikin opening at the back, and
the animal making its way out in this ihape. If a ca¬
terpillar, when about to throw off this laft Ikin, be
thrown into fpirits of wine, and left there for a few
days, the membranes within will harden, and the
creature may be afterwards carefully opened, and the
chryfalis taken out, in which the form of the tender
butterfly may be traced in all its lineaments, and its
eyes, legs, <tc. evidently feen. It is not neceffary,
however, to feize upon this exabt time for proving
the exiftence of the chrylalis or butterfly in the cater. Chryfalis*
pillar : for if one of thefe animals be thrown into fpi-
rit of wine, or into vinegar, fome days before that
time, and left there for the flefh to harden, it may af¬
terwards be diffe&ed, and all the lineaments of the
butterfly traced out in it; the wings,legs, antennae, &c.
being as evident here, and as large, as in the chry¬
falis.
It is very plain from this, that the change of the
caterpillar into chryfalis is not the work of a moment;
but is carrying on for a long time before, even from
the very hatching of the creature from the egg The
parts of the butterfly, however, are not difpofed ex¬
actly in the fame manner while in the body of the ca¬
terpillar, as when left naked in the form of the chry¬
falis : for the wings are proportionally longer and
narrower, being wound up into the form of a cord ;
and the antennae are rolled up on the head ; the trunk
is alfo twilled up and laid upon the head ; but this in
a very different manner from what it is in the perfect
animal, and very different from that in which it lies
within the chryfalis; fo that the firft formation of the
butterfly in the caterpillar, by time arrives at a pro¬
per change of the difpolition of its parts, in order to
its being a chryfalis. The very eggs, hereafter to be
depofited by the butterfly, are alio to be found not
only in the chryfalis, but in the caterpillar kfelf, ar¬
ranged in their natural, regular order. They are in¬
deed in this ftate very fmall and tranfparent ; but af¬
ter the change into the chryfalis, they have their pro¬
per colour.
As foon as the feveral parts of the butterfly, there¬
fore, are arrived at a ftate proper for being expofed
to the more open air, they are thrown out from the
body of the caterpillar furrounded only with their
membranes; and as foort as they are arrived after
this at a proper degree of ftrength and folidity, they
labour to break through thefe thinner coverings, and
to appear in their proper and natural form; The
time of their duration in this ftate of chryfalis is very
uncertain, fome remaining in it only a few days,
others feveral months, and fome almoft a year in ap¬
pearance.. But there is a fallacy in this that many are
not aware of. It is natural to think, that as foon as
the creature has inclofed itfelf in its ffiell, be that of
what matter it will, it undergoes its change into the
chryfalis ftate. And this is the cafe with the gene¬
rality : yet there are fome which are eight or nine
months in the ffieil before they'become chryfalifes; fo
that their durationin the real chryfalis ftate is much
ffiorter than it naturally appears to be. M. Reaumur
carefully watched the auriculated caterpillar of the
oak into its feveral changes, and particularly from its
chryfalis, which is of this laft kind, into the fly ; and
has given an account of the method of this as an in-
ftance of the general courfe of nature in thefe opera¬
tions.
The membranes which envelope the creature in
this chryfalis ftate are at firft tough and firm, and im¬
mediately touch the feveral parts of the inclofed ani¬
mal; but by degrees, as thefe parts harden, they be¬
come covered, fome with hairs, and others with fcales.
Thefe, as they continue to grow, by degrees fall off
the feveral particular membranes which cover the
parts.
C H R [ 1968 ] C H R '
Chryfalls, parts on which they are placed, to a greater dillance,
and by degrees loofen them from the limbs. This is
one reafon of thofe membranes drying and becoming
brittle.
The middle of the upper part of the corcelet is
ufually marked with a line which runs in a longitudi¬
nal diredtion ; and this part is always more elevated
than the reft, even in the conic kinds, which are no
otherwife angular. This line is in fome very bold and
plain; in others, it is fo faint as not to be diftinguifhable
without glaftes; but it is always in the midlt of that
line that the fhell begins to open. Tire motion of the
head of the butterfly backwards firft occafions this
crack; and a few repetitions of the fame motions open
it the whole length of the line.
The clearing itfelf, however, entirely, is a work
of more time in this cafe, than is the palling of the
chryfalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that
cafe there is a crack fufficientiy large in the Ikin of the
back, and the W'hole chryfalis being loofe comes out
at once. But in this cafe, every particular limb, and
part of the body, has its feparate cafe ; and thefe are
almoft inconceivably thin and tender, yet it is necef-
fary that every part be drawn out of them before it
appear naked to the open air. As foon is all this is
effedted, and the animal is at full liberty, it either con¬
tinues fome time upon the remains of its covering, or
creeps a little way diftant from it, and there refts.
The wingsare what we principally admire in this crea¬
ture. Thefe are at this time fo extremely folded up,
and placed in fo narrow a compafs, that the creature
feems to have none at all: but they by degrees ex¬
pand and unfold themfelves; and finally, in a quarter
of an hour, or half an hour at the utmoft, they appear
at their full fize, and in all their beauty. The man¬
ner of tlris fudden unfolding of the wings is this : the
fmall figure they make when the creature firft comes
out of its membranes, does not prevent the obferving
that they are at that time confiderably tbkk. This is
owing to its being a large wing folded up in the nieeft
manner, and with folds fo arranged as to be by no
means fenfible to the eye, for the wing is never feen
to unfold ; but, when oblerved in the moft accurate
manner, feems to grow under the eye to this extent.
When the creature is firft produced from the fhell, it
is every where moift and tender ; even its wings have
no ftrength or ftilfnefs till they expand themlelves;
but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other
parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident
prevents the wings from expanding at their proper
time, that is, as foon as tiie creature is out of its fhcll,
they never afterwards are able to extend themfelves;
but the creature continues to wear them in their con¬
tracted and wholly ufelefs ftate ; and very often, when
the wings are in part extended before fuch an accident
happens, it flops them in a partial extenfion, and the
creature mnft he contented to pafs its whole life with
them in that manner.
M. Reaumur has proved, that beat and cold make
great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly
from its chryfalis ftate : and this he particularly tried
with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in
veffels in warm rooms, and in ice-houfes ; and it feem-
ed wholly owing to the haftening or retatding the eva¬
poration of the abundant humidity of the animal In the chryfalis
chryfalis ftate, that it fooner or later appeared in the ||
butterfly form. He varnifhed over fome chryfalifes, Chryfan-
in order to try what would be the tffeft of thus wholly tlienn’rr'-
preventing their tranfpiration ; and the confequence
was, that the butterfly came forth from thefe two
months later than their natural time. Thus was the
duration of the animal in this ftate lengthened; that is,
its exiftencew'as lengthened; but without any advan¬
tage to the creature, fince it was in the time of its
ftate of inaction, and probably of infenfibility.
Though this was of bo confequence, Mr Reaumur
deduces a hint from it that feems to be of fome ufe.
He obferves that hen’s eggs, of which w'e make fo
many ufes, and eat in fo many forms, are properly a
fort of chryfalis of the animal; their germ, after they
are impregnated by the cock, containing the young
animal alive, and waiting only a due degree of warmth
to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. Eggs
tranfpire notwithftanding the hardnefs of their fhells;
and when they have been long kept, there is a road
found near one of their ends, between the fhell and
the internal membrane ; this is a mark of their being
(tale, and is the effetft of an evaporation of part of their
humidity : and the fame varnifh which had been ufed
fo the chryfalis, being tried on eggs, was found to
preferve them for two years, as frefh as if laid but the
fame day, and fuch as the niceft palate could not dt-
ftinguifh from thofe that were fo. See Eggs.
It is not yet known how much farther this ufeful
fpeculation might be carried, and whether it might
not be of great ufe e ven to human life, to invent fome-
thing that fhould a£t in the manner of this varnifh, by
being rubbed over the body, as the Uf hie tee did of old,
and the favages of the Weft Indies do at this time,
without knowing why. But to return to the infects
which are' the fubjeiHs of this article ; their third ftate,
that in which they are winged, is always very fhort,
and feems deftined for no other acftion but the propa¬
gation of the fpecie^. See PAPfEto.
CHRYSANTHEMUM, Corn-marigolD; age-
mis of the polygamia fuperftua order, belonging to the
fyngenefia cfefs of plants. There are 19 fpecies, of
which the following are the moft remarkable : 1. The
ferotinum is a native of North America. The roots
of this plant creep far under the furface, and fend up
ftrong ftalks more than four feet high, garnifhed with
long fawed leaves ending in points. Thefe ftalks di¬
vide upward into many fmaller ; each being termi¬
nated by a large, white, radiated flower, which ap¬
pears in the end of Auguft or September. 2. The
eoronarium hath been long cultivated in the gardens
on account of the beauty of its flowers. It grows to
the height of three feet, with a lingle upright ftalk
divided into numerous branches, garnifhed with pin¬
nated leaves, and crowned with elegant compound
flowers of different colours and properties. The va¬
rieties are, fingle and double flowers of a cream co¬
lour; yellow; yellow and white; briinftone-colbured;
fiftular, or quilled ; or thofe with finely jagged leaves,
and flowers of all the aliove colours and properties.
All the varieties begin flowering in July : the flowers
are exceedingly numerous, and exhibit a .conftant fuc-
ceffion of full bloom till November ; and both fingle
and
C H R [ 1969 ] C H R
Cluyftrt. and double are fucceeded by abundance of feed. 3. The
themum putefcens is a native of the Canary Iflands. It rifes
H with a Ihrubby ftalk near two feet high, dividing into
chryfoba- m;iny branches, which are garnilhed with pretty thick
arui,s‘ .. fucculent leaves, of a greyilh colour, cut into many
fegments. The flowers come out from the wings of
the leaves, growing upon naked foot-ftalks fingly,
tjvhich greatly referable thole of chamomile. There
is a fucceffion of flowers on the fame plant for the
greateft part of the year, for which it is chiefly efteem-
ed. This plant will perfeft feeds in Britain when the
fe.afons are favourable.
Culture. The firfl: kind multiplies very fall by its
creeping roots, and will thrive in any foil or fituation.
The fecond may be raifed in abundance from feed,
either in a hot-bed or warm border, in the fpring, for
tranfplanting ; alfo by cuttings and flips of their bran¬
ches in autumn. The latter method is pra£lifed only
for the propagation of the fine doubles, for an early
bloom the following fummer ; and the beft time to
perform it is in September, or early in October. Cut
off, at that time, a quantity of the robuft fide fhoots,
from three to fix inches long, without flowers; divert
them of the lower leaves, and plant many of them
together in large pots, within an inch or two of their
tops, and two or three inches apart; give fome water,
and place them in the lhade during the hot weather :
by the end of Odiober they will be rooted, when
the pots are to be removed either into a green-houfe
or garden-frame, for the winter; but the latter is the
moft eligible, where they may enjoy the full air in
mild weather, and have occafional flicker from froft.
In April they may be tranfplanted fingly into borders,
and feme in pots. The plants thus raifed will flower
a month or fix weeks fooner the fucceeding fummer
than thofe raifed in the fpring from feed ; but as they
foon become barren, it is proper to have always a
quantity of plants raifed from the feed. The third
fort may be raifed either from feeds or cuttings, but
requires to be flickered in the green-houfe in winter.
CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philofopher, born at Solos
in Cilicia, was difciple to Cleanthes, Zeno’s fuccelfor.
He wrote many books, feveral of which related to
logic. None of the philofophers fpoke in (tronger
terms of the fatal neceflity of every thing, nor more
pompoufly of the liberty of man, than the Stoics,
Chryfippus in particular. He was fo confiderable
among them, as to eftablifli it into a proverb, that if
it had not been for Chryfippus, the porch had never
been. Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero relates,
that he had colledted fo many arguments in favour of
the fceptical hypothefis, that he could not anfwer them
himfelf; and thus had furniflied Carneades, their an-
tagonift, with weapons againft Uhem. There is an
apophthegm of this philofopher preferved, which does
him honour. Being told that fome perfons fpoke ill of
him,11 It is no matter, (faid he), I will live fo that they
! fliall not be believed.”
CHRYSOBALANUS, cocoa plum ; a genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the icofandria clals
of plants. There is only one fpecies, the icaco, which
is a native of the Bahama iflands, and many other
parts of America, but commonly grows near the fea.
It riles with a Ihrubby ftalk eight or nine feet high,
Vol. III.
fending out feveral fide-branches, which are covered Cbrylb-
with a dark brown bark. The flowers are white, colla
and are fucceeded by plums like damfons; fome blue, J.
fome red, and others yellow. The ftone is fliaped cl‘ryiol‘te*
like a pear, and has five longitudinal- ridges. They
are propagated by feeds, which muft be procured
from the places where they grow naturally, The ma¬
nagement is the fame as in other tender plants which
are natives of thofe climates.
CHRYSOCOLLA, the Greek name for borax.
CHRYSOCOMA, goldv-locks ; a genus of the
polygamia oequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clals of plants. There are nine fpecies, the moft re¬
markable of which are, the linofyris, the coma aurea,
and the cornua. Thefe are herbaceous flowering
perennials growing from one to two feet high, orna¬
mented with narrow leaves, and compound flofcular
flowers of a yellow colour. They are eafily propa¬
gated by dividing the roots or cuttings ; but the two
laft require to be flickered in the green-houfe in win¬
ter.
CHRYSOLARAS (Emanuel), one of thofe learned
men in the 14th century, who brought the Greek
literature into the weft. He was a man of rank ;
and defeended from an ancient family, faid to have
removed with Conftantine from Rome to Byzantium.
He was fent into Europe by the emperor of the eart to
implore the aflillance of the Chriftian princes. He
afterwards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and
Rome ; and died at Conftantinople, in 1415, aged 47.
He wrote a Greek grammar, and fome other fmall
pieces.
CHRYSOLITE, the name given by the moderns
to a gem, which was called the topaz by the ancients.
All the modern jewellers, and thofe of feveral ages
before them, have agreed in calling this gem the chry-
folite : and the true chrylblite of the ancients, which
had its name from its fine gold yellow colour, they
now univerfally call the topaz.
The chryfolite of our times, the topaz of the anci¬
ents, is, even in its moft pure and perfect ftate, a gem
of but fmall beauty, and little value. It is found of
various fizes, and fome of the coarfer pieces of it are
vaftly larger than thofe of any of the other gems are
ever found to be : its moft frequent fize, however,
when perfe<ft, is about the fize of a nutmeg. It is
found of very various figures, but never columnar, or
in the form of cryftal: it is in fome places found
fmall, or in irregular pebble-like malfes; in others,
generally oblong and flatted; and is always of a rude
furface, and lefs bright than any of the other gems.
Its colour is a dead green, with a faint admixture of
a pale yellow. It has thefe different tinges, in the fe¬
veral fpecimens, in different degrees of mixture ; but
its moft ufual colour is that of an unripe olive with
fomewhat of a brafly colour mixed with it; and forne-
times it is of a pale and dulky green, obfeured by a
mixture of brown, and with a flight call of the fame
braffy yellow. It is much fofter than any of the pel¬
lucid gems; its fineft pieces do not exceed cryftal in
hardnefs, and its coarfer are greatly fofter : it takes a
good polifli, however ; and, in fome of its finer fpeci¬
mens, makes a tolerable appearance, though greatly
inferior to the other gems. Our jewellers take very
1 r R little
C H R [ 1970 ] C H U
Chryfolite little notice of it ; and inftead of having two or three
II names for it, as they have for moft of the other gems,
Chryfoftom ca]j jt very often a prafius, and the lefs accurate
among them often call the chryfoprafius a chryfolHe.
This ftone is found in New Spain, and alfo in feveral
parts of Europe, as in Silefia, Bohemia, <£rr. The
American chryfolites, however, are greatly fuperior
to the European ; but they are ufually fmall: the Bo¬
hemian are large, but very few of them are of a good
colour, or free from flaws.
Chrysolite-P^c’, a kind of glafs made in imita¬
tion of natural chryfolite, by mixing two ounces of
prepared cryftal with ten ounces of red-lead, adding
twelve grains of crocus martis made with vinegar ;
and then baking the whole for twenty-four hours, or
longer, in a well luted cucurbit.
CHRYSOMELA, in zoology, a genus of infers,
belonging to the order of coleoptera. The antennas
are lhaped like bracelets, and thicker on the outfide ;
and neither the breaft nor the elytra are marginated.
There are no lefs than 122 fpecies enumerated by
Linnaeus, principally diftinguiflied by differences in
their colour.
CHRYSOPHYLLUM, or bully-tree, a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentaudria
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies, the camito
and glabrum, both natives of the Weft Indies. The
firft rifes 30 or 40 feet high, with a large trunk co¬
vered with a brown bark, and divides into many flex¬
ible flender branches, which generally hang down¬
ward, garnifhed with fpear-lhaped leaves, whofe un¬
der fides are of a bright ruflet colour. The flowers
come out at the extremities of the branches, difpofed
in oblong bunches, which are fucceeded by fruit of the
fize of a golden pippin, that are very rough to the
palate, and aftringent; but when kept fome time
mellow, as is pratftifed here with medlars, they have
an agreeable flavour. The fecond fort never rifes to
the height of the firft, nor do the trunks grow to half
the fize ; but the branches are flender and garnifhed
with leaves like thofe of the firft. The flowers come
out in clufters from the fide of the branches, which
are fucceeded by oval fmooth fruit about the fize of
olives, inclofing three or four hard comprefled feeds.
Both thefe plants are frequently preferved in gardens
where there are large ftoves, and are propagated by
feeds, but the plants can never bear the open air in
this country.
CHRYSOPRASUS, or Chrysopr asius, the tenth
of the precious ftones, mentioned in the Revela¬
tions, as forming the foundation of the heavenly Jeru-
ftlem. The chryfoprafius is a fpecies of prafius, of a
pale, but pure green colour, with an admixture of
yellow.
CHRYSOSTOM (St John), a celebrated patriarch
of Conftantinople, and one of the moft admired fa¬
thers of the Chriftian church, was born of a noble fa¬
mily at Antioch, about the year 347. He ftudied
rhetoric under Libavius, and philofophy under Andra-
gathus : after which he fpent fome time in folitude in
the mountains near Antioch ; but the aufterities he
endured, having impaired his health, he returned to
Antioch, where he was ordained deacon by Meletius,
Flavian, Meletius’s fuccefliir, railed him to the office
of prelbyter five years after ; when he diftingnilhed
himfelf lb greatly by his eloquence, that he obtained
the furname of Golden Mouth. Neitarius patriarch
of Conftantinople, dying in 397, St Chryfoftom, whofe
fame was fpread throughout the whole empire, was
chofen in his room by the unanimous confent of both
the clergy and the people. The emperor Arcadius
confirmed this eleblion, and caufed him to leave An¬
tioch privately, where the people wei e very unwilling
to part with him. He was ordained bilhop on the
26th of February, 398 ; when he obtained an order
from the emperor again!! the Eunomians and Monta-
nifts; reformed the abufes which fnbfifted among!!
his clergy ; retrenched a great part of the expences
in which his predecelfors had lived, in order to enable
him to feed the poor and build hofpitals; and preached
with the utmoft zeal again!! the pride, luxury, and
avarice o? the great. But his pious liberty of fpeech
procured him many powerful enemies. He differed
with Theophilus of Alexandria, who got him depofed
and baniflied ; but he was foon recalled. After this,
declaiming again!! the dedication of a ftatue erebied
to the emprefs, flie baniflied him into Cucufus in Ar¬
menia, a moft barren, inhofpitable place ; afterwards,
as they were removing him from Petyus, the foldiers
treated him fo roughly, that he died by the way,
j4. D. 407. The be!! edition of his works is that pu-
bliflied at Paris in 1718, by Montfaucon.
CHRYSTAL. See Crystal.
CHUB, or chubb, in ichthyology. See Cypri-
NUS.
CHUBB (Thomas), a noted polemical writer, born
at Eal! Harnham, a village near Salilbury, in 1679.
He was put apprentice to a glover at Salilbury, and
afterwards entered into partnerfliip with a tallow-
chandler. Being a man of ftrong natural parts, he
employed all his leifure in reading; and though a
liranger to the learned languages, became tolerably
verfed in geography, mathematics, and other branches
of fcience. His favourite ftudv was divinity ; and he
formed a little fociety for the purpofe of debating up¬
on religious fubjecfts, about the time that the Trini¬
tarian controverfy was fo warmly agitated between
Clarke and Waterland. This fubjedt therefore fal¬
ling under the cognizance of Chubb’s theological af-
fembly, he at their requeft drew up and arranged his
fentiments on it, in a kind of diftertation ; which was
afterward publifhed under the title of The Supremacy
of the Father averted, &c. In this piece Mr Chubb
fliewed great talents in reafoning; and acquired fo
much reputation, that the late Sir Jofeph Jekyl, mailer
of the rolls, took him into his family to enjoy his con-
verfation : but though he is faid to have been tempted
to remain with him by the offer of a genteel allow¬
ance, he did not continue with him many years; but
chofe to return to his friends at Salilbury. He pu-
bliflied afterward a 4t0 volume of trabts, which Mr
Pope informs his friend Gay, he “ read through with
admiration of the writer, though not always with ap¬
probation of his doftrine.” He died a fingle man
in the 68th year of his age, and left behind him 2 vols.
of pofthumous traifts, in which he appears to have had
little or no belief in revelation. But however licen¬
tious his way of thinking may be Jeeiqed, nothing
irregular
Chryfhl
H
Chubb.
Chudleigh
#
CJiurch.
C H U [ u
irregular or immoral has been fairly imputed to him
in his life and actions.
CHUDLEIGH (Lady Mary), was born in 1656,
and married to Sir George Chudleigh, bar1, by whom
(he had feveral children : her poems and effiys have
been much admired for delicacy of Ityle. She died
in 1710 ; and is laid to have written feveral dramatic
pieces, which, though not printed, are preferved in
the family.
CHUPMESSAHITES, a feft among the Mahome¬
tans, who believe that Jefus Chrift is, God, and the
true Meffiah, the Redeemer of the world ; but with¬
out rendering him any public or declared worlhip.
The word, in the Turkilh language, fignifies protec¬
tor if the Chrijiiatis. Ricaut fays, there are abun¬
dance of thefe Chupmcfahites among the people of
fafhion in Turky, and fome even in the feraglio.
CHURCH, has different fignifications, according to
the different fubjects to which it is applied.
1. It is underftood of the collective body of Chrifti-
ans, or all thofe over the face of the whole earth who
profefs to believe in Oirift, and acknowledge him to be
the Saviour of mankind. This is what the ancient
writers call the catholic or univerfal church. Some¬
times the word church is confidered in a more exten-
five fenfe, and divided into feveral branches ; as the
church militant, is the affembly of the faithful on earth;
the church triumphant, that of the faithful already in
glory; to which the Papifls add the church patient,
which, according to their dodtrines, is that of the
faithful in purgatory.
2. Church is applied to any particular congregation
Of Chriftians, who affociate together and concur in
the participation of all the inftitutions of Jefus Chrifl,
with their proper pallors and minifters. Thus we read
of the church of Antioch, the church of Alexandria,
the church of Theffalonica, and the like.
5. Church denotes a particular fedt of Chriftians
diltinguifhed by particular dodtrines and ceremonies.
In this fenfe, we fpeak of the Romifli church, the
Greek church, the Reformed church, the church of
England, ire.
The Latin or Weftern church, comprehends all the
churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north,
and all other countries whither the Romans carried
their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands,
of Germany, and of the North, have been feparated
from hence ever fince the time of Henry VIII.; and
conftitute what we call the Reformed church, and what
the Romanifts call the Weftern fchifm.
The Greek or Eaftern church, comprehends the
churches of all the countries anciently fubjedl to the
Greek or eaftern empire, and through which their
language was carried ; that is, all the (pace extended
from Greece to Mefopotamia and Perfia, and thence
into Egypt. This church has been divided from the
Roman, ever fince the time of the emperor Phocas.
The Gallican church, denotes the church of France,
under the government and direction of their refpec-
tive bifhops and paftors. This church has always en¬
joyed certain franchifes and immunities; not as grants
from popes, but as derived to her from her firft ori¬
ginal, and which fhe has taken care never to relinquifh.
Thefe liberties depend upon two maxims j the firft.
71 ] C H U
that the pope has no authority or right to command
or order any thing either in general, or in particular,
in which the temporalities and civil rights of the king¬
dom are concerned ; the fecond, that notwithftanding
the pope’s fupremacy is owned in cafes purely fpiri-
tual, yet in France his power is limited and regulated
by the decrees and canons of ancient councils recei¬
ved in that realm.
4. The word church is ufed to fignify the body of
eedefiaftics, or the clergy, in contradiftinction to the
laity. See Clergy.
5. Church is ufed for the place where a particular
congregation or fociety of Chriftians aflemble for the
celebration of divine fervice. In this fenfe churches
are varioufly denominated, according to the rank, de¬
gree, difcipline^ &c. as Metropolitan church, Patriar¬
chal church, Cathedral church, Parochial church, Colle¬
giate church, ire. See Metropolis,Patriarch, ire.
Church-^. See Whitsun-^.
Ch urc R-.fowr.f, the fame with Ch urc h-
CnvRCH-Scot, or Churchesset, a payment, or
contribution, by the Latin writers frequently called
primitive feminum; being, at firft, a certain meafure
of wheat, paid to the prieft on St Martin’s day, as
the firft-fruits of harveff. This was enjoined by the
laws of king Malcolm IV. and Canute, c. 10. But af¬
ter this, Church-fcot came to fignify a referve of corn-
rent paid to the fecular priefts, or to the religious ;
and fometimes was taken in fb general a fenfe as to
include poultry, or any other provifion that was paid
in kind to the religious. See Tithe.
CuvRCH-Wardetis, (ecclefias guardiani), in theEn-
glifli ecclefiaftical polity, are the guardians or keepers
of the church, and reprefentatives of the body of the
parifh. They are fometimes appointed by the mini-
fter, fometimes by the parifh, fometimes by both toge¬
ther, as cuftom directs. They are taken, in favour of
the church, to be, for fome purpofes, a kind of corpo¬
ration at the common law ; that is, they are enabled,
by that name, to have a property in goods and chat¬
tels, and to bring aftions for them, for the ufe and
profit, of the parifh. Yet they may not wafte the
church goods, but may be removed by the parifh, and
then called to account by atftions at common law : but
there is no method of calling them to account but by
firft: removing them ; for none can legally do it but
thofe who are put in their place. As to lands, or other
real property, as the church, church-yard, ire. they
have no fort of intereft therein ; but if any damage is
done thereto, the parfon only or vicar fhall have the
aeftion. Their office alfo is to repair the church, and
make rates and levies for that purpofe : but thefe are
recoverable only in the ecclefiafticsd courts. They
are alfo joined with the overfeers in the/Care and
maintenance of the poor. They are to levy a fluffing
forfeiture on all fuch as do not repair to church oa
fundays and holidays ; and are empowered to keep
all perfons orderly while there ; to which end it has
been held that a church-warden mayjuftify the pul¬
ling off a man’s hat, without being gulity of either an
affault or a trefpafs. There are alfo a multitude of
other petty parochial powers committed to their charge
by divers i^fts of Parliament.
Church-7W, a piece of ground adjoining to a
11 R- 2 church.
Church.
C H XJ [ 1972 ] C H U
Churchill, church, fet apart for interment or burial of the dead.
  —In the church of Rome they are blelled or confe-
crated with great folemnity. If a church-yard which
has been thus confecrated, fhall afterwards be polluted
by any indecent action, or profaned by the burial of
an infidel, an heretic, an excommunicated or unbapti¬
zed peribn, it muff be reconciled; and the ceremony of
the reconciliation is performed with the fame folemni¬
ty as that of the bleiling or confecration.
CHURCHILL (Sir Winfton) the father of the great
duke of Marlborough, was defcended from an an¬
cient and honourable family in Dorfetfhire. He was
born atWotton Glanvile in that county, in 1610; and
educated at St John’s college at Oxford. He engaged
in the caufe of his unfortunate fovereign Charlesl. for
which he fuffered feverely in his fortune ; and having
married, while young, Elizabeth, the daughter of Sir
John Drake of Aihe in Devonlhire, Ihe was forced to
leek a refuge in her father’s houfe, when Mr Churchill’s
misfortunes left him none that he could call his own ;
and there moft of his children were born. After the
reftoration, he was elebled a burgefs to ferve in par¬
liament for the borough of Weymouth ; and, in 1669,
his majeity was pleafed to confer on him the honour of
knighthood. The next year he was made one of the
commiffioners of claims in Ireland; and upon his return
from thence,was conftituted one of the clerks comptrol¬
lers of the green-cloth: but writing a kind of political
ellay upon the Hiftory of England, which gave great
offence to the parliament, he was, in 1678, dif'mifled
from his poll. He was, however, foon reftored to it
again ; and lived to fee his eldeft furviving Ion raifed
to the peerage, and the reft of his children in a fair
Way to promotion. He died in 1688.
Churchill (John) duke of Marlborough, and
prince of the holy Roman empire; a moft renowned
general and ftatefman, was born at Afhe in Devon^
Ihire in 1650. He was eldeft fon of Sir Winfton
* See the Churchill*, who carried him to court while very young,
foregoing and where he was particularly favoured by James
article. t]uke of York, afterwards king James II. when only
twelve years of age. In 1666, he was made an enfign
of the guards during the firft Dutch war ; and after¬
wards improved himfelf greatly in the military art at
Tangier. In 1672, Mr Churchill attended the duke of
Monmouth who commanded a body of auxiliaries in
the French fervice, and was foon after made a captain
in the duke’s own regiment. At the fiege of Nime-
guen, which happened in that campaign, he diftinguifhed
himfelf fo much that he was taken notice of by the ce¬
lebrated marfhal Turenne, who beftowed on him the
name of the handfome Fnglijhman.—In 1673, he was
at the fiege of Maeftricht, where he gained fuch ap-
plaufe, that the king of France made him a public ac¬
knowledgement of his fervice ; and the duke of Mon¬
mouth, who had the diredlion of the attack, told king
Charles II. that he owed his life to Mr Churchill’s
bravery. In 16S1, he married Sarah daughter and
90-heirefs (with her fifter the countefs of Tyrconnel)
of Richard Jennings Efq; of Sandrich, in Hertford-
Ihire. The duke of York recommended him in a very
particular manner to the king ; who, in 1682, created
him baron of Eymouth in the county of Berwick in
Scotland, and made him colonel of the third troop of
guards. A little after king James’s acceffion, he was Churchih..
created baron Churchill of Sandrich in the county of “***
Hertford, and made brigadier-general of his majefty’s
army in the weft; where, when the duke of Mon¬
mouth came to furprife the king’s army, while the
earl of Feverlham and the majority of the officers
were in their beds, he kept the enemy in play, till
the king’s forces had formed themfelves, and thereby
faved the whole army. When James {hewed an in¬
tention of eftablifliing the catholic religion in Britain,
lord Churchill, notwithftanding the great obligations
he owed him, thought it his duty to abandon the royal
caufe; but even then did not leave him without acquaint¬
ing him by letter with the reafon of his fo doing.—Lord
Churchill was gracioufly received by the prince of
Orange; and was by him employed firft tore-aflemble
the troop of guards at London ; and afterwards to re¬
duce fome lately raifed regiments, and to new-model
the army : for which purpofe he was invefted with
the rank and title of lieutenant-general. In 1689, he
was fworn one of the privy council, and one of the
gentlemen of the king’s bed-chamber ; and on the p'1*
of April following, was raifed to the dignity of earl of
Marlborough in the county of Wilts. He affifted at
the coronation of their majefties; and was foon after
made commander in chief of the Englifh forces fent
over to Holland; and here he firft laid the foundation
of that fame which was afterwards fpread over all
Europe. In 1690, he was made general of the forces
fent to Ireland ; where he made the ftrong garrifons
of Cork and Kinfale prifoners of war. The year fol~
lowing, king William fhewed the good opinion he
had of his condutft, by fending him to Flanders to put -
all things in readinefs, and to draw the army toge¬
ther againft his arrival. In 1692, he was difmifled.
from all his employments; and, not long after, was
with fome other peers committed to the tower on an
accufation of high treafon; which, however, was after¬
wards found to be a falfe and malicious report,the authors
of which were punifhed. Marlborough was foon re¬
ftored to favour, and in 1698, was appointed governor
to the earl of Gloucefter; with this extraordinary
compliment from king William, “ My lord, make him
but what you are, and my nephew will be all I wifh
to fee him.” The fame day he was again fworn one
of the privy council ; and in July following was de¬
clared one of the lords juftices of England, for the ad-
miniftration of the government, in which great truft he
was three times fucceffively in the king’s abfence, who
in 1701 appointed him general of the foot, comman¬
der in chief of the Englifh forces, and ambaffador ex¬
traordinary and plenipotentiary at the Hague. Upon
the acceflion of queen Anne to the throne, he was
defied into the order of the garter, declared captain-
general of all her majefty’s forces, and fent ambaffa¬
dor extraordinary and plenipotentiary to Holland.
After feveral conferences about a war, he put himfelf
at the head of the army, where all the other generals
had orders to obey him. His exploits in the field have
been taken notice of under the article Brit ain, n° 348
— 366: we fhall therefore only take notice in this
place, of the rewards and honours conferred upon
him for thefe exploits. After his firft campaign he
was created marquis of Blandford and duke of Marl¬
borough,
C H U [ 1973 ] C H IT
Churchill, borough, with a penfion of L. 5000 for life, out of the
poft-office. In 1703, he met Charles III. late emperor
going to Spain, who prefented him with a fword fet
with diamonds. In 1704, having forced the enemy’s
lines at Schellenberg, he received a letter of thanks
from the emperor Leopold, written with his own
hand, an honour feldom done to any but fovereign
princes. After the battle of Blenheim, he received
congratulatory letters from molt of the potentates in
Europe, particularly from the States General, and from
the emperor, who defined him to accept of the dignity
of a prince of the empire, which with the queen’s
leave was conferred upon him by the title of “ Prince
of Mildenheim in the province of Swabia.” After the
campaign was ended, he vifited the court of Pruffia,
where he laid fuch fchemes as fufpemled the difputes
with the Dutch about king William’s efiate, which
wile condudl caufed the whole confederacy to ac¬
knowledge that he had done the greateli fervice pof-
lible to the common caufe. Upon his return to Eng¬
land, the queen, to perpetuate his memory, granted
the intereft of the crown in the honour and manor of
Wood flock and hundred of Wotton to him and his
heirs for ever. In 1705, he made a tour to Vienna,
upon an invitation of the emperor Jofeph ; who highly
carelfed him, and made him a grant of the lordlhip of
Mildenheim. After the campaign of 1708, the fpeaker
of the houfe of commons was lent to BrulTels on pur-
pofe to compliment him ; and oh his return to England
he was again complimented in the houfe of lords by lord
chancellor Cowper. All his fervices, however, and
all the honours conferred upon him, were not fufficient
to preferve him from being difgraced. After the
change of the miniftry in, 1710, his intereft daily de¬
clined ; and in 1712, on the firlt day of the new year,
he was removed from all his places. Finding all arts
ufed to render him obnoxious in his native country,
he vifited his principality of Mildenheim, and feveral
towns in Germany ; after which he returned to Eng¬
land, and arrived there on the day of the queen’s death.
After being welcomed by the nobility and foreign mi-
nifters, he attended on king George I. in his public
entry through London, who appointed him captain-
general, colonel of the firft regiment of foot-guards,
one of the commiftioners for the government of
Chelfea hofpital, and mafter-general of the ordnance.
Some years before his death, he retired from public
bufinefs. He died at Windfor lodge in 1722, aged 72 ;
and was buried with great pomp in king Henry VIIth’s
chapel in Weftminfter Abbey.
Churchill (Charles), a celebrated fatirift, the
fon of Mr Charles Churchill, curate and letflurer of
St John’s, Weftminfter, was educated at Weftmin¬
fter fchool, and received fome applaufe for his abilities
from his tutors in that famous feminary. His capa¬
city, however, was greater than his application, fo
that he acquired the character of a boy that could do
good if he would. As the flighteft accounts of perfons
fo noted are agreeable, it may not be amifs to obferve,
that having one day got an exercife to make, and
from idlenefs or inattention having failed to bring it
at the time appointed, his mafter thought proper to
chaftife him with fome feverity, and even reproached
his rtupidity ; what the fear of ftripes could not effteft,
the fear of fliame foon produced, and he brought his Churchill,
exercife the next day, finilhed in fuch a manner, that
he received the public thanks of all the mailers. Still,
however, his progrefs in the learned languages was
but flow ; nor is it to be wondered at, if we conlider
how difficult it was for a ftrong imagination, luch as
he was poffefled of, to conform and walk tamely for¬
ward in the trammels of a fchool education : minds
like his are ever darting aftde after new purfuits; de-
firous of embracing a multiplicity of amufing objefis;
eager to come at the end, without the painful inveiti-
gation of the means. In fhort, for want of proper
Ikill in theft languages, he was rejected from Oxford,
wdiither his father had lent him; and probably this
might have given occallon to the frequent invetftives
we find in his works againft that mod refpetftable
univerfity. Upon his return from thence, he again ap¬
plied to his ftudies in Weftminfter fchool, where, at 1 7
years of age, he contrafled an intimacy with a lady,
to whom he was married, and their mutual regard
for each other continued for feveral years. At the
ufual age of going into orders, Mr Churchill was or¬
dained by the late bifhop of London, and obtained a
1'mall curacy in Whales of thirty pounds a year. Thi¬
ther he carried his wife ; they took a fmall houfe;
and he palfed through the duties of his ftation with
affiduity and cheerfninefs. Happy had it been for
him had he continued there to enjoy the fruits of piety,
peace, and fimplicity of manners. He was beloved
and efteemed by his parifliioners; and though his fer-
mons were rather above the level of his audience,
they were commended and followed. But endea¬
vouring to advance his fortune, by keeping a cyder
cellar, it involved him in difficulties which obliged
him to leave Wales and come to London. His fa¬
ther dying foon after, he ftppped into the church in
which he had officiated ; and, in order to improve his
income, which fcarcely produced an hundred pounds a
year, he taught young ladies to read and write En-
glilh at a boarding-fehool, kept by P4rs Dennis, where
he behaved with that decency and decorum which be¬
came his profeflion. His method of living, however,
bearing no proportion to his income, he contratfted
feveral debts in the city ; which being unable to pay,
a jail, the terror of indigent genius, feemed ready to
complete his misfortunes: but from this Hate of
wretchednefs he was relieved by the benevolence of
Mr Lloyd, father to the poet of that name. Mean
while, Mr Lloyd, the fon, wrote a poetical epiftle
called the Aft or; which being read and approved by
the public, gave the author a diftinguiftied place a-
mong the writers of his age. This induced Mr
Churchill to write the Rofciad. It firft came out with¬
out the author’s name; but the juftnefs of the re¬
marks, and the feverity of the fatire, foon excited
public curiofity. Though he never difowned his ha¬
ving written this piece, and even openly gloried in
it; yet the public, unwilling to give fo much merit
to one alone, aferibed it to a combination of witsr
nor were Meffrs Lloyd, Thornton, or Colman, left
unnamed upon this occafion. This mifplaced praife
foon induced Mr Churchill to throw off* the malk, and
the fecond edition appeared with his name at full
length. As the Rofciad was the firft of this poet’s.
performances.
C H U [ 1974 ] C H Y
Churchill, performances, fo many are of opinion that it is the
— beth In it we find a very clofe and minute difcuffion
of the particular merit of each performer ; their de¬
fers pointed out with candour, and their merits
praifed without adulation. This poem, however,
feems to be one of thofe few works which are injured
by fucceeding editions: when he became popular,
his judgment began to grow drunk with applaufe ;
and we find, in the latter editions, men blamed whofe
merit is inconteltible, and others praifed that were at
that time in no degree of efteem with the judicious.
His next performance was his Apology to the Criti¬
cal Reviewers. This work is not without its peculiar
merit; and as it was written again!! a fet of critics
whom the world was willing enough to blame, the
public read it with their ufual indulgence. In this
performance, he fliewed a particular happinefs of
throwing his thoughts, if we may fo exprefs it, into
poetical paragraphs; fo that the fentence fwells to the
break or conclufion, as we^find in profe.
But while his writings amufed the town, his aftions
difgufted it. He now quitted his wife with whom
he had cohabited many years; and refigninghis gown
and all clerical functions, commenced a complete man
of the town, got drunk, frequented Hews; and, giddy
with falfe praife, thought his talents a fufficient atone¬
ment for all his follies. In fome meafure to palliate
the abfurdities of his conduct, he now undertook a
poem called Night, written upon a general fubjecft in¬
deed, but upon falfe principles; namely, that what¬
ever our follies are, we fliould never attempt to con¬
ceal them. This, and Mr Churchill’s other poems,
being fhown to Mr Johnfon, and his opinion being
alked, he allowed them but little merit ; which be¬
ing told to the author, he refolved to requite this
private opinion with a public one. In .his next poem,
therefore, of the ChoJ}, he has drawn this gentleman
under the character of Pompofo ; and thofe who
dilliked Mr Johnfon, allowed it to have merit. Mr
Johnfon’s only reply to Churchill’s abufe was, “ that
he thought him a lhallow fellow in the beginning,
and could fay nothing worfe^of him Hill.” The
poems of Night and the Ghoft had not the rapid fale
the author expected ; but his prophecy of Famine
foon made ample amends for the late paroxifm in his
fame. In this piece, written in the fpirit of the fa¬
mous Nortli Briton, he exerted his virulent pen again!!
the whole Scots nation; adopting the prejudices of the
mob, and dignifying fcurrility by the aid of a poetic
imagination. It had a rapid and extenfive fale, as
prophefied by Mr Wilkes; who faid, before its ptib-
_ lication, that he was fupe it muft take, as it was at
once perfonal, poetical, and political. After its ap¬
pearance, it was even afferted by his admirers, that
Mr Churchill was a better poet than Pope. This
exaggerated adulation, as it had before corrupted his
morals, began now to impair his mind : feveral fuc¬
ceeding pieces were publifhed, which, being written
without effort, are read without pleafure. His Co-
thom, Independence, The Times, feem merely to have
been written by a man who defired tu> avail himfelf
of the avidity of the public curiofity in his favour, and
are rather aimed at the pockets than the hearts of his
readers.
Mr Churchill died in 1764, of a miliary fever, with Church-,
which he was feized at Boulogne in France, whither y*14*
he had gone on a vifit to Mr Wilkes. After his death fibber.
his poems were colledled and printed together in two  
volumes 8V<>.
CHURCHYARD (Thomas), a poet who flourilhed
in the reigns of Henry VIII. Edward VI. queen
Mary and queen Elizabeth, was born at Shrewlbury ;
and inherited a fortune, which he foon exhaufted in a
fruitlefs attendance on the court, by which he only
gained the favour of being retained a domeftic in the
family of lord Surrey ; when, by his lordlhip’s encou¬
ragement, he commenced poet. Upon his patron’s
death, he betook hfmfelf to arms ; was in many en¬
gagements ; was frequently wounded, and was twice
made prifoner. He publiftied 12 pieces, which he
afterwards printed together in one volume, under the
title of Churchyard's Chips; and alfo the tragedy of
Thomas Moubray duke of Norfolk. He died in X 5 70.
CHYLE, in the animal oeconomy, a milky fluid fe-
creted from the aliments by means of digeftion. See
Anatomy, n° 366,—371.
CHYLIFICATION, the formation of the chyle, or
the ad! whereby the food is changed into chyle.
The chyle has by fome authors been thought to
have a great refemblance in its nature and chemical
analylis to milk. The fubjedt however, hath as yet,
been but little inquired into. See the article Milk.
CHYME, or Chymus, in the common fignification
of the word, denotes every kind of humour which is
incraffated by concodlion; under which notion it com¬
prehends all the humours fit or unfit for preferving
and nourifliing the body, whether good or bad. It
frequently imports the fine!! part of the chyle, when
feparated from the faeces, and contained in the ladteal
and thoracic dud!.
CHYMISTRY. See Chemistry.
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to fuch natu-
ralifts as have employed their time in inveftigating
the properties of plants from their taffe and fmell.
CHYMOSIS, in medicine, the ad! of making or
preparing Chyme.
Chymosis is alfo a dillortion of the eye-lids, arifing
from an inflammation; , alfo an inflammation of the
tunica cornea in the eye.
CIBBER (Colley), a celebrated comedian, drama¬
tic writer, and poet laureat to the king, was born at
London in 1671. His father Cains Gabriel Cibber,
was a native of Holftein, and a fldlful llatuary, who
executed the baflb relievo on the pedeftal of the mo¬
nument, and the two admired figures of lunatics over
the piers of the gate to Bethlem Hofpital in Moor-
fields. Colley, who derived his Chriliian name from
the furname of his mother’s family, was intended for
the church, but betook himfelf to the flage, for which
he conceived an early inclination ; and he was fome
time before he acquired any degree of notice, or even
a competent falary. His fir!! effiy in writing, was
the comedy of Love's lajl Shift, acted in 1695, which
met with fuccefs; as did his own performance of the
charadler of the fop in it. From’that time, as he
fays himfelf, “ My mufe and my fpoufe were lb
equally prolific, that the one was feldom the mother
of a child, but in the fame year the other made
pie
Cibdelopla*
cia
Cicada.
C I C [ 1975 ] C I c
me the father of a play. I think we had a dozen, of
each fort between us; of both which kinds fome died
in their infancy, and near an equal number of each
.were alive when we quitted the theatre.” The
Carelefs Hujband, aCied in 1704, met with much ap-
plaufe, and is reckoned his belt play : but none was
of more importance to him than the l\on-juror, a<5led
in 1717, and levelled againft the Jacobites. This laid
the foundation of the mifunderftanding between him
and Mr Pope, railed him to be the hero of the Dunciad,
and made him poet laureat in 1730. He then quitted
the Itage, except a few occafionkl performances; and
died in 1757. Cibber neither fucceeded in acting nor in
writing tragedy; and his odes were not thought to par¬
take of the genius or fpirit he Ihewed in his comedies.
His fon Thsophilus, alfo a comic a£tor after him, was
born during a great ftorm in 1703 ; and after palling
a life of extravagance, diftrefs, and perplexity, pe-
rilhed in another Itorm in 1757, in the paffage be¬
tween Dublin and England. Theophilus married the
filter of Thomas Augultin Arne, the famous mulical
compofer; who became a celebrated tragic adtrefs,
and whofe honour was facriliced to her hulband’s ex¬
travagance.
CIBDELOPLACIA, in natural hillory, a genus of
fpars debafed by a very large admixture of earth:
they are opaque, formed of thin emits, covering ve¬
getables and other bodies, by way of incrultations.
Of this genus we have the following fpecies : 1. A
greyilh-white one, with a rough furface. 2. A whi-
tilh-brown one: both thefe are friable. 3. A hard,
pale-brown kind, which is the oltecolla of the Ihops.
4. The whitilh-grey kind, with a fmooth furface:
this is the unicornu folfile and ceratites of authors.
5. The whitifh-brown corralloide kind.
CIBDELOSTRACIA, in natural hiltory, terrene
fpars, dellitute of all brightnefs and tranfparance,
formed into thin plates, and ufually found coating over
the lides of filfures, and other cavities of Hones, with
congeries of them of great extent, and of plain or
botroyide furfaces.
Of thefe there are ufually reckoned feven kinds:
the firft is the hard, brownifli-white cibdeloftracium,
found in Germany : the fecond is the hard, whitilh
cibdeloftracium, with thin crufts, and a fmoother fur¬
face, found alfo in the Harts-foreft in Germany : the
third is the hard, pale-brown cibdeloftracium, with
numerous very thin crufts, found in fubterranean ca¬
verns in many parts of England as well as Germany :
the fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, found alfo in Germany, but very rarely in any
part of England: the fifth is the light, hard, pale-
brown cibdeloftracium, with a fmooth furface, found
in almoft all parts of the world : the fixth is the whi-
tifh, friable, cruftaceous cibdeloftracium, with a rough¬
er furface, frequent in Germany and England ; and
the feventh is the brownifh-white, friable cibdeloftra¬
cium, with a dufty furface, found in feveral parts of
Ireland, as well as Germany.
CICADA, or American Locust, in zoology, a
genus of infeifts belonging to the order of hemiptera.
The beak is infle<fted ; the antenna: are fetaceous; the
four wings are membranaceous and deflected ; ami the
feet, in moft of the fpecies, are of the jumping kind.
The fpecies are fifty-one. The larvse of feveral of this
genus evacuate great quantities of a frothy matter up¬
on the branches and leaves of plants, in the midft of
which they conftantly refide. See Froth-£/;/, and
Cicadula.
CICADULA, in natural hiftory, the name given by
Mr Ray to a fmall fpecies of the above, called by Swam¬
merdam locufta pulex, and found in May and June on
the ftalks and leaves of plants, involved in a fpumous
white matter, commonly called cuckow-fpit, or froth-
fpit. See Froth-Spit.
CICATRICULA, among natural hiftorians, denotes
a fmall whitiih (peck in the yolk of an egg, fuppofed
to be the firft: rudiments of the future chick.
CICATRIX, in forgery, a little feam or elevation
of callous fleih rifing on'the ikin, and remaining there
after the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly
called a fear.
CICATRIZANTS, in pharmacy, medicines which
aflift nature to form a cicatrix. Such are Armenian
bole, powder of tutty, deficcativum rubrum, &c.
Cicatrizants are otherwife called efcharotics, epulo-
tics, incarnatives, agglutinants, ire.
CICELY. See Myrrhis.
C1CER, or Chick-pea ; a genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants.
There is but one fpecies, which produces peafe Ihaped
like the common ones, but much fmaller. They are
much cultivated in Spain, where they are natives,
being one of the ingredients in their olios ; as alfo in
France ; but are rarely known in Britian.
CICERO (Marcus Tullius,) the celebrated Roman
orator, was born in the year of Rome 647, about 107
years before Chrift. His father Marcus Tullius, who
was of the equeftrian order, took great care of his edu¬
cation, which was directed particularly with a view
to the bar. Young Tully, at his firft appearance in
public, declaimed with fuch vehemence againft Sylla's
party, that it became expedient for him to retire into
Greece ; where he heard the Athenian orators and
philofophers, and greatly improved both in eloquence
and knowledge. Here he met with W. Pomponius who
had been his fchool-fellow ; and who, from his love
to Athens, and fpending a great part of his days in it>
obtained the furname of Attictn ; and here they re¬
vived and confirmed that noted friendfhip which fub-
fifted between them through life, with lb celebrated
a conftancy and alfedtion. From Athens he palled
into Alia ; and after an excurfion of two years came
back agairr into Italy.
Cicero was now arrived at Rome ; and, after one
year more fpent at the bar, obtained, in the next place,
the dignity of quaeftor. Among the caufes which he
pleaded before his quajftorlhip, was that of the famous
comedian Rofcius, whom a fmgular merit in his art
had recommended to the familiarity and friendfhip of
the greateft men in Rome. The qurdtors were the
general receivers or treafurers of the republic, and
were fent annually into the provinces diftribured to
them, as they always were, by lot. The illand of
Sicily happened to fall to Cicero’s lhare ; and that
part of it, for it was confiderable enough to be di¬
vided into two provinces, which was called Lilybxum.
This office he received not as a gift, but a truft ; and
he
Cicadula
II
Cicero.
GIG [ 1976 ] GIG
Cicero, he acquitted himfelf fo well in it, that he gained the
 love and admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he
left Sicily, he made the tour of the ifland, to fee every
thing that was curious, and el'pecially the city of Sy-
racufe ; where he difcovered the tomb of Archimedes
to the magiftrates who were {hewing him the curioli-
ties of the place, but who, to his furprife, knew no¬
thing of any fuch tomb.
We have no account of the precife time of Cicero’s
marriage with Terentia; but it is fuppofed to have
been celebrated immediately after his return from his
travels to Italy, when he was about 30 years old. He
was now dilengaged from his quasftorlhip in Sicily, by
which firlt liep in the legal gradation and afcent of
public honours, he gained an immediate right to the
fenate, and an actual admiffion into it during life ;
and fettled again in Rome, where he employed him¬
felf conftantly in defending the perfons and properties
of its citizens, and was indeed a general patron. Five
years were almoll elapfed fince Cicero’s ele&ion to
the quteftorfhip, which was the proper interval pre-
fcribed by law, before he could hold the next office
of sedile ; to which he was now, in his 37th year,
elected by the unanimous fuffrages of all the tribes,
and preferably to all his competitors. After Cicero’s
election to the aedileffiip, but before his entrance upon
the office, he undertook the famed profecution of
C. Verres, the late praetor of Sicily ; who was charged
with many flagrant adts of injuftice, rapine, and cruel¬
ty, during his triennial government of that ifland. This
was one of the moll memorable tranfa£tions of his
life; for which he was greatly and juBly celebrated
by antiquity, and for which he will, in all ages, be
admired and efteemed by the friends of mankind. The
refult was, that, by his diligence and addrefs, he fo
confounded Hortenfms, though the reigning orator at
the bar, and ufually ftyled the king of the forum, that
he had nothing to fay for his client. Verres, defpair-
ing of all defence, fubmitted immediately, without
expelling the fentence, to a voluntary exile ; where
he lived many years, forgotten and deferted by all
his friends. He is faid to have been relieved in this
miferable fituation by the gencrofity of Cicero ; yet
was profcribed and murdered after all by Mark An¬
tony, for the fake of thofe fine {fames and Corin¬
thian veffels of which he had plundered the Sicilians.
After the ufual interval of two years from the time
of his being chofen aedile, Cicero offered himfelf a can¬
didate for the praetorfliip ; and, in three different af-
femblies convened for the choice of praetors, two of
which were diffolved without effcdl, he was declared
every time the firft praetor by the fuffrages of all the
centuries. He w’as now in the career of his fortunes;
and in fight, as it were, of the confullhip, the grand
objedl of his ambition : and therefore, when his prae-
torffiip was at an end, he would not accept any foreign
province, the ufual reward of that magillracy, and
the chief fruit which the generality propofed from it.
He had no particular love for money, nor genius for
arms, fo that thofe governments had no charms for
him : the glory which he purfued was to ffiine in the
eyes of the city, as the guardian of its laws ; and to
teach the magilirates how to execute, the citizens how
to obey, them.
Being now in his 43d year, the proper age required Cicerac-
by law, he declared himfelf a candidate for the con- “
fullhip, along with fix competitors, L. Sculpicius Gal-
ba, L. Sergius Catilina, C. Antonins, L. Calfius Lon¬
ginus, Q; Cornificius, and C. Licinius Sacerdos. The
two firlt were patricians ; the two next plebeians, yet
noble ; the two laft the Ions of fathers who had firll
imported the public honours into their families : Ci¬
cero was the only new man, as he was called, among
them, or one of equeitrian rank. Thefe were the
competitors ; and in this competition the practice of
bribing was carried on as openly and as ffiamefully by
Antonius and Catiline as it ufually is at our elections
in Britain. However, as the e!e6lion approached,
Cicero’s interefl appeared to be fuperior to that of all
the candidates : for the nobles themfelves, though al¬
ways envious and defirous to deprefs him, yet out of
regard to the dangers which threatened the city from
many quarters, and feemed ready to burft out into a
flame, began to think him the only man qualified to
preferve the republic, and break the cabals of the def*
perate by the vigour and prudence of his adminiffra-
tion. The method of choofing confuls was not by an
open vote ; but by a kind of ballot, or little tickets of
wood dillributed to the citizens, with the names of
the feveral candidates inferibed upon each : but in Ci¬
cero’s cafe the people were not content with this fe-
cret and filent way ; but, before they came to any
ferutiny, loudly and univerfally proclaimed Cicero the
firft conful: fo that, as he himfelf fays, i( he was not
chofen by the votes of particular citizens, but the com¬
mon fuffrage of the city ; nor declared by the voice of
the crier, but of the whole Roman people.”
Cicero had no fooner entered upon his office, than
he had occafion to exert himfelf againft P. Servilius
Rullus, one of the new tribunes, who had been alarm¬
ing the fenate with the promulgation of an Agrarian
law ; the purpofe of which was to create a decemvi-
rate, or ten commiflioners, with abfolute power for
five years, over all the revenues of the republic, to di-
ftribute them at pleafure to the citizens, ire. Thefe
laws ufed to be greedily received by the populace,
and were propofed therefore by factious magiftrates
as oft as they had any point to carry with the multi¬
tude againft the public good ; fo that Cicero’s firft bu-
finefs was to quiet the apprehenfions of the city, and
to baffle, if poffible, the intrigues of the tribune. Ac¬
cordingly, in an artful and elegant fpeech from the
roftra, he gave fuch a tvirn to the inclination of the
people, that they rejected this law with as much ea-
gernefs as they had ever received one. But the grand
affair of all, which conftituted the glory of his conful-
fiiip, and has tranfmitted his name with fuch luftre to
pofterity, was the {kill he {hewed, and the unwearied
pains he took, in fupprefling that horrid confpiracy
which was formed by Catiline and his accomplices
for the fubverfion of the commonwealth. For this
great fervice he was honoured w'ith the glorious title
of pater patrix, “ the father of his country,” which
he retained for a long time after.
Cicero’s adminiftration was now at an end; but he
had no fooner quitted his office, than he began to feel
the weight of that envy which is the certain fruit of
illyftrious merit. He was now7, therefore, the com¬
mon
C I c
Cicero, mon mark, not only of all the factions, againft whom
  he had declared perpetual war, but of another party
not lefs dangerous, the envious too : whofe united
fpleen never left him from this moment till they had
driven him out of that city which he had fo lately pre¬
fer ved. Cicero, upon the expiration of his conful-
Ihip, took care to fend a particular account of his
whole adminiltration to Pompey, who was finifhing
the Mithridatic war in Afia ; in hopes to prevent any
wrong impreffions there from the calumnies of his
enemies, and to draw from him fome public declara¬
tion in praife of what he had been doing. But Pom¬
pey being informed by Metelius and Caefar of the ill
humour that was rifing againft Cicero in Rome, an-
fwered him with great coldnefs; and inftead of pay¬
ing him any compliment, took no notice at all of
what had paffed in the affair of Catiline : upon which
Cicero expoftulates with him in a letter which is ftill
extant.
About this time Cicero bought a houfe of M. Craffus
on the Palatine-hill, adjoining to that in which he had
always lived with his father, and which he is now fup-
pofed to have given up to his brother Quimius. The
houfe coft him near L. 30,000, and feems to have
been one of the noblefl in Rome. It was built about
30 years before by the famous tribune M. Livius Dru-
fus: ofi which occafion we are told, that when the ar¬
chitect promifed to build it for him in fuch a manner
that none of his neighbours fliould overlook him ;
“ But if you have any fkill (replied Drufus) contrive
it rather fo that all the world may fee what I am
doing.” The purchafe of fo expenfive a houfe raifed
fbme cenfure on his vanity ; and efpecially as it was
made with borrowed money. This circumftance he
himfelf does not diffemble; but fays merrily upon it,
that “ he was now plunged fo deeply in debt, as to be
ready for a plot, only that the confpirators would not
truft him.”
The moft remarkable event that happened in this
year, which was the 45th of Cicero’s life, was the
pollution of the myfteries of the dea by P. Clo-
dius ; which, by an unhappy train of confequences,
involved Cicero in a great and unexpe&ed calamity.
Clodius, who had an intrigue with Casfar’s wife Pom-
peia, who, according to annual cuftom, was now ce¬
lebrating in her houfe thole awful facrifices of the
goddefs, to which no male creature ever was admit¬
ted ; and where every thing mafculine was fo fcru-
puloufly excluded, that even pictures of that fort were
covered during the ceremony. It flattered Clodius’s
imagination greatly to gain accefs to his miftrefs in
the midft of her holy miniftry ; tnd with this view
he dreffed himfelf in a woman’s habit, that by the be¬
nefit of his fmooth face, and the introduction of one
of the maids, he might pafs without difcovery: but
by fome miftake between him and his guide, he loft
his way when he came within the houfe, and fell in
unluckily among the other female fervants. Here he
was deteCted by his voice, and the fervants alarmed
the whole company by their fhrieks, to the great
amazement of the matrons, who threw a veil over
their facred myfteries, while Clodius found means to
efcape. The ftory was prefently fpread abroad, and
raifed a general fcandal and horror throughout the
Vol. Ill
c r c
city. The whole defence which Clodius made, when,
by order of the fenate, he was brought to a trial, was
to prove himielf abfent at the time of the faCt; for
which purpofe he produced two men to fwear, that
he was then at Interatnna, about two or three days
journey from the city. But Cicero, being called upon
to give his teftimony, depofed, that Clodius had been
with him that very morning at his houfe in Rome.
Irritated by this, Clodius formed a fcheme of revenge.
This was to get himfelf chofen tribune, and in that
office to drive Cicero out of the city, by the publica¬
tion of a Jaw, which, by fome ftratagem or other, he
hoped to obtrude upon the people. But as all patri¬
cians were incapable of the tribunate, by its original
inftitution, fo his firft ftep was to make himfelf a ple¬
beian, by the pretence of an adoption into a plebeian
houfe, which could not yet be done without the tuf-
frage of the people. The firft triumvirate was now
formed; which was nothing elfe in reality but a trai-
terous confpiracy of three of the moft powerful citi¬
zens of Rome, to extort from their country by violence
what they could not obtain by law. Pompey’s chief
motive was to get his afts confirmed by Csefar in his
confullhip, which was now coming on : Cxfar, by gi¬
ving way to Pompey’s glory, to advance his own ;
and Craffus, to gain that afcendence by the authority
of Pompey and Cxfar, which he could not fuftain alone.
Cicero might have made what terms he pleafed with
the triumvirate ; and been admitted even a partner of
their power, and a fourth in their league : but he
would not enter into any engagements w'ith the three
whofe union he and all the friends of the republic ab¬
horred. Clodius, in the mean time, had been pulhing
on the bufmefs of his adoption: which at laft he effec¬
ted ; and began foon after to threaten Cicero with all
the terrors of his tribunate, to which he was now ad¬
vanced without any oppofition. Both Cxfar and
Pompey fecretly favoured his fcheme : not that they
intended to ruin Cicero, but only to keep him under
the lalh; and if they could not draw him into their
meafures, or make him at leaft keep quiet, to let Clo¬
dius loofe upon him. Cxfar, in particular, wanted
to diftrefs him fo far as to force him to a dependence
on himfelf: for which end, while he was privately en¬
couraging Clodius to purfue him, he was propofing ex¬
pedients to Cicero for his fecurity. But though his
fortunes feemed now to be in a tottering condition,
and his enemies to gain ground daily upon him; yet
he was unwilling to owe the obligation of his fafety
to any man, far dels to Cxfar, whofe defigns he al¬
ways fufpetfted, and whofe fchemes he never appro¬
ved. This ftiffnefs in Cicero fo exafperated Cxfar,
that he refolved immediately to aflift Clodius with all
his power to opprefs him; while Pompey was all the
while giving him the ftrongeft afliirances that there
was no danger, and that he would fooner be killed
himfelf than fuffer him to be hurt.
Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging the people
with feveral new laws, contrived chiefly for their ad¬
vantage ; the defign of all which was only to intro¬
duce, with a better grace, the ground-plot of the play,
the banilhment of Cicero. In Ihort, having caufed a
law to be enabled, importing, that any who had con¬
demned a Roman citizen unheard fliould himfelf be
II S baniflied.
[ I977 1
C I C [ 1978 ] C I c
Ckero. baniflied, he foon after impeached Cicero upon it. It
  was in vain that this great man went up and down
the city i'oliciting his caufe in the habit of a fuppliant,
and attended by many of the firft young noblemen
whom he had taught the rules of eloquence ; thofe
powers of fpeaking which had fo often been fuccefs-
ful in defending the caufe of others, feemed totally to
fori'ake his own : he was baniflied by the votes of the
people 400 miles from Italy ; his houfes were order¬
ed to be demoliflied, and his goods let up to fale. It
cannot be denied, that in this great calamity he did
not behave himfelf with that nrmnefs which might
reafonably be expected from one who had borne fo
glorious a part in the republic; confcious of his inte¬
grity, and fuffering in the caufe of his country : for
Ids letters are generally filled with fuch lamentable
expreffions of grief and defpair, that his beft friends,
and even his wife, were forced fometimes to admo-
nilh him to roufe his courage, and remember his for¬
mer character. Atticus was conftantly putting him in
mind of it; and lent him word of a report, that was
brought to Rome by one of Caffius’s freed-men, that
his affliction had difordered his fenfes. He was now
indeed attacked in his weakelt part; the only place
in which he was vulnerable. To have been as great
in affliction as he was in profperity, would have been
a perfection not given to man : yet this very weak-
nefs flowed from a fource which rendered him the
more amiable in all the other parts of his life ; and
the fame tendernefs of difpolition which made him
love his friends, his children, and his country, more
pafiionately than other men, made him feel the
lofs of them more fenfibly. When he had been
gone a little more than two months, a motion was
made in the fenate by one of the tribunes, who was
his friend, to recal him, and repeal the laws of Go¬
dins ; to which the whole houfe readily agreed.
Many obftruCtions, as may be eafily imagined, were
given to it by the Clodian faCiion ; but this made the
fenate only more refolute to effeCt it. They pafled
a vote therefore, that no other bufinefs fhould be done
till Cicero’s return was carried ; which at laft it was,
and in fo fplendid and triumphant a manner, that he
had reafon, he fays, to fear, left people fhould ima¬
gine that he himielf had contrived his late flight for
the fake of fo glorious a reiteration..
Cicero, now in his jo,h year, was reftored to his
former dignity, and f’oon after to his former fortunes;
flitisfa&ion being made to him for the ruin of his eftates
and houfes ; which laft Were built up again by him¬
felf with more magnificence than before. But lie had
domeftic grievances about this time, which touched
him very nearly ; and which,, as he fignifies obfeurely
to Atticus, were of too delicate a nature to be ex-
prefled in a letter: They arofe chiefly from the pe¬
tulant humour of his wife, which began to give him
frequent occafions of chagrin ; and, by a feries of re¬
peated provocations, confirmed in him that fettled dif-
guft which at laft ended in a divorce.
In the 56th year of his age, he was made procon-
ful of Cilicia ; and his adminiftration there gained
him great honour. About this time the expectation
of a breach between Casfar and Pompey engaged the
general attention. CrafTus had been deftroyed with
his army fome years before in the war with the Par- Cicero.
thians ; and Julia, the daughter of Casfar, whom Pom¬
pey married, and who, while fhe lived, was the ce¬
ment of their union, was alfo dead in child-bed. Cae-
far had put an end to the Gallic war, and reduced
the whole province to the Roman yoke : but though
his commiflion was near expiring, he leemed to have
no thoughts of giving it up, and returning to the con¬
dition of a private 1'ubjecl. He pretended that he
could not poflibly be fafe if he parted with his army;
efpecially while Pompey held the province of Spain
prolonged to him for five years. This difpofition to
a breach Cicero foon learned from his friends, as he
was returning from his province of Cilicia. But as he
forefaw the confequences of a war more dearly and
fully than any of them, fo his firft refoiution was to
apply all his endeavours and authority to the mediation
of a peace ; though, in the event of a breach, he was
determined within himfelf to follow Pompey. He
clearly forefaw, what lie declared without fcruple to
his friends, that which fide foever got the better, the
war murt neceflarily end in a tyranny. The only dif¬
ference, he laid, was, that, if their enemies conquer¬
ed, they fhould be proferibed ; if their friends, they
would be flaves.
He no fooner arrived at the city, however, than
he fell, as he tells us, into the very flame of civil difi-
, cord, and found the war in eflfect proclaimed : for the
fenate had juft voted a decree, that Csd'ar fhould dif-
band his army by a certain day, or be declared an
enemy; and Caefar’s 1’udden march towards Rome
eff'eiftually confirmed it. In the midft of all this hurry
and confufion, Casfar was extremely felicitous about
Cicero i not fo much to gain him, for that was not to
be expected, as to prevail with him to ftand neuter.
He wrote to him feveral times to that elft ft; and
employed all their common friends to preis him with
.letters on that fubjeft : all which was done; but in
vain, for Cicero was impatient to be gone to Pompey.
In the mean time, thefe letters give us a moft fen-
fible proof of the high efteem and credit in which Ci¬
cero flourifhed at this time in Rome ; when, in acon-
tefl for empire, which force alone was to decide, we
fee the chiefs on both fides fo folicitous to gain a man
to their party, who had no peculiar fkill in arms, or
talents for war. Purfuing, however, the ref'uJt of all.
his deliberations, he embarked at length to follow
Pompey, who had been obliged to quit Italy fome
time before, and was then at Dyrrhachium ; and ar¬
rived fafely in his camp with his fon, his brother, and
his nephew, committing the fortunes of the whole
family to the ifl’ue of that caui'e. After the battle of
Pharfalia, in which Pompey was defeated, Cicero re¬
turned into Italy, and was afterwards received into-
great favour by Casfar, who was now declared difta-
tor the fecond time, and Mark Antony his mafter of
horfe. We may eafily imagine, what we find in¬
deed from his letters, that he was not a little dif-
compofed at the thoughts of an interview with Casfar,
and the indignity of offering himfelf to a conqueror
againft whom he had been in arms: for though upon
many accounts he had reafon to expeft a kind recep¬
tion from Caefar, yet he hardly thought his iife, he
fays, worth begging; fince what was given by a ma-
C I G
fter, migkt always be taken away again at pleafure.
But at their meeting, he had no occalion to fay or do
any thing that was below his dignity : for Caefar no
fooner faw him than he alighted, ran to embrace him,
and walked with him alone, converfing very famili¬
arly for feveral furlongs.
Cicero was now in his 61st year, and forced at laft
to part with his wife Terentia ; whole humour and
conduct had been long uneafy to him. She was a
woman of an imperious and turbulent fpirit : and
though he had borne her perverfenefs in the vigour of
health, and flourilhing Hate of his fortunes; yet, in a
declining life, loured by a continual fucceffion of mor¬
tifications from abroad, the want of eafe and quiet at
home was no longer tolerable to him. But he was
immediately opprefled by a new and molt cruel af-
fli&ion, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia, who
died in child-bed foon after her divorce from her
third hulband Dolabella. She was about 33 years
old, at the time of her death ; and, by the few hints
which are left of her character, appears to have been
an excellent and admirable woman. She was molt
affectionately and pioully obfervant of her father;
and, to the ufual graces of her fex, having added the
more folid accomplilhments of knowledge and polite
letters, was qualified to be the companion and delight
of his age; and wasjultly elteemed not only as one
of the bell, but the molt learned, of the Roman ladies.
His afflhHion for the death of this daughter was fo
great, that, to Ihun all company as much as he could,
he removed to Atticus’ houle, where he lived chiefly
in his library, turning over every book he could
meet with on the fubje£t of moderating grief. But
finding his refidence here too public, and a greater
refort to him than he could bear, he retired to Altu-
ria, one of his feats near Antium; a little illand on
the Latian lliore, at the mouth of a river of the fame
name, covered with woods and groves cut into lhady
walks ; a fcene of all others the fittelt to indulge me¬
lancholy, and where he could give a free courfe to his
grief. “ Here (fays he to Atticus) I live without the
Ipeech of man ; every morning early I hide myfelf in
the thickell of the wood, and never come out till the
evening. Next to yourl'elf, nothing is fo dear to me
as this folitude ; and my whole converfation is with
my books.” Indeed his whole time was employed
in little eli’e than reading and writing during Caefar’s
adminillration, which he could never cheerfully fub-
mit to ; and it was within this period, that he drew
up one of the gravelt of thefe philofophical pieces
which are Hill extant in his works.
Upon the death of Caefar, Octavius, his nephew
and heir, coming into Italy, was prefented to Cicero
by Hirtius and Panfa ; with the llrongelt profeffions
on the part of the young man, that he would be go¬
verned entirely by his direction. Indeed Cicero
thought it necelfary to cherilh and encourage Octavius,
if for nothing elfe yet to keep him at a diltance from
Antony ; but could not yet be perfuaded to enter
heartily into his affairs. He fufpedted his youth and
want of experience ; and that he had not llrength
enough to deal with Antony ; and, above all, that he
had no good difpolkion towards the confpirators.
He thought it impoffible he iltould ever be a friend to
C I c
them ; and was perfuaded rather, that if ever he got Cicefo.
the upper hand, his uncle’s adts would be more vio-
lently enforced, and his death more cruelly revenged
than by Antony himlelf. And when Cicero did con-
fen t at lait to unite himfelf to- Odtavius’s interelts, it
was with no other view but to arm him with a
power liifficient to opprefs Antony ; yet fo checked
and limited, that he fliould not be able to opprefs the
republic.
In the hurry of all thefe politics, he was ftill profe-
cuting his Iludies with his ufual application ; and, be-
fides ibme philofophical pieces, now finilhed his book of
offices, or the duties of man, for the ufe of his fon : A
work admired by all fucceeding ages as the moll per-
fedl fyltem of heathen morality, and the noblelt effort
and fpecimen of what reafon could do in guiding man
through life with innocence and happinefs. How¬
ever, he paid a conltant attention to public affairs;
miffed no opportunities, but did every thing that hu¬
man prudence could do for the recovery of the re¬
public : for all that vigour with which it was making
this lalt effort for itfelf, was entirely owing to his
counfels and authority. This appears from thofe me¬
morable Philippics which from time to time he pub-
lilhed againft Antony ; as well as from other monu¬
ments of antiquity. But all was in vain ; for though
Antony’s army was entirely defeated at the fiege of
Modena, which made many people imagine that the
war was at an end and the liberty of Rome eltabli-
ffied ; yet the death of the confuls Panfa and Hirtius
in that adtion, gave the fatal blow to all Cicero’s
fchemes, and was the immediate caufe of the ruin of
the republic.
Odtavius having fubdued the fenate to his mind,
marched towards Gaul to meet Antony and Lepi-
dus; who had already palfed the Alps, and brought
their armies into Italy, in order to have a perfonal
interview with him ; which had been privately con¬
certed for fettling the terms of a triple league, and
dividing the power and provinces of Italy among
themfelves. The place appointed for this interview
was a fmall illand about two miles from Bononia, for¬
med by the river Rhenns which runs near that city.
Here they met, and fpent three days in a dole con¬
ference to adjult the plan of their accommodation:
and the lalt thing they adjulted was the lilt of a pro-
fcription which they wrere determined to make of
their enemies. This, as the writers tell us, occafioned
much difficulty and warm contelts among them ; till
each in his turn confented to facrifice fome of his belt
friends to the revenge and refentment of his col¬
leagues. Cicero was at his Tufculan villa, when he
firlt received the news of the profcription and of his
being included in it. It was the defign of the trium¬
virate to keep it a fecret, if pofiible, to the moment
of execution; in order to furprife thole whom they
had deltined to deltrucftion, before they were aware
of their danger, or had time to make their efcape.
But fome of Cicero’s friends found means to give him
early notice of it ; upon which he fet forward to the
fea-lide, with a defign to tranfport himfelf out of the
reach of his enemies. There, finding a veffel ready,
he prefently embarked ; but the winds being adverfe,
and the fea uneafy to him, after he had failed about
11 S 3 two
t >979 1
C I C [ 1980 ] C I c
Cicero two leagues along the coaft, he was obliged to land,
#. and i'pend the night on fhore. From thence he was
ic onnm. by ,-be importunity of his lervants, on board
again ; but was foon afterwards obliged to land at a
country-feat of his, a mile from the fliore, weary of
life, and declaring he was refolved to die in that coun¬
try which he had fo often faved: here he flept foundly
for fome time, till his fervants once more forced him
away in a litter towards the ftiip, having heard that he
was purfued by Antony’s aifaffins. They were fcarce
departed, when the aflaffins arrived at his houfe; and,
perceiving him to be fled, purfued him immediately to¬
wards the fea, and overtook him in a wood that was
near the fliore. Their leader was one Popilius Lenas,
a tribune of the army, whofe life Cicero had formerly
defended and faved. As foon as the foldiers appear¬
ed, the fervants prepared to defend their mafter’s
life, at the hazard of their own ; but Cicero com¬
manded them to fet him down and make no refift-
ance. They foon cut off his head and his hands, re¬
turning with them to Rome, as the moft agreeable
prefent to their cruel employer. Antony, who was
then at Rome, received them with extreme joy, re¬
warding the murderer with a large fum of money,
and ordering the head to be fixed upon the roftra be¬
tween the two hands : a fad fpe&acle to the city;
and what drew tears from every eye, to fee thofe
mangled members which ufed to exert themfelves fo
glorioufly from that place, in defence of the lives, the
fortunes, and the liberties of the Roman people, fo
lamentably expofed to the fcorn of fycophants and
traitors. The deaths of the reft, fays an hiftorian
of that age, caufed only a private and particular for-
row, but Cicero’s an univerfal one. It was a triumph
over the republic itfelf; and feemed to confirm and
eftabiilh the perpetual flavery to Rome. Antony con-
fidered it as fuch ; and, fatisfied with Cicero’s blood,
declared the profcription at an end. Cicero was kil¬
led on the feventh of December, in the 64th year of
his age, about ten days from the fettlement of the firft
triumvirate.
CICHORIUM, succory ; a genus of the polyga-
mia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants.
Species. 1. The intybus, or wild fuccory, grows
naturally by the fides of roads, and in Jhady lanes in
many places of Britain. It fends out long leaves from
the roots, from between which the ftalks arife, grow¬
ing to the height of three or four feet, and branching
out into fmaller ones. The flowers come out from
the fides of the ftalks, and are of a fine blue colour.
They are fucceeded by oblong feeds covered, inclofed
in a down. 2. The fpinofum, with a prickly forked
ftalk, grows naturally on the i’ea-coafts in Sicily, and
the iflands of the Archipelago. This fends out from
the root many long leaves which are indented on their
edges, and fpread flat on the ground ; from between
thefe arife the ftalks, which have very few leaves,
and thofe are fmall and entire : thefe ftalks are di¬
vided in forks upward, and from between them come
out the flowers which are of a pale blue colour and are
fucceeded by feeds ftiaped like thofe of the common
forts. The ends of the fmaller Branches are termina¬
ted by ftar-like fpines which are very fliarp. 3. The
endivia, or fuccory with broad crenated leaves, differs Cichormm.
from the wild fort in its duration, being only annual, *
whereas the wild fort is perennial.
Culture, &c. The laft fpecies may be confidered
both as an annual and biennial plant. If fown early
in the fpring, or even any time before the beginning
of June, the plants very commonly fly up to leed the
fame fummer, and perilh irr autumn. If fown in June
and July, they acquire perfection in autumn, conti¬
nue till the next fpring, then fltoot up ftalks for flower
and feed, and foon after perilh. The inner leaves
are the ufeful parts. Thefe when blanched white to
render them crifp and tender, and reduce them from
their natural ftrong tafte to an agreeably bitter one,
are then fit for ufe. They are valued chiefly as in¬
gredients in autumn and winter falads, and for fome
culinary ufes. The principal feafon of them is from
the latter end of Auguft till Chriftmas or longer, ac¬
cording to the temperature of the feafon ; though the
curled kinds generally refill the frofts of our ordinary
winters, and remain in tolerable perfection till March
or April. They are propagated by feeds fown in an
open fpot of ground, from which the plants are to be
removed into open beds or borders where they may
remain to grow to full fize. The feafon for lowing
thefe feeds is from the beginning of June to the end
of July; and to have a regular fupply of plants, it is
proper to perform three different fowings at about
three weeks or a month’s interval. The great excel¬
lence of endive is to have its inner leaves finely whi¬
tened or blanched. They naturally incline to white-
nefs of themfelves, but this may be greatly improved
by art when the plants are arrived at full growth.
Different methods are praClifed for this purpofe, fuch
as tying the leaves together; taking up the plants,
and replanting them direCtly, almoft to their tops, in
ridges of dry earth, laying boards or tiles flat-ways
on the top of the plants; but the firft is found to an-
fwer the purpofe moft effeCIually. The proper time
for beginning this work is, when the leaves are al¬
moft full grown; that is, when they are fo far ad¬
vanced that the leaves of the different plants interfere
with one another, and their hearts are full and bufliy:
but they are not all to be tied up at once, only a due
fupply of the largeft and forwardeft plants, once eve¬
ry ten or twelve days according to the demand ; for
the blanching takes up about three weeks. Blanch¬
ing in ridges of earth, however, is fometimes prac-
tifed in winter when a fevere froft is fetting in; for
by burying them in the earth almoft to their tops,
they are more out of the power of the cold. In No¬
vember or December, when hard weather is ap¬
proaching, let a piece of light ground that lies warm,
be trenched up in one or more fliarp ridges two or
three feet wide at bottom, and near as much in
height, fideways to the fun, making the fides as fteep
as poflible, that the wet may run quickly off; then,
in a dry day, take up a quantity of your full grown
plants, with their roots entire, and diverting them of
damaged leaves, gather each plant clofe in your hand,
placing them horizontally in the funny-fide of the
ridge of earth almoft to their tops, and about fix
or eight inches each way diftant. In fevere froft, it
will be proper to beftow fome covering on the plants.
Medicinal
C I D [ 1981 ] C I L
Cicindela. Medicinal ufes. The roots and leaves of the wild
1 fuccory, and ieeds of the endive, are'articles of the
materia medica. The firft has a moderately bitter
talle, with Ibme degree ofroughnefs; the leaves are
fomewhat lei’s bitter; and the darker coloured and
more deeply jagged they are, the bitterer is their talle.
Wild fuccory is an ufeful detergent, aperient, and at¬
tenuating medicine, acting without much irritation,
tending rather to cool than to heat the body ; and, at
the fame time, corroborating the tone of the inteftines.
All the parts of the plant, when wounded, yield a
milky laponaceous juice. This, when taken in large
quantities, fo as to keep up a gentle diarrhoea, and
continued for fome weeks, has been found to produce
excellent effects in fcorbutic and other chronical difor-
ders. The qualities of the endive are nearly of the
fame kind. The feeds are ranked among the four
leifer cold ones.
C1CIN DELA, in zoology, a genus of infects belong¬
ing to the order of coleoptera. The antennte are fe-
taceous; the jaws prominent, and furnifhed with teeth;
the eyes are a little prominent; and the breaft is
roundifh and marginated. There are 14 fpecies.
CICLUT, or CictucH, a Itrongfrontier town of
Dalmatia, fituated on tjie river Norentha, in E. Long.
17- 40. N. Lat. 45. 20. It is furrounded with walls
built in the ancient manner, and was taken by the Ve¬
netians from the Turks in 1694.
CICUTA, properly lignifies an hollow intercepted
between two knots, of the ftalks or reeds of which
the ancient fliepherds tiled to make their pipes. It is
now, however, generally ufed to fignify the water
hemlock, and alfo the common fort; but Linnaeus has
deferibed the latter under the old name of Centum.
See that article.
There are three fpecies of water-hemlock; the vi-
rola, the bulbifera, and the maculata. Of thefe the
firft is the only one remarkable, and that for the poi-
fonous qualities of its roots, which have been often
known to deftroy children who eat them for parfnips.
Cicuta is alfo ufed, chiefly among the ancients,
for the juice or liquor exprelfed from the above plant,
being the common poifon wherewith the ftate crimi¬
nals at Athens were put to death: Though fome have
fuggefted, that the poifonous draught to which the
Athenians doomed their criminals was an inlpilfated
juice compounded of the juice of cicuta, and fome
other corrofive herbs.
Socrates drank the eicuta.—Plato, in his dialogue
on the immortality of the foul, obferves, that “ The
executioner advifed Socrates not to talk, for fear
of caufing the cicuta to operate too flowly.” M. Pe¬
tit, in his Obfervationes Mifcdlanea, remarks, that
this advertifement was not given by the executioner
out of humanity, but to fave die cicuta : for he was
only allowed fo much poifon per amt. which, if he ex¬
ceeded, he waf to furnilh at his own expence. This
conftrudlion is confirmed by a paffage in Plutarch: the
executioner who adminiftered the cicuta to Phocion,
not having enough, Phocion gave him money to buy
more; obferving by the way, “ that it was odd
enough, that at Athens a man muft pay for every
thing, even his own death.”
CID (Roderigo Dias le), a Caftillian officer, who
was very fuccefsful againft the Moors, under Ferdi- Cidaris
nand II. king of Caftile ; but whole name would hard- J
ly have been remembered, if Corneille had not made Cill‘(ia'
his paffion for Chimene the fubjebt of an admired tra¬
gedy, founded on a limple but affeefting incident.
The Cid is defperately in love with Chimene, daugh¬
ter of the Count de Gomes : but he is at variance
with the Count; and being challenged by him, kills
him in a duel. The conflidl between love and ho¬
nour in the breaft of Chimene, who at length par¬
dons and marries the Cid, forms the beauty of the
piece. He died in 1098.
CIDARIS, in antiquity, the mitre ufed by the Jew-
ilh high-priefts. The Rabbins fay, that the bonnet
ufed by priefts in general was made of a piece of
linen cloth 16 yards long, which covered their heads
like a helmet or turbant: and they allow no other
difference between the high-prieft’s bonnet and that
of other priefts, than that the one is flatter, and more
in the form of a turbant; whereas that worn by or¬
dinary priefts rofe fomething more in a point.
CIGNANI (Carlo), an Italian painter, was born
at Bologna in 1628; and was the difciple of Albani.
He was efteemed by pope Clement XI. who nomina¬
ted him prince of the academy of Bologna, and load¬
ed him with favours. Cignani died at Forli in 1719*
The cupola of la Madona del Fuoco at Forli, in which
he reprefented Paradife, is an admirable work. His
principal pictures are at Rome, Bologna, and Forli.
CILIA, the Eye-lashes. See Anatomy, n° 406-
b, c.
CILIARE, or Ligamentum Ciliare. Ibid. m.
CILIATED leaf, among botanical writers, one
furrounded with parallel filaments fomewhat like the
hairs of the eye-lids.
CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Afia, lying between
the 36th and 40th degree of north latitude; bounded
on the eaft by Syria, or rather by Mount Amanns,
which feparates it from that kingdom ; by Pamphy-
lia, on the weft; by Ifauria, Cappadocia, and Arme¬
nia Minor, on the north; and by the Mediterranean
fea, on the fouth. It is fo furrounded by fteep and
craggy mountains, chiefly the Taurus and Amanus,
that ft may be defended by a handful of refolute men
againft a numerous army, there being but three nar¬
row pafles leading into it, commonly called PjU Ci¬
licia, or the gates of Cilicia ; one on the fide of Cap¬
padocia, called the Pafs of Mount Taurus; and the
other two called the Pafs of Mount Amanus, and the
Pafs of Syria. The whole country was divided by
the ancients into Cilicia Afpera, and Cilicia Campel-
tris ; the former called by the Greeks Trachaa or
Stony, from its abounding fo with ftones ; and to this
day, the whole province is called by the Turks, Tas.
Wileieth, or the Stony Province.
According to Jofephus, Cilicia was firft peopled by
Tarlhilh the fon of Javan, and his defeendents, whence
the whole country was named Tar [is. The ancient
inhabitants were in procefs of time driven out by a
colony of Phoenicians, who, under the condudl of Ci-
lix, firft fettled in the ifland of Cyprus, and from
thence palled into the country which, from the lead¬
er, they called Cilicia. Afterwards, feveral other
colonies from different nations fettled in this king-
C I L [ 1982 ] G I M
Cilicia, dom, particularly from Syria and Greece; whence
 the Cilicians in i'ome places ufed the Greek tongue, in
others the Syriac; but the former greatly corrupted
by the Perlian, the predominant language of the
country being a dialect of that tongue. We find no
mention of the kings of Cilicia after their fettlement
in that country, till the time of Cyrus, to whom they
voluntarily fubmitted, continuing liibjecl to the Per- .
fians till the overthrow of that empire ; but governed
to the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon, by kings of their
own nation. After the downfal of the Perfian em¬
pire, Cilicia became a province of that of Macedon ;
and, on the death of Alexander, fell to the lhare of
Seleucus, and continued under his defcendents till it
was reduced to a Roman province by Pompey. As
a proconfular province, it was firft governed by Ap-
pius Claudius Pulcher; and after him by Cicero, who
reduced feveral ftrong holds on Mount Amanus, in
which fome Cilicians had fortified themlelves, and held
out againft his predecellbr. It was on this occafion
that the divifion, formerly mentioned, into Trachasa and
Campeftris, took place. The latter became a Roman
province ; but the former was governed by kings ap¬
pointed by the Romans, till the reign of Vefpafian,
when the family of Tracondementus being extinct,
this part alfo made a province of the empire, and the
whole divided into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Sccttnda, and
Ifauria ; the firft took in all Cilicia Campeftris, the fe-
cond the coaft of Cilicia Trachaea, and the laft the in¬
land parts of the fame divifion. It is now a province
of Afiatic Turky ; and is called Caramania, having
been the laft province of the Caramanian kingdom
which held out againft the Ottoman race.
That part of Cilicia called by the ancients Cilicia
Campejiris, was, if we believe Ammianus Marcelli-
cus, one of the moft fruitful countries of Afia ; but
the weftern part equally barren, though famous, even
to this day, for an excellent breed of horfes, of which
600 are yearly fent to Conftantinople for the fpecial
ufe of the Grand Signior. The air in the inland parts
is reckoned wholefome; but that on the fea-coaft very
dangerous, efpecially to ftrangers.
The rivers of any note are the Pyramus, which
rifes on the north fide of mount Taurus, and empties
itfelf into the Mediterranean between Iffus and Ma-
garafus; the Cydnus fprings from the Antitaurus,
pafl'es through Tarfus, and difembogues itfelf into the
Mediterranean. It is famous for the rapidity of its
ftream, and the coldnefs of its waters, which proved
very dangerous to Alexander the Great.
The Cilicians, if we believe the Greek and Roman
hiftorians, were a rough unpoliflied race of people, un¬
fair in their dealings, cruel, and liars even to a proverb.
In the Roman times, they became greatly additfted to
piracy. They firft began, in the time of the Mithri-
datic war, to infeft the neighbouring provinces along
with the Pamphylians ; and, being emboldened with
fuccefs, .they foon ventured as far as the coafts of
Greece and Italy, where.they took a vaft number of
flaves, whom they fold to the Cypriots and the kings
of Egypt and Syria. They were, however, at laft
defeated and entirely fuppreffed by Pompey the Great.
See (Hifiory of) Rome.
Cilicia Tara, in the natural hiftory of the anci¬
ents, a bituminous fubftance improperly called an earth, Cilichun
which, by boiling, became tough like bird-lime, and J
was ufed inftead of that fubftance to cover the ftocks Cltnbn‘
of the vines for preferving them from the worms.
It probably ferved in this office in a fort of double ca¬
pacity, driving away thefe animals by its naufeous
fmell, and entangling them if they chanced to get
amongft it.
CILICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a fort of habit
made of coarfe fluff, formerly in ufe among the Jews
in times of mourning and diftrefs. It is the fame with
what the Septuagint and Hebrew verfions call lack-
cloth.
CILLEY, an ancient and famous town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Auftria, and in Upper Carniola.
It is the capital of a county of the fame name, and is
fituated on the river Saan, in E. Long. 15. 45. N. Lat.
46. 28.
CIMA, or Sima, in architecture, the fame with
Cymatium, or Ogee.
CIMABUE (Giovani), a renowned painter, born
at Florence in 1240, and the firft who revived the art
of painting in Italy. He painted, according to the
cuftom of thofe times, in frefco, and in diftemper;
colours in oil not being then found out. He excelled
in architecture as well as in painting ; and was con¬
cerned in the fabric of SanCta Maria del Fior at Flo¬
rence : during which employment he died at the age
of 60, and left many difciples; among the reft Ghiotto,
who proved an excellent mailer.
CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation, inhabiting the
northern parts of Germany. They are laid to have
been defcended from the Afiatic Cimmerians, and to
have taken the name of Cimbri when they changed
their old habitations. When they firft became re¬
markable, they inhabited chiefly the peninfula now
called Jutland, and by the ancients Cimbrica Cherfo-
nefus. About 113 years before Chrill, they left their
peninfula with their wives and children ; and joining
the Teutones, a neighbouring nation, took their jour¬
ney fouthward in quell of a better country. They
firft fell upon the Boh, a Gaulilh nation lituated near
the Hercynian foreli. Here they “were repulfed,
and obliged to move nearer the Roman provinces.
The republic being then alarmed at the approach of
fuch multitudes of barbarians, fent an army againft
them under the conful Papirius Carbo. On the ap¬
proach of the Roman army, the Cimbri made pro-
pofals of peace. The conful pretended to accept it;
but having thrown them into a difadvantageous fitua-
tion, treacheroufly attacked their camp. His perfidy
was rewarded as it deferved ; the Cimbri ran to arms,
and not only repulfed the Romans, but, attacking
them in their turn, utterly defeated them, and obliged
the lhattered remains of their forces to conceal them-
felves in the neighbouring forefts. After this vicftot y
the Cimbri entered Tranfalpine Gaul, which they
quickly filled with daughter and defolation. Here
they continued five or fix years, when another Ro¬
man army under the conful Silanus marched againft
them. This general met with no better fuccefs than
Carbo had done. His army was routed at the firft on-
fet; in confequence of which, all Narbonne Gaul was
expofed at once to the ravages of thefe barbarians.
About
C I M L 1983 ] G I M
Cinibri. About 105 years before Chrift, the Cimbri began to
—" * threaten the Roman empire itfelf with detraction.
The Gauls marched from all parts with a delign to
join them, and to invade Italy. The Roman arrny
was commanded by the proconiul Caspio, and the con-
ful Mallius; but as thefe two commanders could not
agree, they were advifed to feparate, and divide their
forces. This advice proved the ruin of the whole
army. The Cimbri immediately fell upon a ftrong
detachment of the confular army commanded by M.
Aurelius Scaurus, which they cut off to a man, and
made Scaurus himfelf prifoner. Mallius being greatly
intimidated by this defeat, defired a reconciliation with
Caspio, but was haughtily refufed. He moved nearer
the conful, however, with his army, that the enemy
might not be defeated without his having a lhare in
the atSion. The Cimbri, by this movement, imagin¬
ing the commanders had made up their quarrel, lent
ambaffadors to Mallius with propofals of peace. As
they could not help going through Caepio’s camp, he
ordered them to be brought before him ; but finding
they were empowered to treat only with Mallius, he
could fcarce be reftrained from putting them to death.
His troops, however, forced him to confer with Mal¬
lius about the propofals lent by the barbarians : but
as Caspio went to the conful’s tent ngainft his will, fo
he oppofed him in every thing; contradicted with great
obltinacy, and infulted him in the grolfeft manner.
The deputies on their return acquainted their country¬
men that the mifunderftanding between the Roman
commanders ftill fubfxlted ; upon which the Cimbri
attacked the camp of Caspio, and the Gauls that of
Mallius. Both were forced, and the Romans flaugh-
tered without mercy. Eighty thoufand citizens and
allies of Rome, with 40,000 lervants and futlers, pe-
rifhed on that fatal day. In fiiort, of the two Roman
armies only 10 men, with the two generals, efcaped to
carry the news of lb dreadful a defeat. The con-
q; erors defiroyed all the fpoil, purfuant to a vow they
had made before the battle. The gold and lilver they
threw into the Rhone, drowned the horfes they had
taken, and put to death all the prifoners.
The Romans were thrown into the utmoft confler-
nation on the news of fo terrible an overthrow. They
faw themfelves threatened with a deluge of Cimbri
and Gauls, numerous enough to over-run the whole
country. They did not, however, defpair. A new
army was raifed with incredible expedition ; no citi¬
zen whatever who was fit to beat arms being exemp¬
ted. On this occafion alfo, fencing-mailers were firft
introduced into the Roman camp, by which means the
foldiers were loon rendered in a manner invincible.
Marius, who was at that time in high reputation on
account of his victories in Africa, was chofen com¬
mander, and waited for the Cimbri in Tranfalpine
Gaul : but they had refolved to enter Italy by two
different ways; the Cimbri over the ealtern, and the
Teutones and other allies over the weltern Alps. The
Roman general therefore marched to oppofe the lat¬
ter, and defeated the Ambrones and Tentones with
* See Anu great daughter *. The Cimbri, in the mean time,
brones and entered Italy, and ftruck the whole country with ter-
Teutones. ror< Catulus and Sylla attempted to oppofe them ;
but their foldiers were fo intimidated by the fierce
countenances and terrible appearance of thefe barba¬
rians, that nothing could prevent their flying before
them. The city of Rome was now totally defence-
lefs; and^ had the Cimbri only marched brilkly for¬
wards, they had undoubtedly become mafters of it ;
but they waited in expectation of being joined by then-
allies the Ambrones and Teutones, not having heard
of their defeat by Marius, till the fenate had time to
recal him to the defence of his country. By their or¬
der he joined his army to that of Catulus and Sylla ;
and upon that union was declared commander in chief.
The Roman army confifted of 52,300 men. The ca¬
valry of the Cimbri were no more than 15,000, but
their foot feemed innumerable ; for, being drawn up
in a fquare, they are faid to have covered 30 furlongs.
The Cimbri attacked the Romans with the utmoll
fury; but, being unaccultomed to bear the heats of
Italy, they foon began to lofe their rtrength, and were
eafily overcome. But they had put it out of their
power to fly ; for, that they might keep their ranks
the better, they had, like true barbarians, tied them-
feives together with cords faftened to their belts, fo
that the Romans made a molt terrible havock of them.
The battle was therefore foon over, and the whole
day employed only in the molt terrible butchery. An
hundred and twenty thoufand were killed on the field
of battle, and 60,000 taken prifoners. The victorious
Romans then marched to the enemy’s camp ; where
they had a new battle to fight with the women, whom
they found more fierce than even their hufband’s had
been. From their carts and waggons, which formed
a kind of fortification, they diicharged lhowers”bf
darts and arrows on friends and foes without diltinc-
tion. Then they firll fuffocated their children in their
arms, and then they put an end to their own lives.
The greateft part of them hanged themfelves on trees.
One was found hanging at a cart with two of her chil¬
dren at her heels. Many of the men, for want of
trees and flakes, tied firings in running knots about
their necks, and faftened them to the tails of their
horfes, and the horns and feet of their oxen, in order
to ftrangle themfelves that way ; and thus the whole
multitude was deftroyed.
The country of the Cimbri, which, after this ter¬
rible cataftrophe, was left a mere defart, was again
peopled by the Scythians; who, being driven by Pom-
pey out of that vaft fpace between the Euxine and the
Cafpian fea, marched towards the north and weft of
Europe, fubduing all the nations they met with in their
way. They conquered Ruflia, Saxony, Weftphalia,
and other countries as far as Finland, Norway, and
Sweden. It is pretended that Wodin their leader tra-
verfed fo many countries, and endeavoured to fubdue
them only with a view to excite the people againft
the Romans ; and that the fpirit of animofity which
he had excited operated fo powerfully after his death,
that the northern nations combined to attack it, and
never ceafed their incurfions till it was totally fub-
verted.
CIMEX, or Bun, in zoology, a genus of infeCIs
belonging to the order of hemiptera. Linnceus enu¬
merates no fewer than 12 r fpecies. The leClularins,
or common houfe-bug, is a well known infeCI. The
methods of expelling them are various, as oil of tur¬
pentine
Chrfex.
C I M [ 1984 ] C I M
Cimolia pentine, the fmoke of corn-rnint, of narrow-leaved
II wild crefs, of herb-robert, of the reddilh agaric, of
Cinchona, muftard, Guinea pepper, peats or turi, ire. See
Bug.
CIMOLIA alba, the officinal name of the earth of
which we now make tobacco-pipes. Its diltinguifh-
ing characters are, that it is a denfe, compact, heavy
earth, of a dull white colour, and very clofe texture ;
it will not ealily break between the fingers, and flight-
ly ftains the fkin in handling. It adheres firmly to the
tongue ; melts very flowly in the mouth, and is not
readily diffufible in water. It is found in many places.
That of the ille of Wight is much elfeemed for its co¬
lour. Great plenty of it is found near Pole in Dorlet-
fliire, and near Wedenfbury in Staffordfhire.
Cimolia Terra, in natural hiftory, a name by which
the ancients expreffed a very valuable medicinal earth;
but which latter ages have fuppofed to be no other
than our tobacco-pipe clay and fuller’s earth.
The cimolia terra of the ancients was found in fe-
veral of the illands of the Archipelago; particularly in
the ifland of Cimolus, from whence it had its name. It
was ufed with great fuccefs in the eryfipelas, inflam¬
mations, and the like, being applied by way of cata-
plafm to the part. They alfo ufed, as we do, what
we call cimoliay or fuller’s earth, for the cleanfing of
clothes. This earth of the ancients, though fo long
difregarded, and by many fuppofed to be loft, is yet
very plentiful in Argentiere, (the ancient Cimolus,)
Sphanto, and many of thofe illands. It is a marl of
a lax and crumbly texture, and a pure bright white
colour, very foft to the touch. It adheres firmly to
the tongue ; and, if thrown into water, raifes a little
luffing and ebullition, and moulders to a fine powder.
It makes a confiderable eflervefcence with acids, and
Puffers no change of colour in the fire. Thefe are the
characters of what the ancients called Amply terra ci¬
molia : but befules this they had, from the fame place,
another earth which they called by the fame general
name, but dilfinguifhed by the epithet purple, purpu-
refeens. This they deferibed to be fattilh, cold to the
touch, of a mixed purple colour, and nearly as hard
as a ftone. And this was evidently the fubltance we
call fleatites, or the foap-rock, common in Cornwall,
and alfo in the ifland of Argentiere, or Cimolus.
CIMON, the renowned Athenian general. See
Attica, n° 95—103.
CINALOA, a province of Mexico in South Ame¬
rica, abounding in corn, cattle, and cotton ; and ren¬
dered extremely picturefque, by a number of beauti¬
ful cafcades of clear water that fall down from the
mountains. It lies on the eaflern coaft of the fea of
California, and has a town of the fame name, fituated
in N. Lat. 26°.
CINARA, in botany, the Artichoke. See Cy-
NARA.
CINCHONA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are’ two fpecies. One of them, long remark¬
able for its bark, fo much ufed in medicine under va¬
rious names, is a native of fome provinces of Peru in
South America ; the other, whole bark is but lately
difeovered to have the fame medical virtues, is a na¬
tive of Jamaica. The lu ll was thought for a long
time to grow only in the province of Quito, on fome Cinchona.
hills near the city of Loxa ; but it has fince been  
found in other parts of that empire. It is a tree that
feldom exceeds 18 feet in height, and is of a propor¬
tionable thicknefs. It grows in fore As fpomaneoufly
among other trees ; and is propagated by feeds which
fall to the ground of themlielves. Of the other fpecies
we have an account in the Phil. Tranf. vol. 67. under plate Ixxiii.
the name of Cinchona Jamaicenfts. It grows on I tony fig 10.
lands near the fea-fhore on the north fide of the ifland
of Jamaica, and feldom exceeds 20 feet in height.
The trunk is not thick in proportion, but hard, tough,
and of a yellowifh white colour on the inftde. The
branches and leaves are oppofite ; the leaves are of a
rufty green, and the young buds of a bluifh-green hue.
It bloffoms in November, and continues in flower till
February, having on the fame tree flowers and ripe
pods. The flowers are of a dulkifh-yellow colour, and
the pods black : when ripe they fplit in two, and are,
with their flat brown feeds, in every refpedt fimilar
to thofe of the firft fpecies, termed cinchona offici¬
nalis.
The bark of the cinchona officinalis hath now the
higheft reputation in the materia medica, and is juftly
looked upon as an almoft univerfal medicine. It did
not, however, acquire this great reputation all at
once ; nor, in all probability, when firft difeovered,
did the cinchona merit thofe praifes to which it is now
fo juftly intitled. The reafon of this is, that within
thefe two centuries, as is obferved by Dr Percival,
the difeafes of the European countries have affumed
a new face. Formerly they were moftly of the in¬
flammatory kind ; and accordingly we find Dr Syden¬
ham, a moft experienced phyfician, treating almoft
a.11 difeafes in the manner proper for inflammatory
ones. In thefe the Peruvian bark is pernicious. Its
general characters are that of an aftringent and cor¬
roborant ; and thefe qualities neceffarily augment in¬
flammatory diforders. Now, to whatever caufe it
may be owing, difeafes feem to arife moftly from a
debility of the fyftem, and hence the great efficacy of
the bark in our times. At firft it was only celebrated
as a remedy for intermittent fevers; a long time after,
it was difeovered to be an antifeptic, to be efficacious
in gangrenes, and mortifications, the feurvy, and all
difeafes in which there is a tendency to putrefadlion.
In the fmall-pox it is likewife of excellent ufe, where
nature requires to be affifted in the expullion of the
variolous matter. The fanious and bloody matter in
the variolous puftules alfo foon changes its appearance
on the ule of the bark ; which needs only to be with¬
held if it is found to increafe the difficulty of breathing.
For the fame reafon it is exceedingly efficacious in
foul old ulcers, very frequently correcting the lanies
of them, and changing it into laudable pus. In ner¬
vous and putrid fevers, in ftrumous affections alfo, par¬
ticularly in ophthalmies of this kind, it has been found
to be a remedy of great efficacy. The retroceffion
of the morbid matter in the meafles is faid to be
powerfully prevented by the ufe of the bark ; but
where the lungs are affeCted, as they frequently are
in this difeafe, the ufe of it is certainly to be avoided.
Dr Percival informs us, that he had a patient who
was feized with an intermittent while labouring under
a
Cinchona.
GIN [ 1985 ] GIN
a fevere gonorrhea. The bark was given him in
large quantities ; and To far was it from leflening the
difcharge, that it evidently increafed it, and leflened
its virulence. The late Dr Whytt informs us, that,
in 16 days, he fwallowed near four ounces of the bark
in fubftance, while labouring under a catarrhous cough,
without feeling any bad effects from its aftringent qua¬
lity. In a tertian, attended with a violent cough and
fpitting, he prefcribed the bark in the ufual quantity,
without its hurting the bread in the fmalled degree.
And he had repeated experience of its virtues in curing
a hoarfenefs after the meafles, when unattended with
a fever and difficult refpiration. In the hooping cough
alfo, when given early, he found it one of the bed re¬
medies ; but here we mud remark, that in fome cafes
of the hooping cough where we have feen the bark
adminidered, the difeafe was manifedly increafed by
it. Perhaps in thefe the medicine had been too long
delayed. The bark has been fuccefsfully adminidered,
in the quantity of a drachm every three hours, to a
Woman two days after her delivery, without leffening
the lochia; and it has been frequently given to others
during their catamenia, without the lead interruption
of them. Thefe and other fatfls are brought by Dr
Percival, to prove that the prejudices againd the ufe
of the bark, which commonly take their rife from its
known adringent quality, are altogether groundlefs.
As to the chemical analyfis of this valuable medicine,
the above mentioned author hath taken a great deal of
pains to elucidate it. Other chemids had difcovered
that this, as well as many other vegetable fubdances,
contains a mucilaginous and rednous part; that the
former is more foluble in water, and the latter in fpi-
rit of wine, &c. Dr Lewis particularly aderts, that
the adringency of the Peruvian bark “ refides wholly
in its refin, which does not appear to be in any degree
foluble in watery liquors.” Alfo, that in making de¬
coctions of the bark, the refin melts out in the lird
boilings; and that the fubfequent ones are tranfparent
and bitter, without the lead degree of turbidnefs or
adringency. Both the ft' ailertions, however. Dr Per¬
cival hath ffiown to be midakes. He digeded a
drachm of powdered bark 48 hours in two ounces of
rectified fpirit of wine. The dear tinCture was then
poured off, and freffi fpirit, in the fame quantity as be¬
fore, added to the refiduum. The digedion was re¬
peated fix times, until the mendruum acquired neither
tade nor colour frqm the bark. The powder was
then carefully dried and macerated without heat, in
two feveral portions of fpring-water, and communi¬
cated to each of them the property of driking a purple
colour with green vitriol. Both the watery infufions
were infipid; from whence Dr Percival concludes,
that rectified fpirit of wine extracts all the bitternefs,
but not all the adringency of the bark. To try the
power of aqueous mendrute, he infufed half an ounce
of powdered bark in fix ounces of cold fpring-water
for 48 hours, and boiled another half ounce for about
40 minutes in nine ounces of water. The cold infu-
fion feemed to be at lead as drong as the decoCtion ;
and a confiderable quantity of the refin appeared to
liave difiblved in the cold water ; for when boiled for
fome minutes over a quick fire, it grew turbid, and
depofited a refinous precipitate. He now determined
VOL. III.
to try whether it was poffible to exhaud the bark of
its refin by this treatment. Half an ounce of pow-'
dered bark was macerated for three days, in fix oun¬
ces of water. The mendruum was then decanted
off, and freffi water added in the fame quantity as be¬
fore. The effufion was repeated at equal intervals 30
times, till the water was infipid, colourlefs, and unal¬
terable by the addition of green vitriol. The refi¬
duum alfo, when chewed in the mouth, had no fen-
fible bitternefs or adringency. Two drachms of this
refiduum, carefully dried by a very gentle heat, were
infufed in an ounce of rectified fpirit of wine : in two
days a tinCture, of an orange colour and bitter tade
was produced. This experiment was repeated with
boiling water ; the bark was not exhauded till after
the 25th coCtion ; and after all, gave a dronger tinc¬
ture to fpirit of wine than in the former cafe. Thefe
experiments ffiew how extremely difficult it is to ex¬
haud the bark of its virtues; neither is this only in
appearance, but in reality ; for the lame author in¬
forms us, that a quantity of bark, reduced by infufion
and decoCtion to an infipid powder, was given in the
dofe of two drachms, to a perfon labouring under a
quotidian ague, an hpur or two before the coming on
of the fit; by which means the difeafe was changed
into a tertian, and at lad entirely removed. In ffiort,
Dr Percival hath clearly ffiown, that by one mendruum
it is impoflible to exhaud Peruvian bark entirely of its
virtue ; but in order to determine with as much ac¬
curacy as poffible the relation which different men-
drua bear to it, he digeded a drachm of the bark in
three ounces of feveral different liquors. After feven
days infufion, the clear part of each mendruum was
carefully poured off, and the refiduum evaporated to
drynefs. The weight lod by the bark in this expe¬
riment was thought to indicate the folvent power of
each particular mendruum. The drachm infufed in
rectified fpirit of wine, lod fix grains ; in French
brandy, eight grains and a quarter ; in Rheniffi wine,
nine grains; in water, eight grains; and in water and
vinegar, the fame quantity.
The doCtor alfo tried a great number of other ex¬
periments with regard to the adringency and anti-
feptic qualities of the bark; from whence he concludes,
that its adringency is much lefs than has been com¬
monly imagined ; and that in certain cafes, particu¬
larly in bilious diforders, the addition of acids to the
bark is neceffary. Columbo-root he alfo thinks would
be an ufeful addition in thefe difeafes. From his ex¬
periments it would feem that a cold infufion of the
bark is its bed preparation; but as that is very dif-
agreeable to the tade, the addition of orange-peel
and extraCt of liquorice will be found very convenient;
for thefe are found to cover the ill tade of this drug
more effectually than any other.
The virtues of Peruvian bark were difcovered by
the Indians about the year 1500. A lake near a town
in Peru was furrounded by thefe trees; which were
tom up by an earthquake, and falling into the adja¬
cent water, they rendered it bitter. An Indian, ur¬
ged by his third during a fever, under which he la¬
boured, drank of this water, becaufe no other could
be had ; however, obferving that he foon recovered,
he related the cafe, and others were alfo cured. On
u T this
Cinchona.
GIN [ 1986 ] GIN
C'.ncHona this enquiry was made, and to the trees it was found
II that the water owed its virtue ; then it was foon dif-
Cinnabar. COvered that the bark alone pofltifed the medicinal
quality. In 1640, a Spanilh foldier was quartered in
an Indian’s houfe, and being feized with an ague, his
landlord, moved with compaflion, told him of a cure,
and with the fame he cured his companions. At length
the vice-queen, wife of the count de Cinchon, then
vice-roy of Peru, was feized with an intermitting fe¬
ver, this foldier cured her alfo ; hence the name cin¬
chona and comitiffa. After this, father de Lugo
brought a parcel of it to Rome, and from him it alfo
received the name of cort. card, de Lugo. From
Rome it was fpread into France and England, and at
length became general.
This bark is brought in pieces of different fizes,
fome rolled up in Ihort thick quills, and others flat ;
the outfide is brownifh, and generally hath a whitilh
mofs fpread on it; the infide is of a yellow ilh, red-
difli, or rufty iron colour. The befl: fort is bitter, re-
finous, breaks dole and fmooth, is friable betwixt the
teeth, pulverifes eafily, when powdered is of a cinna¬
mon colour, but rather paler ; and, according to the
opinion of fome, as the furelt tell of its goodnefs, it
hath a mufty kind of fmell, and at the fame time fo
much of the aromatic, as not to be difagreeable. The
inferior kinds, when broken, appear woody, and in
chewing feparate into fibres. That which is called
female bark, is redder in the infide; it is alfo thicker ;
and on the outfide more white and fmooth; is weaker
to the fmell &nd tafte than the above ; and, in medical
virtue, greatly inferior—The bark of the cinchona
Jamaicenlis is found to yield its virtues much better to
watery menftnia than the officinalis; and, as far as
has yet been tried, feems not inferior in efficacy.
CINCINNATUS, the Roman dictator, was taken
from the plough, to be advanced to the dignity of
conful; in which office he rettored public tranquillity,
and then returned to his rural employments. Being
called forth a fecond time to be dictator, he conquered
the enemies of Rome, and, refufing all rewards, re¬
tired again to his farm, after he had been dictator
only 16 days. The fame circumftance appeared once
more in the 80th year of his age. He died 376 years
before Chrift.
CINCTURE, in architecture, a ring, lift, or orlo,
at the top and bottom of the ffiaft of a column, fepa-
rating the fliaft at one end from the bafe, and at the
other from the capital.
CINERITIOUS, an appellation given to different
fubftances, on account of their refembling alhes either
in colour or confiftence ; hence it is that the cortical
part of the brain has fometimes got this epithet.
CINNABAR, in natural hiftory, is either native or
faAitibus.
The native cinnabar is an ore of quickfilver, mo¬
derately compaCt, very heavy, and of an elegant ftri-
ated red colour.
/Wi/ioar cinnabar is a mixture of mercury and ful-
phur fublimed, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe.
The belt is of a high colour, and full of fibres like
needles. See Chemistry, n° 474, and Pharmacy,
^ 753,—793.
The chief ufe of cinnabar is for painting. Although
the body is compofed of fulphur, which is of a light Cinnamon* '
colour, and mercury which is white as filver, it is ne- tree '■
verthelels of an exceeding ftrong red colour. Lumps ’c. H 1
of it are of a deep brown red without brilliancy ; but |
when the too great intenfity of its colour is diminiflied ■■   -
by bruifing and dividing it into fmall parts, (which is
a method generally ufed to lelfen the intenfity of all
colours), the red of the cinnabar becomes more and
more exalted, flame-coloured, and exceedingly vivid
and brilliant: in this ftate it is called vermilion.
Cinnabar is often employed as an internal medicine.
Hoffman greatly recommends it as a fedative and an-
tifpafmodic; and Stahl makes it an ingredient in his
temper ant powder. Other intelligent phyficians deny
that cinnabar taken internally has any medicinal qua¬
lity. Their opinion is grounded on the infolubility of
this fubftance in any menftruum. This queftion con¬
cerning its internal utility cannot be decided without
further refearches and experiments; but cinnabar is
certainly ufed with fuccefs to procure a mercurial fu¬
migation, when that method of cure is proper in ve¬
nereal difeafes. For this purpofe it is burnt in an
open fire on red-hot coals, by which the mercury is
difengaged and forms vapours, which, being applied
to the body of the difeafed perfon, penetrate through
the pores of the Ikin, and produce effects fimilar to
thofe of mercury adminiftred by friction.
CINNAMON-tree, in botany. See Laurus.
CiNNAMON-ZTijfer, is made by diftilling the bark
firft infufed in fpirit of wine, brandy, or white-wine.
CAz/^-Cinnamon, is the bark of a tree growing in
Brazil, which is often fubftituted for real cloves.
Cinnamon, called alfo Winter's bark, is the
bark of a tree frequent in the ifie of St Domingo, Gua¬
dalupe, ire. of a ffiarp biting tafte like pepper. Some
ufe it inftead of nutmeg ; and in medicine it is efteem-
ed a ftomachic and antifcorbutic.
CINNAMUS, a Greek hiftorian, wrote a hiftory
of the eaftern empire, during the reigns of John and
Manuel Commenes, from 1118 to 1143. His ftyle is
reckoned the belt of the modern Greek authors. He
died after 1183.
CINQUEFOIL, in botany. See Potentilla.
CINQUE-ports, five havens that lie on the eaft
part of England, towards France; thus called, by
way of eminence on account of their fuperior import¬
ance, as having been thought by our kings to merit a
particular regard, for their prefervation againft inva-
fion. Hence they have a particular policy, and are
governed by a keeper, with the title of Lord-warden
of the cinque-ports.
Cambden tells us, that William the Conqueror firft
appointed a warden of the cinque-ports ; but king
John firft granted them their privileges; and that upon
condition they ffiould provide eighty fhips at their own
charge for forty days, as often as ^te king ffiould have
occafion in the wars : he being then ftraitened for a
navy to recover Normandy.
The five ports are Haftings, Romney, Hythe, Do¬
ver, and Sandwich.—Thorn tells us, that Haftings pro¬
vided 21 veflels; and in each vcflel 21 men. To this
port belong Seaford, Pevenfey, Hedney, Winchelfey,
Rye, Hamine, Wakeffiourn, Creneth, and Forthclipe.
—Romney provided five flaps, and in each 24 men.
C I N [ 1987 ] C I N
3 Cintra To this belong Bromhal, Lyde, Ofwarftone, Dange-
i maras, and Romenhal.—Hythe furnifhed five fliips,
3| Cipher, and in each 21 feamen. To this belongs Weftmeath.
—Dover the fame number as Haftings. To this be¬
long Folkfton, Feverfham, and Marge.—Sand-
Iwich furniflied the fame with Hythe. To this belong
Fordiwic, Reculver, Serre, and Deal.
The privileges granted to them in confequence of
thefe fervices were very great. Amongft others they
were each of them to fend two barons to reprefent
them in parliament; their deputies were to bear the
canopy over the king’s head at the time of his coro¬
nation, and to dine at the uppermoft table in the great
hall on his right hand ; to be exempted from fublidies
and other aids; their heirs to be free from perfonal
wardfhip, notwithffanding any tenure; to be im¬
pleaded in their own towns, and not elfewhere ; not
to be liable to tolls, &c.
CINTRA, a cape and mountain of Portugal, in the
province of Eftremadura, ufually called the Rock of
Lijbon. It lies on the north f ide of the entrance of the
river Tajo; and there is a town of the fame name fi-
tuated thereon. W. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 59. o.
CINUS, or CYNUS, a famous civilian of Piftoia in
the 14th century. His commentary on the Code wjis
finifhed in 13 r 3 : he alfo wrote on fome parts of the
digeft. He was no lefs famous for his Italian poems ;
and is ranked among thofe who firft gave graces to
the Tufcan lyric poetry.
CINYRA, in the Jewifh antiquities, a tnufical in-
Ilrument. This, and the Hebrew cinnor, which is
generally tranflated cithera, lyra, or pfalterium, are
the fame. It was made of wood, and was played on
the temple of Jerufalem. Jofephus fays that the cinyra
of the temple had ten firings, and that it was touched
with a bow. In another place he fays that Solomon
made a great number of them with a precious kind of
metal called elettrum; wherein he contradidis the fcrip-
ture, which inform us that Solomon’s cinnors were
made of wood.
CION, or Cyon, in gardening, a young fhoot,
fprout, or fprig, put forth by a tree. Grafting is per¬
formed by the application of the cion of one plant upon
the flock of another. To produce a flock of cions for
grafting, planting, ire. the gardeners fometimes cut
off the bodies of trees a little above the ground, and
only leave a flump or root flanding : the redundant
fap will not fail next fpring to put forth a great num¬
ber of fhoots. In drefling dwarf-trees, a great many
cions are to be cut off.
CIOTAT, a fea-port town of Provence in France ;
famous for Mufcadine wine. It is feated on the bay
of Laquea, between Marfeilles and Toulon ; and the
harbour is defended by a ftrong fort. E. Long. 5. 30.
N. Lat. 43.10.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic charadlers
or figures ufed in computation, formed thus, o. See
Arithmetic.
Cipher is alfb a kind of enigmatic charadler, com-
pofed of feveral letters interwoven, which are gene¬
rally the initial letters of the perfons names for whom
the ciphers are intended. Thefe are frequently ufed
on feals, coaches, and other moveables.—Anciently,
* Some of thefe, or thofe of two letters,
merchants and tradefmen were not allowed to bear Cipher.
arms: in lieu thereof, they bore their ciphers, or the 
initial letters of their names, artfully interwove about a
crofs; of which we-have divers inftances on tombs, ire.
See Devise.
Cipher, denotes likewife certain fecret characters
difguifed and varied, ufed in writing letters that con¬
tain fome fecret, not to be underftood but by thofe
between whom the cipher is agreed on.
De la Guilletiere, in his Lacedaemon ancient and mo¬
dern, endeavours to make the ancient Spartans the in¬
ventors of the art of writing in cipher. Their fcitala,
according to him, was the firlt fketch of this my fieri-
ous art: thefe fcytalse were two rollers of wood, of
equal length and thicknefs; one of them kept by the
ephori ; the other by the general of the army fent on
any expedition againft the enemy. Whenfoever thofe
magiftrates would fend any fecret orders to the gene¬
ral, they took a flip of parchment, and rolled it very
juflly about the fcytala which they had referVfed ; and
in this (late wrote their intentions, which appeared
perfedl and confident while the parchment continued
on the roller : when taken off, the writing was
maimed, and without connexion ; but was eafily re¬
trieved by the general, upon his applying it to his
fcytala.
Polybius fays, that Asneas Tadlitus, 2000 years ago
colleCled together 20 different manners of waiting fo
as not to be underdood by any but thofe in the fe¬
cret ; part whereof were invented by himfelf, and
part ufed before his time.—Trithemius, Cap. Porta,
Vigenere, and P. Niceron, have wrote exprefsly on
the fubjeft of ciphers.
As the writing in cipher is become an art; fb is the
reading, or unravelling thereof, called deciphering.—
The rules of deciphering are different in different lan¬
guages. By obferving the following, you will foon
make out any common cipher wrote in Englifti.
1. Obferve the letters or charaClers that mod fre¬
quently occur; and fet them down for the fix vowels,
including^ ; and of thefe the mod frequent will gene¬
rally be e, and the lead frequent «.
2. The vowels that mod frequently come together
are ea and on.
3. The confonant mod common at the ends of
words is s, and the next frequent r and t.
4. When two fimilar characters come together,
they are mod likely to be the confonantsy, /, or s, or
the vowels e or 0.
5. The letter that precedes or follows two fimilar
characters is either a vowel, or /, m, n, or »-.
6. In decyphering, begin with the words that con-
fid of a fingle letter, which will be either a, /, 0,
or 6\
7. Then take the words of two letters, one of
which will be a vowel. Of thefe words the moll
frequent are, an, to, be, by, of, on, or, no,fo, as, at,
if, in, is, it, he, me, my, us, we, am.
8. In words of three letters there are mod com¬
monly two confonants. Of thefe words the mod fre¬
quent are, the, and, not, but, yet, for, tho', bom, why,
all, you, fhe, his, her, our, who, may, can, did, was,
are, has, had, let, one, two, Jin, ten, ire.*
11 T 2
will be found in every fentence.
9. The
Cipher.
C I P [ 1988 ] C I P
9. The moft common words of four letters are,
' this, that, then, thus, with, when, from, here, fame,
mofl, none, they, them, whom, mine, jeur, ft If, snufl,
will, have, been, were, four, five, nine, &c.
10. The moft ufual words of five letters are, there,
thefe, thofe, which, were, while, fince, their, Jball, might,
could, would, ought, three, feven, eight, &c.
11. Words of two or more fyllables frequently be¬
gin with double conlbnants, or with a prepofition; that
is, a vowel joined with one or more confonants. The
moft common double confonants are bl, hr, dr, ft, fr,
gl, gr, ph, pi, pr,fh,fp, ft, th, tr, wh, wr, &c. and the
moft common propofitions are com, con, de, dis, ex,
im, in, int, mis, par, pre, pro, re, fub, ftp, un, 8cc.
12. The double confonants moft frequent at the end
of long words are, ci, Id, If, mn, nd, ng, rl, rm, rn,
rp, rt,fin, ft, xt, &c. and the moft common termina¬
tions are ed, en, er, es, et, ing, ly, fon, fton, tion, able,
ence, ent, ment,full, lefs, nefs, &c.
On Plate LXXIX. fig. 7. is given an example of a
cipher wrote in arbitrary characters as is commonly
praCtifed. It will be eafily deciphered by obferving
the rules: but when the characters are all placed
clofe together, as in the example fig. 8., and as they
always Ihould be, the deciphering, is much more dif¬
ficult. -
To decipher a writing of this fort you muft firfl:
look for thofe characters that moft frequently occur,
and fet them down for vowels as before. Then ob-
ferve the fimilar characters that come together ; but
you muft remember that two fuch characters may
here belong to two words. You are next to remember
the combinations of two or three characters that are
moft; frequent; which will be fome of the words in
the feventh and eighth of the foregoing rules ; and by
obferving the other rules, you will infallibly difeover,
with time and attention, any cipher wrote on thefe
principles.
When the words are wrote all clofe together, if
the key to the cipher were to be changed every
word, according to a regular method agreed on be¬
tween the parties, as might be done by either of the
methods mentioned in N° II. below, with very little
additional trouble, the writing would then be ex¬
tremely difficult to decipher. The longer any letter
wrote in cipher is, the more eafy it is to decipher, as
then the repetions of the characters and combinations
are the more frequent.
The following are the contents of the two forego¬
ing ciphers ; in which we have inverted the order of
the words and letters, that they who are defirous of
trying their talent at deciphering, may not, inadver¬
tently, read the explanation before the cipher.
enil eno ton dna shtnom elohw eerht, suoidifrep
dna leurc o. noituac & ecnedurp fo klat lliw uoy : on,
rotiart, tcelgen & ecnereffidni si ti. yltrohs rettel a em
dnes ot snaem emof dnif rehtie, traeh eht morf semoc
ti taht ees em tel Sc, erom ecaf ym ees ot erad reven
ro.
evlewt fo ruoh eht ta thgin siht, ledatic eht fo etag
eht erofeb elbmeffa lliw sdneirf ruo 11a. ruoh eht ot
lautenup eb: deraperp Hew emoc dna, ytrebil ruoy
niager ot, ylevarb eid ro. thgin eht si. siht, su sekam
rehtie taht, etiuq su seodnu ro.
Contrivancesfor communicating intelligence CiP H E R. Cipher.
I. By means of a pack of cards. The parties muft
previoufly agree in what manner the cards fhall be
firft placed, and then how they fhall be fhuffled. Thus
fuppofe the cards are to be firft placed in the order
as hereafter follows, and then fhuffled by taking off 3
from the top, putting the next 2 over them, and the
following 3 under them *, and fo alternately. There- *
fore the party who fends the cipher firft writes the fling^ the
contents of it on a feparate paper, and then copies the cards in this
firft 32 letters on the cards, by writing one letter on r"anner, |
every card ; he then fhuffles them, in the manner remain on-
deferibed, and writes the fecond 32 letters: he fhuf- iy 2 to
fles them a fecond time, and writes the third 32 let- under at
ters, and fo of the reft. An example will make this
plain. Suppofe the letter to be as follows :
lam in full march to relieve you ; with:n\ three days
I Jball be with you. Jf the cne\my in the mean time
fhould make an a[fau\lt, remember what you owe to your
countrfy, to your family and yourfelf. Live with h | nour,
or die with glory .
Order of the cards before
the Is* fhuffle.
Ace fpades
Ten diamonds
Eight hearts
King fpades
Nine clubs
Seven diamonds
Nine diamonds
Ace clubs
Knave hearts
Seven fpades
Ten clubs
Ten hearts
Queen fpades
Eight diamonds
Eight clubs
Seven hearts
Queen clubs
Nine fpades
King hearts .
Queen diamonds
Eight fpades
Knave clubs
Seven clubs
Ace hearts
Nine hearts
Ace diamonds
Knave fpades
Ten fpades
King diamonds
Queen hearts
King clubs
Knave diamonds
i a d u y i
a l e u l
in l m 0 i «
i s u m l
n h l e o
f bm r i
u e a c t n
l w k r y i
l s e e a e
m i a r m w
a i t h e r
r rh ° f
cheer
h a h y w
t y 0 0 el
0 y a 0 h 0
r 0 11 u y h
e u i y f y
l e t e u 0
i d s 0 e
e i n w s 0
v f a n t g
e t s l y
y r e b r
0 l n w 0 t
u b s t ir d
w l m a l
i e y t- r r
t t i b u r
h b rn in u
i n a t h
The perfon that receives thefe cards firft places
them in the order agreed on, and tranferibes the firft
letter on every card. He then fhuffles them, accord¬
ing to order, and tranferibes the fecond letter on each
card. He fhuffles them a fecond time and tranferibes
the third letters; and fo of the reft.
If the cards were to be fhuffled the fecond time by
threes and fours, the third time by twos and fours, ire.
ife
C I P [ 1989 ] C I P
Cipher, it Would make the cipher hill more difficult to difcover :
” ” though as all ciphers depend on the combination of let¬
ters, there are icarce any that may not be deciphered
with time and pains; as we fhalllliow further on. Thofe
ciphers are the beft, that are by their nature moft free
from fufpicion of being ciphers; as for' example, if
the letters were here wrote with one of the fympa-
thetic inks, defcribed in the fourth volume of this
work, the cards might then pais for a common pack.
IT. By a dial. On a piece of fquare pafteboard
ABCD, fig. 3. 4. draw the circle EFGH, and divide
it into 26 equal parts, in each of which mult be wrote
one of the letters of the alphabet.
On the infide of this there mult be another circle of
palteboard, ILMN, moveable round the centre O, and
the extremity of this mult be divided into the fame
number of equal parts as the other. On this alfo mult
be wrote the letters of the alphabet, which, however,
need not be difpofed in the fame order. The perfon
with whom you correfpond mult have a fimilar dial, and
at the beginning of your letter you mult put any two
letters that anfwer to each other when you have fixed
the dial.
Exam. Suppofe you would write as follows : “ If
you will come over to us, you lhall have a penfion,
and you may ftill make a lham oppofition.” You be-
|rin with the letters Ma, which lliow how the dial is
fixed : then for If you, you write un juc, and lb for
the reft, as you will fee at fig. 6.
The fame intention way be anfwered by a ruler,
the upper part of which is fixed and the lower part
made to Hide ; but in this cafe the upper part muft
contain two alphabets in fucceffion, that fome letter of
that part may conftantly correfpond to one in the
lower part. The divifions Handing directly over
each other in a ftraight line will be much more obvi¬
ous than in the circumference of a circle.. Or two
ftraight pieces of pafteboard regularly divided, the
one containing a fingle and the other a double alpha¬
bet, would anfwer exactly the fame purpofe. In this
cafe a blank fpace may be left at each end of the fmgle
alphabet, and one or two weights being placed on
both the pieces will keep them fteady.
III. The correfponding fpaas. Take two pieces of
pafteboard or (lilf paper, through which you muft cut
long fquares, at different diftances, as you will fee in
the following example. One of thefe pieces you
keep yourfelf, and the other you give to your corre-
fpondent. When you would fencj him any fecret in¬
telligence, you lay the pafteboard upon a paper of the
fame fize, and in the (paces cut out, you. write what
you would have underftood by him only, and then fill
up the intermediate fpaces with, fomewhat that makes
with thofe words a different fenfe.
j I (hall be| much obliged to you, as reading | alone|
engages my attention j at [prefent, if you will lend me
any one of the (eight) volumes of the Spectator. I
hope you will excufe (this) freedom, but for a winter’s
{evening) I )doii’t] know a better entertainment. If I
)faiT| to return it foon, never truft me for the time
(to come. |
A paper of this fort may be placed four different Cipher
ways, either by putting the bottom at the top, or by _ II
turning it over, and by thofe means the fuperfluous ClPhlls'
words may be the more eafily adapted to the fenfe ■
of the others.
This is a very eligible cipher, as it is free from fu¬
fpicion, but it will do only for Ihort meffages : for if
the fpaces be frequent, it will be very difficult to make
the concealed and obvious meanings agree together :
and if the fenfe be not clear, the writing will be liable
to fufpicion.
IV. The muf cal cipher. The conftrmftion of this
cipher, is fimilar to that of N0 II. The circle EFGH
(%• 3-) >s to be divided into twenty-fix equal parts,
in each part there muft be wrote one of the letters
of the alphabet : and on the anterior circle ILMN,
moveable round the center O, there is to be the fame
number of divifions: the circumference of the inner
circle muft be ruled in the manner of a mufic paper ;
and in each divilion there is to be placed a note, dif¬
fering either in figure or polition. Laftly, within the
mufical lines place the three keys, and on the outer
circle, the figures that are commonly ufed to denote
the time.
Then provide yourfelf with a ruled paper, and place
one of the keys, as fuppofe that of gs re fol,. againft
the time two-fourths at the beginning of the paper,
which will inform your correlpondent how to fix his
circle. You then copy the notes that anfwer to the
feveral letters of the words you intend to write, in
the manner exprefled at fig. 5.
A cypher of this fort may be made more difficult
to difeover by frequently changing the key, and that
will not in the leaft embarrafs the reader. You may
likewife add the mark # or to the note that be¬
gins a wmrd, which will make it more eafy to read,
and at the fame time give the mufic a more natural
afpeift. This cipher is preferable to that of N° II.
above, as it may be inclofed in a letter about common
affairs, and pafs unfufpeefted.
C1PPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an in-
feription, eredled on the high roads, or other places,
to (hew the way to travellers ; to ferve as a boun¬
dary ; to mark the grave of a deceafed perfon,,
ire.
CIR (S'), a village of France, two miles from Ver-
failles, remarkable for a nunnery founded here by
Lewis XIV. The nuns are obliged to take care of
the education of 250 girls, who muft prove their fa¬
milies to have been noble from the 4*h generation on
the father’s fide. They cannot enter before 7, nor
after 12 years of age: and they continue there till
they are 20 years and 3 months old.. The houfe is a
moft magnificent ftruclure.
CIRCAsA, enchanter’s night-shade, a genus
of the monogynia order belonging to the diandria
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies, one of which
is a native of Britain, and the other of Germany.
They are low herbaceous plants with white flowers,
and poflefled of no remarkable property.
CIRCASSIA, a large country of Afia, lying between
the rivers Don and Wolga ; bounded on the north by
Ruffia, on the eaft by Aftrachan and the Cafpian fea,
on
C I R [ 1990 ] G I R
Circe o.* the fouth by Georgia and Dagiftan, and on the
H weit by the lea of Zabach. It is full of mountains
ClrcIes^ and forefts, and has no other city but Terky, which is
feated on the Cafpian fea. It is a kind of republic ;
for the people put themfelves under the protection of
Periia, Rufiia, and the Turks: however, the lait are
in poffeflion of Terky, the capital town. They are
Tartars of a middle ftature, well-fet, with coarfe
black hair and broad flat faces. They wear a veil of
coarfe grey cloth, and over it a flieep’s Ikin, which
they turn to the fide from which the wind or rain
comes. They have boots of horfe leather, and wear
out heir heads round bonnets of coarfe felt or black
cloth. The women pais among the Turks for very
great beauties, their complexion being extremely fine.
The men are not jealous ; for they allow their wives
all imaginable liberties. Thefe, in the fummer, wear
nothing but a fliift open down to the navel; but in
, the winter they have furred gowns, like the Ruflians.
They are very fond of necklaces, which confift of
firings of pearls, or coloured glafs. It is not a little
furpriiing that the men ihould be fo ugly, and the wo¬
men fo extremely handfome. Their religion is a
mixture of Chriftianity and Mahometanifm ; and, like
the Jews, they marry their brother’s wives, if they
have no children. The men are good horfemen, and
fubfifi chiefly by hunting and robbing, though fome
are addicted to hulbandry. In winter they live in
lorry huts, and in the fummer in tents. Their female
children are generally bought by the Turks and Per-
fians, who bring them up for their feraglios.
CIRCE, in fabulous hiitory, a famous ibrcerefs, poi-
foned her hulband, king of the Sarmatae ; for which
being baniflied, Ihe came into Italy, where Ihe chan¬
ged Scylla into a fea-monfter; ihe entertained Ulylfes,
who was cart away on the coafi near her houfe, but
metamorphofed his campanions into different lorts of
beafts.
C1RCENSIAN ames, a general term.under which
was comprehended all combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece.
Moft of the feafts of the Romans were accompanied
with Circeniian games; and the magiftrates, and other
officers of the republic, frequently prefented the people
with them, in order to procure their favour. The
grand games were held five days, commencing on the
15th of September. There were fix kinds of games
exhibited : the firft was wreftling, and fighting with
fwords, with ftaves, and with pikes ; the fecond was
racing ; the third leaping; the fourth, quoits, arrows,
and ceftus ; all which were on foot : the fifth was
horfe-courfing ; the fixth courfes of chariots.
CIRCLE, in geometry, a plane figure comprehended
by a Angle curve line, called its circumference, to
which right lines drawn from a point in the middle,
called the centre, are equal to each other. See Geo¬
metry.
Circles of the Sphere, are fuch as cut the mundane
fphere, and have their periphery either on its move-
able fiirface, or in another immoveable, conterminous,
and equidifiant furface. See Sphere. Hence arife
two kinds of circles, moveable and immoveable. The
firft, thofe whofe peripheries are in the moveable fur-
face, and which therefore revolve with its diurnal mo¬
tion ; as, the meridians, &c. The latter having Circles
their periphery in the immoveable furface, do not re- c;rcoJlcel.
volve ; as the ecliptic, equator, and its parallels, &c. ‘^nes.
See Geography. ■'  
Circles of Altitude, otherwife called almucantars,
are circles parallel to the horizon, having their com¬
mon pole in the zenith, and ftill diminilhing as they
approach the zenith. See Almucantar.
Diurnal Circles, are immoveable circles, fuppo-
fed to be ddcribed by the feven ftars, and other
points of the heavens, in their diurnal rotation round
the earth ; or rather, in the rotation of the earth
round its axis. The diurnal circles are all unequal:
the equator is the biggefi.
Horary Circles, in dialing, are the lines which
Ihew the hours on dials ; though thefe be not drawn
circular, but nearly flraight. See Dialing.
Circles of Latitude, or Secondaries of the Ecliptic,
are great circles parallel to the plane of the ecliptic,
palling through the poles thereof, and through every
ftar and planer. They are fo called, becaufe they
ferve to meafure the latitude of the ftars, which is no¬
thing but an arch of one of thefe circles intercepted
between the ftar and the ecliptic. See Latitude.
Circles of Longitude, are feveral lelfer circles,
parallel to the ecliptic; ftill diminilhing, in proportion
as they recede from it. On the arches of thefe circles,
the longitude of the ftars is reckoned.
Circle of perpetual Apparition, one of the Idler
circles, parallel to the equator ; deferibed by any
point of the fphere touching the northern point of the
horizon ; and carried about with the diurnal motion.
All the ftars included within this circle never fet, but
are ever vifible above the horizon.
Circle of perpetual Occultation, is another circle
at a like diftance from the equator ; and contains all
thofe ftars which never appear in our hemifphere.
The ftars fituate between thefe circles, alternately rile
and fet at certain times.
Polar Circles, are immoveable circles, parallel to
the equator, and at a diftance from the poles equal to
the greateft declination of the ecliptic. That next the
northern pole is called the arctic ; and that next to
the fouthern one the antarctic.
Fairy Circle. See YhutY-Circle.
Circle, in logic, or Logical Circle, is when the
fame terms are proved in orbem by the fame terms ;
and the parts of the fyllogifm alternately by each other,
both direiftly and indirealy.
Circles of the Empire, fiich provinces and princi¬
palities of the German empire as have a right to be
prefent at diets. Maximilian I. divided the empire
into fix, and fome years after into ten circles. This
laft divifion was confirmed by Charles V. The circles,
as they Hand in the Imperial Matricola, are as follow :
Auftria, Burgundy, the Lower Rhine, Bavaria, Up¬
per Saxony, Tranconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, Welt-
phalia, and the Lower Saxony.
CIRCONCELLIONES, a fpecies of fanatics, fo
called becaufe they were continually rambling round
the houfes in the country. They took their rife among
the donatifts, in the reign of the emperor Conftantine.
It is incredible what ravages and cruelties thefe vaga¬
bonds committed in Africa through a long feries of
years.
f/ir /OO v fans .
Chimes.
Plate LYXIX.|
lx/ <ya/r/s j dtiK<'/i7ip' //tc C^/umt'
<$.
ueNooNceu ruuexesr
OSAUCXVXxrVVSTOAO
N xooocn v vroox E+VX
+xAsoxuext:rux saug
x 0 n utox^+x-lto e ut r
vusuexesrorooeSEx
cxw±Dx±roxa usoxc
mon stovn+xo u n soo
Nx-for/xvnueNO no ue
xoNceuueruxNuexoe
r ©xotosotoosxoto l
tnux.
Jda urt jvo tumm *wa?*~y
. vtpvo q/u cd hJc d/rf/r/ism
///bp1' /i yr/u/uvA //r, 
jt/i> aA/ apbmTK a/i/r
A MAa
'I'Y'ipso/upn^A
p. y.
cXxooeA+io X+fcAa
srD.r+c +ro icro +
Lxeoi sro.eoxucx+eA
v+e ecn.csin +u
exeDOFLOO. Lsecc+r
r+ cxscc+x cl ca
cnxuuoxoruo o
roTiouc occ/ox ucra
a+Ao Aosfa r+ aoto.
Ao s icccox aA+xciv
otolAo aoo case Cc
L+XOAUX+X CAO Aosxc
+X TONOX DSXO C+AOO
XV USLO x+xo.
C I R t 1991 ] C I R
irconcel- years. They were illiterate, lavage peafants, who
k01^5, underftood only the Punic language. Intoxicated
with a barbarous zeal, they renounced agriculture,
profefled continence, and alTumed the title of “ Vindica¬
tors ofjuliice, and Protestors of the opprelt.” To ac-
complilh their million, they enfranchifed Haves, Icour-
ed the roads, forced mailers to alight from their cha¬
riots, and run before their Haves, whom they obliged
to mount in their place; and difcharged debtors, kil¬
ling the creditors if they refufed to cancel the bonds.
But the chief objects of their cruelty were the catholics,
and efpecially thofe who had renounced donatifm.
At firll they ufed no fwords, becaufe God had forbid the
ufe of one to Peter; but they were armed with clubs,
which they called the clubs of Ifracl; and which they
handled in fuch a manner as .to break a man’s bones
without killing him immediately, fo that he languifli-
ed a long time and then died. When they took away
a man’s life at once, they looked upon it as a favour.
They became lefs fcrupulous afterwards, and made
ufe of all forts of arms. Their fliout was Praife be
to God. Thefe words in their mouths were the lig-
nal of flaughter, more terrible than the roaring of a
lion. They had invented an unheard-of punifltment;
which was, to cover with lime diluted with vinegar,
the eyes of thofe unhappy wretches whom they had
crulhed with blows, and covered with wounds, and
to abandon them in that condition. Never was a
Itronger proof what horrors fuperltition can beget in
minds deftiture of knowledge and humanity. Thefe
brutes who had made a vow of chaftity, gave them-
felves tip to wine and all forts of impurities, running
about with women and young girls as drunk as them-
felves, whom they called [acred virghts, and who
often carried proofs of their incontinence. Their
chiefs took the name of Chiefs of the Saints. After
having glutted themfelves with blood, they turned
their rage upon themfelves, and fought death with
the fame fury with which they gave it to others.
Some fcrambled up to the tops of rocks, and call
themfelves down headlong in multitudes ; others burn¬
ed themfelves, or threw themfelves into the fea.
Thofe who propofed to acquire the title of martyrs,
publilhed it long before; upon whch they were feaft-
ed and fattened like oxen for the Daughter; after
thefe preparations they fet out to be deltroyed. Some¬
times they gave money to thofe whom they met, and
threatened to murder them if they did not make them
martyrs. Theodorat gives an account of a ftout
young man, who meeting with a troop of thefe fana¬
tics, confented to kill them, provided he might bind
them firft; and having by this means put it out of
their power to defend themfelves, whipped them as
long as he was able, and then left them tied in that
manner. Their bilhops pretended to blame them,
but in reality, made ufe of them to intimidate fuch as
might be tempted to forlake their fedt; they even
honoured them as faints. They were not, how¬
ever, able to govern thofe furious monflers; and
more than once found themfelves under a necelfity of
abandoning them, and even of imploring the affilt-
ance of the fecular power againft them. The coonts
Urfacius and Taurinus were employed to quell them;
they deflroyed a great number of them, of whom the
donatifts made as many martyrs. Urfacius, who was Circuit
a good catholic and a religious man, having loll his . i .
life in an engagement with the barbarians, the dona- emulation
tilts did not fail to triumph in his death, as an eifedl
of the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre
of thefe bloody fcenes during a great part of Conltan-
tine’s life.
CIRCUIT, in law, fignifies a longer courfe of
proceedings than is needful to recover the thing fued
for.
Circuit, alfo fignifies the journey or progrefs,
which the judges take twice every year, through the
feveral counties of England and Wales, to hold courts
and adminilter jultice, where recourfe cannot be had
to the king’s courts at Wellminlter: hence England
is divided into fix circuits, viz. the Home circuit; Nor¬
folk circuit; Midland circuit; Oxford circuit; Well-
ern circuit, and Northern circuit. In Wales there
are but two circuits, North and South Wales: two
judges are alfigned by the king’s commiffion to every
circuit.
In Scotland, the judges of the fupreme criminal
court, or court of julliciary, are divided into three
feparate courts, confiding of two judges each ; and
the kingdom into as many dillridts. In certain bo¬
roughs of every diltridl, each of thefe courts by rota¬
tion are obliged to hold two courts in the year, in
fpring and autumn; which are called circuit-courts.
CIRCULAR, in a general fenfe, any thing that is
defcribed, or moved in a round, as the circumference
of a circle, or furface of a globe. ,
Circular Numbers, called z\to fpherical ones, ac¬
cording to fome, are fuch whofe powers terminate
in the roots themfelves. Thus, for indance, 5 and
6, all whofe powers do end in 5 and 6, as the Iquare
of 5 is 25 ; the fquare of 6 is 56, ire.
Circular Sailing, is the method of failing by the
arch of a great cirle. See Navigation.
CIRCULATION, the adi of moving round, or in
a circle ; thus we fay, the circulation of the blood, ire.
Circulation of the Blood, the natural motion of
the blood in a living animal, whereby that fluid is al¬
ternately carried from the heart into all parts of the
body, by the arteries, from whence it is brought
back to the heart again by the veins. See Anato¬
my, n° 387, 388, 389.
In a fetus, the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood is fomewhat different from that in adults. The
feptum, which feparates the two auricles of the heart,
is pierced through with an aperture, called the jora-
men ovale ; and the trunk of the pulmonary artery, a
little after it has left the heart, fends out a tube into
the defeending aorta, called the communicating canal.
The foetus being born, the foramen ovale clofes by
degrees, and the canal of communication dries up,
and becomes a fimple ligament.
As to the velocity of the circulating blood, and the
time wherein the circulation is completed, feveral
computations have been made. By Dr Keil’s account,
the blood is driven out of the heart into the aorta with
a velocity which would carry it twenty-five feet in a
minute : but this velocity is continually abated in the
progrefs of the blood, in the numerous fe£tions or
branches of the arteries, fo that before it arrive at
the
C I R [ 1992 ] C I R
cation of the veins and arteries*; the blood running Circulati
towards the extremities through arteries, and return- cir(?ulus
ing back again through veins, which were evidently  
a continuation of thole arteries, and of the lame dia¬
meter with them. The whole filh on the tail of which
this examination was made, was not more than half
an inch in length; it is eafy to conceive, therefore,
how fmall the tail mull be ; and yet in it there
were 68 velTels which carried and returned the
blood ; and yet thefe veffels were far from being the
moft minute of all. How inconceivably numerous
then muft the circulations in the whole human body
be ? Mr Lewenhoeck is of opinion, that a thoufand
different circulations are continually carried on in eve-
man’s body in the breadth of a finger
Circulation the extremities of the body, its motion is greatly di-
'—   minilhed. The fpace of time wherein the whole
. mafs of blood ordinarily circulates, is varioufly deter¬
mined. Some ftate it thus: Suppofing the heart to
make two thoufand pulfes in an hour, and that at
every pulfe there is expelled an ounce of blood ; is not
ordinarily computed to exceed twenty-four pounds, it
muft be circulated feven or eight times over in the
fpace of an hour.
The curious, in microfcopic obfervations, have
found an eafy method of feeing the circulation of the
blood in the bodies of animals: for thefe inquiries it
is neceffary to chufe fuch animals as are fmall, and
eafily manageable, and which are either wholly or in
part tranfparent. The obfervations made by this ry part of
means are preferable to any others we can have re- nail,
courfe to; fince, in differiions, the animal is irf a ftate
of pain, or dying; whereas in animals fmall enough
to be thus viewed, all is left in its ufual courfe, and
we fee what nature does in her own undifturbed me¬
thod. In thefe creatures alfo, after viewing, as long
as we pleafe, the natural ftate and current of the
blood, we may, by prdfure, and feveral other ways,
impede its courfe; and by putting various mixtures
into the creature’s water, induce a morbid ftate, and
finally fee the creature die, either by means of this or
by any other method ; and we may thus accurately
obferve all the changes it undergoes, and fee what
occafions the trembling pulfe, ire. of dying people.
The current of the blood in fmall animals, that is,
its palling on through the veffels, either to or from
the heart is very ealily feen by the microfcope; but
its circulation, that is, its running to the extremities
of the parts, and thence returning, is more difficult;
becaufe the veffels where this ffiould be feen are fo ex¬
tremely minute, as not eafily to come under obferva-
Tlie tail of a newt or water-lizard affords alfo a ve¬
ry entertaining profpedl of the circulation of the blood
through almoft numberlefs fmall veffels; but no ob¬
ject ffiews it fo agreeably as one of thefe animals
while fo young as not to be above an inch long; for
then the whole body is fo very tranfparent, that the
circulation may be feen in every part of it, as well as
in the tail; and, in thefe objects, nothing is more
beautiful than the courfe of the blood into the toes
and back again, where it may be traced all the way
with great eafe. Near the head there are alfo found
three fmall fins which afford a very delightful pro-
fpedt: thefe are all divided like the leaves of polypo¬
dy ; and in every one of the branches of thefe, the
blood may be very accurately traced, running to the
end through the artery, and there returning back
again by a vein of the fame fize, and laid in the fame
diredlion; and as the veffels are very numerous and
large in this part, and the third or fourth magnifier
may be ufed, there are fometimes feen 30 or 40
rion. The larger arteries are eafily diftinguiffied channels of running blood at once; and this the more
from the veins by the motion of the blood through
them, which, in the veins is always fmooth and regu¬
lar ; but in the arteries by feveral propulfions after
the manner of puliation. But this difference is not
to be found in the more minute velTels, in all which,
as well arteries as veins, the motion of the blood is
even and regular.
The tranfparent membrane, or web between the
toes of a frog’s hinder foot, is a very proper objeifl
to obferve the circulation of the blood in. The tails,
or fins of fifties, are alfo very fine objeris, and when
the filh is very fmall, thefe are manageable, and af¬
ford a view of a great number of veins and arteries,
with a very quick and beautiful fucceffion of blood
through them. The tail of a flounder may be very
conveniently placed before the double microfcope on
a plate of glafs, and its body being fupported by fome-
thing of equal height the fifli will lie ftill, and the cir¬
culation may be feen very agreeably. In the minu-
teft veffels thus examined, the blood always appears
pale or colourlefs, but in the large ones it is manifeft-
ly red. The arteries ufually branch out extremely
before they join the veins to carry the blood back to
the heart; but this is not always the cafe; for Mr
Lewenhoeck has obferved, that on each fide of the
little griftles which give a ftiffnefs to the tail of a
flounder, there may be feen a very open communi-
as the globules of blood in the newt are large, and
are fewer in number,in proportion to the quantity of
ferum, than in any other animal; and their figure, as
they are protruded through the veffels, changes in a
very furprifing manner. The impetus occafioning
the circulation, is great enough in fome animals to
raife the blood fix, feven, or eight feet high from the
blood-veflel it fprings out at; which, however, is far
exceeded by that of the fap of a vine in bleeding time,
which will fometimes rife forty feet high.
Circulation of the Sap of Plants. See Plants,
and Sap.
Circulation of the Spirits, or Nervous Fluid. See
Anatomy, n0 400, h ; and Nervous Fluid.
Circulation, in chemiftry, is an operation where¬
by the fame vapour, raifed by fire, falls back, to be
returned and diftilled feveral times.
Circulation of Money. See Commerce, and
Money.
Subterranean Circulation. See Springs.
CIRCULUS, in chemiftry, an iron inftrument in
form of a ring, which being heated red hot, and ap¬
plied to the necks of retorts and other glafs veffels
till they grow hot, a few drops of cold water thrown
upon them, or a cold blaft, will make the necks fly
regularly and evenly off.
Another method of doing this, is to tie a thread,
firlt
C I R [ 1993 ] C I R
Clrcumam- firft dipt in oil of turpentine, round the place where
bient you would have it break ; and then fetting lire to the
Circumci t*ireac^ and afterwards fprinkling the place with cold
1fiori?C1" water, the glafs will crack exactly where the thread
— ■ was tied.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an appellation given to a
thing that furrounds another on all Tides; chiefly ufed
in fpeaking of the air.
CIRCUMCELLIONES. See Circoncellio-
'N E S.
CIRCUMCISION, the a& of cutting off the pre¬
puce ; a eeretnony in the Jewilh and Mahometan
religions, wherein they cut off the forelkin of their
males, who are to profefs the one or the other
law.
Circumcifton commenced in the time of Abraham ;
and was, as it were, the fealof a covenant ftipulated
between God and him. It was in the year of the
world 2178, that Abraham, by divine appointment,
circumcifed himfelf, and all the males of his family ;
from which time Jt became an hereditary practice
among his defcendants.
The ceremony, however, was not confined to the
Jews: Herodotus and Philo Judaius obferve, that it
obtained alfo among the Egyptians and Ethiopians.
Herodotus fays, that the cuffom was very ancient
among each people ; fo that there was no determining
which of them borrowed it from the other. The
fame hiltorian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis
alfo ufed circumcifion ; whence he concludes, that they
were originally Egyptians. He adds, that the Phoe¬
nicians and Syrians were likewife circumcifed ; but
that they borrowed the practice from the Egyptians.
And laftly, that a little before the time when he wrote,
circumcifion had'palled from Colchis, to the people in¬
habiting near Thermodoon and Parthenius.
Marfliam is of opinion, that the Hebrews borrowed
circumcifion from the Egyptians; and that God was
not the firft author thereof; citing Diodorus Siculus,
and Herodotus, as evidences on his fide. This latter
propofition feems direHly contrary to the teftimony
of Mofes, who affures, Gen. xvii. that Abraham, tho’
99 years of age, was not circumcifed till he had the
exprefs command of God for it. But as to the for¬
mer pofition of Marfham, it will admit of more de¬
bate. The arguments on both fides may be feen
in one view in Spencer de Legibus Hebraorum, /. 2.
tf. 4.
Be this as it will, it is certain the practice of cir¬
cumcifion among the Hebrews differed very confide-
rably from that of the Egyptians. Among the firft it
was a ceremony of religion, and was performed on
the. eighth day after the birth of the child. Among
the latter, a point of mere decency and cleanlinefs;
and, as fome will have it, of phyfical neceflity ; and
was not performed till the 13th year, and then on girls
as well as boys.
Among the Jews the time for performing this rite was
the eighth day, that is, fix full days, after the child was
born: the law of Mofes ordained nothing with refpeift
to the perfon by whom, the inftrument with which,
or the manner how, the ceremony was to be perfor¬
med; the inftrument was generally a knife of ftone.
The child is ufually circumcifed at home, where the
Vol. III.
father, or godfather, holds him in his arms, while the Circumci-
operator takes hold of the prepuce with one hand, and fion
with the other cuts it oft’; a third perfon holds a por- circumfe-
ringer, with land in it, to catch the blood ; then the rentor.
operator applies his mouth to the part, and, having  —
fucked the blood, fpits it into a bowl of wine, and throws
a ftyptic powder upon the wound. This ceremony
was ufually accompanied with great rejoicings and
feafting, and it was at this time that the child was
named in prefence of the company. The Jews in¬
vented feveral fuperftitious cuftoins at this ceremony,
fuch as placing three ftools, one for the circumcifor,
the fecond for the perfon who holds the child, and the
third for Elijah, who, they fay, affifts invifibly at the
ceremony, &c.
The Jews diftinguilhed their profelytes into two
forts, according as they became circumcifed or not:
thofe who fubmitted to this rite were looked upon
as children of Abraham, and obliged to keep the
laws of Mofes; the uncircumcifed were only bound
to obferve the precepts of Noah, and were called
noachidec.
The Turks never circumcife till the feventh or
eighth year, as having no notion of its being neceflary
to lalvation. The Perfians circumcife their boys at
13, and their girls from 9 to 1J. Thofe of Madagaf-
car cut the flefli at three feveral times; and the moft
zealous of the relations prefent, catches hold of the
preputium, and fwallows it.
Circumcifion is pratftifed on women by cutting off
the forelkin of the clitoris, which bears a near refem-
blance and analogy to the preputium of the male pe¬
nis. We are told that the Egyptian captive-women
were circumcifed ; and alfo the fubjects of Prefter
John.
Circumcision is alfo the name of a feaft, cele¬
brated on the firft of January, in commemoration of
the circumcifion of our Saviour.
CIRCUMDUCTION, in Scots law. When parties
in a fuit are allowed a proof of alledgeances ; after
the time limited by the judge for taking that proof is
elapfed, either party may apply for circumducftion of
the time of proving ; the effect of which is, that no
proof can afterwards be brought, and the courfe muft
be determined as it flood when circumduction was ob¬
tained.
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general fenfe, denotes
the line or lines bounding a plane figure. However,
it is generally ufed in a more limited fenfe, for the
curve line which bounds a circle, and otherwife called
a periphery ; the boundary of a right-lined figure be¬
ing exprelfed by the term perimeter.
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an inftrument ufed by Pur¬
veyors for taking angles.
It confifts of a brafs index and circle, all of a piece.
The index is commonly about 14 inches long, and an
inch and a half broad ; the diameter of the circle is
about feven inches. On this circle is made a chart,
whole meridian line anfwers to the middle of the
breadth of the index, and is divided into 360 degrees.
There is a brafs ring foldered on the circumference
of the circle, on which fcrews another ring, with a
flat glafs in it, fo as to form a kind of box for the
needle, fufpended on the pivot in the centre of the
11 U circle,
C I R [ 1994 ] C I R
Circumflex ckcle. There are alfo two fights to fcrew on, and
II Hide up and down the index ; as alfo a fpangle and
Circus‘ locket fcrewed on the back lide of the circle lor put-
P'ate Ixxiv. ting the head of the Half in.
fg- 7. How to obferve the Quantity of an Angle by the Cir~
cumf renter. Let it be required to find the quantity
of the angle EKG ; firlt place your inltrument at K,
with the flower-de-luce of the chart towards you ;
then diredt your fights to E, and obferve what de¬
grees are cut by the fouth end of the needle, which
let be 296 ; then, turning the inftrument about, di-
redt your fights to G, noting then alfo what degrees
are cut by the fouth end of the needle, which fuppofe
247. This done, always fubtradl the lefler from the
greater, as in this example, 247 from 296, the re¬
mainder is 49 degrees, which is the true quantity of
the angle EKG.
CIRCUMFLEX, in grammar, one of the Ac¬
cents.
CIRCUMGYRATION, denotes the whirling mo¬
tion of any body round a centre : fuch is that of the
planets round the fun.
CIRCUMLOCUTION, a paraphraftical method of
exprefling one’s thoughts, or faying that in many
words which might have been faid in few.
CIRCUMPOLAR stars, an appellation given to
thole liars,, which, by reafon of their vicinity to the
pole, move round it without fetting.
CIRCUMPOTATIO, in antiquity, a funeral feaft
provided in honour of the dead. This was very fre¬
quent among the ancient Romans, as well as among
the Athenians. Solon at Athens, and the decemviri
at Rome, endeavoured to reform this cullom, thinking
it abliird that mirth and drunkennefis Ihould mingle
with forrow and grief.
CIR.CUMSCRIBED, in geometry, is faid of a fi¬
gure which is drawn round another figure, fo that all
its fides or planes touch the infer ibed figure.
CIRCUMSCRIPTION, in natural philofophy, the
termination, bounds, or limits of any natural body.
CIRCUMSTANCE, a particularity which, though
not elfential to any atflion, yet doth fome way. af-
fec.t it.
C1RCUMSTANTI BUS, in law, a term ufed for
fupplying and making up the number of jurors (in
cafe any impanelled appear not, or appearing are
challenged by any party,) by adding to them fo many
of the perfons prefent as will make up the number, in
cafe they are properly qualified.
C1RCUMVALLATION, or Line of Circumval-
l ati o n, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with
a parapet, thrown up quite round the befieger’s camp,
by way of, fecurity againll any army that may at¬
tempt to relieve the place, as well as to prevent de-
lertion.
CIRCUMVOLUTION, in archite&ure, denotes
the torus of the fpiral line of the Ionic volute.
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a great building of a round
or oval figure, ereefed by the ancients, to exhibit
Ihews to the people. See Circensian Carnes.
The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arch¬
ed at one end, encoropaffed with porticoes, and fur-
niflied with two rows of feats, placed afceirding over
each other. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank.
or eminence, with obelilks, ftatues, and polls at each Circuceftejt
end. This lerved them for the courfes of their bigae H
and quadrigae.    *
Thole that have meafured the circus fay, that it
was 2187 feet long, and 960 broad ; io that it was
the greateft building in Rome : fome fay it would
contain 150,000 people, other 260,000, or 300,000.
CIRENCESTER, an ancient town of Glouceller-
Ihire in England. It was ftrongly fortifipd with walls
and a caltle in the time of the Romans. The ruins
of the walls and ftreet are, or were lately, to be
feen in the adjacent meadows, where many Roman
coins, chequered pavements, and inferiptions on marble,
have been found. Two of the Roman confular ways
crofs each other at this town. The fofle-way, which
comes from Scotland, paffes through this county and
town to Totnefs in Devonlhire. The other, called
Irmin-jlreet, comes from Gloucefter, and runs along
to Southampton. Not many years ago they difeover-
ed, by digging in a meadow near the town, an ancient
building under ground, 50, feet long, 40 broad, and
4 high, and fupported by 100 brick pillars, curioufly
inlaid with Hones of various colours, fuppofed to have
been a Roman bath. Cirencelter has now but one
church, in the windows of which are the remains of
very valuable painted glafs. The town is governed
by 2 high conHables, and 14 wards-men, who govern
7 diHinCt wards ; and it lends two members to par¬
liament. It has a. free-fehool, a charity-fchool, with
feveral alms-houfes; and is feated on the river Churn,
36 miles north-eaH of Briflol, and 88 wcH by north:
of London. W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat. 51. 42.
C1RENZA, a city of Naples, capital of the Bafili-
cate, with an archbilhop’s fee. It was formerly a
confiderable place, but is now of final) confequence.
It is feated on the river Brandano, at the foot of the
Appeniue mountains, in E. Long. 16. 44. N. Lat.
40. 48.
CIRO-ferri, an excellent Italian painter and ar¬
chitect, was born at Rome in 1614, and was the difi-
ciple of Peter de Cortona, whofe defigns he imita¬
ted with Inch exa&nefs, that it is difficult to diHin-
guilh them. He was etleemed by pope Alexan¬
der VII. and his three fuccelfors, and died at Rome
in 1689.
CIRRUS, or Cirrhus, in botany, a clafper or
tendril; that fine fpiral firing or fibre put out from
the foot-fialks, by which fome plants, as the ivy and
vine, faflen tbemfelves to walls, pales, or trees, for
fupport. The term is fymonimous to the capreo-
lus, clavicula, and viticulus of other botanifls ; and
is ranked by Linnaeus among the fulcra, or parts
of plants that ferve for protection, fupport, and de¬
fence.
Tendrils are fometimes placed oppofite tothe leaves,
as in the vine ; fometimes at the fide of the foot-fialk
of the leaf, as in paffion-fiower ; and fometimes, as in
winged pea, pifum cchrus, they are emitted from the
leaves themfelves. With refpeCt to compofition, they
are either fimple, that is, compofed of one fibre or
chord, as in the vetch; or compound, that is, confifi
of two, three, or more, as in the everlaliing pea.
Bitter fweet, fajanum, dulcamara, bignonia, and ivy,
fend, forth tendrils which plant themfelves like roots
in
CIS [ 1995 ] CIS
Cirri m the adjacent walls, or the bark of the neighbouring
J trees.. Clafpers, fays the ingenious Dr Grew, are
1 01 ' like trunk-roots, a mean betwixt a root and a trunk,
but a compound of both, as may be gathered from their
circumvolutions, in which they mutually afcend and
defcend. In the mounting of the trunk, continues the
fame author, clafpers ferve for fupport. Thus, in
vines, the branches being very long, fragile and llen-
der, would be liable to frequent breaking, unlefs, by
means of their clafpers, they were mutually contained
together ; fo that the whole care is divided betwixt
the gardener and nature : the former, with his liga¬
ments of leather, fecures the main branches ; and na¬
ture, with thofe of her own providing, fecures the
lefs. Their aptitude to this end is feen in their con¬
volutions, a motion not proper to any other-part: and
alfo in their toughnefs, which is fo much the more re¬
markable, as they are llenderer than the branches
from which they proceed. In the trailing of the
trunk, tendrils ferve for Habiliment and lhade : thus,
in cucumbers, the trunk and branches being long and
fragile, wotild be driven to and fro, by the winds, to
the great prejudice both of themfelves and their ten¬
der fruits, were they not, by thefe ligaments, held
fall together, and preferved in alfociation and good
fellowlhip. The fame clafpers ferve likewife for
fliade : fo that a natural arbour is formed by the
branches of the cucumber, in the fame manner as art
artificial one is made by tangling together the twigs
of trees; for the branches, by the linking of their
clafpers, being couched together, the tender fruits lie
under the umbrage of a bower made of their own
leaves. Molt of the pea-bloom flowers have twin¬
ing clafpers, that is, which wind to the right and back
again.
CIRRI, in ichthyology, certain oblong and foft ap¬
pendages, not unlike little worms, hanging from the
tinder jaws or mouths of fome fifties : thefe cirri,
commonly tranflated beards, afford marks to diftin-
guifli the different fpecies of the fillies on which they
are found.
CISALPINE, any thing on this fide the Alps. The
Romans divided Gaul and the cduntry now called
Lombardy, into Cifalpine and Tranfalpine. That
which was Cifalpine with regard to the Romans, is
Tranfalpine with regard to us.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month
of their ecciefialtical, and third of their civil, year, an-
fwering nearly to our November.
CISSAMPELOS, in botany, a genus of the mono-
delphia order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants.
There are two fpecies, the pareina and caapeba, both
natives of the warmeft parts of America. The root
of the fecond, applied externally, is faid to be an an¬
tidote againft the bites of venomous ferpents. The
plant being infilled in water, quickly fills the liquor
with a mucilaginous fubftance, which is as thick as
jelly ; whence the name of freezing-ivyth, by which
this genus of plants has been diftinguilhed by the Bra¬
zilians.
C1SSOID, in geometry, a curve of the fecond or¬
der, firft invented by Diodes, whence it is called the
cijfoid of Diodes. See Fluxions.
CISSUS, the wild-gra-pe, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants' Ciftcrcians
There are four fpecies, all of them natives of the iiland .1
of Jamaica, and fome of the other illands in the warm Clftus' —
parts of America. They fend out flender branches,
having tendrils at their joints, by which they fallen
to the neighbouring trees, biilhes, and any other fup¬
port, mounting to a confiderable height. The fruit
of fome of the fpecies are eaten by the negroes.
CISTERCIANS, in church-hiflory, a religious or¬
der founded in the 11th century by St Robeft, a be-
nedidline. They became fo powerful, that they go¬
verned almoft all Europe, both in fpirituals and tem¬
porals. Cardinal de Vitri defcribing their Obfervan-
ces, fays, they neither wore Ikins nor Hurts ; nor ever
eat flelh, except in ficknefs; and abftained from filli,
eggs, milk, and cheefe : they lay upon Itraw-beds, in
tunics and cowls : they role at midnight to prayers :
they fpent the day in labour, reading and prayer :
and in all their exercifes obferved a continual lilence.
The habit of the ciltercian monks is a white robe,
in the nature of a.caffock, with a black fcapulary
and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The
nuns wear a white tunic, and a black fcapulary and
girdle.
CISTERN, denotes a fubterraneous refervoir of
rain-water ; or a velfel ferving as a receptacle for
rain or other water, for the neceflary ufes of a fa¬
mily. There are likewife lead-cillerns, jar-riflerns,
ire.
Authors mention a cillern of Conftantinopie, the
vaults of which are fupported by two rows of pillarsj
212 in each row, each pillar being two feet in dia¬
meter. They are planted circularly, and in radii
tending to that of the centre.
Anciently there were cillerns all over the country
in Palelline. There were fome likewife in cities and
private houfes. As the cities for the moll part were
built on mountains, and the rains fell regularly in Ju¬
dea at two feafons in the year only, in Ipring and au¬
tumn, people were obliged to keep water in cillerns
in the country for the ufe of their cattle, and in cities
for the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are
Hill ciflerns of very large dimenfions to be feen in Pa¬
lelline, fome whereof are rjo paces long, and 54
wide. There is one to be feen at Ramah of 32 pa¬
ces in length, and 28 in breadth. Wells and cifterns,
fprings and fountains, are generally confounded in
fcripture-language.
CISTUS, the Rock-rose ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants. There are 37 fpecies, moll of them natives
of the fouthern parts of Europe, but hardy enough to
bear the open air m this country. They are beauti¬
ful evergreen Ihrubs, generally very branchy quite
from the bottom, and forming diffufed heads. They
are very ornamental in gardens, not only as ever¬
greens, making a fine variety at all feafons with their
leaves of different figures, fizes, and lhades of green
and white, but alfo as firft-rate flowering Ihrubs, be¬
ing very profufe in moll elegant flowers of wMte,
purple, and yellow colours. Thefe flowers only laft
for one day ; but there is a continual fucceffion of
new ones for a month or fix weeks on th‘e fame
plant; and when there are different fpeuies, they wiff
II U 2 exhibit
C I T [ 1996 ] C I T
•Citadel exhibit a conftant bloom for near three months. They
!| are propagated either by feeds or cuttings, and thrive
c‘l;lZen• beft in a dry foil. Their proper lituation in Ihrubbery
works fliould be towards the front of the clumps and
other compartments, in allemblage with the choiceft
fhrubs of limilar growth, difpofmg them fo as to make
a variety, and to have Ihelter from the other plants;
but they ought by no means to be crowded. Gum
labdanum is found upon a fpecies of ciltus which grows
naturally in the Levant, and is therefore called lada-
nifera. See Labdanum.
CITADEL, a place fortified with five or fix ba-
ftions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that
it may command it in cafe of a rebellion.
CITADELLA, the capital town in the idand of Mi¬
norca, in the Mediterranean, with a new harbour.
This, with the whole ifland, were taken by general
Stanhope and the confederate fleet in 1 708, and ceded
to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713 :
but it was taken by the French, after a brave defence,
in 1756; and reftored by the peace. It is 27 miles
weft of Port-Mahon. E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 39. 58.
C1TAD1NESCA, in natural hiftory, a name given
by fome writers to the Florentine marble, which is
fupprifed to reprefent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, ire.
Thefe delineations are merely accidental, and are
commonly much affifted by the imagination, though
the natural lines of a ftone may fometimes luckily
enough reprefent the ruins of fome ancient building,
or the courfe of a river. In England there is a kind
of feptaria, or ludus Helmontii, which has fometimes
pretty beautiful, though very irregular, delineations
of this kind. The Florentine marble, as we fee it
wrought up in the ornaments of cabinets, b e. owes a
great deal to the Ikill of the workmen, who always
pick out the proper pieces from the mafs, and dilpofe
them in the work fo as to reprefent what they pleafe.
CITATION, in ecclefiaftical courts, is the fame with
fummons in civil courts. See Summons.
Citation, is alfo a quotation of fome law, autho¬
rity, or palfage of a book.
CITHARA, in antiquity, a mufical inftrument, the
precife ftruCture of which is not known ; fome think
it refembled the Greek delta A j and others, the lhape
of a half moon. At firft it had only three firings, but
the number was at different times increafed to 8, to
9, and laftly to 24. It was ufed in entertainments
and private houfes, and played upon with a plectrum
or quill, like the lyre.
CITHAREXYLON, fiddle-wood; a genus of
the angiofpernia order, belonging to the didynamia
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies, both natives
of the warm parts of America, where they grow to
be large trees, and are adorned with white flowers
growing in fpikes. In Britain they appear only as
fhrubs, and muft be conftantly retained in the ftove,
where they make a fine appearance, being beautiful
evergreens. They may be propagated either by feeds
or cuttings.
CITIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, veiled
with the freedom and liberties mf it.
A citizen of Rome was diftinguifhed from a ftran-
ger, becaufe he belonged to no certain commonwealth
fubjedl to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth
or election ; and fons may derive the right from their Cftrimis
fathers. To make a good Roman citizen, it was ne- H ^
ceflary to be an inhabitant of Rome, to be inrolled in , l ltluS-.
one of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities. Thofe
to whom were granted the rights and privileges of
Roman citizens, were only honorary citizens. It was
not lawful to fcourge a citizen of Rome.
CITRINUS, in natural hiftory, the name of a pe¬
culiar fpecies of fprig cryflal, which is of a beautiful
yellow. Many of the common cryftals, when in the
neighbourhood of lead-mines, are liable to be acci¬
dentally tinged yellow, by an admixture of the par¬
ticles of that metal; and all thefe, whether finer or
coarfer, have been too frequently confounded together
under the name citrine : but Dr Hill has afeertained
this to be a peculiar Ipecies of cryflal different from
all the others in form as well as in colour; and diftin¬
guifhed by the name of ellipomacroftylum lucidum
flavefeens, pyramide brevi. It is never found colour-
lefs like the other cryftals, but has great variety of
tinges, from that of the deeper ochres, to a pale le¬
mon-colour. It is very plentiful in the Weft Indies,
and is fometimes found in Bohemia. Our jewellers
have learned from the French and Italians, who are
very fond of it, to call it citrine ; and often cut Hones
for rings out of it, particularly out of the pyramid,
which is always finer than the column, and thefe, afi?
ter they have palled through two or three hands, are
generally miftaken for topazes,
CITRON-tree, in botany. See Citrus.
Cnslow-Water, a well-known ftrong water or eor-"
dial, which may be thus made : Take of fine thin le¬
mon-peel, 18 ounces ; of orange-peel, 9 ounces; per-
fe6l nutmegs, 4 ounces; the fineft and beft redlified
fpirit of wine, 2 gallons and a half. Digeft in bal-
neo marise for one night : draw off with a flow fire ;
then add as much water as will juft make the matter
milky (which will be about 7 quarts or 2 gallons) ;
and laftly, add 2 pounds of fine fugar. This compo-
fition may be improved by frefh elder flowers, hung
in a cloth in the head of the ftifl, fprinkled with am-
bergreafe in powder, or its effence.
Citrou-Wood, the wood of an American tree, cal¬
led by the natives candle-wood; becaufe, being cut
into fplinters, it burns like a candle. The tree is fre¬
quent in the Leeward Iflands, and grows to a confi-
derable fize : the leaves are like thole of the bay-tree,
but of a finer green ; the flower is fvveet, and mucli
like thofe of the orange ; the fruit fucceeding thefe is
black, and of the fize of a pepper-corn. The trunk
is fo like the yellow faunders in colour, that there was
once an opinion that it was the fame tree, and much
of it was imported into Europe, and fold as fuch: but
they were foon found to be different; the faunders be-
ing of a fweet feent, and but moderately heavy and
refinous ; but the citron-wood confiderably heavy,
very oily, and of a ftrong fmell. It is of no known
ufe in medicine ; but is uled in France and Germany
by the turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and
taking a fine polifh, and with age becoming of a very
beautiful brown.
CITRUS, the Citron-tree, a genus of the ico-
fandria order, belonging to the polyadelphia. clafs of
plants.
Species I.
Citrus.
C I T
Specks I. The Medica, or Citron-tree, hath an up¬
right fmooth trunk, divided at top into a branchy
flrong-fhooting, full head, from about five to 15 feet
high, adorned with large oval, fpear-ihaped, thick
leaves, having linear foot-llalks, and numerous flowers
from the lides of the branches, fucceeded by very
large oblong oval, pointed, rough-rinded fruit. The
varieties are citron-tree with lour fruit; with fweet
fruit; with long fruit; with warted fruit; with re¬
curved fruit; and with blotched leaves.
II. The Lima, or Lemon-tree, hath an upright fmooth
trunk, divided upward into a branchy regular head ;
from 12 to 15 feet high ; large, oval, fpearrlhaped,
pointed, flightly fawed leaves, on linear foot-Ilalks;
and many flowers from the fides of the branches fyc-
ceeded by large oval fruit prbminent at the top. The
varieties are, the lemon-tree with four fruit; with
fweetilh fruit; with very large fruit called Imperial
lemon ; with pear-lhaped fruit; with furrowed fruit;
with cluftered fruit; with childing fruit; with whitilh
fruit; with tricolor {tripped fruit; with fllver {tripped
leaves; and with double flowers.
III. The Aurantium, or Orange-tree, hath an upright
trunk dividing upward into a branchy, regular head,
from five to 10 or 12 feet high; oval, fpear-fliaped,
entire leaves, having winged foot-italks and numerous
white flowers at the (ides of the branches, fucceeded
by globular fruit comprefled at both ends. The mod
noted varieties are, 1. The Seville orange. This is a
very handfome tree, and the hardielt of any; as in this
country it (hoots freely, produces large and beautiful
leaves, flowers ftronger, ire. The fruit is large, rough
rinded, and four, of excellent quality for oeconomical
ufes. 2. The China orange. This tree has mode¬
rately fized leaves, and a hnooth, thin-rinded, fweet
fruit, of which there are feveral varieties in warm
countries, where they grow in the open ground.
3. The great Shaddock orange, pr pumplemoes, grows
larger and dronger than the foregoing, with large,
thick and fomewhat ferrated leaves, and very large
fruit, having a reddilh pulp. It derives the name of
Shaddock from one qf that name that firft brought
it from the Eaft Indies. 4. The Horned orange is a
tr,ee of moderate (ize, producing fruit which divide,
and the rind runs out into divifions like horns. 5. The
Hermaphrodite orange is a common fized tree, pro¬
ducing fruit ftiaped partly like an orange and partly like
a citron. 6. The Dwarf orange tree, or nutmeg
orange, has a long flem and fmall bulhy head, grow¬
ing two or three feet high ; fmall oval leaves in cluf-
ters ; and numerous flowers in clufters, covering the
branches, fucceeded by very fmall fruit. Thefe are
the moft remarkable varieties of the three foregoing
fpecies of citrus : but befides thefe there are a great
number of others; and indeed, in thofe countries where
they grow naturally, the varieties may be multiplied
without end,,like thofe of our apples and pears. The
flowers of all the fpecies and varieties are formed each
qf five fpreading petals, appearing here principally in
May and June ; and the fruit continue fetting in June
and July, and ripen the year following.
IV. The Trifoliata, or Japonefe citron, is a thorny
Ihrub growing naturally in Japan, where it is likewife
known by the names of Gees, and Karatals banna.
C I T
The trunk, we are told by Kaempfer, acquires by age Citrus
and culture the thicknefs of a tree. The branches and
{hoots are unequal; in fome parts comprefled, in others
fwelling, efpecially about the fliines. Thefe proceed
fingly from the {tern anti branches; are ftraight, run
out from a broad bafe into a very {harp point; and
are protruded from the wood, with the common bark
of which they are likewife inveited. The wood is
loofe and foft; the bark of a Alining green, moift,
and eafily parting from the wood. The leaves are
few in number, lewed on the edges, veined, placed
without order, but generally growing under the fpines.
They grow by threes, like thofe of trefoil, upon the
extremity of a common foot-ftalk which is furnilhed
on each fide with a membranaceous fringe or margin,
fomewhat refembling the pedicles of the orange. The
upper furface of the leaves is of a bright lucid green,
the lower dark and herbaceous. The flowers which
referable thofe of the medlar, proceed fingly from the
arm-pits of the leaves; are white, poflt fled of no great
degree of fragrance, and confill of five petals. The
fruit is equally beautiful with a middle fized orange ;
their internal flructure is alfo pretty much the fame ;
only the pulp is glutinous, of an, unpleafant fmell, and
a harfli dilagreeable tafie. The feeds have the fame
tafte with the pulp, and are fhaped exadfly like thole
of the orange.
Culture. The three firfl fpecies merit particular at¬
tention. They are elegant evergreens, riling in this
country from about five to lo-feet in height; forming
full and handfome heads, clofely garniflied with beau¬
tiful large leaves all the year round, and putting forth a
profulion of fweet flowers in fpring and early in fum-
mer ; which even in this climate are often fucceeded
by abundance of fruit that fometimes arrive ai tole¬
rable perfedlion. Though all the varieties were origi¬
nally obtained by feed, yet the only certain method of
continuing the approved varieties is by budding or in¬
arching them on flocks raifed from feed to a proper
fize. As the young trees, however, are brought in
plenty from abroad, this method is feidom pradtiied in
this country : but for curiofity, it may be done by
thofe who are fo inclined, in the following manner :
Early in the fpring procure fome kernels; which may
be had in plenty from rotten fruits, or others that are
properly ripened, obferving that for flocks, the citron,
lemon, and Seville-orange, as being the freeft {hooters
are to be preferred ; and of thefe the citron is the
ftrongeft. Sow the kernels in March, in pots of rich
light earth half an inch deep, and plunge them in a
hot-bed under frames and glafles. Dung or tan may
be ufed, but the latter is preferable, giving air, and
frequent fprinklings of water. In two or three weeks
the plants will come up, and in fix or eight weeks
more ; they will be advanced four or five inches or
more in height. You muft now give them more air
and water; and about tire middle of June harden them
to the full air, in which let them remain till Odlober;
then move them into the green houfe, to fiand till the
fpripg, and in March or April, plant them fingly in
fmall pots; being careful to {hake them out of the feed
pots with their roots entire. They mufl be watered
immediately after planting, and the watering muft be
occafionally repeated. After this they are to be treat¬
ed
[ 1997 1
C I T L 1998 ] C I T
Cirrus, ed as woody exotics of the green-houfe ; and in a
    year or two the largelt of thofe defigned for flocks
will be fit for budding.
The operation for budding is performed in the
* See Ino- month of Auguft, and is done in the common way *;
culntion. aifly the buds mult be taken from trees of a good kind
that bear tvell. As foan as the operation is finilhed,
the pots with their plants muft be placed in the green-
houle, or in a glafs cafe; or, where there is the con¬
venience of a (pare bark-pit, where the heat of the
bark is almofl exhaufted, the pots may be plunged there¬
in for two or three weeks. In either cafe, however,
the air mult be admitted freely by opening the front
glafles ; allowing aifo a llight fliade of mats in the
middle of hot funfliine days, and fupplying them with
water every two or three days during this kind of
weather. In three or four weeks the buds will be
united with the flock ; when it will be proper to loofen
the bandages that they may have room to fwell; the
buds, however, will all remain dormant till the next
fpring. They may alfo be propagated by inarching,
t Sec In- which is done in the common way f; but the method
arching. of budding is found to produce much handfomer trees,
and therefore is to be preferred. But the moft cheap
and expeditious method of procuring a colledlion of
thefe kinds of trees is by having recourfe to fitch as
are importecl from Spain, Italy, and Portugal. Thefe
come over in chefts, without any earth to their roots,
having their roots and heads a little trimmed; they are
commonly from one inch to two or three in diameter
in the ftem ; from two to four or five feet in height :
and by the affiflance of a bark-bed they readily take
root and grow freely ; forming as good trees in two
years, as could be railed here by inarching or bud¬
ding, in 15 or 20. They are fold in the Italian ware-
houfes in London ; the principal one of which has been
for many years in the Hay-market near the bottom,
Pall Mall: their price is from three fliillings to a guinea
each, according to their fize ; and they are generally
advertifed as foon as they- arrive, which is early in the
fpring, and the fooner the better. In the choice of
thefe trees it mull be obi’erved, that they are com¬
monly budded at fueh height in the flem, as to form
heads from about two to four or five feet high, and as
they are frequently furniflied with two bnds, one on
each fide of the ftem, thefe Ihould be chofen prefer¬
ably to others ; as they will form the moft regular
heads. Preparatory to their planting, they muft be
placed for a day or two in tubs of water to plump
their bark and roots; after tbis they muft be walhed and
cleaned, their branches trimmed to half a foot long, and
the roots freed from difeafed parts, and all the fmall
dried fibres. Then they are to be planted in pots filled
with light rich earth; and plunged in a tan-bed, where
they are to remain for three dr four months; after
which they are to be trained to the open air, but will
not bear it longer than from the end of May till the
middle or end of October.
Sometimes thefe trees, inftead of being kept in pots
or mbs, are planted in the full ground ; and where
this can be done, it is by far the moft eligible method.
Where this is intended, there muft be frames eredled
for the fupport of glafs and other covers, to defend1
the plants during inclement-weather; and-in this fnua-
tion tile trees generally fhoot ftrong, produce krge Citrus.
fruit, and may be trained either as wall, or itandard   
trees. A fouth wall, in a dry fituation is proper for
training them as wall-trees ; againft which may be *
eretfted wooden frame work Hoping, either fixed or
moveable, for the fupport of glafs frames for winter;
likewife for the greater protection of the trees in fe-
vere frofts, there may be a fire-place with a flue or
two carried alongft a low wall, in the front and ends.
To have the trees as ftandards, a more capacious and
lofty glafs-cafe fltould be erected againft the wall in
the manner of a hot-houfe, but higher j in this one or
two rows of orange-trees may be planted, fuffering
to run up as ftandards with only ibme neceflary prun¬
ing juft to preferve their regularity. In fome places
there are lofty moveable glafs-cafes, fo that two or
three rows of trees are planted in a confpicuous part
of the pleafure ground. In winter the frame is put
over them, and in fummer wholly taken away ; fo
that they appear like a little orange-grove growing in
the open ground. The flowering and fruit fetting
feafon of all the forts of citrus is in June and July.
They are often, efpecially the orange-trees, greatly
loaded with bloflbms; and when thefe ftand very
thick, it is proper to thin them a little, taking off
the fmalleft. It is alfo to be obferved, that as the
trees continue blowing and fetting their fruit for
three months, when a full crop of fruit is fet, it is of
benefit to the trees and fruit, to gather off the fu-
perabundant blolfoms as they are produced ; though
fome permit them to remain on account of their ap¬
pearance.
Ufa. The fruits of the citron, lemon, and orange
trees, yield very agreeable acid juices ; which, be-
fides the ufes to which they are commonly applied,
anfwer confiderable purpofes in medicine. When
commodore Anfon 1 failed round the world, his men
were fo furprifingly recovered from the fcurvy by the
oranges which they found at the ifland of Tinian, that
it was afterwards thought worthy of the attention of
government to inquire into the virtues of thefe fruits
as an antifcorbutic medicine. In captain Cook’s laft
voyage, he was lupplicd with a quantity of orange and
lemon juice iufpiffated to a rob ; but his opinion of its
efficacy is by no means great. The dearnefs of it is
a great objection ; andunlefs in conjunction with other
things, he has not obferved its good effeCts. Sir John
Pringle, in his difcourfe before the Royal Societv, when
captain Cook was prefented with a medal by that re-
fpeClable body, differs a little from the captain’s opi¬
nion, and thinks that in the fea-fcurvy thefe fruits
muft neceffarily be very efficacious. He approves,
however, more of the juices themfelves depurated,
than the extradt of them ; as this cannot he prepared
without diffipating many of the finer parts. The
juice of lemons is very frequently ufed for neutrali-
fing alkaline falts for faline draughts. The citron is'
feldom ufed in this country; though its peel, as well as
that of the lemon, is candied, and fold as a fweetmeat^
The yellow peel of the lemon is an agreeable aroma¬
tic, as is alfo that of the orange ; and in cold phleg¬
matic conftitutions they prove excellent ftomachics
and carminatives, promoting appetite, warming the
habit, and ftrengtbening the tone of the vifcera.
Orange-
C I T [ 1999 ] C I T
Cittern Orange-peel, however, is vqry corrfiderably warmer
I than that of lemons, and abounds more in eflential
lty' oil: to this eircumltance therefore due regard ought
to be had in the ufe of thefe medicines. The flavour
of orange peel is likewife lefs perilhabie than that of
lemons. Both are ingredients in many oflicinal pre¬
parations.
The young fruit of the Seville orange dried, are
• ufed in medicine under the name of aarawtia curafia-
venfia. They are moderately warm-bitterilh aroma¬
tics, of a liilficiently agreeable flavour. The flowers
of the orange-tree have been for fome time pa(t in
great efteem as a perfume. They are highly odori¬
ferous, of a fomewhat warm and bitter talte. They
yield their flavour by infulion to rectified fpirit, and
in diftillation both to (pint and water : the bitter
matter is difiblved in water, and on evaporating the
decoction remains entire in the ext raft. The diftilied
water w’as formerly kept in the fliops, but on account
of the great fcarcky of the flowers is now laid alide:
it is called by foreign writers aqua napha. An oil
diddled from thefe flowers,, is brought from Italy un¬
der the name of oleum, or ejfentia neroli.
•CITTERN, a mulical inllrument much refembling
the guittar, for which it has been frequently miftiken.
Anciently it was called tlie cijlrutn, and till lately was
held in great contempt both in France and Britain.
The praftice on it being very eafy, it was formerly
the amufement and recreation of lewd women and
their vilitors ; infomuch, that in many of the old En-
glifli dramatic writers, it is made the fymbol of a, wo¬
man that lived by proftitution. It was alfo the com¬
mon amufement of waiting cuftomers in barber’s fllops,
as being the mod eafy of all indruments to play on,
and therefore it was thought that alraod every body
could make ufe of it.
CITY, according to Cowel, is a town corporate
which hath a biflrop and cathedral church ; and is cal¬
led civt* is, oppidtwi, and urbs : civitas, in regard it is
governed by judice and order of magiitracy ; oppi-
dusn, becaufe it contains a great number of inhabi¬
tants ; and uris, becaufe it is in due form furrounded
with walls.
Kingdoms have been faid to contain as many cities
as they have .feats of archbifhops and bifhops : but, ac¬
cording to Blount, city is a word that hath obtained
fi'nce the conqued ; for, in the time of the Saxons,
there were no cities, but all the great towns were
called burghs, and even London was then called Lo?i-
donburgh, as the capital of Scotland is called Edinburgh.
And long after the conqued the word city is ufed pro-
milcuoully with the burgh, a.% in the charter of Leice-
fter, where it is both called civitas and burgus ; which
fhews that thole writers were midaken who tell us
every city was, or is, a bifttop’s fee. And though
the word city fignifies with us fuch a' town corporate
as hath ufuaily a biihop and a cathedral church, yet
it is not always fo.
As to the ancient date of cities and villages, whild
the feudal policy prevailed, they held of fome great
lord on whom they depended for proteftion, and were
-fubjeft tO‘his arbitrary jurifdiftion. The inhabitants
were deprived of the natural and mod unalienable
rights of humanity. They could not difpofe ef the
efiefts which their own indudry had acquired, either city..
by a latter-will or by any deed executed during their ——
life. They had no right to appoint guardians for their
children during their minority. They were not per¬
mitted to marry without purchafing the confent of the
lord on whom they depended. If once they had com¬
menced a law-fuit, they durd not terminate it by an
accommodation, becaufe that would have deprived the
lord, in whole court they pleaded, of the perquifites Robertfvn’t
due to him on palling his fentence. Services-of vari- Charles V.
ous kinds no lefs difgraceful than oppreffive were ex-
afted from them without mercy or moderation. The
fpirit of indudry was checked in fome cities by abfurd
regulations, and in others by unreafonable exaftions:
nor would the narrow and oppreflive maxims of a mi¬
litary aridocracy have permitted it ever to rife to any
degree of height or vigour.
The freedom of cities was fird edablilhed in Italy,
owing principally to the introduftion of commerce*
As foon as they began to turn their attention towards
this object, and to conceive fome idea of the advan¬
tages they might derive from it, they became impa¬
tient to lhake off the yoke of their inlblent lords; and
to eitabiilh among themfelvts inch a free and equal
government as would render property fecure, and inr
dudry flourilhing. Tlie German emperors, especial¬
ly thole of the Franconian and Suabian lines, as the
feat of their government was far didant from Italy,
pofleffed a feeble and imperfect jurifdiftion. in that
country. Their perpetual quarrels, either with the
popes, or their own turbulent vaffals, diverted their
attention from the interior police of Italy, and gave
condant employment for their arms. Thefe circum-
dances induced fome of the Italian cities, towards the
beginning of the 11th century, to aflume new pri¬
vileges j to unite together more clofely ; and to form-
themfelves into bodies politic, under the government
of laws edablilhed by common cenfent. The rights
which many cities acquired by bold1 or fortunate uiitr-
pations, others purchafed from the emperors, who
deemed themfelves gainers when they recieved large
fums for immunities which they were no longer able
to with-hold; and fome cities obtained them gratui-
toufly from the facility or generofuy of the princes on:
whom they depended. The great increafe of wealth
which the Crufades brought into Italy, occafioned a
new kind of fermentation and aftivity in the minds of
the people, and excited fuch a general pafllon for li¬
berty and independence, that, before the concludon of
tlie lad crulade, all the conlklerable cities in that
country had either purchafed or had extorted large
immunities from.the emperors.
This innovation was not long known in Italy before
it made its way into France, Louis the Grofs, in or¬
der to create fome power that might counterbalance
thofe potent vaffals who controlled or gave law to
the crown, fird adopted the plan of conferring new
privileges on the towns lituated within his own do-
maine. Thefe privileges were called charters ofcotn-
munity, by which he enfranchiled the inhabitants, abo-
lilhed all marks of fervitude, and formed them into
corporations or bodies politic, to be governed by a,
council and magidrates of their own nomination,
Thefe magidrates had the right of adminidering jdf-
tke
C I T [ 2000 ] CIV
City. tice within their own preempts ; of levying taxes; of
   embodying and training to arms the militia of the
town, which took the field when required by the fo-
vereign, under the command of officers appointed by
the community. The great barons imitated the ex¬
ample of their monarch, and granted like immunities
to the towns within their territories. They had
wafted Inch great fums in their expeditions to the Ho¬
ly Land, that they were eager to lay hold on this new
expedient for railing money, by the fale of thofe char¬
ters of liberty. Though the conftitution of communi¬
ties was as repugnant to their maxims of policy as it
was adverle to their power, they difregarded remote
confequences in order to obtain prefent relief. In lefs
than two centuries, fervitude was aboliffied in molt of
the cities of France, and they became free corpora¬
tions, inftead of dependent villages without jurifdicftion
or privileges. Much about the fame period the great
cities of Germany began to acquire like immunities,
and laid the foundations of their prefent liberty and
independence. The practice fpread quickly over Eu¬
rope, and was adopted in Spain, England, Scotland,
and all the other feudal kingdoms.
The Spanilh hiftorians are almoft entirely filent
concerning the origin and progrefs of communities in
that kingdom; fo that it is impolfible to fix with any
degree of certainty the time and manner of their firft
introduction there. It appears, however, from Ma¬
riana, that in the year 1350 eighteen cities had ob¬
tained a feat in the Cortes of Caftile. In Aragon, ci¬
ties feem early to have acquired extenfive immunities
together with a (hare in the legiflature. In the year
1118, the citizens of Saragofla had not only attained
political liberty, but they were declared to be of equal
rank with the nobles of the fecond clafs ; and many
other immunities, unknown to perfons in their rank of
life, in other parts of Europe were conferred upon
them. In England the eftablilhment of communities
or corporations was pofterior to the conqueft. The
practice was borrowed from France, and the privi¬
leges granted by the crown were perfectly fimilar to
thofe above enumerated. It is not improbable that
fome of the towns in England were formed into cor¬
porations under the Saxon kings, and that the char¬
ters, granted by the kings of the Norman race, were
not charters of enfranchii’ement from a ftate of flave-
ry, but a confirmation of privileges which they had
* Sec Lord already enjoyed *. The Engliffi cities, however,
Lyttelton’s were very inconfiderable in the 12th century. A
Hiftory of clear proof of this occurs in the hiftory juft referred
II' to. Fitz-Stephen, a contempory author, gives a de-
p jiy. feription of the city of London in the reign of Hen¬
ry II. and the terms in which he fpeaks of its trade,
its wealth, and the number of its inhabitants, would
fuggeft no inadequate idea of its ftate at prefent, when
it is the greateft and moft opulent city in Europe.
But all ideas of grandeur and magnificence are mere¬
ly comparative. It appears from Peter of Blois, arch¬
deacon of London, who flouriffied in the fame reign,
and who had good opportunity of being informed, that
this city, of which Fitz-Stephen gives fuch a pompous
account, contained no more than 40,000 inhabitants.
The other cities were fmall in proportion, and in no
condition to extort any extenfive privileges. That
the conftitution of the boroughs of Scotlarid, in many Gives
circumftances refembled that of the towns of France H.
and England, is manifeft from the Leges Burgorum, IV1C*
annexed to the Regiatn Majejiatsm.
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name
of the animal it is taken from, and to which it is pe¬
culiar. See Viverra.
Good civet is of a clear, yellowifh, or brownifh co¬
lour ; not fluid nor hard, but about the confiftence of
butter or honey, and uniform throughout; of a very
ftrong fmell, quite ofienlive when undiluted, but a-
greeable when only a fmall portion of civet is mixed
with a large one of other fubftances. It unites eafily
with oils both exprefled and diftilled, but not at all
with water, or fpirit of wine: nor can it be rendered
mifcible with water by the meditation of fugar. The
yolk of an egg feems to difpofe it to unite with wa¬
ter ; but in a very little while the civet feparates from
the liquor and falls to the bottom, tho’ it does not
prove of fuch a refmous tenacity, as when treated
with fugar and fpirit of wine. It communicates, how¬
ever, fome fhare of its fmell both to watery and fpi-
rituous liquors: hence a fmall portion of it is often
added in odoriferous tinctures, and fufpended in the
ftill-head during the diftillation of odoriferous waters
and fpirits. It is rarely, if ever employed for medi¬
cinal purpofes. The Italians make it an ingredient
in perfumed oils, and thus obtain the whole of its
feent; for oils wholly dilfolve the fubftance of it. It
is very rare, however, to meet with civet unadultera¬
ted. The fubftances ufually mixed with it are lard
and butter ; which agreeing with it in its general pro¬
perties, render all criteria for diftinguilhing the adul¬
teration impoffible. A great trade of civet is carried
on at Calicut, BafTora, and other parts of the Indies,
and in Africa, where the animal that produces the
perfume is found. Live civet-cats are to be feen al-
fo in France and Holland. The French keep them
only as a rarity; but the Dutch, who keep a great
number, draw the civet from them for fale. It is
moftly ufed by confectioners and perfumers.
Civet-Ci*/, the Englilh name of the animal which
produces the civet. See Viverra.
CIVIC crown, was a crown given by the ancient
Romans to any foldier who had laved the life of a ci¬
tizen in an engagement.
The civic crown was reckoned more honourable
than any other crown, though compofed of no better
materials than oak-boughs. Plutarch, in the life of
C. M. Coriolanus, accounts as follows, for ufing on
this occafion the branches of this tree before all others:
becaufe, fays he, the oaken wreath being facred to
Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought
it the moft proper ornament for him who had pre-
ferved the life of a citizen. Pliny *, fpeaking of the
honour and privileges conferred on thofe who had
merited this crown, fays, “ They who had once ob- * Lih. 16.
tained it, might wear it always. When they appear- cep. 4.
ed at the public fpeCtacles, the fenate and people rofe
to do them honour, and they took their feats on
thefe occafions among the fenators. They were
not only perfonally excufed from all troublefome of¬
fices, but procured the fame immunity for their fa¬
ther and grandfather by the father’s fide.
CIVIDAD-
CIV [ 2001 ] C i V
Cividad CIVIDAD-de-las-Palwas, the capital town of
II the ifland of Canary, with a bifhop’s fee, and a good
Civit3- harbour. The houi’es are well-built, two ftories high,
and flat-roofed. The catliedral is a very handfome
ftrudlure; and the inhabitants are gay and rich. The
air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and
cold. It is defended by a fmall cattle feated on a hill.
W. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 28. o.
Civiva-d-Real, a town of Spain, in New Cattile,
and capital of La Mancha. The inhabitants are no¬
ted for dreffing leather extremely well for gloves. W.
Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 39. 2.
CiviVkT>-Rodtrigo, a ttrong and confiderable town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with a bifliop’s fee.
It is i'eated in a fertile country, on the river Aquada,
m W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 38.
Civiv>hV>-di-FriuH, a fmall, but ancient town of
Italy, in Friuli, and in the territory of Venice; feat¬
ed on the river Natifona. E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat.
46. 15.
CIVIL, in a general fenfe, fomething that regards
the policy, public good, or peace of the citizens, or
fubjeetts of the ttate; in which fenfe we fay, civil go¬
vernment, civil law, civil right, civil war, ire.
Civil, in a legal fenfe, is alfo applied to the ordi¬
nary procedure in an action, relating to fome pecu¬
niary matter or intereft, in which fenfe it is oppol’ed
to criminal.
Civil* Death, anything that cuts off a man from
civil fociety; as a condemnation to the galleys, perpe¬
tual banilhment, condemnation to death, outlawry,
and excommunication.
Civil Law, is properly the peculiar law of each
ftate, country, or city: but what we ufually mean by
the civil law, is a body of laws compofed out of the
beft jLvOman and Grecian laws, compiled from the
laws of nature and nations; and, for the moft part, re¬
ceived and obferved thoughout all the Roman domi¬
nions for above 1200 years. See Law, Part I.
n° 43, 44-
Civil- Society. See Law, Parti. n° 12.
Civil State, in the Britifli polity, one of the ge¬
neral divifions of the Laity, comprehending all or¬
ders of men from the higheft nobleman to the mean-
eft peafant that are not included under the Milita¬
ry or Maritime ftates: though it may fometimes
include individuals of thefe as well as of the Clergy ;
fince a nobleman, a knight, a gentleman, or a pea¬
fant, may become either a divine, a foldier, or a fea-
man. The divifion of this ftate is into Nobility
and Commonalty; fee thefe articles.
Civil War, a war between people of the fame
ftate, or the citizens of the fame city.
Civil Tear, is the legal year, or annual account of
time, which every government appoints to be ufed
within its own dominions ; and is fo called in contra-
diftindtion to the natural year, which is meafured ex¬
actly by the revolution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, denotes fomething belong¬
ing to the civil law ; but more efpecially the dodtors
and profeffors thereof are called civilians.
CIVITA-di-Penna, an ancient town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Abruzzo,
with a bifliop’s fee. It is fituated near the river Sali-
Vol. III.
no, 25 miles north eaft of Aquila. E. Long. 13. 3. Civita.
N. Lat. 42. 2f. * 
Civivh-Cajlellana, a town of Italy, in St Peter’s
patrimony, feated on a river, which, feven miles
from thence, falls into the Tiber. E. Long. 13. 5.
N. Lat. 42. 15.
Civita Turchino, a place in Italy, about two miles
north of the town of Corneto in the patrimony of
St Peter. It is an hill of an oblong form, the fummit
of which is almoft one continued plain. From the
quantity of medals, intaglios, fragments of inlcrip-
tions, ire. that are occafionally found here, this is be¬
lieved to be the very fpot where the ancient and
powerful city of Tarquinii once ttood. At prefent it
is only one continued field of corn. On the fouth-
eaft fide of it runs the ridge of a hill which unites it
to Corneto. This ridge is at leaft three or four miles
in length, and alinoft entirely covered with artificial
hillocks, called by the inhabitants mvnti rofli. About
twelve of thefe hillocks have at different times been
opened ; and in every one of them have been found
feveral fubterranean apartments cut out of the folid
rock. Thefe apartments are of various forms and di-
menlions: fome confift of a large outer room, and a
fmall one within ; others of a fmall room at the firft
entrance, and a large one within : others are fup-
ported by a column of the folid rock left in the centre,
with openings on every part. The entrance to them
all is by a door about five feet Irigh, by two and a
half broad. Some of them have no light but from
the door, while others feem £o have had a fmall light
from above, through an hole of a pyramidal form.
Many of thefe apartments have an elevated port that
runs all round the wall, being a part of the rock left
for that purpofe. The moveables found in thefe apart¬
ments confift chiefly of Etrufcan vafes of various forms:
in fome indeed have been found fome plain facrophagi
of ftone, with bones in them. The whole of thefe
apartments are ftuccoed, and ornamented in various
manners: fome indeed are plain; but others, parti¬
cularly three, are richly adorned, having a double row
of Etrufcan inferiptions running round the upper part
of the walls, and under them a kind of frieze of fi-
ures in painting : fome have an ornament under the
gures, which feems to fupply the place of an archi¬
trave. The paintings feem to be in frefco; and irt
general refemble thole which are ufually feen upon
Etrufcan vafes; though fome of them are perhaps
fuperior to any thing as yet feen of the Etrufcan art
in painting. In general they are flight, but well con¬
ceived ; and prove, that the artift was capable of pro¬
ducing things more ftudied and better finifhed ; though
in fuch a fubterraneous fituation, the delicacy of a fi¬
nifhed work would in a great meafure have been
thrown away. It is probable, however, that among
the immenfe number of thefe apartments that yet re¬
main to be opened, many paintings and inferiptions
may be found fufficient to form a very ufeful and en¬
tertaining work. At prefent this great feene of anti¬
quities is almoft entirely unknown, even in Rome.
Mr Jenkins refident at Rome, was the firft Englifh-
man who vifited it.
Civiik-Vecchia, a fea-port town of Italy in the
patrimony of St Peter, with a good harbour and an
11 X arfenal.
'I L A f 2002 1 C L A
Civoli arfenal. Here the Pope’s galleys are ftationed, and
II it has lately been made a free port ; but the air is very
cl3^1P• unwholefome. E. Long. T2. 31. N. Lat. 45. 5.
CIVOLI, or Cigoli, (Lewis), an Italian painter,
whofe family-name was Cardi, was born at the cadle
of Cigoli, in Tnfcany, in the year 1559. His ecce
homo, which he performed as a trial of Ikill with Ba-
rochio and Michael Angelo da Caravaggio, was jud¬
ged better than thofe executed by them. He ex¬
celled in defigning, and was employed by the popes
and princes of his time. He died at Rome in 1613.
CLACK, among countrymen. To clack wool, is
to cut off the Iheep’s mark, which makes the weight
lefs, and yields lefs cuftom to the king.
CLACKMANNAN, the name of a fmall (hire in
Scotland, not exceeding eight miles in length, and five
in breadth. It is bounded on the north by the Ochil
hills; on the fouth, by the frith of Forth; on the eatt,
by Perth-fhire; and on the weft, by Stirling-Ihire.
The country is plain and fertile towards the frith,
producing corn and pafture in abundance. It like-
wife yields great quantities of excellent coal, which is
exported to England, France, and Holland. It is wa¬
tered by the rivers Forth and Devan, and joins the
Ihire of Kinrofs in fending a member alternately to
parliament.
Clackmannan, a fmall town of Scotland, and ca¬
pital of the county of that name, is fitutated on the
northern fliore of the Forth, in W. Long. 3. 40.
N. Lat. 56. 13. It Hands on a hill, on the top of
which is the caftle, commanding a noble profpedt. It
was long the feat of the chief of the Bruces, who was
hereditary Iheriff of the county before the jurifditftions
were abolilhed. The large fquare tower is called after
the name of Robert Bruce ; whofe great fword and
cafque are ftill preferved here. The hill is prettily
wooded ; and, with the tower, forms a pifturefque
objeift.
CLAGENFURT, a ftrong town of Germany, and
capital of Carinthia, fituated in E. Long. 13. 56,
N. Lat. 46. 50.
CLAGET (William), an eminent and learned di¬
vine, born in 1646. He was preacher to the fociety
of Gray’s Inn ; which employment he exercifed until
he died in 1688,, being then alfo one of the king’s
chaplains. Archbilhop Sharp gives him an excellent
character; and hilltop Burnet has ranked him among
thofe worthy men whofe lives and labours contributed
to refcue the church from the reproaches which the
follies of others had drawn upon it. Dr Claget pu-
blilhed feveral things; but his principal work is his
“ Difcourfe concerning the Operations of the Holy
Spiritnor mull it be forgotten that he was one of
thofe excellent divines who made a noble ftand againft
the defigns of James II. to introduce popery. Four
volumes of his fermons were publilhed after his death
by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sud¬
bury, father of Nicholas Claget afterwards bilhop of
Exeter.
CLAIM, in law, a challenge of intereft in any
thing that is in the poITeffion of another.
CLAM, in zoology, a Ihell-filh. See Venus.
CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another.
Clamp is-likewife the term for a pile of unburnt
bricks built up for burning. Thefe clamps are built ^Clamp
much after the lame manner as arches are built in kilns, #
viz. with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for 'Clans'
the fire to afcend by; but with this difference, that
inftead of arching, they trufs over, or over-lpan;
that is, the end ot one brick is laid about half way
over the end of another, and lb till both fides meet
within half a brick’s length, and then a binding brick
at the top finilhes the arch.
Clamp /« a Ship, denotes a piece of timber applied
to a malt or yard to prevent the wood from burlt-
ing ; and alfo a thick plank lying fore and aft under
the beams of the lirft orlop, or fecond deck, and is the
fame that the riling timbers are to the deck.
Ch&MP-Naiis, fuch nails as are ufed to fatten on
clamps in the building or repairing of fhips..
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of
board with the grain, to another piece of board crofs
the grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly
clamped, to prevent their warping.
CLANDESTINE, any thing done without the know¬
ledge of the-parties concerned, or without the proper
folemnities. Thus a marriage is laid to be clandeftine,
when performed without the publication of bans, the
-confent of parents, ire.
CLANS, in hiftory, and particularly in that of Scot¬
land. The nations which over-ran Europe were ori¬
ginally divided into many fmall tribes; and when they
came to parcel out the lands which they had conquered,
it was natural for every chieftain to bellow a portion,
in the firft. place, upon thofe of his own tribe or fa¬
mily.- Thefe all held their lands of him ; and as the
fafety of. each individual depended on the general
union,, thefe fmall focieties clung together, and were
diftinguilhed by fome common appellation, either pa-
tronymical, or local, long before the introdudlion of
furnames or enfigns armorial. But when thefe be¬
came common, the delcendants and relations of every
chieftain affumed the fame name and arms with.him ;
other vaflals were proud to imitate their example;
and by degrees they were communicated to all thofe
who held of the fame fuperior. Thus clanlhips were Robertfon’d
formed ; and, in a generation or two, that confangui- Hijlory of :
nity, which was at firft in a great meafure imaginary, Scotland.
was believed to be real. An artificial union was con¬
verted into a natural one : men willingly followed a
leader, whom they regarded both as the fuperior of
their lands, and the chief of their blood ; and ferved
him not only with the fidelity of vaffals, but the affec¬
tion of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we
may obferve fuch unions as we have deferibed, im-
perfexftly formed; but in Scotland, whether they were
the produclion of chance, or the effecl of policy,, or
ftrengthened by their preferving their genealogies
both genuine and fabulous, clanlhips were univeriai.
Such a confederacy might be overcome ; it could not
be broken ; and no change of manners or govern¬
ment has been able, in fome parts of the kingdom, to
diflblve affociations which are founded upon prejudices
fo natural to the human mind. How formidable were
nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that
caufe juft and honourable which their chief approved,
were ever ready to take the field at his command,
and to facfifice their lives in defence of his perfon or
C L A [ 2003 3 C L A
Clap of his fame ? Againft fuch men a king contended with
I great dii'advantage ; and that cold fervice, which
Clanchord. inoney pUrchafes, or authority extorts, was not an
equal match for their ardour and zeal.
Some imagine the word clan to be only a corrup¬
tion of the Roman colonia ; but Mr Whittaker aflerts
it to be purely Britifli, and to fignify a family.
CLAP, in medicine, the firit ftage of the venereal
difeafe, more ufually called a Gonorrhoea.
CLAP-iWf, in birding, a fort of net contrived for
the taking of larks with the looking-glafs, by the me¬
thod called daring or during. The nets are ipread
over an even piece of ground, and the larks are invi¬
ted to the place by other larks faftened down, and by
a looking-glafs compofed of five pieces, and fixed in a
frame fo that it is turned round very fwiftly back¬
wards and forwards, by means of a cord pulled by a
perfon at a confiderable diftance behind a hedge. See
Doring.
CLAR, or Claer, in metallurgy, bone-afhes per-
fe6lly calcined, and finely powdered, kept purpofely
for covering the infides of Coppels.
CLARAMONT-powder, a kind of earth, called
terra dc Baira, from the place where it is found : it
is famous at Venice, for its efficacy in flopping hae¬
morrhages of all kinds, and in curing malignant fevers.
Precept of CLARE constat, in Scots law, the
warrant of a fuperior for entering and infefting the
heir of his former vaffal, without the interpofition of
an inqueft. .See Law, Part III. n° clxxx. 28.
Clare, a market-town of Suffolk, 13 miles fouth
of Bury. E. Long. 35’. N. Lat. 52. 15. It gives the
title of Earl to the duke of Newcaftle.
Clare is alfo the capital of a county of the fame
name in the province of Connaught, in Ireland, fitua-
ted about 17 miles north-weft of Limerick. W. Long.
9. o. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CLARENCIEUX, the fecond king at arms, fo cal¬
led from the duke of Clarence, to whom he firff be¬
longed: for Lionel, 3d fon to Edward III. having by
his wife the honour of Clare in the county of Tho-
mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence;
which dukedom afterwards efeheating to Edward IV.
he made this earl a king at arms. His office is to
marfhal and difpofe of the funerals of all the lower
nobility, as baronets, knights, efquires, on the fouth
fide of the Trent; whence he is fometimes called fur-
roy or fouth-roy, in contradiftindlion to norroy.
CLARENDON (Conflitutions of), certain confli-
tutions made in the reign of Henry II. d.D. 1164, in
a parliament held at Clarendon; whereby the king
checked the power of the Pope and his clergy, and
greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed
from fecular jurifdiciion.
Clarendon (Earl of). See Hyde.
CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the Morea ; it is a fea-port town, fituated on
the Mediterranean. E. Long. 21. 40. N. Lat. 37. 40.
CLARET, a name given by the French to fuch of
their red wines as are not of a deep or high colour.
See Wine.
CLARICHORD, or Manichord, a mufical inftru-
ment in form of a fpinnet.
It has 49 or jo flops, and 70 firings, which bear
on five bridges, the firft whereof is the higheft, the Clarifoa-
reft dimiuilhing in proportion. Some of the firings tion
are in unilbn, their number being greater than that Clarifies
of the flops. There are feveral little moftoifes for  
palling the jacks, armed with brafs-hooks, which flop
and raife the chords inflead of the feather ufed in vir¬
ginals and fpinnets : but what diflinguilhes it mofl is,
that the chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which
render the found fweeter, and deaden it fo that it
cannot be heard at any confiderable diflance : whence
it comes to be particularly in ufe among the nuns,
who learn to play, and are unwilling to difturb the
lilence of the dormitory.
CLARIFICATION, the afl of cleaning or fining
any fluid from all heterogeneous matter or feculen-
cies.
The fubflances ufually employed for clarifying li¬
quors, are whites of eggs, blood, and ifinglafs. The
two firfl are ufed for fuch liquors as are clarified whilft
boiling hot; the lafl for thofe which are clarified
in the cold, fuch as wines, <£rc. The whites of eggs
are beat up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor,
upon which they unite with and entangle the impure
matters that floated in it ; and prefently growing
hard, by the heat, carry them up to the furface in
form of a feum no longer diffoluble in the liquid.
Blood operates in the fame manner, and is chiefly ufed
in purifying the brine from which fait is made. Great
quantities of ifinglafs are confumed for fining turbid
wines. For this purpofe fome throw an entire piece,
about a quarter of an ounce,Into a wine caik; by de¬
grees the glue diffolves, and forms a fkin upon the fur-
face, which at length fubfiding, carries down with it
the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others
previoufly diffolve the ifinglafs; and having boiled it
down to a flimy confiflence, mix it with the liquor,
roll the cafk flrongly about, and then fuffer it to fland
to fettle. Neuman queflions the wholefbmenefs of
wines thus purified ; and aflures us that he himfelf,
after drinking only a few ounces of fack thus clarified,
but not fettled quite fine, was feized with ficknefs and
vomiting, followed by fuch a vertigo that he could not
fland upright for a minute together. The giddinefs
continued with a naufea and want of appetite for fe¬
veral days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony
that always preceded a formal declaration of war. It
was performed in this manner : firfl four heralds
crowned with vervain, were fent to demand fatisfac-
tion for the injuries done the Roman flate. Thefe
heralds taking the gods to witnefs that their demands
were juft, one of them, with a clear voice, de¬
manded reftitution within a limited time, common¬
ly 33 days; which being expired without reftitu¬
tion made, then the pater patratus, or prince of the
heralds, proceeded to the enemies frontiers, and de¬
clared war.
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whofe tube is nar¬
rower and its tone acuter and fhriller than that of the
common trumpet. It is faid that the clarion, now ufed
among the Moors and Portuguefe, who borrowed it
from the Moors, ferved anciently for a treble to fe¬
veral trumpets, which founded tenor and bafs.
CLARISSES, an order of nuns fo called from their "
11 X 2 founder
C L A
Clarke, founder St Clara. She was in the town of Aflifa in
' Italy; and having renounced the world to dedicate
herielf to religion, gave birth to this order in the year
I2t2; which comprehends not only thel'e nuns that
follow the rule of St Francis, according to the ftrict
letter, and without any mitigation, but thofe likewif©
who follow the fame rule loftened and mitigated by
feveral popes. It is at prefent one of the mofl: flbu-
rilhing, orders of nuns in Europe. After Ferdinand
Cortez had conquered Mexico for the king of Spain,
Ifabella of Portugal, wife of the emperor Charles V.
fent thither fome nuns of the order of St Clara, who
made feveral fettlements there. Near their monaf-
teries were founded communities of Indian young
women, to be irdtrudled by the clarilfes in1 religion,
and fuch works as were fuitable to perfons of their
fex. Thefe communities are fo confiderable that they
ufually confift of four or five hundred.
CLARKE (Samuel) D. D. a preacher and writer
of confiderable note in the reign of Charles II. was,
during the inter-regnum, and at the time of the ejec¬
tion, miniiter of St Rennet Fink in London. In No-
vember 1660, he, in the name of the Prefbyterian
minifters, prefented an addrefs of thanks to the king
for his declaration of liberty of confcience. He was
one of the commiffioners of the Savoy ; and behaved
on that occafion, with great prudence and modera¬
tion. He fometimes attended the church as an hearer
and communicant*; apd was much efteemed by all that
knew him, for his great probity and induftry. The
moft valuable of his numerous works are faid to be
his Lives of the Puritan Divines and other perfons of
note, 22 of which are printed in his marryrology : the
reft are in his Lives of fundry Eminent Perfons in this
latter Age, folio; and in.his Marrow of Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory, in folio and quarto. He died in 1680.
Clarke (Samuel), the fon of the former, was fel¬
low of Pembroke-hall, in Cambridge ; but was ejetfted
from his fellowfhip for refufing to take the engage¬
ments, as he was alfo afterwards from his rectory of
Grendon, in Buckinghamfhire. He applied himfelf
early to the ftudy of, the Scriptures ; and his annota¬
tions on the Bible, printed together with the facred
text, is highly commended by Dr Owen, Mr Baxter,
and Dr Calamy. He died in 1701, aged 75.
Clarke (Dr Samuel), was born in the city of Nor¬
wich in 1675. His father was an alderman of that
city, and one of the reprefentatives of it in parliament
for feveral years. In 1691, he went to Caius-college
Cambridge ; where, though the Cartefian philofophy
then prevailed, he foon made himfelf mafter of the
Newtonian fyftem ; and in order to his firft degree,
i’urprifed the whole audience by the accuracy with
which he traced a queftion in it. In 1697, he publi-
fhed a Latin tranflation of Rohaults phyfics, with an*-
notations. After this he turned his thoughts to divi¬
nity ; and met with a favourable opportunity; being,
in 1699, appointed chaplain to Dr John Moore, then
bifliop of Norwich, who treated him with all the
marks of the higheft efteem. In 1701, he publifhed
his paraphrafe upon the gofpel of St Matthew, which
\yas followed by the paraphrafes on St Mark and
£t Luke, and foon after on St John, fo univerfally ad¬
mired. He intended to have gone through ail the re-
C L A
maining books of the New Teftament, but was diver- Clarke
ted from it. In 1704 and 1705, he preached, and ||
foon after publiflied, 16 lermons at Boyle’s lediure, fo c'ary-
juftly admired. In 1706, he publilhed his letter to Mr
Dodwell, concerning the immortality of the foul;
which was foon followed by four defences of it, and
the Anfwer to Toland’s Amyntor added to them. The
lame year he tranflated Sir Ifaac Newton’s optics
into Latin. Queen Anne, to whofe favour his own
merits recommended him, upon the vacancy of St
James’s, Weftminifter, prefented' him with that rec¬
tory. Upon this advancement he took his degree of
dodtor of divinity in the univerlity of Cambridge; on
which occafion his public exercife was prodigioully ap¬
plauded. In 1-712, he publiflted a fplendid edition of
Ctefar’s Commentaries, dedicated to the duke of Marl¬
borough ; and the fame year appeared his Scripture
Dotftrine of the Trinity, which gave occafion to a
great number of books upon that fubjedt by himfelf as
well as others, and was complained of by the lower
houfe of, convocation: but the upper houfe declared
themfelves fatisfied with his explanations upon the
fubjeet of the complaint. In I7t5, he had a difpute
with Mr Leibnitz relating to fome principles of natu¬
ral philofophy and religion; and the papers that paffed ,
between them were publiflied at London in 171 7. His
alterations in the forms of Doxology occafioned a con¬
fiderable controverfy. In 1724, he publilhed 17 fer-
mons ; and, the year following, his “ Difcourfe con¬
cerning the connedtion of the Prophecies in the Old
Teftament, and the application of them in the New to
Chrift,” in anfwer to a famous book of Mr Collins, in-
titled “ Grounds and reafonsof theChriftianReligion.”
Upon the death of Sir Ifaac Newton, he was offered
by the court the place of mafter of the mint, worth
L. 1500 a-year, which he refufed. In 1728, he wrote
a letter to Mr Benjamin Hoadley, F. R-. S. occafioned
by the controverfy relating to the proportion of velo¬
city and force of bodies in motion ; and in the be¬
ginning of the year following, he publilhed at London,
in 4t0, twelve books of Homer’s Iliad, with the Latin
verfion, accurately corredted, and learned notes, dedi¬
cated to the duke of Cumberland. He died in 1729 ;
and fince his death there have been publilhed his ex-
pofition of the church-catechifm, and 10 volumes of
his fermons. He was a man of deep penetration ; a
fincere lover of truth ; profoundly acquainted with the
abftrufeft fpeculations; and an amiable example of the
temper, ftudies, and pradtice, becoming a Chriftian
divine.
CLARO-obscuro, or Clair-obscure, in paint¬
ing, the art of diftributing to advantage the lights and
lhadows of a piece, both with refpedt to the eafing of
the eye, and the effedt of the whole piece.
Ci.iKRO-Obfcuro, or Chiaro-fcuro, is alfo ufed to
fignify a defign confifting only of two colours, moft
ufually black and white, but fometimes black and yel¬
low ; or it is a defign walked only with one colour,
the lhadows being of a dulky brown, and the lights
heightened up by white.
The word is alfo applied to prints of two colours
taken off at twice : whereof there are volumes in the
cabinets of thofe who are curious in prints.
CLARY, in botany. See Salvia.
[ 2004 ]
Clary-
C L A [ 2005 ] C L A
!Q Clary Clary- IVater, a fpirit drawn from an infufion of
II . the herb clary in fpirit of wine ; being a very pleafant
» clavarla- and excellent cordial.
CLASMIUM, in natural hiftory, the name of a
genus of foflils, of the clals of the gypfums ; the cha¬
racters of which are, that they are of a foft texture,
and of a dull opake look, being composed, as all the
other gypfums, of irregularly arranged flat part-ides.
The word is derived from the Greek a
fragment or final! particle ; from the flaky fmall par¬
ticles of which thefe bodies are com poled : of this
genus there is only one known fpecies: this is of a
tolerably regular and even flxuCture ; though very
coarle and hadh to the touch. It is of a very lively
and beautiful red in colour ; and is found in thick
roundilh mafl'es, which, when broken, are to be feen
compofed of irregular arrangements of flat particles;
and emulate a llriated texture. It will neither give
lire with fteel, nor ferment with acids; but calcines
very freely and ealily, and aflbrds a very valuable
plalter of Paris, as do all the purer gypfums. It is
common in Italy, and is greatly elleemed there ; it is
alio found in fome parts of England, particularly
Derbylhire, but there is not much regarded.
CLASPERS, or Tendrils. See Cirrhus.
CLASS, an appellation given to the moft general
fubdivifions of any thing: thus, animal is fubdivideci
into the dalles quadrupeds, birds, fifhes, ixc. which
are again fubdivided into feriefes or orders; and thefe
laft into genera. See Botany, and Zoology.
Class, is alfo ufed in fchools, in a fynonymous fenfe
withyora, for a number of boys all learning the fame
tiling.
CLASSIC, orCLASsicAL, an epithet, chiefly-applied
to authors read in the claifes at fchools.
This term feems to owe its origin to Tullius Ser-
vius, who, in order to make an eflimate of every
perfon’s eftate, divided the Roman people into fix
bands, which he called clatfes. The eftate of the firft
clafs was not to be under 200I. and thefe by way of
eminence were called clajfici, dallies : hence authors
of the firft rank came to be called clalfics, all the reft
being faid to be infra clajfem : thus Ariftotle is a
claffic author in philofophy ; Aquinus, in fchool-divi-
nity, ire.
CLATHRI, in antiquity,-bars of wood or iron, ufed
in fecuring doors and windows. There was a goddefs
called Clathra, that prefided over the clathri.
CLAVARIA, club-top ; a genus of the order of
the fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia clalrof plants.
There are itS fpecies, of which none are remarkable
except the hemotades, or oak-leather dub-top. This
exadly refembles tanned leather, except that it is
thinner and fofter. It is of no determinate form. It
grows in the clefts and hollows of old oaks, and fome-
times on alh in Ireland and in fome places of England,
ire. In Ireland it is ufed to drefs, ulcers, and in
Virginia to fpread plaifters upon, inftead of leather.
A modern writer on natural hiftory, (Mr Miller),
has aflerted the whole genus of clavaria to belong to
the tribe of zoophytes, that is, to the animal, and not to
the vegetable kingdom. According to his method, he
ranks them among the Vermes, under a fubdivifion
which he terms Fungofa ofculis atomiferis; thereby un-
derftanding them to be compound animals with many Clavarium’
orifices on their furface, from wliich are protruded II.
atoms or animalcules which have a vifible fpontaneous C*aud’a‘
motion,: fomething.fimilar to what is now acknowled¬
ged to be a fact with regard to a numerous clafs. of
marine bodies termed corallines. This motion,, howr
ever, has not been obferved by other naturalifts.
Schceflei: has figured the feeds of feveral clavariae as
they appeared to him through the microfcope; and
none of thefe fungi when burnt, emit the ftrong difa-
greeable fmell peculiar to animal fubftances.
CLAVARIUM, in antiquity, an allowance the Ro¬
man, foldiers had for furnifliing nails to fecure their
flioes with. They railed frequent mutinies, demand-
ing largefles of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAVATA vestimenta, in antiquity, habits ad-
orned with purple clavi, which were either broad or
narrow. See Clavus.
CLAUBERGE (John), a learned profelfor of phi¬
lofophy and divinity at Duilburg, was born at Solin-
gen in 1622. He travelled into Holland, France, and
England, and in each country obtained the efteem of
the learned. The elector of Brandenburg gave him
public teftimonies of his efteem. He died in 1665.
His works wer-e printed at Amfterdam in 2 vols 4'°.
The moft celebrated of thefe is his treatife intitled
Logics vetus et nova, 8cc.
CLAUDE of Lorrain, a celebrated landfcape
painter, and a ftriking example of the efficacy of in-
duftpy to fupply, or at leaft to call forth, genius.
Claude was born in 1600 ; and being- dull and heavy
at fchool, was put apprentice to a paftry-cook : he af¬
terwards- rambled to Rome to feek a livelihood ; but
being very ill-bred, and unacquainted with the lan¬
guage, no body cared to employ him. Chance threw
him at laft in the way of Auguftino Traflb, who hired
him to grind his colours, and- to do all his houfehold
drudgery, as be kept no other fervant. Here his foul
enlarged apace, under the inftruiftions of his mafter,
who hoped to extend the abilities of his fervice; and
he would at length continue whole days on the banks
of the Tiber, and in the open 'fields, deriving his lef-
fons from nature alone. He was as much admired
for his performances in frefco as in oil; and was often
employed by pope Urban VIII. and many of the Ita¬
lian princes, in adorning their palaces, till his death
in 1682.
Claude (John), a Proteftant divine, born in the
province of Angenois in 1619. Meff. de Port Royal
ufing their utmoft endeavours to convert M. de Tu-
renne to the catholic faith, prefented him with a piece
calculated to that end, which his lady engaged Mr
Claude to anfwer; and his performance gave rife to
the moft famous controver-fy that was ever carried on
in France between the Roman Catholics and Prote-
ftants. On the revocation of the edift of Nantz, he
retired to Holland, where he met with a kind recep¬
tion, and was honoured with a confiderable penfion by
the prince of Orange. He died in 16S7 ; and left a
fon Ifaac Claude, whom he lived to fee minifter of the
Walloon church at the Hagu£, and who publiflied fe¬
veral excellent works of his deceafed father.
CLAUDIA, a veftal virgin at Rome, who, being
fufpetfted of unchaftity, is faid to have been cleared
from
C L A [ 2006 J C L A
eiaudianus from that imputation in the following manner : the
S image of Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to Rome
claV£S- in a barge, and it happening to flick fo faft in the river
Tyber that it could not be moved, file tying her girdle,
the badge of chaftity, to the barge, drew it along to
the city, which a thoufand men were unable to do.
CLAUDIANUS (Claudius), a Latin poet, flourifhed
in the 4th century, under the emperor Theodolius, and
under his fons Arcadius and Honorius. It is not agreed
' of what country he was a native ; but he came to Rome
in the year of Chrift 395, when he was about 30
years old ; and there infinuated himfelf into Stilicho’s
favour ; who being a perfon of great abilities both for
civil and military aftairs, though a Goth by birth, was
fo confiderable a perfon under Honorius, that he may
be faid for many years to have governed the weftern
empire. Stilicho afterwards fell into difgrace, and
Was put to death ; and it is more than probable that
the poet was involved in the misfortunes of his patron,
and feverely perfecuted in his perfon and fortunes by
Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth, who was captain of
the guards to Honorius, and fucceeded Stilicho. There
is reafon, however, to think that he rofe afterwards
to great favour ; and obtained feveral honours both
civil and military. The princefs Serena had a great
efteem for Claudian, and recommended and married
him to a lady of great quality and fortune in Libya.
There are a few little poems on (acred fubjedls, which
through miftake have been afcribed by fome critics to
Claudian ; and fo have made him be thought a Chri-
ftian. But St Auftin, who was cotemporary with him,
exprefsly fays, that he was a Heathen. The time of
Claudian’s death is uncertain, nor do we know any
further particulars of his life than what are to be col-
lecled from his works, and which we have already
related above. He is thought to have more of Vir¬
gil in his ftyle than all the other imitators of him.
Claudius I. Roman emperor, Z). 41. Thebe-
ginning of his reign was very promiflng ; but it was
Iboh difcovered that little better than an ideot filled
the throne, who might eafily be made a tyrant: ac¬
cordingly he became a very cruel one, through the in¬
fluence of his emprefs, the infamous Meffalina : after
her death, he marrie;d his niece Agrippina, who caufed
him to be poifoned to make way for Nero, yf. Z>. 54.
See (ffiJIorj of) Rome.
Claudius II. (Aurelius) furnamed Gothicus, figna-
lized himfelf by his courage and prudence under the
reigns of Valerian and Julian; and on the death of
the latter was declared emperor in 268. He put to
death Aureolus, the murderer of Galienus ; defeated
the Germans ; and in 269 marched againft the Goths,
who ravaged the empire with an army of 300,000
men, which he at firft harraffed, and the next year
entirely defeated : but a contagious difeafe, which had
fpread through that vaft army, was caught by the Ro¬
mans ; and the emperor himfelf died of it a fliort
time after, aged fifty-fix. Pollio fays that this prince
had the moderation of Auguftus, the virtue of Tra¬
jan, and the piety of Antoninus.
CLAVES insult, a term ufed in the i(le of May;
where all weighty and ambiguous caufes are referred
to a jury of twelve, who are called claves inful*, the
keys of the ifland.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavicitherium, two mu- Clavichofl
fical infh uments ufed in the 16th century. They were II
of the nature of the fpinnet, but of an oblong figure* c avus‘ _
The firft is (till ufed by the nuns in convents; and
that the practitioners may not difturb the fifters in the
dormitory, the firings are muffled with fmall bits of
fine woollen cloth.
CLAVICLE. See Anatomy, n° 45.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in antiquity, a mufical inftru-
ment with 30 firings. Modern writers apply the
name to our harpfichords.
CLAVI vestium, were flowers or finds of purple
interwoven with or fewed upon the garments of
knights or fenators; only, for diltindion, the former
ufed them narrow, the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly fignifies a key; and is fome*
times ufed in Englifh to denote an explanation of fome
obfeure paffages of any book or writing.
CLAVIUS (Chriflopher), a German Jefuit born at
Bamberg, excelled in the knowledge of the mathe¬
matics, and was one of the chief perfons employed to
reCtify the calendar ; the defence of which he alfo
undertook againfl thofe who cenfured it, efpecially
Scaliger. He died at Rome in 1612, aged 75. His
Works have been printed in five volumes folio ; the
principal of which is his commentary on Euclid’s ele¬
ments.
CLAUSE, in grammar, denotes a member of a pe¬
riod or fentence.
Clause fignifies alfo an article or particular fli-
pulation in a contrad, a charge or condition in a tefla-
ment, ire. .
CLAUSENBURG, a large city of Tranfilvania,
fituated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 20. 50.
N. Lat. 47. 10.
CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon the robes
of the Roman fenators and knights; which was more
or lefs broad, according to the dignity of the perfon :
hence the diflinClion of tunica augufli-clavia and lati-
clavia.
Clavus, in medicine and furgery, is ufed in feve¬
ral fignifications : 1. Clavus hyflericus, is a fliooting
pain in the head, between the pericranium and cra¬
nium, which affeCis fuch as have the green-ficknefs.
2. Clavus oculorum, accot’ding to Celfus, is a callous
tubercle on the white of the eye, taking its denomi¬
nation from its figure. 3. Clavus imports indurated
tubercles of the uterus. 4. It alfo imports a chi-
rurgical inftrument of gold, mentioned by Amatus
Lufitanus, defigned to be introduced into an ex-
ulcerated palate, for the better articulation of the
voice. And, 5. It fignifies a callus, or corn on the
foot.
Clavus Annalisi in antiquity. So rude and igno¬
rant were the Romans towards the rife of their (late,
that the driving or fixing a nail was the only method
they had of keeping a regifter.of’time ; for which rea¬
fon it was called clavus annalis. There was an an¬
cient law, ordaining the chief praetor to fix a nail
every year on the Ides of September ; it was driven
into the right fide of the temple of Jupiter Opt. Max.
towards Minerva’s temple. This cuflom of keeping
an account of time by means of fixing nails, was not
peculiar to the Romans ; for the Etrurians ufed like-
Wife
C L A [ 1007 ] C L E
Claw wife to drive nails into the temple of their goddefs
|| Nortia with the lame view.
Cleats- CLAW, among zoologills, denotes the lharp-pointed
nails with which the feet of certain quadrupeds and
birds are furnilhed.
Crab's Claws, in pharmacy. See Crab’s Claws.
CLAY, in natural hiltory, a genus of earths, the
characters of which are thele : They are firmly cohe¬
rent, weighty, and compact; It iff, vifcid, and du&ile
to a great degree, while moill; fmooth to the touch;
not ealily breaking between the fingers, nor readily
diffuiible in water ; and, when mixed, not readily fub-
liding from it. See Chemistr(Y, n° 35;.
Clay Ihrinks remarkably when drying ; in fo much
that Dr Lewis obferves, the purity of it may be known
by the degree to which it Ihrinks. He made experi¬
ments on it when pure, and when mixed with various
proportions of fand. Pure clay he found Ihrunk one
part in 18 while drying ; but, when mixed with twice
its weight of fand, only one part in 30.
Clay, a town of Norfolk in England, feated on
an arm of the lea between two rivers, in E. Long.
q. 30. N- Lat. 47. 28.
ChkY-Lauds, thofe abounding with clay, whether
black, blue, yellow, white, ire. of which the black and
the yellow are the belt for corn.
All clay-foils are apt to chill the plants growing on
them in moilt feafons, as they retain too much water;
in dry feafons, on the contrary, they turn hard and
choke the plants. Their natural produce is weeds,
goofe-grafs, large dailies, thillles, docks, poppies, ire,
Some clay-foils will bear clover and rye-grafs; and,
if well manured, will produce the belt grain : they
hold manure the belt of all lands; and the molt proper
for thqjn are horfe-dung, pigeon’s dung, fome kinds
of marie, folding of Iheep, malt-dult, alhes, chalk,
lime, foot, ire.
CLAYTONIA, in botany ; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies, natives of America.
They are very low herbaceous plants, with white
flowers ; and are poffelfed of no remarkable pro¬
perty.
CLEANTHES, a ftoic philofopher, difciple of Zeno,
flourilhed 240 years before Chrilt. He maintained
himfelf in the day, by working in the night : being
queltioned by the magiltrares how he fubfilted, he
brought a woman for whom he kneaded bread, and a
gardener for whom he drew water ; and refufed a
prefent from them. He compofed feveral works,
of which there are now only a few fragments re¬
maining.
CLEAR, as a naval term, is varioully applied to
the weather, the fea-coafts, cordage, navigation, ire.
The weather is laid to be clear when it is fair and
open, as oppofed to cloudy or foggy. The fea-coaft
is called clear when the navigation is not interrupted,
or rendered dangerous by rocks, lands, or breakers,
ire. It is exprelfed of cordage, cables, ire. when
they are unembarraffed, or difentangled, fo as to be
ready for immediate fervice. It is ufually oppofed to
foul, in all thefe fenfes.
CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood, having
®ne or two projecting ends whereby to fallen the
ropes: fome of them are faftened to the Ihrouds be- Cleche
low for this purpole, and others nailed to different i
places of the Ihip’s deck or Tides. £ '
CLECHE, in heraldry, a kind of crofs, charged
with another crofs of the fame figure, but of the co¬
lour of the field.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper ftra-
tum of fuller’s earth.
CLEF, or Cliff, in mufic, derived from the Latin
word clavis, a key ; becaufe by it is expreffed the fun¬
damental found in the diatonic fcale, which requires a
determined fucceflion of tones or femitones, whether
major or minor, peculiar to the note from whence we
let out, and refulting from its pofition in the fcale.
Hence, as it opens a way to this fucceffion, and dif-
covers it, the technical term key is ufed with great
propriety. But clefs rather point out the pofition of
different mufical parts in the general fyftem, and the
relations which they bear one to another.
A clef, fays Roulleau, is a character in mufic
placed at the beginning of a Have, to determine the
degree of elevation occupied by that Have in the ge¬
neral claviary or fyftem, and to paint out the names
of all the notes which it contains in the line of that
clef.
Anciently the letters by which the notes of the gam-
mut had been fignified were called clefs. Thus the
letter A was the clef of the note la, C the clef of uty.
E the cleff of nit, &c. In proportion as the fyftem
was extended, the embarraflment and fuperfluity of
this multitude of clefs were felt.
Gui d’Arezzo who had inverted them, marked a
letter or clef at the beginning of each line in the
Have ; for as yet he had placed no notes in the fpaces.
In procefs of time they marked no more than one of
the feven clefs at the beginning, of one of the lines
only ; and this was fufficient to fix the pofition of all
the reft, according to their natural order : at laft, of
thefe feven lines or clefs, they feleifted four, which
were called claves figuatce, or diferiminating clefs ;
becaufe they fatisfied themfelves with marking one of
them upon one of the lines, from which the powers
of all the others might be recognized. Prefently af¬
terwards they even retrenched one of thefe four, viz.
the gamma, of which they made ufe to mark the fol
below, that is to fay, the hypoproflambanomene added
to the fyftem of the Greeks.
In reality Kircher alferts, that if we underftood the
characters in which ancient mufic was written, and
examined minutely the forms of our clefs, we fhould
find that each of them reprefent the letter a little al-.
tered in its form, by which the note was originally
named. Thus the clef of /o/ was originally a G, the
clef of ut a C,, and the clef of fa an F.
We have then three clefs, one a fifth above, the
other. The clef of F, or fa, which is the loweft ;
the clef of ut, or C, which is a fifth above the for¬
mer ; and the clef of fol, or G, which is a fifth above
that of ut. Thefe clefs, both as marked by fo¬
reigners and in Britain, may be feen in art. 170. of
Music .; upon which it is neceflary to remark, that,,
by a remain of ancient practice, the clef is always
placed upon a line, and never in a fpace. It deferves
notice, that the clef of fa is marked in three diffe-
rent;
C L E L 2008 ]
Glef. rent manners : one in muiic which is printed ; an-
- other in mufic which is written or engraven ; and a
third in the full harmony of the chorus. See plate
LXXXII. fig. 10.
By adding four lines above the clef of fol, and three
lines beneath the clef of fa, which gives both above
and below the greatell extent of permanent or efta-
blifhed lines, it appears, that the whole fcale of notes
which can be placed upon the gradations relative to
thel'e clefs amounts to 24; that is to fay, three octaves
and a fourth from the F, or fa, which is found be¬
neath the lirft line, to the Ji, or B, which is found
above the lalt, and all this together forms what we
call the general ctaviary; from whence we may judge,
that this compafs has, for a long time, conttituted the
extent of the lyllem. But as at prefent it is continually
acquiring new degrees, as well above as below, the
degrees are marked by leger lines, which are added
above or below as occaiion requires.
Inftead of joining all the lines, as has been done by
Rouifeau in his Dietionary, (plate A, fig- 5-) to mark
the relation which one clef bears to another, they fe-
parate them five by five ; becaufe it is pretty nearly
within the degrees to which the compafs of ordinary
voices extends. This collection of five lines is called
a flave ; and in thefe they place a clef, to determine
the names of the notes, the pofitions of femitones,
and to fhew what ftation the ftave occupies in the
claviary or general fcale.
In whatever manner we take five fucceffive lines
in the claviary, we lhall find one clef comprehended ;
hay, fometimes two ; in which cafe one may be re¬
trenched as ufelefs. Cuflom has even prefcribed which
of the two fhould be retrenched, and which retained;
it is this likevvife which has determined the number
of pofitions affigned to each clef.
If I form a ftftve of the firft five lines in the clavia-
ry, beginning from below, I find the clef oifa in the
fourth line. This then is one pofition of the clef, and
this pofition evidently relates to the loweft note ; thus
likewife it is that of the bafs clef.
If I wifh to gain a third in afceht, I muft add a line
above ; I muft then obliterate one below, otherwii'e
the ftave will contain more than five lines. The clef
oifa then is found transferred from the fourth to the
third, and the clef of ut is likewife found upon the
fifth; but as two clefs are ulelefs, they retrench here
that of ut. It is evident, that the ftave of this clef
is a third higher than the former.
By throwing away ftill one line below to gain ano¬
ther above, we have a third kind of ftave, where the
clef offa will be found upon the fecond line, and that
of ut upon the fourth. Here we leave out the clef
oifa, and retain that of ut. We have now gained
another third above, and loft it below’.
By continuing thefe alterations from line to line,
we pafs fuccemvely thro’ four different pofitions of
the clef of ut. Having arrived at that of fil, we
find it placed upon the fecond line, and then upon the
firft. This pofition includes the five higheft lines, and
gives the ftiarpeft diapafon which the clefs can fig-
nify.
The reader may fee in Rouffeau’s Mufical Diction¬
ary, Plate A. fig. 5. this fucceflion of clefs from the
C L E
lowelt to the higheft; which in all cofiftitutes eight
ftaves, clefs, or different pofitions of clefs.
Whatever may be the charadier and genius of any
voice or inftrument, if its extent above or below does
not furpafs that of the general claviary, in this num¬
ber may be found a ftation and a clet fuitable to it;
and there are, in reality, clefs determined for all the
parts in mufic. If the extent of a part is very confi*
derable, fo that the number of lines neceffary to be
added above or below may become inconvenient, the
clef is then changed in the courfe of the mufic. It
may be plainly perceived by the figure, what clef it
is neceffary to chnfe, for raffing or deprefling any
part, under whatever clef it may be adlually placed.
It will likewife appear, that in order to adjuft one
clef to another, both mult be compared by the gene¬
ral claviary, by means of which we may determine,
what every note under one of the clefs is with re-
Ipedl to the other. It is by this exercife repeated
that we acquire the habit of reading with eafe all
the parts.
From this manoeuvre it follows, that we may place
whatever note we pleafe of the gammut upon any
line or fpace whatever of the ftave, lince we have the
choice of eight different pofitions, which is equal to the
number of notes in the odtave. Thus you may mark a
whole tune upon the fame line, by changing the clef
at each gradation. The 7th fig. of the lame plate in
Rouffeau’s Mufical Dictionary, to which we formerly
referred, Ihews by the 1’eries of clefs the order of the
notes, re, fa, la, ut, mi, fol, fi, re, riling by thirds, al¬
though all placed upon the fame line. The fig. fol¬
lowing reprefents upon the order of the fame clefs
the note ut, which appears to defcend by thirds upon
all the lines of the ftave ; and further, which yet, by
means of changing the clef, ftill preferves its unifon.
It is upon fuch examples as this, that fcholars ought
to exercife themfelves, in order to underftand at the
firft glance the powers of all the clefs, and their fi-
multaneous effeCt.
There are two of their pofitions, viz. the clef of
fol upon the firft line, and that oi~fa upon the third,
which feem daily to fall more and more into diffuetude.
The firft of thel'e may feem lefs neceffary, becaufe
it produces nothing but a pofition entirely fimilar to
that oifa upon the fourth line, from which however
it differs by two oCtaves. As to the clef oifa, it is
plain, that in removing it entirely from the third line,
we fhall no longer have any equivalent pofition, and
that the compofition of the claviary, which is at
prefent complete, will by thefe means become de¬
fective.
Thus much for Roufleau’s account of clefs. He pro¬
ceeds to explain their tranfpofition; but as this would
render the prefent article too long and intricate, we
remit the curious to his MuJical Ditfionary, vol. I.
page 162. See alfo Malcom's Dijfertation on Mufic.
CLEFT, in a general ferric, is a fpace made by the
feparation of parts. Green timber is very apt to fplit
and cleave in feveral places, after it is wrought into
form; and thefe cracks in it are very difagreeable to
the fight. The common method of the country car¬
penters is to fill up thefe cracks with a mixture of
greafe and faw-duft; but the neateft way of all is.
Glef
Cleft. |
C L E [ 2009 ] C L E
the foaking both fides well with the fat of beef-broth,
and then dipping pieces of fpunge into the fame broth,
and filling up' all the cracks with them : they fwell
out fo as to fill the whole crack; and accommodate
themfelves fo well to it, that the deficiency is hardly
feen.
Clefts, or Cracks, in farriery, appear on the
bought of the pafterns, and are caufed by a fharp and
malignant humour. See Farriery, fed. xxxiii.
CLEMA, in antiquity, a twig of the vine, which
ferved as a badge of the Centurion’s office.
CLEMATIS, virgin’s-bower ; a genus of the po-
lygynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants. There are twelve fpecies, all of which, ex¬
cept two, are ffirubby, climbing plants, very hardy,
and adorned with quadrupetalous flowers of red, blue,
purple, white, and greenifh flowers. They are very
eafily propagated by layers or cuttings. The vitis al¬
ba, one of the fpecies, is very acrid to the tafte, and
without any fmell. It is frequently ufed as a cauftic,
and for cleanfing old ulcers. The root is faid to be
purgative. The leaves of all the fpecies bruifed and
applied to the fkin, burn it into carbuncles as in the
plague; and if applied to the noftrils in a fultry day
immediately after being cropped, will caufe the fame
uneafy fenfation as a flame applied to that part would
occafion. Hence the title of fiammula, or “ little
flame,” by which this genus of plants was formerly
diflinguiflied.
CLEMENS Romanos, bilhop of Rome, where he
is faid to have been born; and to have been fellow
labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have no¬
thing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine,
excepting one epiftle, written to quiet fome diftur-
bances in the church of Corinth ; which, next to holy
writ, is efteemed one of the moft valuable remains of
ecclefiaftical antiquity.
Clemens JUxandrinus,, fo called to diftinguifh
him from the former ; was an eminent father of the
church, who flourifhed at the end of the fecond and
beginning of the third centuries. He was the fcholar
of Pantaenus, and the inftru&or of Origen. The beft
edition of his works is that in 2 vols folio, publifhed
in 1715, by archbifliop Potter.
CLEMENT V. (pope), the firft who made a pu¬
blic fale of indulgences. He tranfplanted the holy fee
to Avignon'in France; greatly contributed to the fup-
preffion of the knights templars; and was author of a
compilation of the decrees of the general councils of
Vienna, fliled Clementines. He died in 1314.
Clement VII. (Julius de Medicis), pope, memo¬
rable for his refilling to divorce Catharine of Arra-
gon from Henry VIII.; and for the bull he publilhed
upon the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn ; which,
according to theRomilh authors, loll him England. He
died in 1534.
Clement XIV. (Francis Laurentius Ganganelli),
the late pope, was born at St Angelo in the duchy of
Urbino, in October 1 705; and chofen pope, though
not yet a bifhop, in x 769 : at which time the fee of
Rome was involved in a mod difagreeable and dan¬
gerous contell with the houfe of Bourbon. His reign
was rendered troublefome by the collifion of parties
on the affairs of the Tefuits ; and it is pretended that
Vol. III.
his latter days were embittered by the apprehenfions
of poifon. Though this report w'as probably apocry¬
phal, it is faid that lie often complained of the heavy
burden which he was obliged to bear; and regretted,
with great fenfibility, the lofs of that tranquillity which
he enjoyed in his retirement when evily a fimple Fran-
cifcan. He was, however, fortunate in having an
opportunity, by a Angle aft, to diftinguilh a ffiort ad-
minillration of five years in fuch a manner as will
ever prevent its finking into obfcurity. His death
was immediately attributed to poifon, as if an old
man of 70, loaded w’ith infirmities and dilbrders,
could not quit the world without violence. His pro¬
ceedings againll the Jefuits furnilhed a plaufible pre¬
tence for this charge ; and the malevolence of their
enemies embellilhed it with circumllances. It even
feems as if the minillers of thofe powers who had pro¬
cured their dilfolution did not think it beneath them
to countenance the report; as if falfehood Was ne-
ceflary to prevent the revival of a body which had
already funk in its full llrength, under the weight
of real milconduet. The charge was the more ridi¬
culous, as the Pontiff had undergone a long and pain¬
full illnefs, which originally proceeded from a fuppref-
fiqn of urine, to which he was fubjeft; yet the report
was propagated with the greatefl indullry: and
though the French and Spanilh miniflers were prefent
at the opening of his body, the moll horrible circum¬
llances were publiftied relative to that operation. It
was confidently told that the head fell off from the bo¬
dy, and that the flench poifoned and killed the ope¬
rators. It availed but little that the operators fhewed
themfelves alive and in good health, and that the
furgeons and phyficians proved the falfehood of every
part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to have
been a man ef a virtuous charafter, and poffefled of
confiderable abilities. He died much regretted by
his fubjefts.
CLENARD (Nicholas), a celebrated grammarian
in the 16th century, was born at Diefl; and after ha¬
ving taught hutnanity atLouvain, travelled into France,
Spain, Portugal, and Africa. He wrote in Latin,
1. Letters relating to his Travels, which are very cu¬
rious and fcarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, which has
been revifed and correfted by many grammarians;
and other works. He died at Grenoble, in 1542.
CLEOBULUS, fon of Evagoras, and one of the
Grecian fages; he was valiant, a lover of learning,
and an enemy to vice. Flourifhed about 560 years
before Chrifl.
CLEOME, in botany, a genus of the filiquofa or¬
der, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of plants.
There are 1 £ fpecies; all of them, except two, natives
of warm climates. They are herbaceous plants rifing
from one to two feet high; and are adorned with
flowers of various colours, as red, yellow, flefli co¬
lour, be. They are propagated by feeds, and require
no other care than what is common to other exotics
which are natives of warm countries,
CLEOMENES, the name of three Lacedaemonian
kings. See Laceda-mon.
CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt,
was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraor¬
dinary beauty, Ihe fubdued the two fenowned Roman
11 Y generals
Clenavd
II
Cleopatra.
C L E r 2010 1 C L E
Cleoftratus generals Julius Casfar and Marc Antony: the latter
J[ of whom, it is thought, loft the empire of Rome by
ep y ra' his attachment to her. At length, Marc Antony be¬
ing fubdued by Octavius Caefar, flie tried the force of
her declining charms upon the conqueror, but in vain ;
upon which, expecting no mercy from him, flie poi-
foned herfelf, 30 years before Chrift. According to
fome authors, fhe was the reftorer of the Alexandrian
library, to which,flie added that of Pergamos; and it
is faid, that flie ftudied philofophy, to confole her for
the abfence of Amony. With her death ended the
family of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had reigned
from the death of Alexander 294 years : for Egypt,
after this, was reduced to a Roman province ; in which
dependence it remained, till it was taken from them
hy the Saracens, A. D.
CLEGSTRATUS, a celebrated aftronomer born at
Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the firft who dif-
covered the figns of the Zodiac; others fay, that he
only difeovered the figns Aries and Sagittarius. He
alfo correfted the errors of the Grecian year about
the 306th before Chrift.
CLEPSYDRA, an inftrument or machine ferving
to mealure time by the fall of a certain quantity of
water.
The word comes from xAe-itU', condo, Ifya, aqua,
water; though there have likewife been cleplydras
made with mercury.
The Egyptians, by this machine, meafured the
co'iirfe of the fun. Tycho Brahe, in our days, made
ufe of it to meafure the motion of the ftars, ire. and
Dudley ufed the fame contrivance in making all his
maritime obfervatipns. The ufe of clepfydras is very
ancient: they were invented in Egypt under the Pto¬
lemies; as were alfo fun-dials. Their ufe was chiefly
in the winter; the fun-dials ferved in the fummer.
They had two great defeats : the one, that the water
ran out with a greater or lefs facility, as the air was
more or lefs denfe; the other, that the water ran
more readily at the beginning, than towards the con-
clufjon. M. Amontons has invented a clepfydra free
from both thefe inconveniences ; and which has thefe
three grand advantages, of ferving the ordinary pur-
pofe of clocks, of ferving in navigation for the difeo-
very of the longitude, and of meafuring the motion
of the arteries.
Conflruliiott of a Clepsydra. To divide any
cylindric velfel into parts to be emptied in each divi-
fion of time ; the time wherein the whole, and that
yvherein any part is to be evacuated, being given.
Suppofe, v. gr. a cylindric veflel, whofe charge of
water flows out in twelve hours, were required to be
divided into parts to be evacuated each hour. 1. As
the part of time 1, is to the whole time 12 ; fo is the
fame time 12 to a fourth proportional, 144. 2. Divide
the altitude of the veflel into 144 equal parts: here
the laft will fall to the laft hour; the three next above
to the laft part but one ; the five next to the tenth
hour, ire,; laftly, the 23 laft to the firft hour. For
lince the times increafe in the feries of the natural
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ire. and the altitudes, if the
numeration be in retrograde order from the twelfth
hour, increafe in the feries of the unequal numbers 1,
3, s> 1} 9, ire- the altitude, computed from the twelfth
hour, will be as the fquares of the times 1, 4, 9, 16, Cleft.
25, ire, therefore the fquare of the whole time 144,   
comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the veflel
to be evacuated. But a third proportional to I and
12 is the fquare of 12, and confequently it is the num¬
ber of equal parts into which the altitude is to be di¬
vided, to be diftributed according to the feries of the
unequal numbers, through the equal interval of hours.
Since in lieu of parts of the fame veflel, other lefs
veflels equal thereto may be fubftituted ; the altitude
of a veflel emptied in a given fpace of time being
given, the altitude of another veflel to be emptied in
a given time may be found ; viz. by making the al¬
titudes as the fquares of the times.
CLERC (John le), a moft celebrated writer and
univerfal fcholar, born at Geneva in 165 7. After he
had pafled through the ufual courfe of ftudy at Geneva,
and had loft his father in 1676, he went to France in
1678 ; but returning the year after, he was ordained
with the general applaufe of all his' examiners. In
1682, le Clerc vifited England with a view to learn¬
ing the language. He preached feveral times in the
French churches in London, and vifited feveral bifhops
and men of learning : but the fmoky air of the town
not agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Holland,
within the year, where he at length fettled. He
preached before a fynod held at Rotterdam by the re-
monftrants in 1684; and was admitted profeflbr of
Philofophy, polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue,
in their fchool at Amfterdam. The remainder of his
life affords nothing but the hiftoryof his works, and of
the controverfies he was engaged in; but thefe would
lead into too extenfive a detail. He continued to read
regular letft tires; and becaufe there was no Angle author
full enough for his purpofe, he drew up and publiflied,
his Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology and Natural Philo¬
fophy. He publiflied Ars Critica ; a Commentary on
the Old Tellament; a Compendium of Univerfal Hif-
tory; an Ecclefiaftical Hiftoj-y of the two firft Centu¬
ries ; a French Tranflation of the New Teftament, ire.
In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de la Crofe, his
Bibliotbeque Univerfetle et Hijlorique, ih imitation of
other literary journals ; which was continued to the
year 1693, inclufive, in 26 vols. In 1703, he began
his Bibliotheque Choifie, and continued it to 1714, and
then commenced another work on the fame plan called
Bibliotheque ancicnne et moderne, which he conti¬
nued to the year 1728 ; all of them juftly deemed ex¬
cellent ftores of ufeful knowledge. In 1728, he was
feized with a palfy and fever ; and, after {pending
the laft fix years of his life with little or no under-
ftanding, died in 1736.
Clerc (Sebaftian le), engraver and defigner in
ordinary to the French king, was born at Metz in
1637. After having learnt defigning, he applied him-
felf to mathematics, and was engineer to the marflial
de la Ferte. He went to Paris in 1665, where he ap¬
plied himfelf to defigning and engraving with fuch
fuccefs, that M. Colbert gave him a penlion bf 600
crowns. In 1672, he was admitted into the royal
academy of painting and fculpture; and in 1680 was
made profeffor of geometry and perfpetftive in the
fame academy. He publiflied, befides a great number
of defigns and prints, 1. A Treatife on theoretical and
practical
Blackjt.
Comment,
C L E [ 2011 ] C L E
pra^lical Geometry, A Treatife on Archite6lure,
and other works; and died in 1714. He was an ex¬
cellent artift, but chiefly in the petit ftyle^ He im¬
mortalized Alexander, and Lewis XiV. in miniature.
His genius leldom exceeds the dimenfionsof fix inches.
Within thofe limits he could draw up 20,000 men with
great dexterity. No artift except Callot and Della
Bella, could touch a finall figure with fo much fpirit.
CLERGY, a general name given to the body of ec-
clefiaftics of the Chriftian church, in contradiftimftion
to the laity. See Laity.
The diftindtion of Chriftians into clergy and laity,
was derived from the Jewifh church, and adopted into
the Chriftian by the apoftles themfelves: whenever
any number of converts was made, as foon as they
were capable of being formed into a congregation or
church, a bifhop or prefbyter, with a deacon, were or¬
dained to minifter to them. Of the bifhops, priefts,
and deacons, the clergy originally confiited ; but in
the third century, many inferior orders we appointed,
as fubfervient to the office of deacon, fuch as Acolu-
thists, Readers, tffr.
This venerable body of men being feparate and fet
apart from the reft of the people, in order to attend
the more clofely to the fervice of Almighty God, have
therefore large privileges allowed them by our muni¬
cipal laws : and had formerly much greater, which
were abridged at the time of the reformation, on ac¬
count of the ill ufe which the Popifh clergy had endea¬
voured to make of them. For, the laws having ex¬
empted them from almoft every perfonal duty, they
attempted a total exemption from every fecular tie.
But it is obferved by Sir Edward Coke, that as the
overflowing of waters doth many times make the ri¬
ver to lofe its proper channel, fo, in times paft, eccle-
fiaftical perfons, feeking to extend their liberties be¬
yond their due bounds, either loft, or enjoyed not
thofe which of right belonged to them. The perfonal
exemptions do indeed for the moft part continue : a
clergyman cannot be compelled to ferve on a jury, nor
to appear at a court-leet, or view of frank-pledge,
which almoft every other perfon is obliged to do :
but if a layman is fummoned on a jury, and before the
trial takes orders, he fhall notwithftanding appear and
be fworn. Neither can he be chofen to any temporal
office, as bailiff, reeve, conftable, or the like ; in re¬
gard of his own continual attendance on the facred
function. During his attendance on divine fervice, he
is privileged from arrefts in civil fuits. In cafes alfo of
felony, a clerk in orders lhall have the benefit of his
clergy, without being branded in the hand ; and may
likewife have it more than once : in both which par¬
ticulars he is diftinguiffied from a layman. Bur, as
they have their privileges, fo they have alfo their dif-
abilities, on account of their fpiritual avocations.
Clergymen are incapable of fitting in the houfe of
commons; and by ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. are
not in general allowed to take any lands or tenements
to farm, upon pain of 101. per month, and total avoid¬
ance of the leafe ; nor, upon like pain, to keep any
tap-houfe or brew-houfe; nor ffiall engage in any
manner of trade, nor fell any merchandize, under for¬
feiture of the treble value. Which prohibition is con-
fonant to the canon law.
Benefit of Clergy, is an ancient privilege where- Clergy,
by one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordi-
nary to purge himfelf of felony.
After trial and convidlion* of a criminal, the judg- » See the
ment of the court regularly follows, unlefs fufpended articles Ar-
or arrefted by fome intervening circumftance ; of mignment,
which the principal is benefit of clergy : a title of no >
r „ . V r n r J , ■ 1 • , and Convic-
imall cunohty as well as ule, and concerning which, #/(W
therefore, it may not be improper to inquire, 1. Into
its original, and the various mutations which this pri¬
vilege of the clergy has fuftained. 2. To what per¬
fons it is to be allowed at this day. 3. In what cafes.
4. The confequences of allowing it.
I. Clergy, the privilegium clericale, or (in common Bkckft.
fpeech) the benefit of clergy, had its original from the Comment,
pious regard paid by Chriftian princes to the church in
its infant ftate, and the ill ufe which the popiffi eccle-
fiaftics foon made of that pious regard. The exemp¬
tions which they granted to the church were principal¬
ly of two kinds: 1. Exemption of places confecrated
to religious duties from criminal arrefts; which was
the foundation of fandtuaries. 2. Exemption of the
perfons of clergymen from criminal procefs before the
fecular judge in a few particular cafes ; which was
the true original and meaning of the privilegium cleri¬
cale.
But the clergy increaling in wealth, power, honour,
number, and intereft, foon began to fet up for them¬
felves ; and that which they obtained by the favour of
the civil government, they now claimed as their in¬
herent right, and as a right of the higheft nature, in-
defeafible, and jure divino. By their canons, there¬
fore, and conftitutions, they endeavoured at, and
where they met with eafy princes, obtained, a vaft
extenlion of thofe exemptions ; as well in regard to
the crimes themfelves, of which the lift became quite
univerfal, as in regard to the perfons exempted,
among whom were at length comprehended, not
only every little fubordinate officer belonging to the
church or clergy, but even many that were totally lay¬
men.
In England, however, although the ufurpations of the
pope were very many and grievous, till Henry VIII.
totally exterminated his fiupremacy, yet a total ex¬
emption of the clergy from fecular jurii'diciion could
never be thoroughly efledled, though often endea¬
voured by the clergy : and therefore, though the an¬
cient privilegium clericale was in fome capital cafes,
yet it was not univerfally, allowed. And in thofe par¬
ticular cafes, the ufe was for the bifliop or ordinary to
demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king’s
courts as foon as they were indicted : concerning the
allowance of which demand there was for many
years a great uncertainty : till at length it was finally
fettled in the reign of Henry VI. that the prifoner
fliould firft be arraigned ; and might either then claim
his benefit of clergy by way of declinatory plea; or, af¬
ter qonvieftion, by way of arreft of judgment. This
latter way is moft ufually practifed, as it is more to
the fatisfaction of the court to have the crime pre-
vioufly afeertained by confeffion or the verdict of a
jury ; and alfo it is more advantageous to the prifoner
himfelf, who may poffibly be acquitted, and fo need
not the benefit of his clergy at all.
II Y 2
Originally
Clergy.
C L E
C L E
Originally the law was held that no man fliould be the witneifes, the compurgators, and the jury, being
admitted to the benefit of clergy, but fuch as had tho all of them partakers in the guilt: the delinquent par- '
babitum et tonfuram clericalem. But, in procefs of ty alfo, though convicted in the cleared manner, and
time, a much wider and more comprehenfive criterion
was eftablhhed; every one that could read (a great
mark of learning in thofe days of ignorance and her
fifter fuperftition) being accounted a clerk, or cle-
r 'tcuSy and allowed the benefit of clerkfhip, though
neither initiated in clerklhip, nor trimmed with the
. holy tonfure. But when learning, by means of the
invention of printing, and other concurrent caufes, be¬
gan to be more generally diffeminated than formerly;
and reading was no longer a competent proof of clerk-
fliip, or being in holy orders; it was found that as ma¬
ny laymen as divines were admitted to the privilegium
chricale : and therefore by flatute 4 Hen. VII. c. 13.
a diftimition was once more drawn between mere lay
fcholars, and clerks that were really in orders. And,
though it was thought reafonable dill to mitigate the
feverity of the law with regard to the former, yet
they were not put upon the fame footing with ac¬
tual clergy ; being fubjedted to a flight degree of pu-
nilhment, and not allowed to claim the clerical privi¬
lege more than once. Accordingly the ftatute diredts,
that no perfon, once admitted to the benefit of clergy
{hall be admitted thereto a fecond time, until he pro¬
duces his orders: ahd,) in order to .diftinguifh their
perfons, all laymen Who are allowed this privilege,
firall be burned with a hot-iron in the brawn of the
conlcious of his own offence, yet was permitted, and
almoft compelled to fwear himfelf not guilty ; nor was
the good biihop himfelf, under whofe countenance this
feene was tranfadled, by any means exempt from a
{hare of it. And yet, by tins purgation, the party
was reftored to his credit, his liberty, his lands, and
his capacity of purchafing afrefli, and was entirely
made a new and an innocent man.
This fcandalous proftitution of oaths, and the forms
of juftice, in the almoft conftant acquittal of felonious
clerks by purgation, was the occafion, that, upon very
heinous and notorious circumftances of guilt, the tem¬
poral courts would not truft the ordinary with the
trial of the offender, but delivered over to him the
convicted clerk, abfque purgationsfacktido : in which
fituation the clerk convidt could not make purgation ;
but was to continue in prifon during life, and was in¬
capable of acquiring any perlbnal property, or recei¬
ving the profits of his lands, unlefs the king Ihould
pleafe to pardon him. Both thefe courfes were in
Ibme degree exceptionable ; the latter perhaps being
too rigid, as the former was productive of the moit
abandoned perjury. As therefore thefe mock trials
took their rife from factious and popifli tenets, tend¬
ing to exempt one part of the nation from the gene¬
ral municipal law ; it became high time, when the
left thumb. This diftinction between learned laymen reformation was thoroughly eftablifhed, to abolifh fo
and real clerks in orders was abolilhed for a time by
the ftatutes 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1. and 32 Hen. VIII.
c. 3. ; but is held to have been virtually reftored by
ftatute 1 Edw. VI. c. 12. which ftatute alfo enaCts,
that lords of parliament and peers of the realm may
have the benefit of their peerage, equivalent to that
of clergy, for the firft offence, (although they cannot
read, and without being burnt in the hand), for all of¬
fences then clergyable to commoners, and alfo for the
crimes of houfe-breaking, highway-robbery, horfe-
ftealing, and robbing of churches.
After this burning, the laity, and before it the .real
clergy, were difeharged from the fentence of the law
in the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordi¬
nary, to be dealt with according to the ecclefiaftical
canons. Whereupon the ordinary, not fatisfied with
the proofs adduced in the profane fecular court, fet
himfelf formally to make a purgation of the offender
by a new canonical trial; although he had been pre-
vioufly convicted by his country, or perhaps by his
own confefllon. This trial was held before the bifhop
in perfon, or his deputy ; and by a jury of twelve
clerks : And there, firft, the party himfelf was re¬
quired to make oath of his own innocence: next,
and impious a ceremony.
Accordingly the ftatute |8 Eliz. c. 7. enaifts, that,
for the avoiding fuch perjuries and abufes, after the
offender has been allowed his clergy, he fhall not be
delivered to the ordinary as formerly ; but, upon fuch
allowance, and burning of the hand, he fhall forthwith
be enlarged and delivered out of prifon; with pro-
vifo, that the judge may, if he thinks fit, continue the
offender in goal for any time not exceeding a year.
And thus the law continued unaltered for above a
century ; except only, that the ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 6.
allowed, that women convicted of fimple larcenies
under the value of 10 s. fnould (not properly have
the benefit of clergy, for they were not called upon to
read; but) be burned in the hand, whipped, or flocked,
or imprifoned for any rime not exceeding a year. And
a fimilar indulgence by the ftatutes 3 and 4 W. and M.
c. 9. and 4 and 5 W. and M. c. 24. was extended
to women guilty of any clergyable felony whatever ;
who were allow'ed once to claim the benefit of the
ftatute, in like manner as men might claim the benefit
of clergy, and to be difeharged upon being burned in
the hand, and imprifoned for any time not exceeding
a year. All women, all peers, and all male common-
there. was to be the oath of twelve compurgators, who ers who could read, were therefore difeharged in fuch
( wore they believed he fpoke the truth : then, wit- felonies abfolutely, if clerks in orders; and for the firft
neffes were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf offence upon burning in the hand, if lay ; yet all liable,
of the prifoner only : and laftly, the jury were to (except peers), if the judge faw occafion, to impri¬
bring in their verdiift upon oath, which ufually acquit- fonment not exceeding a year. And thefe men who
could not read, if under the degree of peerage, w^ere
hanged.
Afterwards, indeed, it was confidered, that educa¬
tion and learning were no -extenuations of guilt, but
quite the reverfe : and that if the punifhment of death
for
ted the prifoner; otherwife, if a clerk, he was de¬
graded, or put to penance. A learned judge in the
beginning of lafl century, remarks with much indig-
,nation the vaft complication of perjury and fuborna-
lion of perjury in this folemn farce of a mock trial:
C L E
Clergy, for jfimple felony was too fevere for thofe who had
  been liberally inftrufted, it was, a fortiori, too fevere
for the ignorant alfo. And thereupon, by ftatute
5 Anne, c. 6. it wa.s enafted that the benefit of clergy
fhould be granted to all thofe who were entitled to afk
it, without requiring them to read by way of condi¬
tional merit. And, experience having fhewn that fo
univerfal a lenity was frequently inconvenient, and an
encouragement to commit the lower degrees of felo¬
ny ; and that though capital puniftiments were too ri¬
gorous for thefe inferior offences, yet no punifhment
at all, (or next to none, as branding or whipping),
was as much too,gentle ; it was enadfed by the fame
ftatute 5 Anne, c. 6. that when any perfon is convic¬
ted of any theft or larceny, and burnt in the hand
for the fame, he fhall, at the difcretion of the judge,
be committed to the houfe of correction or public
work-houfe, to be there kept to hard labour for any
time not lefs than fix months, and not exceeding two
years; with a power of inflifting a double confinement
in cafe of the party’s efcape from the firft. And it is
alfo ena&ed by the ftatutes 4 Geo. I. c. 11. and 6
Geo. I. c. 23. that when anyperfons fhall be conviited
of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any felonious
ftealingor taking of money or goods and chattels, either
from the perfon or the houfe of any other, or in any
- other manner, and who by the law fhall be entitled to
the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the penalties of
burning in the hand, or whipping ; the court, in their
difcretion, inftead of fuch burning in the hand, or
whipping, may direct fuch offenders to be tranfported
to America for feven years; and if they return, or
are feen at large in this kingdom within that time, it
ihall be felony without benefit of clergy.
In this ftate does the benefit of clergy at prefent
ftand ; very eonfiderably differentfrom its original in-
ftitution : the wifdom of the Englifh legiflature hav-
Jng, in the courfe of a long and laborious procefs, ex¬
tracted, by a noble alchemy, rich medicines out of poi-
fonous ingredients ; and converted, by gradual muta¬
tions, yrhat was at firft an unreafonable exemption of
particular popifh ecdefiaftics, into a merciful mitiga¬
tion of the general law with refpeCt to capital punifh-
ments.
From the whole of this detail, we may collect, that
however, in times of ignorance and fuperftition, that
monfter in true policy may for a while fubfift, of a
body of men refiding in a ftate, and yet independent
of its laws; yet when learning and rational religion
have a little enlightened mens minds, fociety can no
longer endure an abfurdity fo grofs, as muft deftroy
its very fundamentals. For, by the original contraCf
of government, the price of protection by the united
force of individuals, is that of obedience to the united
will of the community. This united will is declared
in the laws of the land : and that united force is ex¬
erted in their due, and univerfal, execution.
II. We are next to inquire, to what perfons the be¬
nefit of clergy is to be allowed at this day : and this
mnft chiefly be oolleCted from what has been obfer-
ved in the preceding article. For, upon the whole,
we may pronounce, that all clerks in orders are, with¬
out any branding, and of courfe without any tranf-
portation, (for that is only fubftituted in lieu of the
E
other,) to be admitted to this privilege, and immedi- . Clergy,
ately difcharged, or at moft only confined for one year ;
and this as often as they offend. Again, all lords of
parliament, and peers of the realm, by the ftatute
I Edw. VI. c. 12. fhall be difcharged in all clergyable
and other felonies provided for by the art without
any burning in the hand, in the fame manner as real
clerks convirt : but this is only for the firft offence.
Laftly, all the commons of the realm, not in orders,
whether male or female, fhall, for the firft offence, be
difcharged of the punifhment of felonies, within the
benefit of clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, and
fuffering difcretionary imprifonment ; or, in cafe of
larceny, upon being tranfported fbr feven years, if the
court fhall think proper.
III. The third point to be confidered is, for what
crimes the privilcgi;an clericals, or benefit of clergy,
is to be allowed. And it is to be obferved, that nei¬
ther in high treafon, nor in petit larceny, nor in any
mere mifdemeanors, it was indulged at the common
law : and therefore we may lay it down as a rule,
that it was allowable only in petit treafon, and capital
felonies; which for the moft part became legally en¬
titled to this indulgence, by the ftatute tie clero, 2 J
Edw. III. flat, 3. c. 4. which provides, that clerks con¬
virt for treafon or felonies, touching other perfons
than the king himfelf or his royal majefly, fhall have
the privilege of holy church. But yet it was not al¬
lowed in all cafes whatfoever : for in fome it was de¬
nied even in common law, viz. .infidiatio viaruin, or
lying in wait for one on the highway ; depcpulatio
agrorum, or deftroying and ravaging a country ; and
co?nbuJUo domorum, or arfon, that is, burning of houfes;
all which are a kind of hoftile arts, and in fome de¬
gree border upon treafon. And farther, all thefe
identical crimes, together with petit treafon, and very
many other arts of felony, are oufted of clergy by
particular arts of parliament.
Upon the whole, we may obferve the following
rules. 1. That in all felonies, whether new created,
or by common law, clergy is now allowable, unlefs ta¬
ken away by art of parliament. 2. That where clergy
is taken away from the principal, it is not of courfe taken
away from the acceflbry, unlefs he be alfo particularly
included in the words of the ftatute. 3. That when
the benefit of clergy is taken away from the offence,
(as in cafe of murder, buggery, robbery, rape, and
burglary), a principal in the fecond degree, being pre¬
fent, aiding and abetting the crime, is as well exclu¬
ded from his clergy as he that is a principal in the firft
degree : but, 4. That where it is only- taken away
from the perfon committing the offence (as in the cafe
of /tabbing, or committing larceny in a dwelling-
houfe), his aiders and abettors are not excluded,
through the tendernefs of the law which hath deter¬
mined that fuch ftatutes {hall not be taken literally.
IV. Laftly, We are to inquire what the confequen-
ces are to the party, of allowing him this benfcfit of
clergy. We fpeak not of the branding, imprifonment,
or tranfportation; which are rather concomitant con¬
ditions, than confequences, of receiving this indul¬
gence. The confequences are fuch as affert his pre¬
fent intereft, and future credit and capacity : as ha¬
ving been once a felon, but now purged from that
[ 2013 ] C L
C L E [ 2014 ] C L E
Clerk, guilt by the privilege of clergy ; which operates as a
 kind of llatute pardon. And we may obferve, 1. That,
by his conviction, he forfeits all his goods to the king;
which, being once veiled in the crown, lhall not after¬
wards be reftored to the offender. 2. That, after
conviction, and till he receives the judgment of the
law by branding or the like, or elfe is pardoned by
the king, he is, to all intents and purpofes, a felon;
and fubjeCt to all the difabilities and other incidents of
a felon. 3. That, after burning or pardon, he is dif-
charged for ever of that, and ail other felonies t>efore
committed, within the benefit of clergy ; but not of
felonies from which fuch benefit is excluded : and this
by ftatutes 8 Eliz. c. 4. and 18 Eliz. c. 7. 4. That,
by the burning, or pardon of it, he is reltored to all
capacities and credits, and the poffefiion of his lands,
as if he had never been conviCted. 5. That what is
faid with regard to the advantages of commoners and
laymen, fubfequent to the burning in the hand, is
equally applicable to all peers and clergymen, although
never branded at all. For they have the fame privi¬
leges, without any burning, to which others are enti¬
tled after it.
CLERK (clericui), a word formerly ufed to fig-
nify a learned man, or man of letters. The word
comes from the Greek ufed for clergy ; but
more properly fignifying lot or heritage, in regard the
lot and portion of clerks or ecclefialtics is to ferve
God. Accordingly, clerus was at fir It ufed to fignify
thofe who had a particular attachment to the fervice
of God. The origin of the expreflion is derived
from the Old Tellament, where the tribe of Levi is
called the lot, heritage, and God is reciprocally
called their portion ; by reafon that tribe was confe-
crated to the fervice of God, and lived on the offer¬
ings made to God, without any other fettled provifion
as the reft had.
Thus, Pafquier obferyes, the officers of the counts
(coinites) were anciently created under the title of
clerks of accompts; and fecretaries of ftate were cal¬
led, clerks of the fecret. So, clericus domini regis,
in the time of Edward I. was Englifhed, the king's fe~
cretary, or clerk of his council. The term was ap¬
plied indifferently to all who made any profeffion of
learning; or who knew how to manage the pen:
though originally it was appropriated to eccleliaftic's.
As the nobility and gentry were ufually brought up to
the exercife of arms, there was none but the clergy
left to cultivate the fciences: hence, as it was the
clergy alone who made any profeffion of letters, a very
learned man came to be called a great clerk; and a
ftupid ignorant man, a had clerk.
Clerk is alfo applied to fuch as by their courfe of
life exercife their pens in any court or office, of which
there are various kinds: thus.
Clerk of the Bails, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, whofe bufinefs is to file all bail-pieces taken in
that court, where he always attends.
Clerk of the Check, an officer belonging the king’s
court, fo called, becaufe he has the check and con-
troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king, queen,
or prince. He likewife, by himfelf or deputy, lets the
watch in the court. There is alfo an officer in the navy
of the fame name, belonging to the king’s yards.
Clerk of the Crown, an officer in the king’s bench, Clerk,
who frames, reads, and records all indictments againft ———
offenders, there arraigned or indiCted of any public
crime. He is likewife termed clerk of the crown-
office, in which capacity he exhibits information by
order of the court, for divers offences.
Clerk of the Crown, in chancery, an officer whofe
bufinefs it is conftantly to attend the lord chancellor,
in perfon or by deputy; to write and prepare for the
great feal fpecial matters of ftate by commiffion, both
ordinary and extraordinary, viz. comrniffions of lieu¬
tenancy, of juftices of affize, oyer and terminer, goal-
delivery, and of the peace ; all general pardons,
granted either at the king’s coronation, or in parlia¬
ment : the writs of parliament, with the names of
the knights, citizens, and burgeffes, are alfb returned
into his office. He alfo makes out fpecial pardons and
writs of execution on bonds of ftatute-ftaple forfeited.
Clerk of the Deliveries, an officer of the tower,
whofe function is to take indentures for all ftores and
ammunition iffued from thence.
Clerk of the-Errors, in the court of common pleas,
an officer who tranferibes and certifies into the king’s
bench, the tenor of the record of the aCtion on which
the writ of error, made out by the curfitor, is brought
there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the
clerk of the errors tranferibes and certifies the records
of caufes, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer.
And the bufinefs of the clerk of the errors in the ex¬
chequer, is to tranferibe the records certified thither
out of the king’s bench, and to prepare them for judg¬
ment in the exchequer-chamber.
Clerk of the Ejfoins, in the court of common pleas,
keeps the effoin-roll, or enters effoins: he alfo pro¬
vides parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the number
on them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer,
and receives them again when written. See Essoin.
Clerk of the Ejtreats, an officer in the exchequer,
who every term receives the eftreats out of the lord-
treafurer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them
out, to be levied for the crown.
Clerk of the Green-cloth. See Green-cloth.
Clerk of the Hamper, or Hanaper, an officer in
chancery, whofe bufinefs is to receive all money due
to the king for the feals of charters, letters patent,
commiffions, and writs; alfo the fees due to the offi¬
cers for enrolling and examining them.
C'LV.KV.-Comptroller of the King's Houfehold, an of¬
ficer of the king’s court, authorifed to allow or difal¬
low the charges of purfuivants, meffengers of the
green-cloth, ijc. to infpedt and controul all defedts of
any of the inferior officers; and to fit in the counting-
houfe with the lord-fteward and other officers of the
houfehold, for regulating fuch matters.
Clerk of the King's Silver, an officer of the com¬
mon pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has
palled the office of the cujlos brevium; and who en¬
ters the effedt of writs of covenant, into a book kept
for that purpofe, according to which all the fines of
that term are recorded in the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s houfe,
to whom is given the charge of the king’s meafures
and weights, the ftandards of thofe that ought to be
ufed all over England.
Clerk
C L E [ 2015 ] C L E
Clerk of the Nichils, or Nthils, an officer of the
exchequer, who makes a roll of all 1'uch fums as are
nichilled by the fheriffs upon their ellreats of green
wax, and delivers them in to the remembrancer of
the treafury, to have execution done upon them for
the king. See Nihil.
Clerk of the Outlawries, an officer of the common
pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making
out all writs of capias utlagatum, after outlawry, to
which there muft be the king’s attorney’s name.
Clerk of the Paper-office, an officer belonging to
the king’s bench, whofe bufmefs is to make up the
paper-books of fpecial pleadings in that court.
Clerk of the Peace, an officer belonging to the fef-
fions of the peace, whole bufinefs is to read indict¬
ments, inrol the proceedings, and draw the procefs :
he likewife certifies into the king’s bench, tranicripts
of indictments, outlawries, attainders and convictions
had before the juftices of peace, within the time limi¬
ted by ftatute, under a certain penalty. This office
is in the gift of the cujlos rotulorum, and may be exe¬
cuted by deputy.
Clerk of the Pells, an officer that belongs to the
exchequer, whofe bufinefs is to enter every teller’s
bill into a parchment-roll called pellis receptorum ; and
to make another roll of payments called pdlis exituum.
Clerk of the petty Bag, an officer of the court of
chancery, whereof there are three, the mailer of the
rolls being the chief: their bufinefs is to record the
return of all inquifitions out of every Ihire; to make
out patents of cuftomers, gaugers, comptrollers, ire.
liberates upon extent of flatutes-llaple, conge d'dires
for bilhops, fummons of the nobility, clergy, and bur-
gelfes to parliament; and commiffions directed to
knights and others of every fhire, for affeffing fubfidies
and taxes.
Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the accounts of all debts due to the king, deli¬
vered out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them
in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out
warrants to Iheriffs, to levy the faid debts on the goods
and chattels of the debtors: and if they have no goods,
then he draws them down to the treafurer’s remem¬
brancer, to write eftreats againfi: their lands..
Clerk of the Pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in
whofe office all the officers of the court, having fpecial
privilege, ought to fue, or be fued, in any adtion. In
this office alfo adlions at law may be profecuted by
other perfons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or
debtor to the king, or fome way accountable to him.
The under clerks are attorneys in all fuits.
Clerks of the Privy-feal, four officers that attend
the lord privy-feal, for writing and making out all
things that are fent by warrant from the lignet to the
privy-feal, and to be palfed the great-feal; and like-
wife to make out privy-feals, upon fpecial occafions of
his majefiy’s affairs, as for loan of money, or the like.
Clerk of the Rolls, an officer of tho chancery,
whofe bufinefs is to make fearches after, and copies
of deeds, officers, ire.
Clerk of the Signet, an officer continually attend¬
ing upon his majefty’s principal fecretary, who has the
Jtufiody of the privy-fignet, as well for fealing the
king’s private letters, as thofe grants which pals the
king’s hand by bill figned. There are four of thefe
officers who have their diet at the fecretary’s table.
Clerk, or Writer, to the Signet, in Scots law. _
See Scots Law, title 3.
iSix-*-LERKS, officers in chancery, next in degree
below tie twelve mafiers, whole bufinefs is to inrol
commiffions, pardons, patents, warrants, ire. which
pafs the great-feal; they were anciently clerici, and
forfeited their places if they married. Thefe are
alfo attorneys for parties in fuits depending in the
court of chancery.
Clerk of the Treafury, an officer belonging to the
court of common picas, who has the charge of keep¬
ing the records of the court, makes out all records of
niji prius, and likewife all exemplifications of records
being in the treafury. He has the fees due for all
fearches ; and has under him an under-keeper, who-
always keeps one key of the treafury-door*
Clerk of the Warrants, an officer of the common"
pleas, whole bufinefs is to enter all warrants of at¬
torney for plaintiffs and defendants in fnit; and to in-
rol deeds of bargain and fale, that are acknowledged
in court, or before a judge. His office is likewife to
effreat into the exchequer all iffues, fines, eitreats,.
and amercements, which grow due to the crown in
that court.
CLERMONT, a confiderable, rich, and populous
town of France, in Auvergne, with a biffiop’s fee.
The cathedral, the public fquares, and the walks, are
very fine. Here is a bridge naturally formed, as
they pretend, by the petrifying quality of a fountain.
E. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat. 43. 47.
CLEROMANCY, a fort of divination performed
by throwing lots, which were generally black and
white beans, little clods of earth, or pebbles ; alfo
dice, or fuch like things, difiinguilhed by certain cha¬
racters. They caff the lots into a veffel, and having
made fupplication to the gods to direCt them, drew
them out, and, according to the characters, conjec¬
tured what ftiould happen to them.
CLERVAL, a town of France, in the Franche
comte, feated on the river Doux, belonging to the
houfe of Wirtemburg, but depends on the crown of
France. E. Long. 5. 37. N. Lat. 46. 33.
CLERVAUX, one of the mod celebrated and fined
abbeys of France, in Champagne, five miles from Bar-
fur-Aube, and feated in a valley furrounded with
woods and mountains.. It is the chief of the Cider—
cian order. Here is the famous Ton of St Bernard,
which will hold 800 tons of wine. Near this abbey
is a fmall town.
CLETHRA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the Alnifolia. This is
a native of Virginia and Carolina, where it grows in
moid places, and near the fidesof rivulets, riling near
eight or ten feet high. The leaves are ihaped like
thole of the alder-tree, but longer : thefe are placed
alternately upon the branches : the flowers are produ¬
ced in dole fpikes at the extremities of the branches :
they are white, compofed of five petals, ahd have ten
damina in cadi, nearly of the fame length with the
petals. This is hardy enough to bear the open air in
Britain, and is one of the mod beautiful flowering
llirubs.
Clerk
II
Clethra.
C L E r 2016 1 C L 1
Cleveland Ihrubs. Its feafon is commonly about the beginning
il of July ; and, if the feafon is not very hot, there will
ClitTmtia. part jkg fpi^es jn beauty till the middle of Sep¬
tember. This Ihrub will thrive belt in moift land, and
requires a flickered fituation, where it may be de¬
fended from ftrong winds, which frequently break off
the branches where they are too much expofed to
their violence. It is propagated by layers, but they
are generally two years before they take root. It
may alfo be propagated by fuckers, which are fent
out from the roots : if thefe are carefully taken off
■ with fibres in the autumn,-and planted in a nurfery-
bed, they will be ftrong enough in two years to tranf-
plant where they are to remain.
CLEVELAND, a diftrict in the north riding of
Yorkfliire in England, from whence the noble family
of Fitzroy takes the title of Duke.
Cleveland (John), an Englilh poet of fome emi¬
nence in his time, who during the civil war under
Charles I. engaged as a literary champion in the royal
caufe again!! the parliamentarians. He died in 1658,
and was much extolled by his party. His works,
which confift of poems, characters, orations, epiftles,
&c. were printed in oCtavo in 1677.
CLEVES, the duchy of, a province of the circle of
Weftphalia, in Germany. It is divided into two parts
by the Rhine, and is about 40 milqs in length from
eaft to weft, and 20 in breadth from north to fouth.
It is a fine agreeable country, and pretty populous.
The towns are, Cleves.the capital, Calcar, Gennep,
Santen, Orfoy, Bureck, and Greit. Thefe lie on the
left fide the river. On the right, Duysburg, Wefe,
Rees, and Emmerick. There have been great con-
tefts about this duchy, but it now belongs to the king
of Pruftia.
Cleves, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Cleves,
of which it is the capital. It (lands upon a pleafant
hill, about three miles from the Rhine, with which it
communicates, by means of a canal which is large
enough for great barges. The caftle Hands upon a
mountain, and, though old, is very agreeable. Cal-
vinifts, Lutherans, and Roman Catholics, are all to¬
lerated in this city. E. Long. 5. 36. N. Lat. 51. 40.
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put
himfelf under the protection of fome great man, and,
in refpedt of that relation, was called patron.
This patron affifted his client with his proteClion,
intereft, and goods ; and the client gave bis vole for
his patron, when he fought any office for himfelf or
liis friends. Clients owed refpedt to their patrons, as
thefe owed them their protection.
The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus,
to unite the rich and poor together, in fucli a manner
as that one might live without contempt, and the
other without envy ; but the condition of a client, in
courfe of time, became litfle elie but a moderate
flavery.
Client is now ufed for a party in a law-fuit, who
has turned over his caufe into the hands of a counfel-
lor or follicitor.
CLIFEORTIA, in botany; a genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the dioscia clafs of plants.
There are three fperies, all of them natives of Africa;
fo require to be kept in a green-houfe when cultivated
in this country. Their flowers make no great ap- climaAeriJ
pearance; but the plants themfelves are very orna- ||
mental evergreens. They grow to the heighF of four Climate. J
or five feet; and are propagated by cuttings, which
muft be young (hoots of five or fix inches length. If
thefe are planted in pots in fpring or fummer, and
plunged in a hot-bed, they will readily take root,
They muft be watered plentifully in fummer, but very
fparingly in winter.
CLIMACTERIC, among phyficians, (from cll-
mattcr, a ladder,) a critical year in a perfon’s life.
According to ibme, this is every feventh year; but
others allow only thofe years produced by multipying
7 by the odd number 3, ,5, 7, and 9, to be climadteri-
cal. Thefe years, they fay, bring with them fome
remarkable change with refpedt to health, life, or for¬
tune : the grand clima&eric is the 63^ year ; but '
fome, making two, add to this the 81st : the other
remarkable climacterics are the 7th, 21st, 35th, 49th,
and 56th.
CLIMATE, Clima, or Clime, in geography, a
part of the furface of the earth, bounded by two circles
parallel to the equator; and of fuch a breadth, as that,
the longeft day in the parallel nearer the pole, exceeds
the longeft day in that next the equator by fome cer¬
tain (paces ; viz. half an hour. The word comes
from the Greek Hhipu,, inclinamentum, an inclination.
The Beginning of the Climate, is a parallel circle
wherein the day is the fliorteft. The End of the
Climate, is that wherein the day is the longeft.
The climates therefore are reckoned from the equator
to the pole ; and are fo many bands, or zones, ter¬
minated by lines parallel to the equator : though, in
ftriCtnefs, there are feveral climates in the breadth of
one zone. Each climate only differs from its conti¬
guous ones, in that the longeft day in fummer is longer
or (horter by half an hour in the one place than in the
other, As the climates commence from the equator,
the firft climate at its beginning has its longed day
precilely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and an
half: the feeond, which begins where the. firft ends,
viz. at 12 hours and an half, ends at 13 hours ; and
fo of the reft, as far as the polar circles, where, what
the geographers call hour-climates terminate, and
mo nth-climates commence. As an hour-climate is a
fpace comprifed between two parallels of the equator,
in the firft of which the longeft day exceeds that in
the latter by half an hour ; (b the mooth-climate is a
fpace terminated between two circles parallel to the
polar circles, whofe longeft day is longer or fliorter
than that of its contiguous one by a month or 30 days.
The antients, who confined the climates to what
they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only
allowed of (even. The firft they made to pals through
Meroe, the fecond through Sienna, the third through
Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth
through Rome, the (ixth through Pontus, and the fe¬
venth through the month of the Boryfthenes. The
moderns, who have failed further toward the poles,
make 30 climates on each fide; and, in regard the - j
obliquity of the fphere makes a little difference in the
length of the longeft day, inftead of half an hour,
fome of them only make the difference of climates a
quarter.
Vulgarly
Climate
I
Clio.
C L ,1 [ 2017 ] C L I
Vulgarly the term climate is. bellowed on any
country or region differing from another either in
refpect of the leafons, the quality of the foil, or even
the manners of the inhabitants; without any regard
to the length of the longed: day. Abulfeda, an Ara¬
bic author, diftinguiflies the firll kind of climates by
the term real climates, and the latter by that of
apparent climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30
climates; but without any regard to the refraction.
Ricciolus furnilhes a more accurate one, wherein
the refraCtions are allowed for ; an abltraCt of which
follows :
Climate
Clitoris.
Middle Longelt Latit. I Middle ILongeit Latit. Middle Latit.
of Clim. Day. [of Ctim. Day. of Clin:.
Com. Nor tli Com.
Light. Night. Light.
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
18 VIII
36 IX
8 X
49 XI
35 XII
32 XIII
42 XIV
48
53 46
57 44
XV
XVI.
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
66° 53
69 30
73
78
84
90
93
124
156
188
58
87
117
148
180
3od
60
89
120
150
178
South
Night.
28d
59
88
118
149
177
CLIMAX, or Gradation, in rhetoric, a figure
wherein the word or exprefiion which ends the firft
member of a period begins the fecond, and fo on ; fo
that every member will make a diltinCt fentence, ta¬
king its rife from the next foregoing, till the argument
-and period be beautifully finifhed; as in the following
gradation of Dr Tillotfon : “ After we have praClifed
good aCtions a while, they become eafy ; and when
they are eafy, we begin to take pleafure in them ;
and when they pleafe us, we do them frequently; and
by frequency of aCts, a thing grows into a habit; and
confirmed habit is a kind of fecond nature; and fo far
as any thing is natural, fo far it is neceffary ; and we
can hardly do otherwife ; nay, we do it many times
when we do not think of it.”
CLINCH, in the fea-language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then
feized or made faft.
CLINCHING, in the fea-language, a kind of flight
caulking ufied at lea, in a profpeCt of foul weather,
about the pofts : it confifts in driving a little oakum
into their feams, to prevent the water coming in at
them.
CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient church-hi-
ftorians to thofe who received baptilin on their death¬
bed. See Baptism.
Clinic Medicine, was particularly ufed for the
method of vifiting and treating lick perfons in bed,
for the more exaCt difcovery of all the i'ymptoms of
their difeafe.
CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philofopher, and mufician,
in the 65th Olympiad. He was wont to afl'wage his
paflion, being very choleric, by his lyre.
CLINOPODIUM, field-basil ; a genus of the
gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didyna'mia clafs
of plants. There are fix fpecies, all of them herba¬
ceous plants, growing from one to two feet high.
They are remarkable only for their flrong odour, be¬
ing fomewhat between marjoram and bafil.
CLIO, in pagan mythology, the daughter of Ju¬
piter and Mnemofyne, was the mufe who prefided
over hiflory. She is generally reprefented under the
form of a young woman crowned with laurel, holding
in her right hand a trumpet, and in her left a book.
Clio, in zoology, a genus of infects belonging to
the order of vermes mollufca. The body is oblong and
fitted for fwimming ; and it has two membranaceous
Vol. III.
wings placed oppolite to each other. The fpecies ar.e
three, principally diltinguifhed by the fliape of their
vagina, and all natives of the ocean.
CL1PEUS, in natural hiflory, a name given to the
flat depreffed Centronix, from their refembling a fhield.
See Centronia.
CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magiflrate, the *
author of the mode of banifhing ambitious citizens by
oftracifm, or writing their names upon a fliell: the in¬
tention was patriotic, but it was abufed like all other
human inflitutions ; feme of the worthiefl citizens of
Athens being thus exiled. See Attica, n° 79 ; and
Ostracism. He died 510 years before Chrifl.
CLITOMACHUS the philofopher, flourifhed about
140 years before Chriil. He was born at Carthage ;
quitted his country at 40 years of age ; and went to
Athens, where he became the difciple and fucceflbr of
Carneades. He compofed many books, but they are
all loft.
CLITORIA, in botany ; a genus of the decandria
order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants.
There are four fpecies, all of them- herbaceous pe¬
rennials, or annuals, of the kidney-bean kind, grow¬
ing naturally in both the Indies. The ftalk is climbing,
flender, and of the height of a man. The leaves are
winged, placed alternately, and confift of two, three,
or five pair of lobes, terminated by an odd one. The
flowers, which are elegant, Hand fingly, each on .its
proper foot-ftalk. They are very large, and gene¬
rally of a deep blue, but fometimes of a white colour.
From the fruit of this plant is diftilled an eye-water.
The beans reduced to powder, and taken in broth, to
the quantity of two drachms, prove a gentle purge ;
and Grimmius remarks, in his Labor Ceyl. that the
powder of the dried beans, being mixed with the milk
of the cocoa nut, or with broth, and adminiftered in
quantity from one to three drachms, not only mitigates
colic pains, but is very ufeful, and much ufed in Cey¬
lon, in all diforders of the ftomach and bowels. Thefe
plants are propagated by feeds; and, in this country,
mult be kept continually in a ftove.
CLITORIS, in anatomy, is a part of the external
pudenda, fituated at the angle which the nymphae form
with each other *. Like the penis it has an eredlion, » See
and it is thought to be the principal feat of venereal tomy,
pleafure. The clitoris is of different fizes in different 1,9 372- c,
women; but in general it is fmall, and covered with
«i 1 Z the
Clitus
»
Clive.
C L I [20
the labia. The preter-naturally enlarged clitoris is
what conftitutes an hermaphrodite. When the clito-
_ ris is too large, it may be fo extirpated as to remove
the unneceffary part; but this requires much care, for
a farther extirpation fubje<Tts the patient to an involun¬
tary difcharge of urine.
CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurfe,
followed that prince in his conquefts, and faved his
life by cutting off the hand of Rofaces, which held
an ax lifted up to kill him at the paflage of the
Granicus. Alexander, who had a great regard for
him, fome time after invited him to fupper; when
Clitus, at the end of the repall, being heated with
wine, diminilhed the exploits of that prince, in order
to magnify thofe of Philip his father. This fo enraged
Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand ; but
he was afterwards fo affli&ed at it, that he attempted
his own life.
CLIVE (Robert) lord, fon of Richard Clive Efq; of
Styche near Drayton in Salop, yva.s born in
Toward the clofe of the war in 1741, he was lent as
a writer in the Ealt India fervice, to Madras; but be¬
ing fonder of the camp than the counpting-houfe, he
foon availed himielf of an opportunity to exchange
his pen for a pair of colours. He firft diltinguilhed
himfelf at the fiege of Pondicherry in 1748,- atSled
under major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in
Tanjore, who wrote of his military talents in high
terms; commanded a fmall party for the taking of
Arcot, and afterward defended that place againll the
French; and performed many other exploits, which,
confidering the remotenefs of the fcene of action,
would require a long detail to render fufficiently in¬
telligible. He was however, in brief, looked upon
and acknowledged as the man who firlt roufed his
countrymen to fpirited action, and raifed their repu¬
tation in the Eall: fo that when he came over to
England in 1753, he was prefented, by the court of
directors, with a rich fword let with diamonds, as an
acknowledgment of pall, and an incitement to future,
fervices. Captain Clive returned to India in 1755, as
governor of fort St David, with the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in the king’s troops; when as commander of
the company’s troops, he, in conjunction with admiral
Watfon, reduced Angria the pirate, and became ma¬
iler of Geria his capital, with all his accumulated trea-
fure. On the lofs of Calcutta and the well known
barbarity of the foubah Snrajah Dowla, they failed to
Bengal; where they took fort William, in January
1757, and colonel Clive defeating the foubah’s army
foon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowla’s per¬
fidy, however, foon produced frelh hollilities, which
ended in his ruin ; he being totally defeated by colonel
Clive at the famous battle of Plafley. The next day
the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph; and
placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal gene¬
rals, on the throne : the depofed foubah was foon af¬
ter taken, and privately put to death by Jaflier’s fon.
Admiral Watfon died at Calcutta ; but colonel Clive
commanded in Bengal the two fucceeding years : he
was honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an
Omrah of the empire; and was rewarded by the new
foubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing
27,000!. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England,
18 ] C L O
where he received the unanimous thanks of the com¬
pany, was elected member of parliament for Shrewf-
bury, and was raifed to an Iriih peerage by the title
of Lord Clive Baron of Plaffey. In 1764, frelh dillur-
bances taking place in Bengal, lord Clive was elteem-
_ ed the only man qualified to fettle them, and was ac¬
cordingly again appointed to that prelidency; after be¬
ing honoured with the order of the Bath, and with
the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India,
he exceeded the moll fanguine expedlation, in relto-
ring tranquillity to the province without Itriking a
blow; and fixed the highelt ideas of the Britilh power
in the minds of the natives. He returned home in
1767; and, in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry
into the conduct of the Ealt India company was agi¬
tated, he entered into an able jullification of himfelf
in a mallerly fpeech in the houfe of commons. He
died fuddenly towards the clofe of the year 1774.
CLOACAE, in antiquity, the common fewers of
Rome, to carry off the dirt and foil of the city into
the Tiber; jullly reckoned among the grand works of
the Romans. The firlt common fewer, called Cloaca
Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, fome fay Prifcus,
others Superbus, of huge blocks of Hone joined toge¬
ther without any cement, in the manner of the edi¬
fices of thofe early times ; confining of three rows of
arches one above another, which at length conjoin
and unite together ; meafuring in the clear 18 palms
in height, and as many id width. Under thefe arches
they rowed in boats; which made Pliny fay that the
city was fufpended in air, and that they failed beneath
the houfes. Under thefe arches alfo were ways
through which carts Idaded with hay could pafs with
eafe. It began in the Forum Romanum ; meafured
300 paces in length ; and emptied itfelf between the
temple of Vella and the Pons Senatorius. There
were as many principal fewers as there were hills.
Pliny concludes their firmnefs and llrength from their
Handing for fo many ages the fhocks of earthquakes,
the fall of houfes, and the vail loads and weights mo¬
ved over them.
CLOAGINA, the goddefs of jakes and common
fewers, among the ancient Romans.
CLOCK, a machine conltru6ied in fuch a manner,
and regulated by fuch uniform movements, as to mea-
fure time, and all its fubdivilions, witli great exatHnefs.
The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to
Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time
of Lotharius Ibn of Louis the Debonnair, on the cre¬
dit of an epitaph quoted by Ughelli, and borrowed by
him from Panvinius. They were at firll called noc¬
turnal dials, to diltinguilh them from fun-dials, which
Ihewed the hour by the fun’s lhadow. Others afcribe
the invention to Boethius, about the year 510. Mr
Derham makes clock-work of a much older Handing;
and ranks Archimedes’s fphere mentioned by Clau-
dian, and that of Pofidonius mentioned by Cicero,
among the machines of this kind : not that either their
form or ufe were the fame with thofe of ours, but that
they had their motion from fome hidden weights or
fprings, with wheels, or pullies, or fome fuch clock¬
work principle. But be this as it will, it is certain the
art of making clocks, fuch as are now in ufe, wjis
eitheriirfl invented, or at leaff retrieved, in Germany,
about
C L O L 2019 ] G L O
Ciock. about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepfy-
  drse, and liin-dials, have both a much better claim to
antiquity. The French annals mention one of the for¬
mer kind fent by Aaron, king of Perfia, to Charle¬
magne, about the year 807, which feemed to bear
fome refemblance to the modern clocks : it was of
brafs, and fhewed the hours by twelve little balls of
the fame metal, which fell at the enti of each hour,
and in falling {truck a bell and made it found. There
were alfo figures of 12 cavaliers, which at the end of
each hour came forth at certain apertures or win¬
dows in the fide of the clock, and {hut them a-
gain, &c.
The invention of pendulum-clocks is owing to the
happy induftry of the lalt age : the honour of it is dif-
puted by Huygens and Galileo. The former, who has
written a volume on the fubjeft, declares it was firft
put in practice in the year 1657, and the defcription
thereof printed in 1658. Becher, de Nova Temper is
Dimetiendi Theoria, anno 1680, {tickles for Galileo i
and relates, though at fecond-hand, the whole hiftory
of the invention; adding, that one Trefler, clock-maker
to the then father of the grand-duke of Tufcany, made
the fiflt pendulum-clock at Florence, by direction of
Galileo Galilei; a pattern of which was brought into
Holland. The academy de’l Cimentofay exprefsly, that
the application of the pendulum to the movement of a
clock was firft propofed by Galileo, and firft put in prac¬
tice by his fon Vincenzo Galilei, in 1649. Be the inven¬
tor who he will, it is certain the invention never flou-
rilhed till it came into Huygens’s hands, who inftfts on
it, that if ever Galileo thought of fuch a thing, he ne¬
ver brought it to any degree of perfection. The firft
pendulum-clock made in England, was in the year
1622, by Mr Frovnantil a Dutchman.
Amongft the modern clocks, thofe of Stralburg and
Lyons are very eminent for the richnefs of their fur¬
niture, and the variety of their motions and figures.
In the firft, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims the
hour ; the angel opens a door, and falutes the virgin;
and the holy Spirit defeends on her, ire. In the fe-
cond, two horfemen encounter, and beat the hour on
each other : a door opens, and there appears on the
theatre the virgin, with Jefus Chrift in her arms ; the
magi, with their retinue, marching in order, and pre¬
senting their gifts ; two trumpeters,founding all the
while to proclaim the procelfion. Thefe, however,
are excelled by two lately made by Englifti artifts, and"
intended as a prefent from the Eaft India company to
the emperor of China. The clocks we fpeak of are
in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine
attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part of the
chariot, under which is a clock of curious workman-
{hip, little larger than a {hilling, that ftrikes and re¬
peats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger fits a
bird finely modelled, and fet with diamonds and ru¬
bies, with its wings expanded in a flying pofture, and
actually flutters for a confiderable time on touching a
diamond button below it; the body of the bird (which
contains part of the wheels that in a manner give life
•to it) is not the bignefs of the 16th part of an inch.
The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much
thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is a
fmall round,box, to which a circular ornament fet with
diamonds not larger than a fixpence is fixed, which Clock,
goes round near three hours in a conftant regular mo-
tion. Over the lady’s head, fupported by a fmall
fluted pillar no bigger than a quill, is a double um¬
brella, under the largeft of which a bell is fixed at a
confiderable diftance from the clock, and feems to
have no connection with it ; but from which a
communication is fecretly conveyed to a hammer,
that regularly ftrikes the hour, and repeats the fame
at pleafure, by touching a diamond button fixed
to the clock below. At the feet of the lady is a gold
dog; before which from the point of the chariot are
two birds fixed on fpiral fprings ; the wings and fea¬
thers of which are let with ftones of various colours,
and appear as if flying away with the chariot, which,
from another fecret motion, is contrived to run in a
ftraight, circular, or any other direction ; a boy that
lays hold of the chariot behind, feems alfo to pulh it
forward. Above the umbrella are flowers, and orna¬
ments of pearls, rubies, and other precious ftones ;
and it terminates with a flying dragon fet in the fame
manner. The whole is of gold, i.toft curioufly exe¬
cuted, and embellilhed with gold, rubies, and pearls.
Of the Mechanifm Clocks, and how they meafure
Time. The firft figure of Plate LXXX is a profile of
a clock : P is a weight that is fufpended by a rope that
winds about the cylinder or barrel C, which is fixed
upon the axis a a; the pivots b b go into holes made,
in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn freely. Thefe
plates are made of brafs or iron, and are connected
by means of four pillars ZZ; and the whole together
is called the frame.
The weight P, if not reftrained, would neceflarily
turn the barrel C with an uniform accelerated motion,
in the fame manner as if the weight was falling freely
from a height. But the barrel is furnilhed with a rat¬
chet wheel K K, the right fide of Whofe teeth ftrikes
againft the click, which is fixed with a ferew to the
wheel D D, as reprefented in fig. 2. fo that the aftion
of the weight is communicated to the wheel' D D, the
teeth of which atft upon the teeth of the fmall wheel
d which turns upon,the pivots c c. This communica¬
tion of the teeth of one wheel with another, is called
engrenage or pitching ; and a fmall wheel, like d, is
called a pinion.
The wheel E E is fixed upon the axis of the pinion
d; and the motion communicated to the wheel D D
by the weight is tranfmitted to the pinion d, confe-
quently to' the wheel E E, as likewife to the pi¬
nion e, and wheel FF, which moves the pinion/', upon
the axis of which the croyvn or balance wheel G H is
fixed. The pivots of the pinion/ play in holes of the
plates L M which are fixed horizontally to the plates
T S. In a word, the motion begun by the weight is
tranfmitted from the wheel G H to the palettes I K,
which communicates its motion, by means of the fork
U X riveted on the palettes, to the pendulum A B,
which is fufpended upon the hook A. The pendulum
A B deferibes, round the point A, an arc of a circle
alternately going and returning. If then the pendu¬
lum be once put in motion by a pufh of the hand, the
weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon
itfelf, and it will continue to go alternately backward
and forward till the refiftance of the air upon the pen-
11 Z 2 dulum,
Clock.
C L O [ 2020 ] C L O
dulum, and the friction at the point of fufpenfion at A,
deltroys the original impfefled force. But as, at every
vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balance-
wheel G H aft fo upon the palettes I K, (the pivots
upon the axis of thefe palettes play in two holes of the
potence s t,) that after one tooth H has communicated
motion to the palette K, that tooth efcapes ; then the
oppolite tooth G afts upon the palette I, and efcapes
in the fame manner; and thus each tooth of the
wheel efcapes the palettes I, K, after having commu¬
nicated their motion to the palettes in fuch a manner
that the pendulum, inftead of being ftopt, continues
to move.
The wheel E E revoles in an hour ; the pivot c of
this wheel palles through the plate, and is continued
to r; upon the pivot is a wheel N N with a long
i’ocket faftened in the centre ; upon the extremity of
this focket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel
N N afts upon the wheel O ; the pinion of which,
afts upon the wheel g g, fixed upon a focketr which
turns along with the wheel N. This wheel makes
its revolution in 12 hours, upon the barrel of which
the hour-hand is fixed.
From the aboite defcription it is eafy to fee, r. That
the weight p turn's all the wheels, and at the fame
time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That the
quicknefs of the motion of the wheels is determined
"by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point
out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of
the pendulum.
When the cord upon which the weight is fufpend-
ed is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound
up again by means of a key, which goes on the fquare
end of the arbor at by turning it in a contrary di¬
rection from that in which the weight defcends. For
this purpofe, the inclined fide of the teeth of the wheel
R (fig. 2.) removes the click C, fo that the ratchet-
wheel R turns while the wheel D is at relt: but as
foon as the cord it wound up, the click falls in be¬
tween the teeth of the wheel D, and the right fide of
the teeth again aft upon the end of the click, which
obliges the wheel D to turn along with the barrel;
and the fpring A keeps the crank between the teeth
of the ratchet-wheel R.
We fliall now explain how time is meafured by the
motion of the pendulum; and how the wheel E, upon
the axis of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but
one precife revolution in an hour. The vibrations of
a pendulum are performed in a Ihorter or longer time
in proportion to the length of the pendulum itfelf. A
pendulum of 3 feet 8^ French lines in lenth, makes
3600 vibrations in an hour : i. e. each vibration is per¬
formed in a fecond of time, and for that reafon it is
called a fecond pendulum. But a pendulum of 9 inches
21 French lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, or
two vibrations in a fecond of time, and is called ahalf-
feeond pendulum. Hence, in conftrufting a wheel
whofe revolution inuft be performed in a given time,
the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which re¬
gulates its motion mull be confidered. Suppofing,
then, that the pendulum AB makes 7200 vibrations in
an hour, let us confider how the wheel E fhall take up
an hour in making one revolution. This entirely
depends on the number of teeth in the wheels and
pinions. If the balance-wheel confifis of 30 teeth,
it will turn once in the time that the pendu- “
lum makes 60 vibrations : for at every turn of the
wheel, the fame tooth afts once on the palette I, and
once on the palette K, which occafions two feparate
vibrations in the pendulum; and the wheel having 30
teeth, it Occafions twice 30, or 60 vibrations. Con-
fequently, this wheel mhft perform 120 revolutions
in an hour ; becaufe 60 vibrations, which it occa¬
fions at every revolution, are contained 120 times
in 7200, the number of vibrations performed by the
pendulum in an hour. Now, in order to determine
the number of teeth for the wheels E F, and their pini-
ons e f, \x rnuft be remarked, that one revolution of
the wheel E mud turn the pinion c as many times as
the number of teeth in the pinion is contained in the
number of teeth in the wheel. Thus, if the wheel E
contains 72 teeth, and the pinion e 6, the pinion will
make 12 revolutions in the time that the wheel makes
I ; for each tooth of the wheel drives forward a tooth
of the pinion, and when the 6 teeth of the pinion are
moved, a complete revolution is performed ; but the
wheel E has by that time only advanced 6 teeth, and
lias ftill 66 to advance before its revolution be com-
pleated, which will occafion 11 more revolutions 6f
the pinion. For the fame reafon, the wheel F ha¬
ving 60 teeth, and the pinion f 6, the pinion will
make 10 revolutions while the wheel performs one.
Now, the wheel F being turned by the pinion e, makes
12 revolutions for Ohe of the wheel E ; and the pi¬
nion f makes 10 revolutions for one of the wheel F ;
confequently, the pinion f performs 10 times 12 or
120 revolutions in the time the wheel E performs one.
But the wheel G, which is turned by the pinion^ oc¬
cafions 60 vibrations in the pendulum each time it
turns round ; confequently the wheel G occafions 60
times 120 or 7200 vibrations of the pendulum while
the wheel E performs one revolution ; but 7200 is
the number of vibrations made by the pendulum in an
hour, and confequently the wheel E performs but one
revolution ih an hour; and fo of the reft.
From this reafoning, it is eafy to difcover how a
clock may be made to go for any length of time with¬
out being wound up : 1. By increafing the number of
teeth in the wheels. 2. By diminifhing the number of
teeth in the pinions. 3. By increafing the length of
the cord that fufpends the weight: and laftly, by add¬
ing to the number of wheels and pinions. But, in
proportion as the time is augmented, if the weight
continues the fame, the force which it communicates
to the laft wheel G H will be diminifhed.
It only remains to take notice of the number of
teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minute
hands.
The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour ;
the wheel N N, which is turned by the axis of the
wheel E, mufi: likewife make only one revolution in
the fame time ; and the minute-hand is fixed to the
barrel of this wheel. The wheel N has 30 teeth, and
afts upon the wheel O, which has likewife 30 teeth,
and the fame diameter ; confequently the wheel O
takes one hour to a revolution : now the wheel O car¬
ries the pinion />, which has 6 teeth, and which afts
upon the wheel /pq of 72 teeth ; confequently the pi¬
nion
Clbcki
. //is//. /•.
C L O I 2021 1 C L
Clodius nion^ makes 12 revolutions while the wheel qq makes
Clofe 0ne, anc* tour^e t^ie wheel qq takes 12 hours to one
0 e' revolution ; and upon the barrel of this wheel the
hour-hand is fixed. We fhall conclude with remark¬
ing, that all that has been laid here concerning the re¬
volutions of the wheels, ire. is equally applicable to
watches as to clocks. See the article Watch, to
which the other figures on the plate relate.
CLODIUS (Publius), the Roman fenator ; a facti¬
ous citizen, whofe party became very powerful in
* Sec Cice- Rome, and procured the banilhment of Cicero*. He
r0’ was killed on the Appian way by one of Milo’s fer-
vants, 53 years before Chrilt.
CLOGHER, an epilcopal town of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone, and province of Ullier. It fends
two members to parliament. W. Long. 7. 30. N.
Lat. 54. 16.
CLOISTER, (Claultrum,) a habitation furrounded
with walls, and inhabited by canons or religious, ire.
In a more general fenfe, cloilter is 'ufed for a mo-
nallery of religious of either fex. In a more reftrain-
ed fenfe, cloilter is ufed for the principal part of a re¬
gular monaltery, conliiling of a fquare built around;
ordinarily between the church, the chapter-houfe, and
the refedtory; and over which is the dormitory. The
cloilters ferved for leveral purpofes in the ancient mo-
nalteries. Petrus Blefenfis obferves, that it was here
the monks held their leCtures : the leCture of morali¬
ty at the north-lide, next the church; the fchool on
the well, and the chapter on the ealt; fpiritual medi¬
tation, Ufc. being referved for the church. Lanfranc
obferves, that the proper ufe of the cloiller was for
the monks to meet in, and converfe together, at cer¬
tain hours of the day.
The form of the cloifter was fquare ; and it had its
name clauflrum, from claude, “ I Ihut or clofe as
being inclofed on its four fides with buildings. Hence,
in architecture, a building is Hill laid to be in form of
a cloilter, when there are buildings on each of the four
Tides of the court.
CLOSE, in heraldry. When any bird is drawn in
a coat of arms with its wings clofe down about it,
{i. e. not dilplayed), and in a Handing poflure ; they
blazon it by this word cJo/e ; but if it be flying, they
call it See Volant.
Close, in mulic. See Cadence.
CLOSE-Hauled, in navigation, the general arrange¬
ment or trim of a Ihip’s fails when Ihe endeavours to
make a progrefs in the nearefl direction poflible to¬
wards that point of the compafs from which the wind
blows. In this manner of failing, the keel commonly'
makes an angle of fix points with the line of the wind ;
but Hoops and fome other fmall vefiels are faid to fail
almofi a point nearer. All velfels, however, are fup-
pofed to make nearly a point of lee-way when clofe-
liauled, even when they have the advantage of a good
failing breeze and fmooth water. The angle of lee¬
way, however, increafes in proportion to the increafe
of the wind and fea. In this difpofition of the fails,
they are all extended fideways on the fhip, fo that
the wind, as it crofles the fhip obliquely toward the
Hern from forwards, may fill their cavities. But as
the current of winds alfo enters the fails in an oblique
direClion, the effort -of it to make the fhip advance
is confiderably diminifhed: fhe will therefore make Clofie-
the leaH progrefs when failing in this manner. The II
fhip is faid to be clofe-hauled, becaufe at this time her c*otil‘
tads, or lower corners of the principal fails, are drawn
clofe down to her fide to windward, the fheets haul¬
ed clofe-aft, and all the bow-lines drawn to their
greateH extenfion to keep the fails Heady.
CLOSU-Quarters, certain Hrong barriers of wood,
Hretching acrofs a merchant-flap in feveral places.
They are ufed as places of retreat when a fhip is
boarded by her adverfary, and are therefore fitted
with leveral fmall loop-holes through which to fire
the fmall arms, and thereby annoy the enemy and de¬
fend themfelves. They are likewife furnilhed with
feveral caifons called powder-chejls, which are fixed
upon the deck, and filled with powder, old-nails, tfre.
and may be fired at any time from the clofe-quarters
upon the boarders.
We have known an Englifh merchant-fhip of id Falconer's
guns, and properly fitted with clofe-quarters, defeat Did-of die
the united efforts of three French privateers who ar,r‘e*
boarded her in the laH war, after having engaged at
fome diHance nearly a day and a halt, with very
few intervals of reff. Two of the cruifers were
equipped with twelve guns each, and the other with
eight. The French failors were, after boarding, fo
much expofed to continued,fire of mufquetry and
coehorns charged with grenadoes, that a dreadful
feene of carnage enfued, in which the decks were
foon covered with the dead bodies of the enemy, fe¬
veral of which the boarders, in their hurry to efcape,
had left behind.
CLGT-kird; a fpecies of Fringilla.
CLOTH, in commerce, a manufaiHure made of
wool, wove in the loom.
Cloths are of divers qualities, fine or courfe. The
goodnefs of cloth, according to fome, confiffs in the
following particulars. 1. That the wool be of a good
quality, and well drefled. 2. It mufi be equally Ipun,
carefully obferving that the thread of the warp be
finer and better twilled than that of the woof. 3. The
cloth mull be well wrought, and beaten on the loom,
fo as to be every where equally compact. 4. The
wool mufi not be finer at one end of the piece than in
the reft. 5. The lilts mufi be fufliciently Hrong, of
the lame length with the fluff, and mufi conlift of
good wool, hair, or oftrich-feathers; or, what is Hill
better, of Daniih dog’s hair. 6. The cloth mufi be
free from knots, and other imperfedlions. 7. It muft
be well fcoured with fuller’s earth, well fulled with
the belt white foap, and afterwards walked in clear
water. 8. The hair or nap mult be well drawn out
with the teazel, without being too much opened.
9. It mufi be ftiorn clofe without making it thread-bare.
10. It mufi be well dried, it. It mult not be ten-
ter-ftretched, to force it to its juft dimenfions. 12. It
muft be preffed cold, not hot preffed, the latter being
very injurious to woolen cloth.
Manujaci tiring of tuhits Cloths which are intended for
dyeing. The belt wool for the manufacturing of cloths
are thofe of England and Spain, efpecially thofe of
Lincolnlhire and Segovia. To ufe thofe wools to the
bell advantage, they muft be fcoured, by putting
them into a liquor fomewhat more than lukewarm,
eompofed
C L O [ 2022 ] C L O
Cloth, compofed of three parts fair water, and one of urine,
" After the wool has continued long enough in the liquor
to foak, and diflolve the greafe, it is drained and well
walked in running water. When it feels dry, and
has no fmell but the natural one of the Iheep, it is laid
to be duly fcoured.
After this, it is hung to dry in the lhade ; the heat
of the fun making it harfli and inflexible: when dry,
it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords,
to cleanfe it from dull and the grolfer filth ; the
more it is thus beat and cleanfed, the fofter it becomes,
and the better for fpining. After beating, it mull be
well picked, to free it from the reft of the filth that
had efcaped the rods.
It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and
carded on large iron cards placed llopewife. Olive
oil is efteemed the bell for this purpofe: one fifth of
which Ihould be ufed for the wool intended for the
woof, and a ninth for that defigned for the warp.
After the wool has been well oiled, it is given to the
fpinnersj.who firlt card it on the knee with finall fine
cards, and then fpin it on the wheel, obferving to
make the thread of the warp fmaller by one third
than that of the woof, and much comparer twilled.
The thread thus fpun, is reeled, and made into
Ikeins. That defigned for the woof is Wound on little
tubes, pieces of paper, or rulhes, fo difpofed as that
they may be eafily put in the eye of the Ihuttle. That
for the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden
bobbins, to difpofe it for warpipg. When warped,
it is ftiftened with fize ; the bell of which is that made
of Ihreds of parchment; and when dry, is given to the
weavers, who mount it on the loom.
The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are two
to each loom, one on each fide, tread alternately on
the treddle, firft on the right Hep, and then on the
left, which raifes and lowers the threads of the warp
equally ; between which they throw tranverfely the
Ihuttle from the one to the other: and every time
that the Ihuttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the
woof inferted within the warp, they llrike it conjundl-
ly with the fame frame, wherein is faftened the comb
or reed, between whofe teeth the threads of the warp
are palled, repeating the llroke as often as is necef-
fary.
The weavers having continued their work till the
whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is fi-
nilhed; it is then taken oil' the loom by unrolling it
from the beam whereon it had been rolled in propor¬
tion as it was wove ; and now given to be cleanfed of
the knots, ends of threads, draws, and other filth,
which is done with iron nippers.
In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be
fcoured with urine, or a kind of potter’s clay, well
lleeped in water, put along with the cloth in the
trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again
cleared from the e^rth or urine, is returned to the
former hands to have the Idler filth, fmall draws, b-c.
taken off as before: then it is returned to the fuller
to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a da¬
table quantity of foap has been diffolved; after ful¬
ling, it is taken out to be fmoothed, or pulled by the
lifts lengthwife, to take out the wrinkles, crevices, be.
The fmoothing is repeated every two hours, till
the fulling be finiflied, and the cloth brought to its Cloth
proper breadth : after which it is waflied in clear wa- II
ter, to purge it of the foap, and given wet to the
carders to raife the hair or nap on the right fide with
tire thiftle or weed. After this preparation the cloth-
worker takes the cloth, and gives it its firft cut or
Ihearing: then the carders refume it, and after wet-
ting, give it as many more courfes with tlie teazle,
as the quality of the fluff requires, always obferving
to begin againft the grain of the hair, and to end
with it; as alfo to begin with a fmoother thiftle, pro¬
ceeding Hill with one fharper and fharper, as far as
the fixth degree.
After thefe operations, the cloth being dried, is re¬
turned to the cloth-worker, who fheers it a fecond
time, and returns-it to the carders, who repeat their
operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on
the furface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to
the other.
The cloth thus wove, fcoured, napped, and fhorn,
is fent to the dyer; when dyed, it is wafhed in fair
water, and the worker takes it again wet as it is,
lays the nap with a brufh on the table, and hangs it
on the tenters, where it is flretched both in length
and breadth fufficiently to fmooth it, fet it fquare,
and bring it to its proper dirnenfions, without (train¬
ing it too much; obferving to brufh it afrefh, the i
way of the nap, while a little moift, on the tentors.
When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters,
and brufhed again on the table, to finifh the laying of
the nap; after which it is folded, and laid cold under
a prefs, to make it perfectly fmooth and even, and
give it a glofs.
Laftly, the cloth being taking out of the prefs, and
the papers, be. for gloffing it removed, it is in a con¬
dition for fale or ufe. With regard to the manufac¬
ture of mixt cloths, or thofe wherein the wools are
firft dyed, and then mixt, fpun and wove of the co¬
lours intended, the procefs, except^.what relates to
the colour, is moftly the fame with that juft repre-
fented.
Cloth made from Vegetable Filaments. See Bark
and Filaments.
Incombuflible Cloth. See Asbestos.
CLOUD, a collection of vapours fufpended in the
atmofphere. , ;
That the clouds are formed from the aqueous va- Caufe of
pours which before were fo clofely united with the formation
atmofphere as to be invifible, is univerfally allowed : 0^c*ou^s i
but it is no eafy matter to account for the long conti- UI*certaln•
nuance of fome very opake clouds without diffolving ;
or to give a reafon why the vapours, when they have
once begun to condenfe, do not continue to do fo till
they at laft fall to the ground in the form of rain or
fnow, be. Under the article Barometer, n® 23.
we have hinted at the general caufe of the formation
of clouds, namely, a feparation of the latent heat
from the water whereof the vapour is compofed.
The confequence of this feparation, as is undeniably
proved by Dr Black, mult be the condenfation of that
vapour, in fome degree at lead: in fuch cafe, it
will firft appear as a fmoke, mill, or fog ; which, if
interpofed betwixt the fun and earth, will form a cloud;
and, the fame caufes continuing to act, the cloud will
produce
"c L O [ 2023 ] C L O
cloucl- produce rain or fnow. But though the reparation of
this latent heat in a certain degree is the immediate
caufe of the formation of clouds, the remote caufe,
or the changes produced in the atmofphere, whereby
fuch a reparation may be induced, are much more
difficult to be dilcovered. In common obfervation,
2 ^e fee that vapour is moft powerfully condenfed by
Not always cold fubflances, fuch as metals, water, h-c. But cold
owing to alone cannot in all cafes caufe the condenfation of the
atmofpherical vapours, otherwife the nights behoved
to be always foggy or cloudy, owing to the vapours,
railed throughout the day by the heat of the fun, being
condenfed by the fuperior coldnefs of the night. Great
rains will happen in very warm weather, when the
union of the vapours with the atmofphere ought ra¬
ther to be promoted than diffolved, if cold was the
only agent in their condenfation. The ferenity of the
atmofphere, alfo, in the moft levere frofts, abundant¬
ly (hews that fome other caufe befides mere heat or
cold is concerned in the formation of clouds, and con-
3 denfation of the atmofpherical vapours.
EleOricity The eleiftric fluid is now fo generally admitted as
Concerned m a£ent 'n a" t'ie great operations of nature, that it
Koncerne . -s no won(jer to finc] tjie fonmtion of clouds attributed
to it. This hath accordingly been given by S. Bec-
caria as the caufe of the formation of all clouds what-
foever, whether of thunder, rain, hail, or fnow.
The firft, he thinks, are produced by a very great
power of elehlricity, and_the others by one more mo¬
derate. But though it is certain that all clouds, or
even fogs and rain, are electrified in fome degree, it
ftill remains a queftion, whether the clouds are form¬
ed in confequence of the vapour whereof they are
compofed being firft electrified, or whether they be¬
come electrified in confequence of its being firft fe-
parated from the atmofphere, and in fome meafure
condenfed. This hath not yet, as far as we know,
been afcertained by the experiments of Beccaria, or
any other perfon, and indeed, notwithftanding the
multitude of electrical difcoveries that have lately been
made, there feems to be little or no foundation for
afcertaining it. Electricity is known to be in many
cafes a promoter of evaporation; but no experiments
have yet been brought to prove, that electrified air
parts with its moifture more readily than fuch as
is not electrified ; fo that, till the properties of elec¬
trified air are farther inveftigated, it is impofiible to
lay down any rational theory of the formation of
4 clouds upon this principle.
Clouds of. But whether the clouds are produced, /. e. the in-
ten prodigl-vifible vapours floating in the atmofphere condenfed
oufly elec- f0 as to become vifible, by means of electricity, or not,
tn e ' it is certain that they do contain the electric fluid in
prodigious and inconceivable quantities, and many very
terrible and deftructive phenomena have been occa-
fioned by clouds very highly electrified. The moft
5 extraordinary inftance of this kind, perhaps, on record.
Terrible happened in the ifland of Java in the Eaft Indies in
deftruttion Augufti772. On the irthof that month, at mid-
an ®'ecT night, a bright cloud was obferved covering a moun-
hi Java °U tain *n t'le diftrict called Cheribon, and at the fame
time feveral reports were heard like thofe of a gun.
The people who dwelt on the upper parts of the
mountain not being able to fly fall enough, a great
part of the cloud, almoft three leagues in eircumfe- Cloud’,
rence, detached itfelf under them, and was feen at a ""
diftance rifing and fallinglike the waves of the fea, and
emitting globes of fire fo luminous, that the night be¬
came as clear as day. The effetfts of it were aftonifli-
ing t every thing was deftroyed for feven leagues round;
the houfes were demolilhed ; plantations were buried in
the earth; and 2140 people loft their lives, befides 1500
head of cattle, and a vaft number of horfes, goats, ire. 5
Another inftance of a very deftrueftive cloud, the elec- By another
trie qualities of which will at prelent-fcarcely be doubt- in the ifland
ed, is related by Mr Brydone, in his tour through of
Malta. It appeared on the apt*1 of Ocftober 1757.
About three quarters of an hour after midnight, there
was feen to the fouth-weft of the city of Melita, a
great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed its
colour, till at laft it became like a flame of fire mixed
with black fmoke. A dreadful noife was heard on its
approach, which alarmed the'whole city. It pafled
over the port, and came firft on an Englilh fhip, which
in an inftant was torn in pieces, and nothing left but
the hulk; part of the mafts, fails, and cordage, were
carried to a confiderable diftance along with the cloud.
The fmall boats and felloques that fell in its way were
all broken to pieces and funk. The noife increafed
and became more frightful. A centinel terrified at its-
approach ran into his box ; but both he and it were
lifted up and carried into the fea, where he perifhed.
It then traverfed a confiderable part of the city, and
laid in ruins almoft every thing that ftood in its way.
Several houfes were laid level with the ground, and
it did not leave one fteeple in its paflage. The bells
of fome of them, together with the fpires, were car¬
ried to a confiderable diftance ; the roofs of the
churches demolilhed and beat down, ire. It went off
at the north-eaft point of the city, and, demolilhing
the light-houfe, is faid to have mounted up into the
air with a frightful noife ; and pafled over the fea to
Sicily, where it tore up fome trees, and did other da¬
mage ; but nothing confiderable, as its fury had been
moftly fpent at Malta. The number of killed and
wounded amounted to near 200 ; and the lofs of {hip¬
ping, ire. was very confiderable. See Hurricane,
and Whirlwind.
The effects of thunder-ftorms, and the vaft quantity
of electricity collected in the clouds which produce
thefe ftorms, are fo well known, that it is fuperfluous
to mention them. It appears, however, that even
thefe clouds are not fo highly eleiftrifled as to produce
their fatal effeefts on thofe who are immerled in them.
It is only the difeharge of part of their electricity up¬
on fuch bodies as are either not electrified at all, or
not fo highly electrified as the cloud, that does-all the j
mifehief. We have, however, only the following in- Inftance of
fiance on record, of any perfon’s being immerfed in two people
the body of a thunder-cloud. Profeffor Sauffure, and
young Mr Jalabert, when travelling over one of the c|ou^
high Alps, were caught among clouds of this kind ;
and to their aftonilhment found their bodies fo full of
electrical fire, that fpontaneous flafhes darted from
their fingers with a crackling noife, and the fame kind
of fenfation as when ftrongly electrified by art. g
The height of clouds in general is not great ; the Height of
fummits of very high mountains being commonly quite the clouds,.
free
d L O [ 2024 ] C L 'U
Cloud free from them, as Mr Brydon experienced in his jour-
D ney up mount Aitna : but thole which are moll high-
oyne. ]y eleflrified delcend lowe<t, their height being often
not above feven or eight hundred yards above the
ground ; nay, fometimes thunder-ciouds appear a&u-
*See Thun, ally to touch the ground with one of their edges *;
ty' but the generality of clouds are fufpended at the height
of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some,
however, have imagined them to rife to a moft incre¬
dible and extravagant height. Maignan of Tholoufe,
in his treatife of Perfpeclive, p. 93, gives an account
of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at
midnight in the month of Auguft, which fpread itfelf
-almolt as far as the zenith. He fays that the fame
thing was alfo obferved at Rome ; and from thence
concludes, that the cloud was a collection of vapours
raifed beyond the projection of the earth’s lhadow,
and of confequence illuminated by the beams of the
fun. This, however, can by no means be credited ;
and it is much more probable that this cloud owed its
fplendor to eleCtricity, than to the reflection of the
9 folar beams.
Their van- In the evenings after fun-fet, and mornings before
accounted^ ^un‘r^e> we often obferve the clouds tinged with
for. beautiful colours. They are moltly fed ; fometimes
orange, yellow, or purple; more rarely bluilh; and fel-
dom or evef green. The reafon of this variety of
colours, according to Sir Ifaac Newton, is the different
fize of the globules into which the vapours are con-
denfed. This is controverted by Mr Melville, who
thinks that the clouds refleCt the fun’s light precifely
as it is tranfmitted to them through the atmofphere.
This refleCls the moft refrangible rays in the greateft
quantity; and therefore ought to tranfmit the leaft re¬
frangible ones, red, orange, and yellow, to the clouds,
which accordingly appear moft ufually of thofe co¬
lours. In this opinion he was greatly confirmed by
obferving, when he was in Switzerland, that the
fnowy fummits of the Alps turned more and more
reddilh after fun-fet, in the fame manner as the clouds:
and he imagines that the femi-tranfparency of the
clouds, and the obliquity of their fituation, tend to
make the colours in them much more rich and copious
than thofe on the tops of fnowy mountains.
CLOVES, in botany. See Caryophyllus.
CLOVE-tree, in botany. See Caryophyllus.
Clove-, a term ufed in weights of wool. Seven
pounds make a clove. In Eifex, eight pounds of
cheefe and butter go to the clove.
Clove July-flower. See Dianthus.
CLOVER-grass, in botany. See Trifolium ;
and Agriculture, n° 133 —135.
CLOVIS I. was the real founder of the F'rench
monarchy. For he was the firft conqueror of the fe-
veral provinces of Gaul pofleffed before his time by
the Romans, Germans and Goths; thefe he united to
the then fcanty dominions of B'rance, removed the
feat of government from Sciffons to Paris, and made
this the capital of his new kingdom. He died in 511,
in the 46th year of his age, and 31st of his reign.
See {Hift. of ) France.
CLOYNE, a city and bilhop’s fee of Ireland, in the
county of Cork, and province of Munfter : W. Long.
8. o. N.Lat. 51. 40.
CLUE of a sail, the lower corner ; and hence CI«e
CLUE-6'<?r«fff, are a fort of tackles faftened to the 8
clues,, or lower corners of the main-fail, or fore-fail, lJ)ea
to trufs them up to the yard as occafion requires,
which is ufually termed chieing up the fails.
Ci.\jv.-Lines are for the fame purpofe as clue-gar¬
nets ; only that the latter are confined to the courfes,
whereas the former are common to all the Iquare-fails,
See thefe ropes as reprefented in the article Ship.
CLUNY, or Clugnv, a celebrated abbey of Bene-
duftine monks, in a city of that name; being the head
or chief of a congregation denominated from them.
It is fituated in the Mafonnois, a little province of
France, oh the river Grone; and was founded by
William duke of Berry and Aquitain ; or, as others
fay, by the abbot Bernon, fupported by that duke, in
the year 91 o.
This abbey was anciently fo very fpacious and mag¬
nificent, that in 1245, after the holding of the firft
council of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. went to Cluny,
accompanied with the 2 patriarchs of Antioch and
Conftantiuople, 12 cardinals, 3 archbifiiops, 15 bilhops,
and a great number of abbots ; who were all enter¬
tained, without one of the monks being put out of
their place : tho’ S. Louis, Q. Blanche his mother, the
duke of Artois his brother, and his fsfter, the empe¬
ror of Conftantinople, the ions of the kings of Arra-
gon and Caftile, the duke of Burgundy, 6 counts, and
a great number of lords, with all their retinues, were
there at the fame time.
Cluny, at its firft erection, was put under the im¬
mediate protection of the apoftolic fee ; with exprefs
prohibition to all fecular and ecclefiaftic powers, to di-
fturb the monks in the poffeffion of their effedis, or
the election of their abbot. By this they pretended
to be exempted from the jurifdiction of bilhops; which
at length gave the hint to other abbeys to infill on the
fame.
Cluny is the head of a very numerous and extenlive
congregation : in effeCt, it was the firft congregation
of divers monafteries united under one chief, fo as
only to conftitute one body, or, as they call it, one
order, that ever arofe.
CLUPEA, or herring, in ichthyology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of abdominales. The upper jaw
is furnilhed with a ferrated myftache ; the branchio-
ftege membrane has eight rays; a fcaly ferrated line
runs along the belly from the head to the tail; and
the belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are
11 fpecies, viz.
1. The harengus, or common herring, has no fpots,
and the under jaw is longer than the upper one. A
herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water; whence the proverb arifes, As dead as a her¬
ring. The meat is every where in great efteem, be¬
ing far, foft, and delicate ; efpecially if it is drafted as
foon as caught, for then it is incomparably better than
on the next day.
The herring was unknown to the ancients. Not-
withftanding the words jcaAxtr and petmt, are, by tranf-
lators rendered halec, the characters given to thofe
filh are common to fuch numbers of different fpecies as
render it impoffible to fay which they intended.
Herrings are found from the higheft northern lati¬
tudes,
Clupea.
Herrings,
where
2
Immenfe
ihoal of
them.
Wonderful
inftinft of
thefe crea¬
tures.
G L U [ 2025 ] C L U
tudes, yet known as low as the northern coafts of
France; and except one inltance, brought by Dod, of
a few being once taken in the bay of Tangier, none
are ever found more foutherly. They are met with
in vaft flioals on the coaft of America, as low as Ca¬
rolina. In Chefapeak-bay is an annual inundation of
thofe fifh, which cover the Ihore in fuch quantities as
to become a nuifance. We find them again in the
feas of Katntfchatka, and probably they reach Japan ;
for Kempfer mentions, in his account of the fifli of that
country, fiome that are congenerous. The great win¬
ter rendezvous of the herring is within theArdtic Circle;
there they continue for many months in order to re¬
cruit themfelves after the fatigue of fpawning; the feas
within that fpace fwarming with infedt-food in a far
greater degree than thofe of our warmer latitudes.
This mighty army begins.to put itfelf in motion in the
fpring : we diftinguilh this vaft body by that name ;
for the word hcrrwg comes from the German beer,
“ an army,” to exprefs their numbers. They begin
to appear off the Shetland ifles in April and May; thefe
are only the forerunners of the grand Ihoal which
comes in June : and their appearance is marked by
certain figns, by the numbers of birds, fuch as gannets
and others, which follow to prey on them ; but when
the main body approaches, its breadth and depth is
fuch as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It
is divided into diftindl columns of five or fix miles in
length, and three or four in breadth, and they drive
the water before them with a kind of rippling: fome-
times they fink for the fpace of ten or fifteen minutes,
and then rife again to the furface; and in fine
weather refieft a variety of fplendid colours like a
field of the moft precious gems; in which, or rather in
a much more valuable, light Ihould this ftupendous gift
of Providence be conftdered by the inhabitants of the
Britilh ifles.
The firft check this army meets in its march fouth-
ward is from the Shetland ifles, which divide it into
two parts; one wing takes to the eaft, the other to
the weftern Ihores of Great Britain, and fill every
bay and creek with their numbers ; others pafs on
towards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of
herrings : they then pafs through the Britilh Channel,
and after that, in a manner difappear. Thofe which
take towards the weft, after offering themfelves to
the Hebrides, where the great ftationary fifhery is,
proceed to the ndrth of Ireland, where they meet with
a fecond interruption, and are obliged to make a fe-
cond divifion: the one takes to the weftern fide, and
is fcarce perceived, being foon loft in the immenlity
of the Atlantic; but the other, that paffes into the Irifh
fea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of moft of the
coafts that border on it. Thefe brigades, as we may
call them, which are thus feparated from the greater
columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do
not fhew an invariable attachment to their haunts.
Were we inclined to confider this partial migra¬
tion in a moral light, we might refleift with venera¬
tion and awe on the mighty power which origi¬
nally impreffed on this moft ufeful body of his crea¬
tures ; the inftimft that directs and points out the
courfe, that bleffes and enriches thefe iflands, which
caufes them, at certain and invariable times, to quit
Vox.. III.
the vaft polar deeps, and offer themfelves to our ex-
pedting fleets. That benevolent Being has never
been known, from the earlieft account of time, once
to withdraw this blefling from the whole; though he
often thinks proper to deny it to particulars, yet this
partial failure (for which we fee no natural reafon)
Ihould fill us with the moft exalted and grateful fenfe
of his Providence for imprefling fuclran invariable and
general inftindl on thefe fifh towards a fouthward mi¬
gration when the whole is to be benefited, and to
withdraw it when only a minute part is to fuffer.
This inftindt was given them, that they might re¬
move for the fake of depofiting their fpawn in warmer
feas, that would mature and vivify it more affuredly
than thofe of the frozen zone. It is not from defedl
of food that they fet themfelves in motion ; for they
come to us full of fat, and on their return are almoft
univerfally obferved to be lean and miferable. What
their food is near the Pole we are not yet informed ;
but in our feas they feed much on the onifeus marinus.,
a cruftaceous infedt, and.fometimes on their own fry.
They are full of roe in the end of June, and conti¬
nue in perfediion till the beginning of winter, when
they depofit their fpawn. The young herrings begin
to approach the fhores in July and Auguft, and are
then from- half an inch to two inches long: thole in
Yorklhire are called herring file. Though we have
no particular authority for it, yet as very few young
herrings are found in our feas during winter, it feems
moft certain that they muft return to their parental
haunts beneath the ice, to repair the vaft deftrudtion
of their race during fummer by men, fowl, and fifli.
Some of the old herrings continue on our coaft the
whole year: the Scarborough fifliermen never put
down their nets but they catch a few : but the num¬
bers that remain are not worth comparifon with thofe
that return.
The herring-filhery is of great antiquity. The indu-
ftrious Dutch firft engaged in it about the year 1164;
and they were in pofleflion of it for feveral centuries:
but at length its value became fo juftly to be known, that
it gave rife to moft obftinate and well-difputed wars
between the Englilh and them; but ftill their diligence
and Ikill gives them a great advantage in that branch
of trade. Our great ftations are off the Shetland and
Weftern ifles, and off the coaft of Norfolk, in which
the Dutch alfo lhare. Yarmouth has been long fa¬
mous for its herring-fair; that town is obliged by its
charter to fend to the fhcriffs of Norwich, 100 her¬
rings, to be made into 24 pies, by them to be deli¬
vered to the lord of the manor of Eaft Carleton, who
is to convey them to the king. The facetious Dr
Fuller takes notice of the great repute the county of
Norfolk was in for this fifh, and, with his ufual arch-
nefs, ftiles a red-herring a Norfolk capon. In 1195,
Dunwiclx in Suffolk accounted to the king for their
yearly farm-rent L. 120, 1 merk, and 24,000 her¬
rings ; 12,000 for the monks of Ely, and 12,000 for
thofe of Eye.
The Dutch are moft extravagantly fond of this fifli
when it is pickled. A premium is given to the firft
bufs that arrives in Holland with a lading of this their
ambrofia, and a vaft price given for each keg. There
is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as
T 2 A the
Clupea.
4
Young ones
probably
retire with
their pa¬
rents.
Hiftory of
the herring
fifhery.
C L U [ 2026 ] C L U
Clupea. the Egyptians {hew on the firft overflowing of the
 g Nile. Flanders had the honour of inventing the art
Pickling of °f pickling herring's. One William Beauklen of Bi-
herrings, verier, near Slays, hit on this ufeful expedient: from
when in- him was derived the name pickle, which we borrow
vented. from the Dutch and German. Beauklen died in 1397.
The emperor Charles V. held his memory in fuch ve¬
neration for the fervice he did to mankind, as to do
his tomb the honour of a vilit. It is very fingular
that molt nations give the name of their favourite difti
to the facetious attendant on every mountebank. Thus
the Dutch call him pickle herring; the Italians, maca¬
roni; the French, jean pottage; the Germans, bans
•wurjt, that is, jack faufage; and the Englilh dignify
him with the name of jack pudding.
Sprattus, 2- The fprattus has 13 rays in the back fin. It is
where a native of the European feas, and has a great refem-
found. blance to the herring, only it is of a lefs lize. They
come into, the river Thames below bridge in the be¬
ginning of November, and leave it in March; and
are, during that feafon, a great relief to the poor of
the capital. At Grayefend and at Yarmouth, they are
cured like red-herrings: they are fometimes pickled,
and are little inferior in flavour to the anchovy, but
7 the bones vyill not difTolve like thofe of the latter.
.Alofa, or 3. The alofa, or /had, has a forked fnout, and black
lhad, where fp0ts on tiie According to Belonius and Haf-
oun * felquift, this is a fifh of paffage in the Nile. The laft
fays, it is found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna,
and on the coaft of Egypt near Rofetto; and that in
the months of December and January it afcends the
Nile as high as Cairo, where the people fluff it with
g pot marjoram ; and when dreffed in that manner, it
The fineft will very nearly intoxicate the eater.. In Great Bri-
inhabit the tain the Severn affords this filh in higher perfection
Severn. than any other river. It makes its firft appearance
there in May, but in very warm feafons in April; for
its arrival fooner or later depends much on the tem¬
per of the air. It continues in the river about two
months, and then is fucceeded by a variety which we
lhall have occafion to mention hereafter.
The Severn Iliad is efteemed a very delicate fifli
about the time of its firft appearance, efpecially in that
part of the river that flows by Gloucefter, where they
are taken in nets, and ufually fell dearer than falmon :
fome are fent to London, where the fifli-mongers di-
ftinguifh them from thofe of the Thames, by the French
name alofc. Whether they fpawn in this river and
the Wye is not determined, for their fry has not yet
been afcertained. The old fifli come from the lea
into the river in full roe. In the months of July and
Auguft, multitudes of bleak frequent the river near
Gloucefter; fome of them are as big as a fmall her¬
ring, and thefe the fifliermen erroneoufly fuppofe to
be the fry of the Iliad. Numbers of thefe are taken
near Gloucefter, in thofe months only, but none of the
emaciated Iliad are ever caught in their return.
The Thames Iliad does not frequent that river till
the latter end of May or beginning of June, and is
erteemed a very courfe and infipid fort of fifli. The
Severn fliad is fometimes caught in the Thames, though
9 rarely, and called allis (no doubt alofe, the French
Twake de- name) by the fifliermen in that river. About the
fciibed. fame time, and rather earlier, the variety called, near
Gloucefter, the twaite, makes its appearance; and is Clupea.
taken in great numbers in the Severn, and is-held in
as great difrepute as the Iliad of the Thames. The
diflerences between each variety are as follows: the
true fliad weighs fometimes eight pounds; but their
general fize is from four to five. The twaite, on the
contrary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds. The twaite differs from a
fliad only in having one or more round black fpots on
the fides : if only one, it is always near the gill; but
commonly there are three or four, placed one under
the other.
4. The encraficolus, or anchovy, has its upper jaw
longer than the under one, and is about three inches
long. They are taken in vaft quantities in the Me¬
diterranean, and are brought over here pickledk The
great fifliery is at Georgia, a fmall ifle weft of Leg¬
horn.
The other fpecies are, 5. The atherinoides has a
lliining line on each fide, and fmall belly-fins. It is a
native of Surinam. 6. The thrifta has 28 rays in the
fin at the anus. It is found in the Indian ocean. 7. The
fima has yellow fins, thofe of the belly being very
fmall. The mouth is flat; the upper jaw is very lliort;
the body is of a ftiining lilver colour ; and the fins are
yellow. It is a native of Alia. 8. The fternicla has
no belly-fins, and the body is broad. It is a native of
Surinam. 9. The myftus is fliaped like a fword, and
the fins at the anus are united. It is found in the In¬
dian ocean. 10. The tropica has a wedge-like tail,
and a white, broad, compreffed body ; and the tail is
wedge-fliaped. It is found at Afcenfion ifland. 11. The
finenfis is very like the common herring, but broader.
It has no teeth, and is a native of China.
CLUSIA, the balsam-tree ; a genus of the mo-
nsecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants.
There are four fpecies, all natives of America. The
moft remarkable is the flava. This is pretty common
in the Britifli American iflands, where the trees grow
to the height of 20 feet, and flioot out many branches
on every fide, furniflied with thick, round, fucculent
leaves placed oppofite. The flowers are produced at
the ends of the branches, each having a thick fuccu¬
lent cover. After the flowers are paft, they are fuc¬
ceeded by oval fruit. From every part of thefe trees
there exfudes a kind of turpentine, which is called in
the Weft Indies hog-gum; becaufe they fay, that when
any of the wild hogs are wounded, they repair to
thefe trees, and rub their wounded parts againft the
ftem till they have anointed themfelves with this tur¬
pentine, which heals their wounds. Thefe plants are
very tender, and in this country muft be kept con-
ftantly in a ftove ; and fparingly watered, efpecially
in winter ; for they naturally grow in thofe parts of
the iflands where it feldom rains, and cohfequently
cannot bear much moifture. They may be propagated
from cuttings, which muft be laid to dry for a fortnight
or three weeks, that the wounded parts may be healed
over, otherwife they will rot. The bell time for
planting thefe cuttings is in July, that they may be
well rooted before the cold weather comes on in
autumn.
CLUTIA, a genus of the gynandria order, belong¬
ing to the dioecia clafs of plants. There are three
fpecies.
10
Anchovy
defcribed.
C L U [ 2027 ] C L U
Cluvier fpecies, all of them natives of warm climates. They
II are evergreen Ihrubby plants, riling fix or eight feet
CIyfter- high, garnilhed with fimple leaves, and greenilh-white
quinquepetalous flowers. They are propagated by
cuttings in fpring or fummer, planting them in pots.of
light earth, plunged in a hot-bed. The plants mult
always be kept in a ftove.
CLUVIER (Philip),in Latin Cluverius, a celebrated
geographer, born at Dantzic in 1580. He travelled
into Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands, in order
to fludy law ; but, being at Leyden, Jofeph Scaliger
perfuaded him to give way to his genius tor geogra¬
phy. Cluvier followed his advice, and for this pur-
pofe vifited the greateft part of the European dates.
He was well verfed in many languages ; and where-
ever he went, obtained illultrious friends and protec¬
tors. At his return to Leyden, he taught there with
great applaufe ; and died in 1623, aged 43. He
wrote, I. De tribus Rheni alveis. 2. Germania au-
tiqua. 3. Sicilia antiqua. 4. Italia antiqua. 5. lu-
troduflia in univerfam Geographiam. All judly e-
deemed.
CLYDE, a river in Scotland, which, arifing in An-
nandale, runs north-wed by Lanerk, Hamilton, and
Glal’gow, and falls into the river Clyde, over againd
the die of Bute. Anciently this river was renowned
for producing gold dud and lapis lazuli, as it dill is
for the rich lead mines belonging to the Earl of Hop-
ton. Thefe are faid to have been difcovered by Sir
Bevis Bulmer, in the beginning of the lad century,
while he was endeavouring to find n gold mine.
CLYMENE, in fabulous hidory, the daughter of
Oceanus; who, being beloved by Apollo, he had by
her Phaeton, Lampatia, Egle, and Phebe. See Phae¬
ton.
CLYPEOLA, treacle-mustard ; a genus of the
filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs
of plants. There are two fpecies, both natives of
France, Italy, and the warm parts of Europe, but
hardy enough to bear the winters in this country. One
of them is an annual, and the other a perennial plant;
both are low and herbaceous, bearing fpikes of white
flowers. They are propagated by feeds, which Ihould
be fown in autumn where they are to remain.
CLYSSUS, an extract: prepared, not from one, but
feveral bodies mixt together: and, among the moderns,
the term is applied to feveral extracts prepared from
the fame body, and then mixed together. See Che¬
mistry, n° 221. r
CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be injected chiefly
at the anus into the larger intedines. It is ufually ad-
minidered by the bladder of a hog, Iheep, or ox, per¬
forated at each end, and having at one of the aper¬
tures an ivory pipe firdened with pack-thread. But
the French, ami fometimes the Dutch, ufe a pewter
fyringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with
more eafe and expedition than in the bladder, and
likewife more. forcibly expelled into the large inte¬
dines. This remedy fliould never be adminidered
either too hot or too cold, but tepid ; for either of
the former will be injurious to the bowels.
Clyders are fometimes ufed to nourilh and fupport
a patient who can fwallow little or no aliment, by rea-
fon of fome impediment in the organs of deglutition;
in which cafe they may be made of broth, milk, ale, Clytemnef-
and decodlions of barley and oats with wine. The tra
Englilh introduced a new kind of clyder, made of
the fmoke of tobacco, which has been ufed by feveral  -C——
other nations, and appears to be of confiderable effi¬
cacy when other clyders prove ineffedtual, and par¬
ticularly in the iliac paflion, in the hernia incarcerata,
and for the recovery of drowned perfons.
CLYTEMNESTRA, in fabulous hidory, the daugh¬
ter of Jupiter and Leda. She married Agamemnon ;
but while that prince was at the fiege of Troy, file
had an amorous intrigue with Aigidhus, whom flie
engaged to murder Agamemnon at his return to his
dominions. Her fon Oredes, however, revenged the
death of his father by killing AEgidhus, with his mo¬
ther Clytemnedra ; but was afterwards haunted by
the Furies as long as he lived.
CNEORUM, widow-wail ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, a little evergreen,
and very ornamental flirub, adorned with fimple
leaves, and tripetalous flowers of a pale yellow colour.
It is propagated from feeds, and requires no other
care than to be kept free from weeds.
CNICUS, blessed-thistle ; a genus of the po-
lygamia asqualis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants. There are 1'even fpecies, of which
the tmly remarkable one is that ufed in medicine under
the name of carduus benedittus. This is an annual
plant cultivated in gardens : it flowers in June and
July, and perfects it feeds in autumn. For medical
purpofes the plant fbould be gathered when in flower,
dried in the fliade, and kept in a very dry airy place,
to prevent its rotting or growing mouldy, which it is
very apt to do. The leaves have a penetrating bitter
tafte, not very ftrong or durable, accompanied with
an ungrateful flavour, which they are in a great mea-
fure freed from by keeping. Water extracts in a little
time, even without heat, the lighter and more grate¬
ful parts of this plant; if the digeition is continued for
fome hours, the difagreeable parts are taken up; a
flxong decodlion is very naufeous and offenfive to the
fiomach. Recitified fpirit gains a very pleafant bitter
tafte, which remains uninjured in the extradl. The
virtues of this plant are little known in the prefent
practice. The naufeous decocftion is fometimes ufed
to provoke vomiting ; and a ftrong infufion to pro¬
mote the operation of other emetics. But this elegant
bitter, when freed from the offenfive parts of the herb,
may be advantageoufly applied to other purpofes. Dr
Lewis informs us, that he has experienced excellent
eftecfts from a light infufion of carduus in lofs of appe¬
tite, where the ftomach was injured by irregularities.
A ftronger infufion made in cold or warm water, if
drunk freely, and the patient kept warm, occafions a
plentiful fweat, and promotes all the fecretions in ge¬
neral. The feeds of the plant are alfo confiderably
bitter, and have fometimes been ufed with the lame
intention as die leaves.
COACH, a vehicle for commodious travelling, fu-
fpended on leathers, and moved on wheels. In Eng¬
land, and throughout Europe, the coaches are drawn
by horfes, except in Spain, where they ufe mules. In
a part of the eaft, efpecially the dominions of the great
12 A 2 Mogul,
Coach
Coach.
C O A [ 2028 ] C O A
Mogul, their coaches are drawn by oxen. In Den¬
mark they fometimes yoke rein-deer in their coaches;
though rather for curiofity than ufe. The coachman
is ordinarily placed on a feat raifed before the body
of the coach. But the Spanilh policy has difplaced
him in that country by a royal ordonnance ; on occa-
fion of the duke d’Olivares, who found that a very
important fecret, whereon he had conferred in his
coach, had been overheard and revealed by his coach¬
man : lince that time the place of the Spanilh coach¬
man is the fame with that of the French ftage-coach-
man, and our poftillion, viz. on the hrft horfe on the
left.
The invention of coaches is owing to the French :
yet are not coaches of any great antiquity, even in
France ; Icarce reaching beyond the reign of their
Francis I. Their ufe, at their firft rife, was only for
the country : and authors obferve, as a thing very
lingular, that there were at firit no more than two
coaches in Paris ; the one that of the queen, and the
other that of Diana natural daughter of Henry II.
The firll courtier who had one was Jean de Laval de
Bois Dauphin; whole enormous bulk difabled him from
travelling on horfeback. One may hence judge how
much variety, luxury, and idlenefs, have grown upon
our hands in later days; there being now computed
in that fame city no lefs than 15,000 coaches.
Coaches have had the fate of all other inventions,
to be brought by degrees to their perfection ; at pre-
fent they feem to want nothing, either with regard
to eafe or magnificence. Louis XIV. of France made
feveral fumptuary laws for reftraining the exceffive
richnefs of coaches, prohibiting the ufe of gold, fil-
ver, ire. therein ; but they have had the fate to be
negleCted.
Coaches may be divided into two kinds ; thofe that
have iron bows, or necks, and thofe that have not:
both the one and the other have two principal parts,
the body and the train or carriage. The body is
that part where the palfengers are difpofed ; and the
carriage that which fuftains the body, and to which
the wheels are faftened, that give motion to the whole
machine. Coaches, with regard to their ftruChire,
are divided into coaches properly fo called, chariots,
calaflres, See.
Hackney-Coaches, thofe expofed to hire, in the
ftreets of London, and fome other great cities, at rates
fixed by authority.
Eight hundred hackney-coaches, and 200 chairs, are
allowed in London and Wellminller; which are to be
licenfed by commilfionevs, and to pay a duty to the
crown. They are all numbered, having their num¬
bers engraven on tin plates fixed on the coach doors.
Their fares or rates are fixed by aft of parliament ;
1 o s. for a whole day of 12 hours, for a fingle hour
I s. 6d.; for every hour after the firft is. At thefe
rates they are obliged to carry paflengers any where
within 10 miles of London.
Stage-Coaches, are thofe appointed for the con¬
veyance of travellers from one city or town to another.
The mafters of ftage-coaches are not liable to an ac¬
tion for things loft by their loachmen, who have mo¬
ney given them to carry the goods, milefs where fuch
mafter takes a price for the fame.
Coach, or Couch, is alfo a fort of chamber or apart¬
ment in a large fliip of war near the ftern. The floor
of it is formed by the aftmoft part of the quarter¬
deck, and the roof of it by the poop : it is generally
the habitation of the captain.
COADUNAT^E, in botany, an order qf plants in
the fragment a methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, in which
he has thefe genera, viz. annona, liriodendrum, mag¬
nolia, uvaria, michelia, thea. See Botany, p. 1316.
Vol. II.
COAGULATION, in chemiftry, is performed by
fix difl’erent agents; and by each of thefe in feveral
different manners. 1. It.is performed with water, by
congealing, cryltallizing,' and precipitating, as in the
mercurius vitae, and fome other preparations. 2. With
oil, which, by the force of fire, unites with fulphur,
falts, and metals. 3. With alcohol, upon the fpirit of fal
ammoniac, the white of eggs, the ferum of the blood,
ire. 4. With acid and alkali growing folid together,
as in the tartariim vitriolatum. 5. With fixed alkali,
as in milk. And, 6. With acid falts; as in milk, ferum,
and the whites of eggs.
COAGULUM, is the fame with what in Englifli
we call runnet, or rather the curd formed thereby.
COAKS. For the exciting of intenfe heats, as for the
fmelting of iron ore, and for operations where the
acid and oily particles would be detrimental, as the
drying of malt, foflil-coals are previoufly charred, or
reduced to coaks ; that is, they are made to undergo
an operation fimilar to that by which charcoal is made.
By this operation coals are deprived of their phlegm,
their acid liquor, and part of their fluid oil. Coaks,
therefore, confift of the two molt fixed conftituent parts,
the heavy oil and the earth, together with the acid
concrete fait, which, though volatile," is difiblved by
the oil and the earth.
COAL, among chemifts, fignifies any fubftance con¬
taining oil, which has been expofed to the fire in clofe
vefleis, fo that all its volatile principles are expelled,
and that it can fuftain a red heat without further de-
compofition. Coal is commonly folid, black, very dry,
and confiderably hard. The fpecific charatfter of per-
feccl coal is its capacity of burning with accefs of air,
while it becomes red-hot and fparkles, fometimes with
a fenfible flame which gives little light, with no fmoke
or foot capable of blackening white bodies.
Coal is capable of communicating its inflammable
principle, either to the vitriolic acid with which it
forms fulphur ; or to the nitrous acid contained in
nitre, which it inflames; or to metallic earths, which
it reduces into metals. But the phlogifton cannot pafs
from coal to form thefe new combinations without the
affiftance of red-heat. Coal feems to be an unalte¬
rable compound in every inftance but thofe mentioned,
of burning in the open air, and of communicating its
phlogifton to other bodies : for it may be expofed in
clofe veflels to the moft violent and long continued
fire without.fuffering the leaft^lecompofition. No dif-
pofition to fufe, nor any diminution of weight, can be
perceived. It is a fubftance exceedingly fixed, and
perhaps the moft refractory in nature. It refifts the
action of the moft powerful menftrua, liver of fulphur
alone excepted. Coal is evidently a refult of the de-
compofition of the compound bodies from which it is
obtained.
Coal.
C O A [ 2029 ] C O A
Coal. obtained. It confifts of the greateft part of the earthy
 principle of thefe compound bodies, with which a part
of the faline principles, and fome of the phlogifton of
the decompofed oil, are fixed and combined very inti¬
mately. Coal can never be formed but by the phlo-
gillon of a body which has been in an oily Hate :
iience it cannot be formed by fulphur, phofphorus,
metals, nor by any other fubftance the phlogifton of
which,is not in an oily Hate. Alfo every oily matter
treated with fire in dole veflels, furnifhes true coal; fo
that whenever a charry reliduum is left, we may be
certain that the fubltance employed in the operation
contained oil. LaHly, the inflammable principle of
- coal, although it proceeds from oil, certainly is not oil;
but pure phlogifton ; lince coal added to vitriolic acid
can form fulphur, to phofphoric acid can form phof¬
phorus, ire. and fince oil can produce none of thefe
effects till it has been decompofed and reduced to the
ftate of coal. Befides, the phenomena accompanying
the burning of coal are different from thofe which
happen when oily fubftances are burnt. The flame of
charcoal is not fo bright as that of oil, and produces no
flame or foot.
All the phlogifton of coal is not burnt in the open
air, particularly when the combuftion is flow. One
part of it exhales without decompofition, and forms a
vapour, or an invifible and infenfible gas. This va¬
pour, (which is, or at leall contains a great deal of,
fixed air) is found to be very pernicious, and to affe<ft
the animal fyftem in fuch a manner as to occafion
death in a very fliort time. For this reafon it is dan¬
gerous to remain in a clofe pla^e, where charcoal or
any other fort of coal is burnt. Perfons ftruck by this
vapour are ftunned, faint, fuffer a violent headach, and
fall down fienfelefs and motionlefs. The beft method
of recovering them is by expofure to the open air, and
by making them fwallow vinegar, and breathe its fteam.
Amongft coals, fome differences are obfervable, which
proceed from the difference of the bodies from which
they are made : fome coals, particularly, are more com-
buftible than others. This combuftibility feems to de¬
pend on the greater or lefs quantity of faline principle
they contain ; that is, the more of the faline principle
it contains, the more eaffly it decompofes and burns.
For example, coals made of plants and wood contain¬
ing much faline matter capable of fixing it, the allies
of which contain much alkaline fait, burn vigoroully
and produce much heat; whereas the coals of animal
matters, the faline principles of which are volatile, and
cannot be fixed but in fmall quantity, and the allies of
which contain little or no fait, are fcarcely at all com-
buftible. For they not only do not kindle fo eafily as
charcoal does, nor ever burn alone, but they cannot
be reduced to allies, without very great trouble, even
when the moft efle<Hual methods are ufed to facilitate
the combuftion. The coal of bullocks blood has been
kept for fix hours very red in a fliallow crucible, fur-
rounded with burning charcoal, and conftantly ftirred
all the time, that it might be totally expofed to the
air; yet could it not be reduced to white, or even
grey, alhes. It ftill remained very black, and full of
phlogifton. The coals of pure oils are of concrete
oily fubftances and foot, which is a kind of coal raifed
during inflammation, are as difficultly reduced to alhes
as animal coals. Thefe coals contain very little faline Coal,
matter; and their alhes yield no alkali. The coals II
which are fo difficultly burnt, are alfo lefs capable of Coaler>'-
inflaming with nitre than others more combuftible ;
and fome of them even in a great meafure refill the
ail ion of nitre.
Cannel-Qokt.. See AmpetTtes.
Foffil Cok-l, or Fit-coal. See Lithanthrax and
CoALERY.
Qohi.-FiJh. See Gapus.
CoAL-/k//»tf. See Coalery.—Malicioufly fetting
fire to coal-mines isfelony, by Hat. 10 Geo. II. c. 32. §6.
Small-Coh~L, a fort of charcoal prepared from the
fpray and brufliwood ftripped off from the branches of
coppice wood, fometimes bound in bairns for that pur-
pole, and fometimes charred without binding, in which
cafe it is called “ coming it together.” t
COALERY, Coaliery, or Colliery, a coal- Hiflory of
work, or place where coals are dug. See Lithan- coals.
THRAX.
It is generally agreed, that our cannel-coal* is the * See Am*
lapis ampelites of the Romans ; though it feems to pelites.
have been ufed by them only for making toys, brace¬
lets, ire. But of that common fuel which we deno¬
minate co*/.', the native Romans were entirely ignorant.
It is certain that they are not, as fome have imagined,
the lapis obfidianus of Pliny f, afiout which there have t L. xxxvL
been great difputes: nor the Gagates, or Jet, which "P- j*6-.
others, again, have taken for the lapis obfidianus; the
though the lightnefs and texture Ihow plainly that it is ftatues of
not either ftone or coal. In fadl, there are no beds of four ele-
it in the compafs of Italy. The great line of that fuel phants
feems to fwoep away round the globe, from north-eaft
to fouth-weft; not ranging at a diftance even from the pje 0f coa-
fouth-eafterly parts of our illand, as is generally ima- cord,
gined, but actually vifiting Brabant and France, and
yet avoiding Italy.
But the primaeval Britons appear to have ufed it.
And in the precinils of Manchefter particularly, which
are furnilhed with an inexhaultible abundance of it,
they could noUiave remained unapprifed of the agree* Whitaker’s
able combuftible around them. The currents there Hijtoryof
frequently bring down fragments of coal from the FLinchefier.
mountains ; and in the long and winding courfe of
them through the parilh, the Britons would foon mark
the fliining ftones in the channels; and by the aid of
accident, or the force of reflection, find out the utility
of them. But we can advance ftill nearer to a cer¬
tainty. Several pieces of coal were difeovered fome
years ago in the fand under the Roman way to Rib-
cbefter, when both were dug up at the conftruClion
of a honfe in £)uay-ftreet. The number of pieces,
feveral of them as large as eggs, was not lefs than 40 ;
and a quantity of flack was dug up with them. Thefe
circumftances fliow the coals to have been lodged upon
the Ipot, before the road of the Romans covered it.
That ground being in the neighbourhood of Mance- j u « tjie
niou J, the Britons had there repofited a quantity of place of
coals, probably for the ufe of the garrifon; and many tents.” An
of the finaller fragments, and fome of the flack, were a.1’^ient Bn~
buried in the fand upon which they were laid. And ^
that the Britons in general were acquainted with this which was
fuel, is evident from its appellation amongft us at pre- the prefent
lent, which is not Saxon, but Britilh ; and fubfifts a- Caftlefield
raong Manchef,
C O A
Coalery. mong the Irifii in their 0 gual, and among the Cornifii
 in their kolan, to this day.
The exteniive beds of fuel, therefore, with which the
[ 2030 ]
C O A
north, as up the channel as high as Portfmouth weft, Coalery.
is a prodigious article, and employs abundance of fhip- '
ping and feamen ; in lb much that, in a time of ur-
kingdom of England and the precinbbof Manchelter are gent neceffity, the coalery navigation alone has been
lb happily ftored, were firft noticed by the Ikill, and firft
opened by the labour, of the Britons; and fome time
before the arrival of the Romans among us. And the
nearer quarries in the confines of Bradford, Newton,
and Mancheller, would naturally attract the notice,
and invite the inquiries, of the Britons, before any
others. The current of the Medlock, which walhes
able to fupply the government with a body of fea¬
men for the royal navy, able to man a confiderable
fleet at a very Ihort warning, and that without diffi¬
culty, when no other branch of trade would do the
like. Likewife the Whitehaven coaleries in Cumber¬
land belonging to Sir James Lowther, furniffi feveral
counties in Ireland with coals, and conftantly employ
the fides of them, would bring down fpecimens of the upwards of 2000 feamen ; which alfo is a noble nur-
riches within, lodge many of them about the Caftlefield.
and allure the Britons fucceffively to a colleifion of the
one and a fearch after the other.
But, even for ages after the difeovery, wood continu¬
ed to compofe the general firing of the nation. In 852,
a grant was made of fome lands by, the abbey of Peter¬
borough, under the refervation of certain boons and
fery for the navy of this kingdom. And not only
do the pit-coals fufficiently fupply all the ports, but,
by means of thofe ports and the navigable rivers, all
the adjacent counties very far inland.
In ihort, coals, though not an exclufive, yet may,
with propriety, be ftiled a peculiar bleffing to Britain,
from their great plenty, their acknowledged excel-
payments in kind to the monaftery ; as, one night’s lence, and their being found in fuch places as
—  :   .  fTV 1 ^ t i 4.    — : 4.1.. 1'^  _ i    xt  •
entertainment; to veifels of Welili and two of com¬
mon ale ; 60 cart-loads of wood ; and 12 of pit-coal;
where we fee the quantity of coal was only one cart¬
load to five of wood. The latter naturally continued
the principal article of our fuel as long as the forefts
and thickets prefented themfelves fo ready to the
hand: and fuch it continued till a very late period.
The firft public notice of the former is mentioned by
Mr Hume to have been in the time of Henry III. who in
the year 1272, granted a charter to the town of New-
caftle, giving the inhabitants a licenfe to dig coals:
and the firft ftatute relating to this article
conveniently lituated for exportation. Nor is there
any danger of the export-trade being leflened even
by the feveral duties that have been laid upon them ;
for the foreign confumpt being founded in neceffity
with regard to manufactures, and in ceconomy where
they are ufed for convenience, (wood and turf being
dearer than coals with the duty), we need be in no
fear of the markets declining. There is as little room
to be alarmed from an appreheniion of their being
exhaufted, as the prefent works are capable of fupply-
ing us for a long feries of years, and there are many
other mines ready to be opened when thefe fliall fail.
9 Henry V. c. 10. ordaining all keels in the port of Befides, there are known to be coals in many parts
Newcaftle to be meafured by commiffioners, before
carriage of coals, on pain of forfeiture. They were not
brought into common ufe till the reign of Charles I. ;
Campbell’s and were then fold for about 17 s. a chaldron. In
political fome years after the reftoration, there were about
200,000 chaldrons burnt in London ; in 1670, about
276,000 chaldrons; and at the revolution, upwards of
300,000 chaldrons; and at prefent, full 600,000 are
annually confumed there. There is, befides, an im-
menfe confumption in other parts of Britain, and in
Ireland. In Scotland, they fnpply their own confump¬
tion, and alfo export. In Ireland, though they have
coal, yet they take annually to the value of 30,0001.
from England, and 12,0001. from Scotland.
There are feveral other countries in Europe which
polfefs confiderable coal-mines ; as France, Liege,
Germany, and Sweden. Alfo on the other fide of the
Atlantic ocean, there has been coal difeovered, and
2 wrought; in Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Canada, and
Excellence fome of the New-England provinces. But in all thefe
of the Bri- countries, the coal is of a quality much inferior to the
tifli coals. Britifli, and entirely unfit to be ufed in many manu-
of the three kingdoms, which hitherto they hav* had
no encouragement to work.
Befides the value of this commodity as a conveni-
ency of life, as an article of commerce, and as giving
rife to a nurfery of feamen for the increafe of the
marine; other important advantages deferve to be no¬
ticed. Coals are in many refpedts, and in a very high
degree, ufeful to the landed intereft ; not only by rai¬
ling exceedingly the real value, and of courfe the pur-
chafe, of thofe lands in which they are found, and thofe
through which it is neceffiary to pafs * from the works
to the places where they are embarked ; but from the
general improvements- they have occalioned ; fo that
very few counties are now better cultivated than Nor¬
thumberland, and the fame eftedts they have had in a
greater or lefs degree in other places. Thoufands of
laborious people are employed in and about the mines;
thoufands more in conveying them to the ports, and
on board the ffiips; to fay nothing of thofe that draw
their fubfiftence from the carriage of them by land to
fupply families, ire. There are alfo great numbers
that live in a fuperior ftation ; as ftewards, direftors.
* Thefe are;
emphatical-'
ly ftyled j
: let
high
landed pro--
perty in j
Britain. -
failures; fo that they are obliged to import great factors, agents, book-keepers, &c. To thefe we may
e"''rr' De *1 r add the extraordinary encouragement given to inge¬
nious artifts who have invented, and the numerous
workmen continually employed about thofe feveral
j curious and coftly machines which, for a variety of
places in the north of England, as alfo from the frith purpofes in this bufinefs, are in continual ufe, and of
quantities from Britain for the ufe of their manufac-
g tures of iron, ire.
Importance Our inland coal-trade, that is, carrying coals from
of the coal- Newcaftle, Sunderland, Blith, and other adjacent
trade. ’ • « ■ ■" - -J~..
of Edinburgh in Scotland, and other places thereabouts,
to the city of London, and to the port-towns on the
coaft all the way, as well on this fide of Newcaftle,
courfe in continual wear : we may join to thele the
multitudes that obtain their living from the many ma-
nufa&ures in which they are employed, and which
could
C O A [ 2031 ] C O A
jCoalery. could not l>e carried on but by the help and cheapness
L' of coals. LalHy, the produce of coals exported,
which amounts to a very confiderable fum, befides
being profitable to the owners, merchants, and mari¬
ners, is fo much clear gain to the nation.
.It might be expected, that a trade fo beneficial to
individuals, and to the nation in general, and which
has been gradually increafing' for feveral centuries
paft, would have been advanced by this time to
very great perfection, and- reduced to a regular fy-
fiem. But, in one very effential refpedt, it is found
to be quite otherwife. The art of working coal-
, mines in the moil profitable manner is indeed highly
improved : but the fundamental of the art, that of
fearching for. and difcovering coal in any diftridl of
country where it has not yet been found, has never,
that we know of, been treated in a iyliematic man¬
ner. The reader, therefore, will not be difpleafed
to find this deleft fupplied in the courfe of the prefent
article, together with a detail of all the other opera-
4 tions in the bufinefs of coaleries.
Skuation of The terreftrial matters which compofe the folid
the ftrata. parts of the earth are difpofed in ftrata, beds, or lay¬
ers, the under furface of one bearing againft, or lying
upon, the upper furface of that below it; which lad.
bears or lies on the next below in the fame manner.
Thele llrata confift of very different kinds of mat¬
ter, fuch as free-done, lime-done, metal-done, or
whin-done, coal, ire. as will be particularly fpecified
in the fequel.
Some of thefe drata are of a confiderable thicknefs,
being often found from 100 to 200 feet or upwards,
nearly of the fame kind of matter from the fuperior
to the inferior furface; and others are found of the
lead thicknefs imaginable, one inch or lefs.
All thefe drata are divided or parted from each
other laterally, either by their even, - fmooth, polifhed
furfaces, with very thin lamina of foft or dudy mattfer
betwixt them, called the parting, which renders them
eafy to feparate ; or elfe only by the furfaces clofely
conjoined to each other, without any vifible matter
interpofed betwixt them ; yet the different fubdance
of each dratum is not in the lead intermixed, though
fometimes they adhere fo drongly together, that it is
very difficult to part or disjoin them : in this lad cafe
they are faid to have a bad parting.
Befides this principal divifion or parting laterally,
there are, in fome drata, fecondary divifions or part¬
ings alfo laterally, feparating, or approaching towards
a feparation, of the fame dratum, into parts of dif¬
ferent thickneffes, nearly parallel to each other, in the
fame manner as the principal partings divide the dif¬
ferent drata from each other : but thefe fecondary
ones are not fo drong or vifible, nor make fd effeftual
a parting, as the principal ones do; and are only met
with in fych drata, as are not of an uniform hardnefs,
texture, or colour, from the upper to the under furface.
There are other diyifions or partings, called backs,
in almod every dratum, which crofs the former late¬
ral ones longitudinally, and' cut the whole dratum
through its two furfaces into long rhomboidal figures.
Thefe again are eroded by others called cutters, run¬
ning either in an oblique or perpendicular direftion
to the lad mentioned backs, and alfo cut the dratum
through its two furfaces. Both thefe backs and cut- Coalery.
ters generally extend from the upper or fuperior dra- ’
turn down through feveral of the lower ones; fo that
thefe backs and cutters, together with the lateral
partings before mentioned, divide every dratum into
innumerable cubic, prifmatic, and rhomboidal figures,
according to the thicknefs of the dratum, and the pofi-
tion and number of the backs and cutters. They fome-
times have a kind of thin partition of dudy or foft mat¬
ter in them, and fometimes none, like the fird menti¬
oned partings; but the fofter kind of drata generally
have more backs and cutters than the harder kind, and
they do not extend or penetrate through the others.
To explain this a little further, let A, B, C, D, E, Plate
F, G, (fig. 1.) reprefent the principal partings before LXXXI*
mentioned, or the upper and under furfaces of any
dratum ; then a, b, c, d, e,f, will reprefent the fe¬
condary lateral partings nearly parallel to the princi¬
pal ones; g, h, i, k, l, m, the longitudinal partings cal- •
led backs; n, 0, p, q, r, s, the crofs partings called
eroding the lad mentioned ones either obliquely
or perpendicular.
In all places where the ftrata lie regular, they are
divided and fubdivided in the manner above menti¬
oned ; and fometimes in this manner extend through
a pretty large diftrift of country: though it is often
otherwife; for their regularity is frequently interrup- ■
ted, and the ftrata broken and difordered, by fundry
chafms, breaches, or fiffures, which are differently de¬
nominated according to their various dimenfions, and
the matters with which they are filled, viz. dikes,
hitches, and troubles, which lhall be explained in order. 5
Dikes are the larged kind of fiffures. They feem to Dikes,
be nothing but a crack or breach of the folid ftrata,
occafioned by one part of them being broken away and
fallen from the other. They generally run in a ftraight
line for a confiderable length, and penetrate from the
furface to the greateft depth ever yet tried, in a di¬
reftion fometimes perpendicular to the horizon, and
fometimes obliquely ; the fame kind of drata are found
lying upon each other in the fame order, but the whole
of them greatly elevated or depreffed, on the one fide
of the dike as on the other. Thefe fiifures are fome¬
times two or three feet wide, and fometimes many
fathoms. If the fiffure or dike be of any cohfiderable
width, it is generally filled with heterogeneous mat¬
ter, different from that of the folid ftrata on each fide
of it. It is fometimes found filled with clay, gravel,
or fand; fometimes with a confufed mafs of different
kinds of done lying edgeways; and at other times
with a folid body of free-done, or even whin-done.
When the fiffure is of no great width, as fuppofe two
or three feet only, it is then ufiiaHy found filled with
a confufed mixture of the different matters which
compofe the adjoining ftrata, confolidated into one
mafs. If a dike runs or ftretches north and fouth,
and the fame kind of ftrata are found on the eaft fide
of the dike, in a fituatiqn with refpeft to the horizon
to or 20 fathoms lower than on the other fide, it is
then faid to be a dip-dike or doivncafl-dike of 10 or 20
fathoms to the eaftward;—or counting from the ead
fide, it is then faid to be a rife-dike or upcafl of fo
many fathoms weftward. If the ftrata on one fide
are not much higher or lower with refpeft to the ho¬
rizontal
C O A [ 2032 ] C O A
Coakry. rizontal line, than thofe on the other, but only broken
- off and removed to a certain diltance, it is then faid
to be a dike of lb many fathoms thick; and from the
matter contained between the two fides of the fiffure
6 or dike, it is denominated a clay-dike, Jlone-dike, &c.
Hitches. A bitch is only a dike or fiffure of a 1’maller degree,
by which the Itrata on one fide are not elevated or
feparated from thofe on the other fide above one fa¬
thom. Thefe hitches are denominated in the fame
manner as dikes, according to the number of feet they
elevate or deprefs the ftrata.
There are dikes (though they are not often met
with in the coal-countries) whofe cavities are filled
with fparr, the ores of iron, lead, vitriol, or other me¬
tallic or mineral matters; and it is pretty well known,
that all metallic veins are nothing elfe than what in
the coal-countries are called dikes.
The ftrata are generally found lying upon each
other in the fame order on one fide of the dike as on
the other, as mentioned above, and nearly of the fame
thickneffes, appearing to have been originally a con¬
tinuation of the fame regular ftrata, and the dike only
a breach by fome later accident, perpendicularly or
obliquely down through them by which one part is
removed to a fmall diftance, and dcpreffed to a lower
fituation than the other. But this is not the only al¬
teration made in the ftrata by dikes ; for generally to
a confiderable diftance on each fide of the dike, all the
ftrata are in a kind of {battered condition, very ten¬
der, eafily pervious to water, and debafed greatly in
their quality, and their inclination to the horizon often
1 altered.
Troubles. Troubles may be denominated dikes of the fmalleft
degree; for they are not a real breach, but only an
approach towards it which has not taken a full effect.
The ftrata are generally altered by a trouble from
their regular fite to a different pofition. When the
regular courfe of the ftrata is nearly level, a trouble
will caufe a fudden and confiderable afeent or defeent :
where they have, in their regular fituation, a certain
degree of afeent or defeent, a trouble either increafeth
it or alters it to a contrary pofition : and a trouble has
thefe effeifts upon the ftrata in common with dikes,
that it greatly debafeth them from their original qua¬
lity ; the partings are feparated ; the backs and cutters
disjoined, and their regularity difordered; the original
cubic and prifmatic figures, of which the ftrata were
compofed, are broken, and the diflocation filled with
heterogeneous matter ; and the whole ftrata, are re¬
duced to a fofter and more friable ftate.
The ftrata are feldom or never found to lie in a
g true horizontal fituation; but generally have an incli-
jDip and nation or defeent, called the dip, to fome particular
rife of the part of the horizon. If this inclination be to the eaft-
ftrata. ward, it is called an eajl dip', and a wejl rife ; and ac¬
cording to the point of the compafs to which the dip
inclines, it is denominated, and the afeent or rife is
to the contrary point. This inclination or dip of the
ftrata is found to hold every where. In fome places, it
varies very little from the level; in others, very con-
fiderably ; and in fome fo much, as to be nearly in
a perpendicular direftion: but, whatever degree of
inclination the ftrata have to the horizon, if not inter¬
rupted by dikes, hitches, or troubles, they are always
found to lie in the firft regular manner mentioned. Coalery.
They generally continue upon one uniform dip until "
they are broken or difordered by a dike, hitch, or
trouble, by Which the dip is often altered, fometimes
to a different part of the horizon, and often to an oppo-
fitejpoint; fo that on one fide of a dike, hitch, or trouble,
if the ftrata have an eaft dip, on the other fide they
may have an eaft rife, which is a weft dip; and in ge¬
neral, any confiderable alteration in the dip is never
met with, but what is occafioned by the circumltances
laft mentioned.
To illuftrate what has been faid, fee fig. 2. where Plate
abed, ire. reprefents a courfe of ftrata lying upon each LXXXI. -
other, having a certain inclination to the horizon.
AB, is a downcaft-dike, which depreffeth the ftrata
obliquely to efg h, ire. lying upon each other in (,he
fame order, but altered in their inclination to the
horizon. C D reprefents a clay or free-ftone dike,
where the ftrata are neither elevated nor depreffed,
but only broken off and removed to a certain diftance.
E F, reprefents a hitch, which breaks off and depref¬
feth the ftrata only a little, but alters their inclination
to the horizon. G H, reprefents a trouble, where the
ftrata on one fide are not entirely broken off from thofe
on the other, but only in a cruflied and irregular fitua¬
tion.
As fome particular ftrata are found at fome times to
increafe, and at other times to diminilh, in their thick-
nelles, whilft others remain the fame, confequently
they cannot be all parallel; yet this iucreafe and dimi
notion in their thicknefl'es comes on very gradually.
The ftrata are not found difpofed in the earth ac¬
cording to their fpecific gravities : for we often find
ftrata of very denfe matter near the furj^ce; and per¬
haps at 50 or even too fathoms beneath, we meet
with ftrata of not half the fpecific gravity of the firft.
A ftratum of iron ore is very often found above one
of coal, though the former has twice the gravity of
the latter; and, in {hort, there is fuch an ablblute un¬
certainty in forming any judgment of the difpofition
of the ftrata from their 1'pecific gravities, that it can¬
not in the leaft be relied upon.
It has been imagined by many, that hills and val-
lies are occafioned by thofe breaches in the ftrata be¬
fore mentioned called dikes : but this is contradicted
by experience. If it was fo, we fliould meet with
dikes at the Ikirts of the hills, and by the fides of val¬
leys, and the fea-ftiore; but inftead of that, we ge¬
nerally find the ftrata lying as uniformly regular un¬
der hills and valleys, and beneath the bottom of the
fea (as far as has been yet tried), as in the moft cham¬
paign countries. It may happen, indeed, that a dike
is met with in fome of thefe places; but that being
only a cafual circumftance, can never be admitted as
a general caufe. Whatever irregularities are occa¬
fioned in the folid ftrata by .likes, or other breaches,
are commonly covered over and evened by thofe beds
of gravel, clay, fand or foil, which lie uppermoft,
and form the outward furface of the earth. Where-
ever thefe fofter matters have been carried off, or
removed by accident, as on the tops of hills and the
fides of valleys, there the folid ftrata are expofed, and
the dip and rife and other circumftances of them may
be examined; but no certain conclufions can be drawn,
merely
[ 2033 ] C O A
C O A
Coalery. merely from the unevennefs and inequalities of the
  outward furface.
The preceding obfervations, upon the general dif-
pofition of the folid ftrata, are equally applicable
to the Jftrata of coal as to thofe of Itone or other
q matter.
n Defcription We fliall next give an account of the feveral ftrata
of the ftra- of coal, and of ftone and other matters, which are
:J ta connec- ufUally connected with coal, and are found to have a
: ^jWlth particular affinity with it: and, for the fake of diftinc-
tion, ffiall arrange them into fix principal clalfes,
which will include all the varieties of ftrata that have
been found to occur in all thofe diftridts of country
both in Scotland and England where coal abounds.
1. Of Whin-flone.^ The ftrata of what is denomi¬
nated whin-ftone are the hardeft of all others; the an¬
gular pieces of it will cut glafs ; it is of a very coarfe
texture, and when broke acrofs the grain exhibits the
appearance of large grains of fands half vitrified ; it
can fcarcely be wrought, or broke in pieces, by com¬
mon tools without the alfiftance of gun-powder; each
ftratum is commonly homogeneous in fubftance and
colour, and cracked in the rock to a great depth. The
moft common colours of thefe ftrata are black or dark
blue, yet there are others of it affi-coloured and light
brown. Their thicknefs in all the coal countries is
but inconfiderable, from fix or five feet down to a few
inches; and it is only in a few places they are met
with of thefe thicknefles. In the air it decays a little,
leaving a brown powder; and in the fire it cracks, and
turns reddiffi brown. Limeftone, and what is called
bajlard limeftom, is fometimes, tho’ rarely, met with
in coaleries. It is'a well known ftone ; but from its re-
femblance in hardnefs and colour is often miftaken for
a kind of whin. Sometimes, particularly in hilly
countries, the folid matter next the furface is found
to be a kind of foft or rotten whin;—but it may be
noted, that this is only a rhafs of heterogeneous mat¬
ter difpofed upon the regular ftrata; and that beneath
this, all the ftrata are generally found in as regular an
order as where this heterogeneous matter does not
. occur.
2. Of P&fl-flone.'] This is a free ftone of the hard¬
eft kind, and next to the limeftone with refpedl to
hardnefs and folidity. It is of a very fine texture ; and
when broken appears as if compofed of the fineft fand.
It is commonly found in a homogeneous mafs, tho’ varie¬
gated in colour; and, from its hardnefs, is not liable to
injury from being expofed to the weather. Of this
kind of ftone there are four varieties, which may be dif-
tinguiffied by their colour: the moft common is white
poll, which in appearance is like Portland ftone, but
confiderably harder ; it is fometimes variegated with
ftreaks or fpots of brown, red, or black.
Grey port is alfo very common; it appears like a
mixture of fine black and white fand: it is often va¬
riegated with brown and black ftreaks, the laft men¬
tioned appear like fmall clouds compofed of particles
of coal.
Brown or yellow poft is often met with of differ¬
ent degrees of colour ; moft commonly of the colour of
light ochre or yellow fand: it is as hard as the reft, and
fometimes variegated with white and black ftreaks.
Red poft is generally of a dull red colour : this is
Vol. III.
but rarely met with ; it is often ftreaked with white Coalery.
or black.  
All thefe lie in ftrata of different thickneffes; but
commonly thicker than any other ftrata whatever: they
are feparated from each other, and from other kind
of ftrata, by partings of coal, fand, or foft matter of dif¬
ferent colours which are very diftinguiffiable.
3. Of Saiid-Jiejie.~\ This is a free ftone of a coar-
fer texture than poft, and not fo hard; is fo lax as
to be eafily pervious to water ; when broke, is appa¬
rently of a coarfeTandy fubftance ; is friable and moul¬
ders to fand when expofed to the wind and rain ; lias
frequently white Aiming fpangles in it, and pebbles or
other fmall ftones inclofed in its mafs. Of this, thtve
are two kinds commonly met with, diftinguiAied by
their colours, grey and brown, which are of different
ffiades, lighter or darker, in proportion to the mix¬
ture of white in them. It is moft generally found in
ftrata of confiderable thicknefs, without n^any fecon-
dary partings; and fometimes, tho’rarely, itisfubdi-
vided into layers as thin as the common grey Hate.
It has generally fandy or foft partings.
4. Of'Mettle-Jlone.~\ This is a tolerable hard ftra¬
tum, being in point of hardnefs next to fand-ftone ;
generally folid, compact, of confiderable weight, and
of an argillaceous fubftance, containing many nodules
or balls of iron ore, and yellow or white pyrites; its
partings, or the furfaces of its ftrata, are hard poliffi-
ed and finooth as glafs. When broke, it has a dull
duAcy appearance, (tho’ of a fine texture), like hard
dried clay mixed with particles of coal. Tho’ hard
in the mine or quarry, when expofed to the freffi air
it falls into very fmall pieces. The moft ufual colour
of this ftone is black; but there are feveral other ligh¬
ter colours, down to a light brown or grey. It is
eafily diftinguifiied from free-ftone by its texture and
colour, as well as by its other charadleriftics. It lies
in ftrata of various thickneffes, tho’ feldom fo thick as
the two laft mentioned kinds of ftone.
5. Of Shiver.~\ This ftratum is more frequently
met with in coaleries than any other. There are
many varieties of it, both in hardnefs and colour; but
they all agree in one general chara&eriftic. The
black colour is moft common ; it is called by the mi¬
ners black fhivsr, black mettle, or Ideas. It is fofter
than mettle-ftone, and in the mine is rather a tough
than a hard fubftance, is not of a folid or compact
matter, being eafily feparable, by the multitude of
its partings, ire. into very fmall parts, and readily ab-
forbing water. The fubftance of this ftratum, is an
indurated bole, commonly divided into thin lamina of
unequal thicknefles, which break into long fmall pieces
when ftruck with force; and, on examination, they
appear to be fmall irregular rhomboides: each of thefe
fmall pieces has a polilhed glalfy furface ; and, when
broke crofs the grain, appears of a dry leafy, or la¬
minated texture, like exceeding fine clay: it is very
friable ; feels to the touch like an umftuous fub¬
ftance ; and diffolves in air or water to a fine pinguid
black clay. There are almoft conftantly found inclofed
in its ftrata, lumps or nodules of iron ore; often real
beds of the fame.
There are other colours of this ftratum befides
black. The brown or dun ffiiyer is very frequently
12 Bv met
Coalery.
10
The order
in which
they lie.
C O A [ 2034 ] C O A
met with, it agrees with the above defcription in every
thing but colour. Grey fliiver is alfo very common :
it feems to be only a mixture of the black and dun j
and by the different degrees of mixture of thefe co¬
lours others are produced. It lies in ftrata fometimes
of conliderable thicknefs, at other times not exceed¬
ing a few feet; they are commonly parted from each
other by lamina of fparr, coal, or foft matter.
6. Of Coal.Referring the reader, for the fcien-
tific divifion of coals, to the articles Ampelites and
Lith anthrax, we lhall here confider them as dif-
tinguilhable into three kinds, according to their de¬
grees of inflammability.
r. The lealt inflammable kinds, are thofe known
by the name of JVulJb coal, which is found in Wales;
Kilkenny coal, which is found near Kilkenny in Ire¬
land ; and blind or deaf coal, which is found in many
parts of Scotland and England. This coal takes a con-
iiderable degree of heat to kindle it, but when once
thoroughly ignited will burn a long time ; it remains
in the Are in feparate pieces without (licking together
or caking ; it produceth neither flame nor fmoke, and
makes no cinder, but burns to a white (tony (lagg ; it
makes a hot glowing fire like charcoal or cinders; and
emits effluvia of a fuffocating nature which renders
it unfit for burning in dwelling-houfes, its chief ufe
being amongft malfters, dyers, ire. for drying their
commodities. 2. Opc?i burning coal, foon kindles,
making a hot pleafant fire, but is foon confumed : it
produceth both fmoke and flame in abundance; but
lies open in the fire, and does not cake together lb
as to form cinders, its furface being burnt to alhes
before it is thoroughly calcined in the midft; from
this it has its name of an open burning coal; it burns
to white or brown allies very light. Of this kind is
cannal-coal, jett, parrot, fplint, and moll of the coals
in Scotland. 3. Clofe burning coal, kindles very
quickly, makes a very hot fire, melts and runs toge¬
ther like bitumen, the very fmallell culm making the
fined cinders, which being thoroughly burnt are po¬
rous and light as a pumice done, and when broke are
of a Ihining lead colour; it makes a more durable fire
than any other coal, and finally burns to brown or
reddilh coloured heavy alhes. Of this kind are the
Newcadle and feveral other of the Englilh coals, and
the fmithy coals of Scotland. The open burning and
the clofe burning coal mixed together, make a more
profitable fire for domedic ufes than either of them
leparate.
In all thofe didrkds of country where coal is found,
there are generally feveral drata of it ; perhaps all
the different kinds above mentioned will be found in
fome, and only one of the kinds in others ; yet this
one kind may be divided into many difierent feams or
drata, by beds of Ihiver or other kinds of matter in-
terpofing, fo as to give it the appearance of fo many
feparate drata.
All thefe flrata above deferibed, with their feveral
varieties, do not lie or bear upon each other in the
order in which they are deferibed, nor in any certain
or invariable order. Though there be found the fame
kinds of drata in one coalery or didrkd as in another,
yet they may be of very different thicknelfes. In
fome places there are mod of the hard kinds, in others
mod of the fofter j and in any one diftriil it rarely
happens that all the various kinds are found ; for fome’
kinds, perhaps, occur only once or twice, whild others
occur ro or 20 times before we reach the principal
dratum of coal.
In order to explain this, fuppofe the drata in the
pit at A (fig. 3.) lie in the order a, b, c, d, &c. they
may be fo much altered1 in their thickneffes, by rea-
fon of fome of them increaling and others diminilh-
ing, at the didance of B, that they may be found there
of very different thickneffes ; or if they are examined
in a pit at D, by reafon of its lower fituation, and the
drata there not being a continuation of thofe in the
other places, they may be very different both in their
order and tliicknelfes, and yet of the fame kinds.
Though they be thus found very different in one
coalery or didridl from what they are found to be in
another, with refpecl to their thickneffes, and the or¬
der in which they lie upon each other, yet we never
meet with a dratum of any kind of matter but what
belongs to fome of thofe above deferibed.
To illudrate how the various drata lie in fome places,
and how often the fame dratum may occur betwixt
the furface and the coal, we lhall give the following
example. The numbers in the left hand column re¬
fer to the dalles of drata before deferibed, to which
each belongs. The fecond column contains the names
of the drata; and the four numeral columns to the
right hand, exprefs the thicknefs of each dratum, in
fathoms, yards, feet, and inches.
Example.
Soil and gravel - - -
Clay mixed with loofe ftones
Coarfe brown land-hone, with foft part¬
ings
White poll, with fhivery partings
Black Ihiver or bleas,with iron-ftojie balls
Coarle Iplinty coal
Soft grey Ihiver
Brown and grey poll, Urea ked with black
Black (hiver, with beds and balls of iron-
hone - - -
Grey and black mettle-hone
White and brown poh
Black and grey Ihiver, hreaked with white
Soft grey fand-hone, with (hivery partings
Yellow and white poh, with fandy partings
Black and dun Ihiver, with iron-hone balls
White poh hreaked with black, and black
partings
Grey (hiver, with iron-hone balls
Brown and black mettle-hone
Hard (latey black Ihiver
Coal, hard and fine Iplint
Soft black (hiver
Coal, fine and clear
Hard black (hiver
Total Fathoms. 25
In this indance the fpecies of fand-done only oc¬
curs twice, pod five times, whild the Ihiver occurs no
lefs than nine times.
Coalery.
Plate
LXXXI. .
To apply the foregoing obfervations to pradlice.
Suppofe it was required to examine whether there
was coal in a piece of ground adjoining to, or in the
neighbourhood, of other coaleries. 1 r
In the fird place, it is proper to be informed, at Methods of
fome of the adjacent coaleries, of the number and kinds
C O A [ 2035 ] C O A
Coalery. of ftrata; the order in which they lie upon each other;
 to what point of the horizon, and in what quantity,
they dip; if any dikes, hitches, or troubles, and the
Rule ift. courle they ftretch. Having learnt thefe circumftan-
ces, fearch in the ground under examination where
the llrata are expoled to view, and compare thefe
with the other. If they be of the fame kinds, and
nearly correfpond in order and thicknefs, and be ly¬
ing in a regular manner, and agree by computation
with the dip and rife, it may fafely be concluded the
coal is there ; and the depth of it may be judged from
the depth of the coal in the other coalery, below any
particular ftratum which is vifible in this.
Rule 2d. If the folid ftrata are not expofed to view, neither
in the hills nor valleys of the ground under examina¬
tion, then fearch in the adjoining grounds; and if the
fame kind of ftrata are found there as in the adjacent
eoalery, and there is reafon, from the dip and other
circumftances, to believe that they ftretch through the
ground to be examined; it may then be concluded that
the coal is there, as well as thefe other ftrata.
Plate Suppofe a coalery is on the fide of a hill at A, fig. 2.
LXXXI. and you would fearch for a coal at B, on the other fide
of the hill, but in a much lower fituation; by obferving
the feveral ftrata lying above the coal at A, and the
point to which they dip, which is direcftly towards B,
(if clear of dikes,) you may expert to find the fame
kind of ftrata on the other fide of the hill, but much
lower down. Accordingly, if fome of the ftrata are
vifible in the face of the precipice C, they may be
compared with fome of thofe in the pit at A. Or, if
they are not to be feen there, by fearching in the
oppofite hill, they may perhaps be difcovered at the
place F; where, if they be found in the manner before
mentioned, and there be reafon to believe they ex¬
tend regularly from the firft place to this, it is more
than probable the coal, as well as thefe ftrata, will be
found in the intermediate ground.
Rule 3d. If the ground to be examined lie more to the rife
of the coal, as at E, which being fuppofed to be on a
flat, perhaps the folid ftrata there may be wholly co¬
vered by the gravel, clay, ire. of the outward furface
lying upon them : In this cafe, by meafuring the ho¬
rizontal diftance and the defeent of ground from A
to E, and computing the quantity of afeent or rife of
the coal in that diftance ; by comparing thefe toge¬
ther, it may be judged at what depth the coal will be
found there, allowing that it lie regular. Thus, fup-
pofe the coal at A 80 yards deep, the diftance from
A to E 500 yards, and that the coal rifes 1 yard in
10 yards of horizontal diftance :
Then, from the depth of the pit - 80
Deduci the defeent of ground from A to E,
fuppofe - - 24
This remainder would be the depth, if the
coal was level - ‘56
But as the coal rifes 1 in 10 feet, then de-
du6l what it rifes in 500 yards, which is 50
And the remainder is the depth of that coal
at E - - - 6 Yards.
Rule 4th. Or fuppofe that the place at B is 500 yards the
contrary way, or to the full dip of the coal at A ; if a
view of the folid ftrata cannot be obtained, then by Coalery.
proceeding in the fame manner as before, the depth 
of the coal at that place may be computed. Thus,
Yards.
To the depth of the coal at the pit A - 80
Add the defeent or inclination of the coal
in 500 yards, which, as before, is - 50
This fum would be the depth, if the ground
was level - - 130
But as the ground defeends towards B, de¬
duct the quantity of that, which fuppol’e 80
Remains the depth of the coal at B 50
If the place to be examined be neither to the full dip
nor full rife, but in fome proportion towards either,
the fame method may be purfued, computing how
much the coal rifes or dips in a certain diltance in that
direction.
If there is known to be a dike in .the workings of
the pit at A, which elevates or deprefleth the ftrata
towards the place under examination, then the quan¬
tity of the elevation or depreflipn muft be according¬
ly added to or deducted from the computed depth of
the coal at that place. Suppofe there is an upcaft dike
of 10 fathoms or 20 yards towards B, then dedudt 20
from 50, the depth before computed, there will re¬
main 30 yards or 15 fathoms for the depth of the coal
at B.
But it often happens that coal is to be fearched for,
in a part of the country, at fuch a confiderable di¬
ftance from all other coaleries, that by reafon of the
intervention of hills, valleys, unknown dikes, ire. the
connedtion or relation of the ftrata with thofe of
any other coalery cannot be traced by the methods
laft mentioned ; in which cafe a more extenfive view
muft be taken of all circumftances than was neceftary
in the former ; and a few general rules founded on
the foregoing obfervations, and on conclufions drawn
from them, will greatly afiift in determining, fome-
times with a great degree of probability, and fome-
times with abfolute certainty, whether coal be in any
particular diftridt of country or not.
The firft proper ftep to be taken in fuch a cafe, is Rule 5th.
to take a general view of that diftridt of country in¬
tended to be fearched, in order to judge, from the out¬
ward appearance or face of the country; which parti¬
cular part out of the whole is the moll likely to con¬
tain thofe kind of ftrata favourable to the produdtion
of coal ; and confequently fuch particular part being
found, is the moll advifeable to be begun with in the
examination.
Though the appearance of the outward furface
gives no certain or infallible rule to judge of the kinds
of ftrata lying beneath, yet it gives a probable one :
for it is generally found, that a chain of mountains or Mountain-
hills rifing to a great height, and very fteep on the ous fitua-
fides, are commonly compofed of ftrata much harder tionSi
and of different kinds from thofe before deferibed
wherein, coal is found to lie, and therefore unfavour¬
able to the produdlion of coal; and thefe mountainous
fituations are alfo more fubjedt to dikes and troubles,
than the lower grounds, fo that if the folid ftrata com-
pofing them gave even favourable fyinptoms of coal,
12 B 2 yet
C O A [ 2036 ] C O A
Coalery. yet the laft circumftance would render the quality
 bad, and the quantity precarious ; and, on the whole,
it may be obferved, that mountainous fituations are
found more favourable to the production of metals
than of coal. It is likewife generally found that thofe
Hills and diftrifts abounding with valleys, moderately rifing hills,
Valleys. and interfperfed with plains fometimes of conlider-
able extent, do more commoly contain coal, and
thofe kinds of ftrata favourable to its production, than
either the mountainous or champaign countries ; and
a country fo fituated as this laft del'cribed, efpecially
if at fome confiderable diftance from the mountains,
ought to be the firft part appointed for particular ex¬
plains. amination. Plains, or level grounds of great extent,
generally fituated by the fides of rivers, or betwixt
Ihch moderate rifing grounds as laft defcribed, are
alfo very favourable to the production of coal, if the
folid ftrata, and other circumftances in the higher
grounds adjoining, be conformable ; for it will fcarce-
ly be found, in fuch a fituation, that the ftrata are fa¬
vourable in the rifing grounds on both fides of the
plain, and not fo in the fpace betwixt them. Though
plains be fo favourable, in fuch circumftances, to the
production of coal, yet it is often more difficult to be
difcovered in fuch a fituation, than in that before de-
defcribed ; becaufe, the clay, foil, and other lax mat¬
ter, brought off the higher grounds by rains and other
accidents, have generally covered the furface of fuch
plains to a confiderable depth, which prevents the ex¬
ploration of the folid ftrata there, unlefs they be ex-
pofed to view by digging, quarrying, or fome fuch
operation.
That part of the diftriCl being fixed upon which
abounds with moderate hills and valleys as propereft
to begin the examination at, the firft ftep to be taken is
to examine aH places where the folid ftrata are ex-
pofed to view, (which are called the crops of the ftra¬
ta), as in precipices, hollows, ire. tracing them as ac¬
curately and gradually as the circumftances will allow,
from the uppermoft ftratum or higheft part of the
ground to the very undermoft : and if they appear to
be of the kinds before defcribed, it will be proper to
' note in a memorandum book their different thicknefles;
the order in which they lie upon each other; the point
of the horizon to which they dip or incline, and the
quantity of that inclination ; and whether they lie in
a regular ftate. This ffiould be done in every part of
the ground where they can be feen : obfervtng at the
lame time, that if a ftratum can be found in one place,
which has a connection with fome other in a fecond
place, and if this other has a connection with another
in a third place, ire. ; then, from thefe feparate con¬
nections, the joint correfpondence of the whole may
be traced, and the ftrata, which in fome places are co¬
vered, may be known by their correfpondence with
thofe which are expofed to view.
If by this means the crops of all the ftrata cannot
be feen, (which is often the cafe), and if no coal be
difcovered by its crop appearing at the furface ; yet
if the ftrata that have been viewed confift.of thofe
kinds before defcribed, and are found lyipg in a regu¬
lar order, it is fufficiently probable that coal* may be
in that part of the diftriCl, although it be concealed
from fight by the furface of earth or other matter.
Therefore, at the fame time that the crops of the ftxata Coalery.
are under examination, it will be proper to take notice . . —
of all fuch fprings of water as feem to be of a mineral u e 1 °
nature, particularly thofe known by the name of iron
water, which bear a mud or lediment of the colour of
rufty iron, having a ftrong aftringent tafte. Springs
of this kind proceed originally from thofe ftrata which
contain beds or balls of iron-ore ; but by reafon of
the tenacity of the matter of thofe ftrata, the water
only difengages itfelf llowly from them, defeending
inta fome more porous or open ftratum below, where>
gathering in a body, it runs out to the furface in fmall
ftreams or rills. The ftratum of coal is the moft ge¬
neral refervoir of this water ; for the iron-ftone being
lodged in different kinds of ffiiver, and the coal com¬
monly connected with fome of them, it therefore de-
feends into the coal, where it finds a ready paftage
through the open backs and cutters. Sometimes, in¬
deed, it finds fome other ftratum than coal to colledl
and tranfmit it to the furface ; but the difference is
eafily diftinguifliable ; for the ochrey matter in the
water, when it comes from a ftratum of coal, is of a
darker rufty colour than when it proceeds from any
other, and often brings with it particles and fmall
pieces of coal; therefore, wherever thefe two cir¬
cumftances concur in a number of thefe kind of fprings,
fituated in a direflion from each other anfwerable to
the ftretch or to the inclination of the ftrata, it may
be certain the water comes off coal, and that the coal
lies in a fomewhat higher fituation than the. apertures
of the fprings.
There are other fprings alfo which come off coal,
and are not diftinguiffiablefrom common water, other-
wife than by their aftringency, and their having a blue
feum of an oily or glutinous nature fwimming upon
the furface of the water. Thefe, in common with the
others, bring out particles of coal, more efpecially in
rainy feafons when the fprings flow with rapidity.
When a number of thefe kinds are fituated from each
other in the diredlion of the ftrata, as above defcri¬
bed ; or if the water does not run forth as in fprings,
but only forms a fwamp, or an extenfion of ftagnant
water beneath the turf; in cither cafe, it may be de¬
pended upon that this water proceeds from a ftratum
of coal.
If the ftratum of coal is not expofed to view, or Rule 7th,
cannot be difcovered by the firft method of fearching
for the crop, although the appearance of the other
ftrata be very favourable, and afford a ftrong proba¬
bility of coal being there ; and if the laft-mentioned
method of judging of the particular place where the
crop of the coal may lie, by the fprings of water iffu-
ing from it, fltould, from the deficiency of thofe fprings
or other circumftances, be thought equivocal, and
not give a fatisfaclpry indication of the coal ; then a,
further fearch may be made in all places where the
outward furface, or the ftratum of clay or earth, is
turned up by plowing, ditching, or digging, particu- .
larly in the lower grounds, in hollows, and by the
fides of ftreams. Thefe place's ffiould be ftriflly exa¬
mined, to fee if any pieces of coal be intermixed with
the fubftance of the fuperior lax ftrata ; if any fuch be
found, and if they be pretty numerous and in detached
pieces, of a firm fubftance, the angles perfedt or not
much
C O A [ 2037 ] C O A
foalery. much worn, and the texture of the coal diftinguifli-
• — able, it may be concluded, that the llratum of coal to
which they originally did belong, is at no great dif-
tanee, but in a fituation higher with refpetfl to the
horizon; and if there be alfo found along with thfe
pieces of coal, other mineral matter, fuch as pieces of
fhiver or freeltone, this is a concurrent proof, that it
has come only from a fmall diftance. Though the two
fore-mentioned methods fliould only have produced a
ftrong probability, yet if this laft mentioned place,
where the pieces of coal, ire. are found in the clay,
be in a fituation lower than the fprings; when this
circumftance is joined to the other two, it amounts to
little lei's than a moral certainty of the ftratum of coal
being a very little above the level jjf the fprings.
But if, on the contrary, thefe pieces of coal are found
more fparingly interfperfed in the fuperior llratum,
and if the angles are much fretted or worn off, and
very little of other kinds of mineral matter connected
with them; it may then be concluded, that they have
come from a ftratum of coal fituated at a greater dif¬
tance than in the former cafe ; and by a drift fearch
| and an accurate comparifon of other circumftances,
that particular place may be difeovered with as much
certainty as the other.
After the place is thus difeovered, where the ftra¬
tum of coal is expefted to lie concealed, the next pro¬
per ftep to be taken, is to begin digging a pit or hole
there perpendicularly down to find the coal. If the
coal has no folid ftrata above and beneath it, but be
found only embodied in the clay or other lax matter,
it will not be there of its full thicknefs, nor fo hard
and pure as in its perfeft date when enclofed be¬
twixt two folid ftrata, the uppermoft called the roof,
and the undermoft called the pavemefit, of the coal :
in fuch fituation therefore it becomes neceflary, either
to dig a new pit, or to work a mine forward until the
ftratum of coal be found included betwixt a folid roof
and pavement, after which it need not be expefted to
increafe much in its thicknefs: yet as it goes deeper
or farther to the dip, it moft likely wiH improve in its
quality; for that part of the ftratum of coal whichl ies
near the furface, or only at a fmall depth, is often de-
bafed by a mixture of earth and fundry other impuri¬
ties, walked down from the furface, through the backs
and cutters by the rains ; whilft the other part of the
ftratum which lies at a greater depth is preferred
pure, by the other folid ftrata above it, intercepting
all the mud walked from the furface.
The above methods of inveftigation admit of many
different cafes, according to the greater or lefs num¬
ber of favourable circumftances attending each of the
modes of inquiry ; and the refult accordingly admits
every degree of probability, from the moft diftant
even up to abfolute certainty. In fome lituations,
the coal will be difeovered by one method alone ; in
others, by a comparifon of certain circumftances at¬
tending each method ; whilft in fome others, all the
circumftances that can be collefted only lead to a
certain degree of probability-
In the laft cafe, where the evidence is only proba¬
ble, it will be more advifable to proceed in the fearch
by boring a hole through the folid ftrata (in the man¬
ner hereafter defcribed), tban by digging or finking a
pit, it being both cheaper and more expeditious; and Coalcry.
in every cafe, which does not amount to an abfolute 
certainty, this operation is necelfary, to afeertain the
real exiltence of the coal in that place.
We lhall now fuppofe, that having examined a cer¬
tain diftrift, fituate within a few miles of the fea or
fome navigable river, that all the circumftances which
ofter only amount to a probability of the coal being
there, and that boring is necelfary to afeertain it, we
lhall therefore deferibe the operation of boring to the
coal; then the method of clearing it from water, com¬
monly called winning it; and all the fubfequent ope¬
rations of working the coal and raifing it to the fur¬
face, leading it to die river or harbour, and finally
putting it on board the Ihips. I2
Suppofe that the ground. A, B, C, D, fig. 4. has of boring-
been examined, and from the appearance of the ftrata for the
where they are vifible (as at the precipice D, and fe- c°ah
veral other places) they are found to be of thofe kinds
ufually connefted with coal, and that the point to
which they rife is direftly weft towards A, but the
ground being flat and covered to a confiderable depth
with earth, ire. the ftrata cannot be viewed in the
low grounds; therefore, in this and allfimilar fituations,
the firft hole that is bored for a trial for coal fliould be
on the weft lide of the ground, or to the full rife of
the ftrata as at A, where, boring down through the
ftrata I, 2, 3, fuppofe 10 fathoms, and not finding
coal, it will be better to bore a new hole than to pro¬
ceed to a great depth in that: therefore, proceeding fo
far to the eaftward as B, where the ftratum f, of the
firft hole is computed to be 10 or 12 fathoms deep, a
fecond hole may be bored, where boring down through
the ftrata 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the ftratum 1 is met with, but
no coal; it would be of no ule to bore farther in this
hole, as the fame ftrata ivould be found which were
in the hole A: therefore, proceeding.again fo far to
the eaftward, as it may be computed the ftratum 4 of
the fecond hole will be met with at the depth of 10 or
12 fathoms, a new hole may be bored at C ; where,
boring through the ftrata 9, 10, 11, 12, the coal is
met with at 13, before the hole proceed fo deep as
the ftratum 4 of the former. It is evident, that, by
this method of procedure, neither the coal nor any o-
ther of the ftrata can be puffed over, as the laft hole
is always bored down to that ftratum which was near-
eft the furface in the former hole.
The purpofes for which boring is ufed, are nume¬
rous, and fome of them of the utmoft importance in
coaleries. In coaleries of great extent, although the
coal be known to extend through the whole grounds,
yet accidental turns, and other alterations in the dip,
to which the coal is liable, render the boring of three
or more holes ncceffary, to determine exactly to
what point of the horizon it dips or inclines, before,
any capital operation for the winning of it can be un¬
dertaken ; becaufe a very fmall error in this may oc-
cafion the lofs of a great part of the coal, or at leaft
incur a double expence in recovering it.
Suppofe A, B, C, D, fig. 5. to be part of an exten- plate
five field of coal, intended to be won or laid dry by LXXXI. '
a fire-engine ; according to the courfe of the dip in
adjoining coaleries, the point C is the place at which
the engine fhould be erected, becaufe the coal dips in
direction- '
Coalery.
C O A [ 2038 ] C O A
direction of the line A C, confequently the level line
. would be in the direction C D; but this ought not to
be trufted to. Admit two holes, x 2, be bored to
the coal in the direction of the fuppofed dip, at 200
yards diftance from each other,, and a third hole 3 at
200 yards diftance from each of them : fuppofe the
coal is found, at the hole 1, to be 20 fathoms deep ; at
the hole 2, 10 fathoms deeper ; but at the hole 3, only
8 fathoms deeper than at 1. Then to find the
true level line and dip of the coal, fay, As ro fathoms
the dip from 1 to 2, is to 200 yards the diftance, fo
is 8 fathoms, the dip from 1 to 3, to 160 yards, the dif¬
tance from 1 on the line 1 2, to a, the point upon a
level with the hole 3. Again fay, As 8 fathoms, the dip
from I to 3, is to 200 yards the diftance; fo is 10 fa¬
thoms, the dip from I to 2, to 250 yards, the diftance
from I, in dire&ion of the line 1, 3, to b, the point
upon a level with the hole 2. Then let fall the perpen¬
dicular 1, c, which will be the true dire<ftion of the
dip of the-coal, inftead of the fuppofed line A C ; and
by drawing E D, and D F, parallel to the other
lines, the angle D, and no other place, is the deepeft
part of the coal, and the place where the engine
fhoulcl be erefted. If it had been erected at the angle
C, the level line would have gone in the direction c b,
by which means about one third part of the field of
coal would have been below the level of the engine,
and perhaps loft, without another engine was erected
at D.
Boring not only fhews the depth at which the coal
lies, but its exadt thicknefs; its hardnefs ; its quality,
whether clofe burning or open burning, and whether
any foul mixture in it or not; alfo the thicknefs, hard¬
nefs, and other circumftances of all the ftrata bored
through ; and from the quantity of water met with in
the boring, fome judgment may be formed of the fize
of an engine capable of drawing it, where an engine
is neceffary. When holes are to be bored for thele
pnrpofes, they, may be fixed (as near as can be guef-
fed) in fuch a fituation from each other, as to fuit the
places where pits are afterwards to be funk ; by which
means moft of the expence may be faved, as thefe
pits would otherwife require to be bored, when fink¬
ing, to difcharge their water into the mine below.
There are many other ufes to which boring is applied,
as will be explained hereafter.
For thefe reafons, boring is greatly pradlifed in Eng¬
land, and is brought to great perfection ; and as the
operation is generally entrufted to a man of integrity,
who makes it his profeffion, the accounts given by him
of the thicknefs and other circumftances of the ftrata,
are the moft accurate imaginable, and are trufted to
with the greateft confidence ; for as very few gentle¬
men choofe to take a leafe of a new coalery which
has not been fufficiently explored by boring, it is ne-
eeffary the accounts Ihould be faithful, being the only
rule to guide the landlord in letting his coal, and the
tenant in taking it. In Scotland it is not fo generally
pradtifed; nor are there any men of charadter who
are profeffed borers, that operation being commonly
left to any common workman ; whence it happens,
that it never has been in any efteem, the accounts gi¬
ven by them being fo imperfedt and equivocal as not
to merit any confidence.
The tools or inftruments ufed in boring are very Coalery.
fimple. The boring rods are made of iron from .3 to  -?
4 feet long, and about one inch and a half fquare, with
a fcrew at each end, by which they are fcrewed toge¬
ther, and other rods added as the hole increafes in
depth. The chifel is about 18 inches long, and two
and a half broad at the end, which being fcrewed
on at the lower end of the rods, and a piece timber
put through an eye at the upper end, they are prepa¬
red for work. The operation is performed by lifting
them up a little, and letting them fall again, at the
fame time turning them a little round ; by a conti¬
nuance of which motions, a round hole is fretted or
worn through the hardeft ftrata. When the chifel is
blunt, it is taken out, and a fcooped inftrument called
a witnble put on in its Head ; by which the drift or
pulverifed matter which was worn off the ftratum in
the latt operation is brought up. By this fubftahce,
the borers know exactly the nature of the ftratum
they are boring in ; and by any alteration in the
working of the rods, (which they are fenfible of by
handling them) they perceive the leaft variation of the
ftrata. The principal part of the art depends upon
keeping the hole clean, and obferving every variation
of the ftrata with care and attention.
.The eftablifhed price of boring in England is 5 s.
per fathom for the firft five fathoms, 1 o s. per fathom
for the next five fathoms, and 15 s. per fathom for the
next five fathoms ; and fo continually increafing .5 s.
per fathom at the end of every five fathoms; the borer
finding all kinds of boring inftruments, and taking his
chance of the hardnefs of the ftrata, except above one
foot in thicknefs of whin occur, when the former price
ceafes, and he is paid day.
It is exceedingly uncommon to meet with a ftratum Ofwinnu
of coal which is naturally dry, or whofe fubterranean the
fprings or feeders of water are fo very fmall as to re¬
quire no other means than the labour of men to draw
off or condu<5l them away ; for it moft commonly hap¬
pens, that the ftratum of coal, and the other ftrata ad¬
jacent, abound fo much in feeders of water, that, be¬
fore accefs can be had to the coal, fome other methods
muft be purfued to drain or conduct away thefe feed¬
ers : therefore, after the deepeft part of the coal is
difcovered, the next confideration is of the beft me¬
thod of draining it, or, in the miner’s language, of
winning the coal.
If the coal lies in fuch an elevated fituation, that a
part of it can be drained by a level brought up from
the lower grounds, then that will be the moft natural
method ; but whether it be the moft proper or not,
depends upon certain circumftances. If the fituation
of the ground be fuch, that the level would be of a
great length, or have to come through very hard ftrata,
and the quantity of coal it would drain, or the profits
expected to be produced by that coal, fliould be ina¬
dequate to the expence of carrying it up; in fueh cafe
fome other method of winning might be more proper.
Or fuppofe, in another cafe, it be found, that a level can
be had to a coalery, which will coft L. 2000, and re¬
quire five years to bring it up to the coal, and that it
will drain 30 acres of coal when completed ; yet if it
be found that a fire engine, or fome other machine,
can be eredted on that coalery, for the fame fum of
money,
C O A [ 2039 ] C O A
sttalery. money, in one year, which will drain jo acres of the
 fame coal, then this laft W'ould be a more proper me¬
thod than the level; becaufe four years profit would
be received by this method before any could come in
by the other; and after the 30 acres drained by the
level is ail wrought, a machine of fome kind would ne-
verthelefs be neceflary to drain the remaining ao acres:
fo that erefting a machine at firft would be on all ac¬
counts the molt advifable.
Where a level can be drove, in a reafonable time,
and at an adequate expence, to drain a fufficient tradl
of coal, it is then the moft eligible method of winning ;
becaufe the charge of upholding it is generally lefs than
that of upholding fire-engines or other machines.
If a level is judged propereft after confideration of
every neceffary circumftance, it may be begun at the
place appointed in the manner of an open ditch, about
three feet wide, and carried forward until it be about
fix or feven feet deep from the furface, taking care to
fecure the bottom and fides by timber-work or build¬
ing ; after which it may be continued in the manner
of a mine about three feet wide, and three feet and a
half high, through the folid ftrata, taking care all along
I to keep the bottom upon a level, and to fecure the
roof, fides, and bottom, by timber or building, in all
places where the llrata are not flxong enough to fup-
port the incumbent weight, or where they are liable
to decay by their expofure to the frefli air. If the
mine has to go a very long way before it reach the
coal, it may be neceliary to fink a finall pit, for the
convenience of taking out the ftones and rubbifli pro-
' duced in working the mine, as well as to fupply frefli
air to the workmen ; and if the air fliould afterwards
turn damp, then fquare wooden pipes made of dales
clofely jointed, (commonly called air-boxes), may be
fixed in the upper part of the mine, from the pit-bot¬
tom ail the way to the end of the mine, which .will
caufe a fufficient circulation of frefli air for the work¬
men ; perhaps in a great length it will be found pro¬
per to fink another or more pits upon the mine, and
by proceeding in this manner it may be carried for¬
ward until it arrive at the coal; and after driving a
mine in the coal a few yards to one fide, the firft coal¬
pit may be funk.
If a level is found impradlicable, or for particular
ee ar- reafons unadvifable ; then a fire-engine*, or fome
e Steam- other machine, will be neceffary, which ffiould be fix-
tne' ed upon the deepeft part of the coal, or at leaft fo far
towards the dip as will drain a fufficient extent of
coal, to continue for the time intended to work the
eoalery ; and whether a fire-engine, or any other
machine, is ufed, it will be of great ad vantage to have
a partial level brought up to the engine-pit, if the fi-
tuation of the ground will admit it at a fmall charge,
in order to receive and convey away the water with¬
out drawing it fo high as to the furface : for if the pit
! was 30 fathoms deep to the coal, and if there was a
partial level, which received the water five fathoms
only below the furface, the engine by this means
would be enabled to draw i-6th part more water than
without it; and if there were any feeders of water
- in the pit above this level, they might be conveyed
into it, where they would be difcharged without be¬
ing drawn by the engine.
The engine-pit may be from feven to nine feet Coalery.
wide j and whether it be circular, oval, or of any
other form, is not very material, provided it be fuf-
ficiently ftrong, though a circular form is moft gene¬
rally approved. If any feeders of water are met
with a few fathoms from the furface, it will be pro¬
per to make a circular or fpiral cutting about one foot
deep, and a little hollowed in the bottom, round the
circumference of the pit, in order to receive and con-
duCt the water down, without flying over the pit and
incommoding the workmen. If the ftrata are of fo
tender or friable a nature as not to bear this opera¬
tion, on if the water leaks through them, then it will
be neceftary to infert in the forementiond cutting a-
circular piece of timber called a crib, hollowed in the
fame manner to colledt the water ; and a fecond may
be inferred two or three yards below the firft, with a
Hoping nitch down the wall or fide of the pit, to con¬
vey the water from the former into it; proceeding by
fome of thefe methods until the pit is funk 1 j or 20
fathoms ; at which place it would be proper to fix a
ciftern or refervoir, for the firft or upper fet of pumps
to Hand in; for if the pit be 30 fathoms as fuppofed,
it would be too great a length for the pumps to be all
in one fet from bottom to top ; therefore, if any ex¬
traordinary feeders are met with, betwixt 1$ and 20
fathoms deep, it would be heft to fix the ciftern where
it may receive them, and prevent their defcending to
the bottom ; obferving that the upper fet of pumps be
fo much larger than the lower one, as the additional
feeders may require; or if there are no additional
feeders, it ought then to be a little fmaller.
After the upper ciftern is fixed, the operation may
be purl'ued by the other fet of pumps in much the fame
manner as has been deicribed, until the pit is funk to
the coal; which being done, it would be proper to
fink it fix or eight feet deeper, and to work fome coal
out from the dip fide of the pit, to make room for a
large quantity of water to collect, without incommo¬
ding the coal-pits when the engine is not working.
It would exceed the proper bounds of this article, to
enumerate all the accidents to which engine-pits are
liable in finking; we fliall therefore only recite a few
which feem important.
If a quickfand happen to lie above the folid ftrata,
next the furface, it may be got through by digging
the pit of fuch a widenefs at the top (allowing for the
natural flope or running of the fand) as to have the
proper fize of the pit on the uppermoft folid ftratum; .
where fixing a wooden frame or tube as the timber-
work of the pit, and covering it round on the out^
fide with wrought clay up to the top, the fand may
again be thrown into the excavation round the tube,
and levelled with the lurface.
If the quickfand fiiould happen to lie at a confider-
able depth betwixt the clay and folid ftrata, then a
ftrong tube of timber clofely jointed and fhod with
iron, of fuch a diameter as the pit will admit, may be
let down into it; and by fixing a great weight upon
the top, and by working out the fand, it may be made
to fink gradually, until it come to the rock or other
folid ftratum below ; and when all the fand is got
out, if it be lightly calked and fecured it will be fuf¬
ficient.
It
C O A [ 2040 ] C O A
Coalery. It fometimes happens, that a ftratum of foft mat-
ter, lying betwixt two hard folid ones, produces fo
large a quantity of water as greatly to incommode the
operations. In fuch a cafe, a frame-work of plank,
ftrengthened with cribs and clofely calked,will flop back
the whole or the greateft part of it, provided the two
ftrata which include it are of a dole texture : or let
an excavation of about two feet be made in the foft
ftratum, quite round the circumference of the pit; and
let that be filled clofe up betwixt the two hard ftrata,
with pieces of dry fir-timber about 10 inches fquare
inferted endwife, and afterwards as many wooden
wedges driven in to them as they can be made to re¬
ceive ; if this be well finifhed, little or no water will
find a paffage through it.
It rarely happens that any fuffocating damp or foul
air is met with in an engine-pit, the falling of water
and the working of the pumps, generally caufing a fuf-
ficient circulation of frefti air ; but that kind of com-
buftible vapour or inflammable air, which will catch
fire at a candle, is often met with ; it proceeds from
the partings, backs, and cutters, of the folid ftrata,
exhaling from fome in an infenfible manner, whilft
from others it blows with as great impetuofity as a
pair of bellows. When this inflammable air is per¬
mitted to accumulate, it becomes dangerous by taking
fire, and burning or deftroying the workmen, and
fometimes by its explofion will blow the timber out
of the pit, and do confiderable damage. If a confi-
derable fupply of frefli air is forced down the pit by
air-boxes and a ventilator, or by dividing the pit into
two by a clofe partition of deals from top to bottom,
or by any other means, it will be driven out, or fo
weakened, that it will be of no dangerous confequence:
or when the inflammable air is very ftrong, it may be
fafely carried off by making a clofe flieathing or lining
of thin deals quite round the circumference of the pit,
from the top of the folid ftrata to the bottom, and
lengthening it as the pit is funk, leaving a fmall vacancy
behind the flieathing; when the combuftible matter,
which exhales from the ftrata, being confined behind
thefe deals, may be vended by one or two fmall leaden
pipes, carried from the flieathihg to the furface; fo
that very little of it can tranfpire into the area of the
pit. If a candle be applied to the orifice of the pipe
at the furface, the inflammable air will inftantly take
fire, and continue burning like an oil lamp until it be
extinguilhed by fome external caufe. Upon the whole,
every method fliould be ufed to make the pit as ftrong
in every part, and to keep it as dry as poflible; and
whenever any accident happens, it fliould be as ex-
peditioufly and thoroughly repaired as poflible, before
any other operation be proceeded in, left an additional
one follow, which would more than double the diffi-
j4 culty of repairing it.
Of working The firft operations, after finking the engine-pit, are
the coal. the working or driving a mine in the coal, and (ink¬
ling the firft coal-pit. The fituation of the firft coal¬
pit fliould be a little to the rife of the engine-pit, that
the water which collects there may not obftrudt the
working of the coals every time the engine ftops:
and it fliould not exceed the diftance of 20, 30, or 40
yards; becaufe when the firft mine has to be driven a
long way, it becomes both difficult and expenlive. If
there be not a fufficient circulation of frefli air in the CoaleH
mine, it may be fupplied by the before defcribed air- —
boxes and a ventilator, until it arrive below the in- 3
tended coal-pit, when the pit may be bored and funk
to the coal, in the manner before mentioned.
After the pit is thus got down to the coal, the next
confideration fliould be of the beft method of working j
it. The moft general praftice in Scotland is to ex¬
cavate and take away a part only of the ftratum of
coal in the firft working of the pit, leaving the other
part as pillars for fupporting the roof; and after the
coal is wrought in this manner to fuch a diftance from 1
the pit as intended, then thefe pillars, or fo many of i
them as can be got, are taken out by a fecond work¬
ing, and the roof and other folid ftrata above permit- |
ted to fall down and fill up the excavation. The
quantity of coal wrought away, and the fize of the '
pillars left in the firft working, is proportioned to
the hardnefs and ftrength of the coal and other ftrata
adjacent, compared with the incumbent weight of the j
fuperior ftrata.
The fame mode of working is purfued in moft parts
of England, differing only as the circumftances of the
coalery may require : for the Englilh coal, particularly
in the northern counties, being of a fine tender tex¬
ture, and of the clofe-burning kind, and all'o the roof
and pavement of the coal in general not lb ftrong as * I
in Scotland, they are obliged to leave a larger propor- ‘>\ I
tion of coal in the pillars for fupporting the roof, du- 11
ring the firft time of working; and, in the fecond work- j I
ing, as many of thefe pillars are wrought away as can
be got with fafety.
The Scots coal in general being very hard, and of
the open-burning kind, it is neceffary to work it in
fuch a manner as to produce as many great coals as tl
poflible, which is belt effected by taking away as high \ I
a proportion of the coal as circumftances will allow in
the firft working; on the contrary, the Englilh coal i I
being very tender cannot poflibly be wrought large,
nor is it of much importance how fmall they are, be¬
ing of fo rich a quality ; fo that a larger proportion ] I
may be left in pillars in this coal than could with pro¬
priety be done in the other; and, when all circum¬
ftances are confidered, each method feems well adap- 1 i
ted to the different purpofes intended.
The ancient method of working was, to work a- j|
way as much of the coal as could be got with fafety
at one working only; by which means the pillars were
left fo fmall as to be cruflied by the weight of the fu¬
perior ftrata, and entirely loft. As great quantities
of coals were loft by this method', it is now generally
exploded, and the former adopted in its place ; by f
which a much larger quantity of coal is obtained from
the fame extent of ground, and at a much lefs expence
in the end.
The exa<5l proportion of coal proper to be wrought |
away, and to be left in pillars at the firft working,
may be judged of by a comparifon of the circumftan- ,
ces before mentioned. If the roof and pavement are £
both ftrong, as well as the coal and the pit about 30 ;I|
fathoms deep, then two-thirds, or probably three-
fourths, may be taken away at the firft working, and
one-third or one-fourth left in pillars. If both roof f
and pavement be foft or tender, then a larger pro-
• portion
C O A [ 2041 ] C O A
j Coslery. portion miift be left in pillars, probably one-third or
[ near one-half; and in all cales the hardnefs or ftrength
of the coal muft be confidered. If tender, it will re¬
quire a larger pillar than hard coal; becaufe, by being
expofed to the air after the firft working, a part of it
will moulder and fall off, by which it will lofe much
of its folidity and refiftance.
The proportion to be wrought away and left in
pillars being determined, the next proper Itep is to
fix upon fuch dimenfions of the pillars to be left, and
of the excavations from which the coal is to be taken
away, as may produce that proportion. In order to
form a juft idea of which, fee a plan of part of a pit’s
Plate workings (fig 6.) fuppofed to be at the depth of 30
LXXXI. fathoms, and the coal having a moderate rife. A, re-
prefents the engine-pit; B, the coal-pit A a B, the
mine from the former to the latter; B C, the firft
working or excavation made from the coal-pit, com¬
monly called the 'winning wine or winning headway,
nine feet wide ; bb bb, &c. the workings called^so?/^,
turned off at right angles from the others, of the width
of 12 feet; cccc, &c. the workings called tbroughers
or tbirlings, 9 feet wide, wrought through at right
angles from one room to another d dd, &c. the pil¬
lars of coal left at the firft working for fupporting the
roof, 18 feet long and 12 feet broad; DD, two large
pillars of coal near the pithottom, 15 or 20 yards long,
and 10 or 15 broad, to fupport the pit and prevent its
being damaged by the roof falling in ; e e, the level
mine wrought in the coal from the engine-pit bottom,
4 or 3 feet wide ; ff, &c. large pillars of coal left
next the level, to fecure it from ariy damage by the
roof falling in ; gg, a dike which depreffeth the coal,
I fathom ; b h, &c. large pillars and barriers of coal
left unwrought, adjoining to the dike where the roof
is tender, to prevent its falling down. The coal ta¬
ken out by the firft working in this pit is fuppoled to
be one-third of the whole : and allowing the rooms
12 feet wide, and the thirlings 9 feet wide, then the
pillars will require to be 12 feet wide and 18 feet long;
for if one pillar be in a certain proportion to its ad¬
joining room and thirling, the whole number of pillars
will be in the fame proportion to the whole number
of r<roms and thirlings in the pit. Suppofe ABCD,
(fig. 7.) to be a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 12 feet
broad, its area will be 216 fquare feet; ACHE, the
adjoining thirling, 12 feet by 9 feet, and its area 108
fquare feet; B A E F G,the adjoining room, 2 7 feet long
and 12 feet broad, and its area 324 fquare feet; which
added to 108 gives 432 fquare feet, or two-thirds
wrought, and 216 fquare feet left, or one-third of the
whole area F G H D.
It is proper'to obferve, that in the profecution of
the workings, the rooms to the right of the winning
beadway fhould be oppofite to the pillars on the left;
and the firft, third and fifth pillar, of the fecond,
fourth and fixth, adjoining to the faid headway, Ihould
be of fuch a length as to overlay the adjoining thir¬
lings; as, in the plan, the pillar 2 overlays the thir¬
lings 1 and 3 ; and die pillar 4, overlays the thir¬
lings 3 and 5; this will effectually fupport the roof
of the main road B C, and will bring the other pillars
into their regular order, by which means each pillar
will be oppofite to two thirlings. Alfo a larger pro-
Vo l. III.
portion of coal than common Ihould be left in all Coal cry.
places which are intended to be kept open after the “
fecond working; fuch as the pit-bottoms, air-courfes,
roads, and water-courfes, or where the roof is ten¬
der, as it generally is near dikes, hitches, and troubles;
and if the roof fliould continue tender for a confide r-
able fpace, it will perhaps be found proper to leave a
few inches of coal adhering to the roof, which, toge¬
ther with a few props of timber fixed under it, may
fupport it effectually for a long time. The level mine
e e, and the winning headway B C, fttould be wrought
foreward a conliderable length before the other rooms,
in order to be drove through any dikes that might in-
terpofe; otherwife the progrefs of the workings might
probably be flopped a conliderable time, waiting until
a courfe of new rooms were procured on the other
fide of the dike. Suppofe the dike ££, fig 6. to dc-
prefs the coal fix feet or one fathom, and that Jt riles
in the fame manner on the under fide of the dike as it
does on the upper fide; in fuch a cafe the only reme¬
dy would be to work or drive a level mine through
the flrata of ftone from the engine-level at e, over the
dike, until it interfeCl the coal at i; and from thence to
drive a new level mine in the coal-at it, and a new
winning headway ik. In order to gain a new fet of
rooms, and to fupply frelh air to this new operation, a
fmajj mine might be drove from the room h, and a hole
funk down upon the level room i i; therefore, if the
level mine e e was not drove fo far foreward as to have
all thefe operations compleated before the rooms and
other workings were intercepted by the dike, the
working of the pit might ceafe until thefe new places
were ready.
If there be two or three ftrata or feams of coal in
the fame pit (as there often are) having only a ftratum
of a few feet thick lying betwixt them, it is then ma¬
terial to obferve, that every pillar in the fecond feam
be placed immediately below one in the firft, and
every pillar in the third beam below one in the fe¬
cond ; and in fuch a fituation the upper ftratum of coal
ought to be firft wrought, or elfe all the three toge¬
ther : for it would be uufafe to work the knver one
firft, left the roof Ihould break, and damage thole
lying above.
It lometimes becomes neccffary to work the coal
lying to the dip of the engine or the level, which coal
is confequeiptly.drowned \yith water, and muft there¬
fore be drained by fome means before it can be
wrought. If the quantity of. water proceeding from
it be inconfiderable, it may then be drained by fmall
pumps laid upon the pavement of the coal, and
wrought by men or horfes, to raife the water up to
the level of the engine-pit bottom: or if the feeders of
water be more confiderable, and the fituation be fuit-
able, the w'orking road of thefe pumps might be con¬
nected with thole in the engine-pit; by which means
the water would be raifed up to the level; but if the
quantity of water be very great; or if, from other cir-
cumltances, thefe methods may not be applicable; then
the engine-pit may be funk as deep below the coal as
may be neceflary, and a level ftone mine drove from
its bottom to the dip of the ftrata, until it intcrfeCl the
ftratum of coal, from whence a new level mine might
be worked, which would effe.Clually .drain it. Sup-
12 C pole
Coalery.
C O A [ 2042 ] C O A
pofe A B, fig. 8. to be a fe£Uon of the engine-pit; B C,
the coal drained by the engine ; B D, the coal to the
dip of the engine intended to be drained; then if the
engine-pit be funk deeper to E, a ftone mine may be
wrought in the diredtion ED, until it interledl the
coal at D, by which the water will have a free paf-
fage to the engine, and the coal will be drained.
If there be another flratum of coal lying at fuch a
depth below the firft as the engine-pit is intended to
be funk to, the upper Team may in fome fituations be
conveniently drained, by driving a mine in the lower
leam of coal from E to F, and another in the upper
one from B to D; and by boring a hole from D to F,
the water will defcend to F, and, filling the mine E F,
rife up to the engine-pit bottom at E, which is upon
a level with D.
Whenever it is judged neceflary to work the pil¬
lars, regard mull be had to the nature of the roof.
If the roof is tender, a narrow room may be wrought
through the pillar from one end to the other, leaving
only a Ihell of coal on each fide for fupporting the roof .
the time of working. Suppofe A B C D, fig. 7. to be
a pillar of coal 18 feet.long, and 12 feet broad ; if the
roof is not llrong, the room 1, 2, 3, 4, of eight
feet wide may be wrought up through that pillar,
leaving a fhell of two feet thick on each fide; and if
it can be fafely done, a part of thefe fliells may alfo
be wrought away, by working two places through
them as at 5 and 6. By this means very little of the
coal will be loft ; for two-thirds of the whole being
obtained by the firft working, and above two-thirds
of the pillar by the fecond working, the lofs upon the
whole would not exceed one-tenth: but it may be
obferved, that fome pillars will not produce fo great
a proportion, and perhaps others cannot be wrought
at all; fo that upon the whole there may be about
one-eight, one-feventh, or in fome fituations one-fixth
part of the coal loft. If the roof be hard and ftrong,
then as much coal may be wrought off'each fide and
each end of the pillar as can be done with fafety, lea¬
ving only a fmall piece Handing in the middle; and
when the roof is very ftrong, fometimes feveral pil¬
lars may be taken entirely out, without any lofs of
coal: and in general this laft method is attended with
lefs lofs, and produces larger coals, than the former.
In all cafes it is proper to begin working thofe pillars
firft, which lie fartheft from the pit bottom, and to
proceed working them regularly away towards the
pit; but if there be a great number of pillars to the dip
ot the pit, it is the fafeft method to work thefe out
before thofe to the rife of the pit are begun with.
There is no great difference in the weight of dif¬
ferent kinds of coals, the lighteft being about 74 pounds
avoirdupois, and the heavieft about 79 pounds the
cubic foot; but the moft ufual weight is 75 pounds the
loot, which is 18 hundred weight, and 9 pound the
cubic yard. The ftatute chalder is 53 hundredweight ;
or when meafured is as follows, 268.8 cubic inches to
the Winchefter gallon; 41. gallons to the coal peck,
about 3 pounds weight ; 8 coal pecks to the boll, about
347f pounds; and 24 bolls to the chalder, of S3 hundred
weight. If one coal meafuring exacily a cubic yard
(nearly equalto 5 bolls) be broke into pieces of a mode¬
rate fize, it will meafure feven coal-bolls and a half.
If broke very fmall, it will meafure 9 bolls; which
fliews that the proportion of the weight to the mea¬
fure, depends upon the fize of the coals: therefore ac¬
counting by weight, is the moft rational method.
A Table of the weight and quantity of coal con¬
tained in one acre Scots meafure, allowing one
fixth part to be loft below ground, in feams of the
following thickneffes.
Weight i.
3068
3835
4602
5369
6136
6903
7670
8437
9204
Quantity in chalders
IIS8
1447
1736
202J
2314
2603
2892
3181
347°
Coalery.
We fliall nekt mention fome of the various methods
of bringing the coals from the room's and other work¬
ings to the pit bottom. Where the ftratum of coal is
of a fufficient thicknefs, and has a moderate rife and
dip, the coals are moft advantageoufly brought out by
horfes, who draw out the coals in a tub or balket
placed upon a Hedge : a horfe by this means will
bring out from four to eight hundred weight of coals
at once, according to the quantity of the afcent or
defcent. In fome coaleries they have accefs to the
workings by a mine made for them, Hoping down
from the furface of the earth to the coal; and
where that convenience is wanting, they are bound
into a net, and lowered down the pit. If the coal be
not of fuch a height as to admit horfes, and has a mo¬
derate rife like the laft, then men are employed to
bring out the coals: they ufually draw a balket of four
or five hundred weight of coals, fixed upon a fmall
four-wheeled carriage. There are fome fituations in
which neither horfes nor men can be properly ufed ;
particularly where the coal has a great degree of de-
Icent, or where many dikes occur : in fuch a cafe tire
coals are beft brought out by women called bearers,
who carry them in a kind of balket upon their backs,
ufually a hundred or a hundred weight and a half at
once.
When the coals are brought to the pit bottom, the
balkets are then hooked on to a chain, and drawn up"
the pit by a rope to the furface, which is beft effected
by a machine called a gi/i, wrought by horfes. There
are other kinds of gins for drawing coals, fome wrought
by water, others by the vibrating lever of a fire-en¬
gine ; but either of thefe laft is only convenient in
fome particular fituations, thofe wrought by horfes
being in moft general ufe. After the coals are got to
the lurface, they are drawn a fmall diftance from the
pit, and laid in feparate heaps : the largeft coals in one
heap, the-fmaller pieces called chews in another, and
the culm or pan-coal in a feparate place. '
There is an accident of a very dangerous nature to Of cruihes-
which all coaleries are liable, and which has been the and Ctts.
ruin of feveral: it is called a crujh, or a fitt. When
the pillars of coal are left fo fmall as to fall, or yield
under the \yeight of the fuperior ftrata; or when the
pavement
Coslery.
toul air.
Plate
lxxxi.
C O A [ 2043 ] C O A
pavement of the coal is lb foft as to permit the pillars
to fink into it, which fometimes happens by the great
weight that lies upon them ; in either cale the folid
firatum above the coal breaks and falls in, cruihes the
pillars to pieces, and clofeth up a great extent of the
workings, or probably the whole coalery. As fuch an
accident feldom comes on fuddenly, if it be perceived
in the beginning, it may fometimes be (topped by
building large pillars of ftone amongfl: the coal pillars:
but if it has already made fome progrefs, then the
beft method is to work away as many of the coal pil¬
lars adjoining to the crufh as may be fufficient to let
the roof fall freely down; and if it makes a breach of
the folid firata from the coal up to the furface, it will
very probably prevent the crufli from proceeding any
farther in that part of the coalery. If the crulh begins
in the rife part of the coalery, it is more difficult to
flop it from proceeding to the dip, than it is to flop it
from going to the rife when it begins in a contrary part.
Another circumftanee proper to be taken notice of
is the foul or adulterated air fo often troublefome in
coaleries. Of this there are two kinds : the black
damp or ftyth, which is of a fuffocating nature ; and
the inflammable or combufiible damp. Without flay¬
ing to inquire, in this place, into the origin and effects
of thefe damps, it may be fufficient to obferve, that,
in whatever part of any coalery a confiant fupply or
a circulation of freffi air is wanting, there fome of
thefe damps exifi, accumulate in a body, and become
noxious or fatal: and wherever there is a good circu¬
lation of frefli air, they cannot accumulate, being mixed
with and carried away by the ftream of air as fait
as they generate or exhale from the ftrata. Upon
thefe principles are founded the feveral methods of
ventilating a coalery. Suppofe the‘workings of the
pits A and B (fig. 6.) to be obnoxious to the inflammable
damps ; if the communication was open betwixt the
two pits, the air which went down the pit A, would
proceed immediately along the mine a, and afcend
out of the pit B ; for it naturally takes the nearelt di-
redfion : fo that the air in all the workings would be
ftagnant; and they would be utterly inacceffible from
the accumulation of the combultible damp. In order
to expel this, the air muft be made to circulate through
all the different rooms, by means of collateral air-
courfes made in this manner : The paffage or mine a
mufi: be clofed up or Hopped l?y a partition of deals, or
by a wall built with bricks or Hones, to prevent the
air palling that way. This building is called a flopping.
There muH alfo be Hoppings made in the thirlings
ill, &c. betwixt the pillars ff, 8cc. which will di¬
rect the air up the mine e e, until it arrive at the in-
nermofl thirling 2, which is to be left open for its paf¬
fage. There muH alfo be Hoppings made at the fide of
the mine** at mm, and on both fides of the main head¬
way B C at M, 8cc. then returning to the innermolt thir¬
ling 2, proceed to the third ro'w of pillars, and build
up the thirlings 2 2, See. leaving open the thirling 3
for a paffage for the air; and proceeding on to the
fifth row of pillars, build up in the fame manner the
Hoppings 3 3, &c. leaving open 4 for an air courfe :
and by proceeding in this manner to Hop up the thir¬
lings or palfages in every other row of pillars, the
current of frelh air will circulate through and ventilate
the whole workings, in the direction pointed to by Coalery.
the fmall arrows in the plan, clearing away all the
damps and noxious vapours that may generate. When
it is arrived at C, it is conduced acrofs the main head¬
way, and carried through the other part of the pit’s
workings in the fame manner, until it return through
n n to the pit B, where it afeends ; and as the rooms
advance farther, other Hoppings are regularly made.
In fome of thole Hoppings, on the fides of the maiit
headway, there muH be doors to admit a paffage for
the bringing out of the coals from the rooms to.the
pit, as at 5 5 ; thefe doors muH be conllantly ffiut, ex¬
cept at the time of palling through them.
There are other methods of difpofing the Hoppings
fo as to ventilate the pit; but none which will lb ef-
feblually difperfe the damps as that defmbed above.
If the damps are not very abundant, then the courfe
of Hoppings 1 r r, &c. in the level mine,' and the
others at b b b, See. in the main-headway, without any
others, may perhaps be fufficient to keep the pit clear.
If at an^ time the circulation of the frelh air is nor
brilk enough, then a large lamp of fire may be placed
at the bottom of the pit B, which, by rarefying the
air there, will make a quicker circulation. j6
Molt of the larger coaleries fend their coals to the Of leading
fliips for the coalting trade or exportation ; and, as ai1<1
the quantity is generally very large, it would take a ^”fsthe
greater number of carts than could conveniently be
obtained at all times to carry them; befides' the confi-
derable expence of that manner of carriage : they
therefore generally ufe waggons, for carrying them
along waggon-ways, laid with timber, by which means
one horfe will draw from two to three tons at a time,
when in a cart not above half a ton could be drawn.
The firfi thing to be done in making a waggon-way
is to level the ground in fuch a manner as to take off
all Hidden afeents and defeents : to effect which, it is
fometimes neceffary to cut through hills, and to raife
an embankment to carry the road through hollows.
The road Ihould be formed about 12 feet wide ; and
no part Ihould have a greater defeent than of one yard
’perpendicular in 10 of a horizontal line, nor a greater
afeent than one yard in 30. After the road is formed,
pieces of timber, about fix feet long, and fix inches
diameter, called Jleepirs, are laid acrofs it, being 18
or 24 inches difiant from each other. Upon thele
lleepers other pieces of timber, called rails, of four or
five inches fquare, are laid in a lateral direiftion, four
feet dillant from each other, for the waggon-wheels
to run upon; which being firmly pinned to the lleepers,
the road may then be filled with gravel, and finilhed.
The waggons have four wheels, either made of fo¬
lid wood or of call iron. The body of the carriage is
longer and wider at the top than at the bottom ; and
ufually has a kind of trap-door at the bottom, which,
being loofed, permits the coals to run out without any
trouble. The fize of a waggon to carry 50 hundred
weight of coals is as follows :
Feet. Inches.
Length of the top 7 9
Breadth of the top - 50
Length of the bottom - 5 o'
Breadth of the bottom - 2 &
Perpendicular height - 4 3
12 C 2 Where
C O A [ 2044 ] C O A
Coalition Where the pits are fituated at Tome confiderable
1 " diftance from the harbour, it becomes neceflary to
Coa“* have a ftore-hotife near the {hipping place, where the
coals may be lodged, until the lighters or fhips are
ready to take them in. The waggon-way fliould be
made into the (tore-houfe, at luch a height from the
ground, as to permit the coals to run from the wag¬
gons down a fpout into the veffels; or elfe to fall down
into the ftore-houfe, as occafion may require.
This kind of Itore-houfe is well adapted to difpatch
and faving expence : for a waggon-load of coals may
be delivered either into the ftore-houfe or velfels in-
ftantly with very little trouble : and if the coals were
expofed to the effects of the fun and rain, they would
be greatly injured in their quality ; but being lodged
under cover of the ftore-houfe, they are preferved.
COALITION, the reunion of the parts of a body
before feparated.
COALLIER, a veflel employed to carry coals from
one port to another ; chiefly from the northern parts
of England to the capital, and more foutherly parts,
as well as to foreign markets. This trade is known
to be an excellent nurfery for feamen ; although they
are often found, from the conftitution of their climate,
not to be fo well calculated for fouthern navigation.
COAST, a fea-fhore, or the country adjoining to
the edge of the fea. Dr Campbell, in his political
furvey of Great Britain, confiders an extenfive fea-
eoaft as of great advantage to any kingdom ; and con-
fequently that this ifland hath many conveniences re-
fulting from the extent of its coafts, fuperior to other
kingdoms which are much larger. The chief advan¬
tages arifing from an extenlive fea-coaft are, that
thus there is a convenient opportunity for expor¬
tation and importation to or from all parts of the
kingdom. Thus, a number of cities are formed on
the coafts ; by this means the internal parts are im¬
proved, ire. The extent of the fea-coafts of Arabia,
he looks upon as the genuine fource of wealth and
fplendour to the ancient inhabitants of that peninfula ;
the fame was the inftrument of the greatnefs of an¬
cient Egypt, of Phoenicia, ire. In fliort, according to
him, no country or city can for any length of time be
flotirilhing, unlefs it hath a confiderable connexion
with the fea. tc It is indeed true, (fays he) that the
wifdom and induftry of man, taking hold of feme pe¬
culiar circumftances, may have rendered a few inland
cities and countries very fair and flourifhing. In an¬
cient hiftory we read of Palmyra, and the diftrkft
round it, becoming a luxuriant paradife in the midfl
of inhofpitable deferts. But this was no more than
temporary grandeur; and it has now lain for fome
ages in ruins. The city and principality of Kandahar
was in like manner rendered rich and famous, in con-
lequence of its being made the centre of the Indian
commerce ; but, long ago declining, its deftrueftion
has been compleated, in our days, from that dreadful
defolation which Thamas Kouli Khan fpread through
Perfia and the Indies. Here, in Europe, many of the
large cities in Germany, which for a time made a
great figure from the freedom and induftry of the in¬
habitants, and diffufed eafe, plenty, and profperity,
through the diftriefts dependent on them, which of
courfe rendered them populous, are now fo much funk,
through inevitable accidents, as to be but fliadows of Coafting
what they were ; and, though they ftill continue to II
fubfift, 1'ubfift only as the melancholy monuments of Coat*
their own misfortunes^ We may therefore, from
hence, with great certainty, difeern, that all the pains
and labour that can be bellowed in fupplying the de-
fed: of fituation in this refped, proves, upon the whole,-
but a tedious, difficult, and precarious expedient. But,
however, we muft at the'fame time admit, that it is
not barely the pofteffion even of an extended coaft
that can produce ail thefe defirable effects. That
coaft muft likewife be diftinguilhed by other natural
advantages ; Cuch as capes and promontories, favour¬
ably difpofed to break the fury of the winds ; deep
bays, fafe roads, and convenient harbours. For, with¬
out thefe,, an extended coatt is no more than a mari¬
time barrier againft the naval force of other nations ;
as is the cafe in many parts of Europe : and is one of
the principal reafons why Africa derives fo little be¬
nefit from a fituation which has fo promifing an ap¬
pearance ; there being many confiderable trads upon
its coafts, equally void of havens and inhabitants,, and
which afford not the fmalleft encouragement to the
attempting any thing that might alter their prefent
defolate condition. It is, however, a lefs inconveni¬
ence, and in fome cafes no inconvenience at all, if, in
the compafs of a very extended coaft, there fhould be
fome parts difficult or dangerous of accefs, provided
they are not altogether inacceffible.*—The fea-coaft of
Britain, from the figure, in fome meafure, of the ifland,
but chiefly from the inlets of the fea, and the very ir¬
regular indented line which forms its fhore, compre¬
hends, allowing for thofe finuofities, at leaft 800
marine leagues : we may, from hence, therefore, with
fafety affirm, that in this refped it is fuperior to
France, though that be a much larger country ; and
equal to Spain and Portugal in this circumftance,
though Britain is not half the fize of that noble peninfula,
which is alfo Angularly happy in this very particlar.”
COASTING, in navigation, the ad of making a
progrefs along the fea-coaft of any country. The
principal articles relating to this part of navigation
are, the ohferving the time and diredion of the tide ;
knowledge of the reigning winds ; of the roads and
havens ; of the different depths of the water, and
qualities of the ground.
Coasting-Tz/o/ a pilot, who by long experience
has become fufficiently acquainted with the nature of
any particular coaft, and of the requifites mentioned
in the preceding article, to condud a fhip or fleet from
one part of it to another.
COAT, or coat of arms, in heraldry,a habitworn
by the ancient knights over their arms both in war and
tournaments, and ftill borne by heralds at arms. It
was a kind of fur-coat, reaching as low. as the navel,
open at the fides with fliort fleeves, fometimes furred
with ermine and hair, upon which were applied the
armories of the knights embroidered in gold and fil-
ver, and enamelled with beaten tin-coloured black,
green, red, and blue-; whence the rule never to apply
colour on colour, nor metal on metal. The coats of
arms were frequently open, and diverfified with bands
and fillets of feveral colours, alternately placed, as we
ftill fee cloths fcarleted, watered, tc. Hence they
were
Coaij-MikfvS
1
C O A [ 2045 ] C O A
Coat were called devifes, as being divided and compofed of
II feveral pieces fewed together ; whence the words
C01^11, falfe, pale, chevron, bend, crofs, faltier, lozenge, &c.
which have iince become honourable pieces, or ordi¬
naries of the fhield. See Cross, Bend, Chevron,
&C.-
Coats of arms and banners were never allowed to
be worn by any but knights and ancient nobles.
Coat, in anatomy. See Tunic.
Coat of Mail, a kind of armour made in form of
a Ihirt ; coniilting of iron rings wove together net-
wife. See Mail.
COATI, in zoology, a fynonime of a fpecies of Vi-
verra, and Ursus.
COATIMUNDI, a variety of the above.
COATING, among Chemifts. See Chemistry,
n° 81.
Coating of Vials, panes of Glafs, &c. among elec¬
tricians, is ufually performed by covering the outfide
of the vial with tinfoil, brafs or gold-leaf, ire. and
filling its iniide with loof’e pieces of brafs-leaf, by
which means it becomes capable of being charged.
See Electricity.
COBALT, a genus of foflils of the order of the
afphurelata. In its purer Bates it is confiderably com¬
pact and heavy, and not infrequently of a femi-me-
tallic appearance. Its texture is always fine ; fiome-
times granulated, or compofed of minute grains ran¬
ged into fmall ftriae ; fometimes fmooth and even,
without any diftinguiiliable grain. Its colour is fome-
fimes a pale iron grey ; fometimes a darker blnifti’or
blackifh grey. From variations of this kind, fome
mineralogifls have divided it into diitindl fpecies, the
principal of which are thefe. 1. Dark-grey cobalt;
compaft, ponderous, and of a very fine grain. This
fort is laid to be the moft efteemed in Saxony, and to
produce the fineft blue glafs. 2. Bright pale-grey, or
afh-coloured cobalt, of a fomewhat loofer Itructure,
and lefs ponderous. This kind has a great refem-
blance to the arfenical pyritae, and fome of the white
, filver and copper ores, from which thofe who are ac-
cultomed to the infpedlion of thefe minerals diftin-
guilh it pretty readily, by the colour of the cobalt be¬
ing fomewhat duller, and its texture finer. 3. Vi¬
treous cobalt; in Itrufture relembljng melted fcoria or
glafs, of a bright bluifh-grey colour, called, by the Ger¬
mans, fchlacken-kobold, flag cobalt. 4. Cryflalliform
cobalt, affe&ing chiefly a cubical figure fometimes per-
feft, but commonly with the angles imperfe<5L 5. Spe¬
cular cobalt, intermixed with glittering talky flakes.
6. Earthy cobalt, blended with various earths into foft
friable compounds, of a black, yellowi(h-grey, or other
colours. 7. Flowers of cobalt. Thefe are of a loofe
radiated ftrufture, and generally not fo heavy as the
foregoing ores. The external parts are of a fine
purplifli red, a violet, or a peach-bloom colour. Some¬
times the whole rnais is elegantly tinged with thefe
colours throughout but more commonly the internal
parts are of a greyifh or leaden hue. They are ne¬
ver found in great quantities, or forming regular
veins; but only in detached malfes, lodged in clefts of
Bones ; in places to which the air has had free accefs.
They appear to proceed from a fpontaneous refolu-
tion of fome of the foregoing minerals; moft of which
are found to yield nearly fimilar effervefcences on be- Cobalt,
ing expofed in heaps for a length of time to a moift 11.
air. Wherever the workmen meet with thefe flowers, Cobbing-
they expedVa rich vein of cobalt in the neighbour¬
hood.
Cobalt is found moft plentifully in Saxony, particu¬
larly near Schneeberg in the diftrkft of Milhia. The
mines here are laid to be two or three hundred fa¬
thoms deep; and the cobalt lodged at great depths to
be of a better quality than fuch as is near the furface.
The Schneeberg hill, according to the ancient chro¬
nicles of Saxony, yielded at firft only an iron ore ;
which, on finking deeper, about the beginning of the
14th century, was fucceeded by a very rich ore of
filver. This'alfo being at length exhaufted gave place
to cobalt. Some pieces of the cobalt ores are ftill
found to participate of filver, and even of gold : but
thefe metals, far from being elfential, as fome have
fuppofed, to all cobalts, are entirely accidental even
in this. Cobalt has alfo been found in fome parts of
England, particularly in Mendip-hills in Somerfetfhire,
and in Cornwall. Its quality, however, is found to
be fomewhaf different from that found in Saxony.
This country has long fupplied all the world with
zaflxe and fmalt, the moft valuable produ&ions from
cobalt; great quantities of them being thence expor¬
ted even to the Eaft Indies. It is fuppofed that the
Chinefe, and more particularly the Japonefe, had for¬
merly mines of an excellent cobalt, from the produce
of which were painted the fine blues of their ancient
porcelains; but that thefe mines are now exhaufted*
and that the inferior blues of their prefent ware are
painted with the Saxon zaftre imported to them by
the Dutch.
Cobalt contains a great quantity of arfenic, and it
is from this mineral that moft of the arfenic we have
is prepared. The greateft quantities are made at
Geyerlberg in Mifnia, from cobalt and other arfe¬
nical ores brought from Schneeberg. The ore is
thrown into a furnace refembling a baking oven ;
whole flue is an horizontal pipe near 100 fathoms in
length, confiderably wide at the end which com¬
municates with the furnace, and growing gradually
narrower to the other end. The ore is every now and
then ftirred and turned in the furnace to promote
the extrication of the arfenic, which arifes in fumes
into the pipe, and there condenfes into a greyifh or
blackifh powder called sneal arfenic. This is refined
by a fecond fublimation in clofe velfels, with the
addition of a little potafli which detains its impurities.
In this operation, the fire which elevates the arfenic,
heating the receiver, the flowers melt together into
the cryftalline maffes brought to us. From cobalt, al¬
fo, are prepared the fubftances called zaffre and fmalt,
ufed for tinging glafs of a blue colour. See Zaffre
and Smalt,
Regulus oyCobalt, a kind offemi-metal prepared
from cobalt, of a whitifli colour inclining to red. For
the manner of its preparation, fee Zaffre. For its
chemical properties, fee Chemistry, n® 159, 212,
213, 259.
COBBING, a punifhment fometimes inflhfted at
fea. It is perfumed by ftriking the offendev a certain
number of times on the breech with a flat piece of
wood
COB [ 2046 ] C O C
Cobids wood called the cobbing-board. It is chiefly ufed as a
| punilhment to thofe who quit their ftation during the
Coccmella. per;ocj 0f the night-watch.
COBITIS, the loache, in ichthyology, a genus
of fifhes belonging to the order of abdominales. The
eyes are in the upper part of the head. The bran-
chioftege membrane has from four to five rays; and
the body is nearly of an equal thicknefs throughout.
The fpecies are five ; three of which are natives of
Europe. The loache is found in feveral of our fmall
rivers, keeping at the bottom on the gravel; and is,
on that account, in fome places called the groundling :
It is frequent in. the ftream near Amelbury in Wilt-
fliire, where the fportfmen, thro’ frolic, iwallow it
down alive in a glafs of white-wine.
COBLENTZ, an ancient, handfome, and Itrong
town of Germany, in the ele&orate of Triers or Tre¬
ves, feated at the confluence of the rivers Rhine and
Mofelle, in a fertile country, with mountains covered
with vineyards. It is the ufual refidence of the elec¬
tor of Treves, to whom it belongs. E. Long. 7. 18.
N. Lat. 50. 24.
COBOB, the name of a diflt among the Moors. It
is made of feveral pieces of mutton wrapt up in the
cawl, and afterwards roalted in it; the poorer people,
inllead of the meat, ufe the heart, liver, and other
parrs of the entrails, and make a good difh, though
not equal to the former.
COBURG, a town of Germany in the circle of
Franconia, and capital of a territory of the fame name,
with a famous college, a fort, and a caftle. This town,
with its principality, belongs to the houfe of Saxony,
and the inhabitants are Protellants. It is feated on
the river Itch, in E. Long. 11. 5. N. Lat. 50. 20.
COBWEB, in phyliology, the fine net-work which
•fpiders fpin out of their own bowels, in order to catch
their prey. See Aranea.
COCCEIUS (John), profelfor of theology at Bre¬
men, was founder of a fedt called Cocceiam: they
held, amongft other Angular opinions, that of a vili-
ble reign of Chrifl: in this world, after a general con-
verfion of the Jews and all other people to the true
Chriltian faith, as laid down in the voluminous works
of Cocceius. He died in 1699, aged 66.
COCCIFEROUS plants, the fame with baccife-
rous. See Baccikerous.
COCCINELLA, in zoology, a genus of infedls, of
the coleoptera order. The antennse are fulclavated,
and truncated ; the polypi are lhaped liked a heart;
the body is of a hemifpherical figure ; the breall and
elytra are marginated; and the belly is plain. The
fpecies are forty-nine, moftly diftinguifliable by the
number and colour of the fpots on their wings, and
the plants upon which they live. The coccinella cadti,
a native of the warmer parts of America, is the fa¬
mous cochineal animal, fo highly valued in every part
of the world for the incomparable beauty of its red co¬
lour, which it readily communicates to wool and filk,
but with much more difficulty to linen and cotton.
This infedt, like all others, is of two fexes, but
exceedingly diffimilar in their appearance. The fe¬
male, w hich alone is valuable for its colour, is ill-
ffiaped, tardy, and flupid: its eyes', mouth, and an¬
tenna?, are fixed fo deep, and are fo concealed in
the folds of the Ikin, that it is impoffible to diftinguifli Coccinella.
them without a microfcope. The male is very ' •.
fcarce, and is fufficient for 300 females or more; it
is adtive, fmall, and flender in companion with the
female ; its neck is narrower than the head, and {till
narrower titan the reft of the body. Its thorax is of
an elliptic form, a little longer than the neck and head
put together, and flattened below; its antennas are
jointed, and out of each joint iffue long, flender hairs
that are difpofed in pairs on each fide. It has fix
feet, each formed of diftindt parts. From the pofte-
rior extremity of its body two large hairs or bridles
are extended, that are four or five times the length
of the infedt. It bears two wings that are fixed to
the upper part of the thorax, which falls like the
wings of common flies jvhen it walks or refts. Thefe
wings, which are of an oblong form, are fuddenly di-
minilhed in breadth where they are connedled'to the
body. They are ftrengthened by two oblong mufcles;
one of which extends itfelf on the outlide all round
the wing; and the other, which is internal and pa¬
rallel to the former, feems interrupted towards the
fummit of the wings. The male is of a bright red;
the female of a deeper colour. They are bred on a
plant known in Oaxaca in New Spain, and all thofe
parts where it abounds, by the name of nopal, or no-
palleca, the Indian fig-tree *, which, except in the * A fpeciesi
difference of the foliage, refembles the tunos, fo com- of Opuntia.\
mon in the kingdom of Andalufxa; the leaf of the tu¬
na being broad, flat and prickly, and that of the no¬
pal, oblong, with feveral eminences; and inftead of
fpines has a fine fmooth membrane, of a permanent
and lively green.
The method of planting the nopal, is by making
rows of holes about half a yard deep, and about two
yards diftant from one another. In each of thefe holes
is placed one or two leaves of the nopal, in a flat po-
fition, and then covered with earth. This leaf foon
after flioots up into a fingle ftem, which during its
growth divides into feveral branches, and thefe fuc-
ceffively produce freffi leaves, the largeft being neareft
to the Item, which'is full of knots, as are alfo the
branches, and from thefe the leaves have their ori-
-gin. The ufual height of this plant is about three
yards, which it feldom exceeds. The feafon when
the nopal difplays all its beauty and vigour, is like
that of other plants, from the fpring to the autumn,
which at Oaxaca and other parts of North America j
is at the fame time as in Spain. Its bloffom is fmall,
of a bright red, and in the ffiape of a bud; from the
centre of which proceeds the tuna, a name given to
its fruit; and as this increafes the bloflom fades, till at
length it falls. When the tuna, or fig, is ripe, the
outward ikin becomes white ; but the pulp is fo fully
impregnated with a deep red, that it tinges the urine
of thofe who eat it of a blood colour, a circumftance
attended with no fmall uneafmefs to thofe who are
unacquainted with this particular. Few fruits, how¬
ever, are either more wholeforne or pleafant.
The ground where the nopal is intended to be plant¬
ed, muft be carefully cleanfod from all kinds of weeds,
as they drain the foil of thofe juices which the nopal
requires. Alfo after the cochineal is taken from the
plant, which is never done till the in lefts are arrived
C O A [ 2047 ] C O A
. at perfedtion, all the fuperfluous leaves are plucked
off, that they may be fucceeded by others the follow¬
ing year. For it muft be obferved, that the cochineal
which are bred on young plants thrive much better,
and are of a finer quality, than thofe produced on
fuch as have ftood fome years.
The cochineal was formerly imagined to be a fruit
or feed of fome particular plant;, an error which pro¬
bably arofe from an ignorance of the manner in which
it is propagated?; but at preient every one is convin¬
ced of its being an infedt, agreeably to its name, fig-
nifying a wood-loufe, which generally breeds in damp
places, efpecially in gardens. Thefe ini'edfs, by rol¬
ling themfelves up, form a little ball fomething lefs
than a pea; and in fome places are known by the
name of baquilas de San Anton, i. e. St Anthony’s
little cows : and fuch is the figure of the cochineal,
except that it has not the faculty of rolling itfelf up;
and its magnitude, when at its full growth, does not
exceed that of a tick, common in dogs and other ani¬
mals.
Thefe infedts breed and are nourilhed on the nopals,
where their eggs are placed among the leaves; the
juice of the plant, which is their foie nouriihment, be¬
comes converted into their fubltance ; when, inltead
of being thin and waterilh, and, to all outward ap¬
pearance, of little or no ufe, is rendered a molt beau¬
tiful crimfon colour. The plant is in May or June in
its molt vigorous Hate, and at this molt favourable
feafon the eggs are depofited; and in the Ihort fpace
of two months, from an animalcule, the infedt grows
up to the fize above mentioned : but its infant Hate
is expofed to a variety of dangers; the violent blalts
of the north wind fweep away the eggs from the fo¬
liage of the plant; and, what is equally fatal to their
tender conftitutions, Ihowers, fogs, and frofts, often
attack them, and deltroy the leaves, leaving the care¬
ful cultivator this only refource, namely, that of ma¬
king fires at certain diftances, and filling the air with
fmoke, which frequently preferves them from the fa¬
tal effects of the inclemency of the weather.
The breeding of cochineal is alfo greatly obftrudied
by birds of different kinds, which are very fond of
thefe infedts; and the fame danger is to be appre¬
hended from the worms, ire. which are found among
the plantations of nopals : fo that unlefs conllant care
be taken to fright the birds away from the plantation,
and to clear the ground of thofe various kinds of ver¬
min, which multiply fo fall in it, the owner will be
greatly difappointed in his expedtations.
When the infedts are at their full growth, they
are gathered and put into pots of earthen ware; but
much attention is requifite to prevent them from get¬
ting out, as, in that cafe, great numbers of them would
be loft; though there is no danger of it, where they
are at liberty on the nopal leaves, thofe being their
natural habitation, and where they enjoy a plenty of
delicious food r for; though they often remove from
one leaf to another, they never quit the plant; nor is
it uncommon to fee the leaves entirely covered with
them, efpecially when they are arrived at maturity.
When they have been confined fame time in thefe
pots, they are killed and put in bags. The Indians
have three different methods of killing thefe infedts,
one by hot water, another by fire, and a third by the Coccinella.
rays of the fun : and to thefe are owing the feveral
gradations of the colour, which in fome is dark, and
in others bright; but all require a certain degree of
heat. Thofe therefore who ufe hot water are very
careful to give it the requilite heat, and that the quan¬
tity of water be proportioned to the number of infedts-
The method of killing the creatures by fire is to put
them on fliovels into an oven moderately heated for
that intention; the fine quality of the cochineal de¬
pending on its not being over dried at the time of kil¬
ling the infedts; and it mufi: be owned, that among
the leveral ways made ufe of to deftroy this valuable
creature, that of the rays of the fun feems to bid faireit
for performing it in the moft perfedt manner.
Befides the precaution requifite in killing the cochi¬
neal, in order to preferve its quality, it is equally ne-
celfary to know when it is in a proper Hate for being
removed from the leaves of the nopal; but as expe¬
rience only can teach the cultivator this neceffary cri¬
terion, no fixed ride can be laid down. Accordingly,
in thofe provinces where the cultivation of thefe in¬
fedts is chiefly carried on, thofe gathered by Indians
of one village differ from thofe gathered in another ;
and even thofe gathered by one perfon in the fame
village, are often different from thofe gathered by
another; every individual adhering to his own me¬
thod.
. The cochineal-infedt may, in fome circumftances,
be compared to the filk-worm, particularly in the man¬
ner of depofiting its eggs. The infedts deftined for
this purpofe are taken at a proper time of their
growth, and put into a box well doled, and lined with
a coarfe cloth that none of them be loft: and in this
confinement they lay their eggs and die. The box is
kept dole fhut till the time of placing the eggs on the
nopal, when, if any motion is perceived, it is a fuffi-
cient indication that the. animalcule has life, though the
egg is lb minute as hardly to be perceived ; and this
is the feed placed on the foliage of the nopal, and the
quantity contained in the Ihell of a hen’s egg is fuffi-
cient for covering a whole plant. It is remarkable
that this infedt does not, or at leaft in any vilible man¬
ner, injure the plant, but extradls its nouriihment from
the moft fucculent juice, which it fucks by means
of its probofeis through the fine teguments of the
leaves.
The principal countries where the cochineal infedts
are bred, are Oaxaca, Plafcala, Chulula, Nueva Gal-
licia, and Chiapa, in the kingdom of New Spain ; and
Hambato, Loja, and Tucuman in Peru : but it is only
in Oaxaca, that they are gathered in large quantities,
and form a branch of commerce, the cultivation of
tnefe little creatures being there the chief employ¬
ment of the Indians.
Though the cochineal belongs to the animal king¬
dom, of all others the moft liable to corruption, yet it
never fpoils. Without any other care than merely
that of keeping in a box, it has been preferved for
ages. In drying, it lofes about two-thirds of its weight..
When dried, it is Ported into large entire grains, and
fmall or broken ones: the firft are called by the Spa¬
niards gratia, the latter granilla. In trade, four forts
are diltinguifued, MtJUqus, Campefchane, Tetrafchale,
and
Coccns
C O A [ 2048 ] C O A
Cocco- and fylvejler; of which, the firft is accounted the heft,
thrauftes ancj t|ie ]aft (.[-,£ worfl;. The three firit are named
Coccus. fr°m ^ie P'aces where they are produced ; the latter
°CC from its being found wild without any culture. In
medicine, cochineal has been llrongly recommended
as a fudorific, cardiac, and alexipharmac ; but praftiti-
oners have never obl'erved any confiderable efte&s
from it. Its principal confumption is among dyers.
See the article Dyeing.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, in ornithology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of Loxia.
COCCULUS Indicus, the name of a poifonous
berry, too frequently mixed with malt-liquors, in or¬
der to make them intoxicating; but this practice is
exprefsly forbid by aft of parliament. It is the fruit
of the menifpermum cocculus. Fifhermen have a way
of mixing it with palte: this the fifh {’wallow greedily,
and are thereby rendered lifelefs for a time, and float
on the water. The good women ufe it with ftavefacre,
for deftroying vermin in childrens heads.
COCCUS, in zoology, a genus belonging to the or¬
der of hemiptera. The roflrum proceeds from tire
bread; the belly is briltly behind ; the wings of the
male are er-eft; and the female has no wings.. The
fpecies are 22,denominated principally from the plants
they frequent.
Coccus Maldivia, the Maldivia nut, in the mate¬
ria medica; the name of the fruit of the palma Maldi-
vinnfis of Johnllon; an oval-figured fruit of a fweet
tafte, and famous for its virtues in nervous diforders.
Coccus Polonicus, an inleft which may properly
enough be called the cochineal of the northern part of
the world. As the cochineal loves only the hot cli¬
mates, this creature aftefts only the cold ones. It is
collefted for the ufe of dyers : but the crops of it are
much '{’mailer, more difficultly made, and the drug it-
felf greatly inferior to the true cochineal. It is com¬
monly known by the name oi coccus Polonicus, or the
fear let grain of Poland. That country is indeed the
place where it is gathered in the greateft abundance ;
but it is not the only one where it is found. It is to
be met with in many of the northern countries; and
poffibly may be found in fome of the more temperate
ones, where it is not yet known; as it is very much
hid by nature from the eyes of common obfervers.
It is found affixed to the root of a plant, and ufually
to plants of that fpecies, from thence called polygonum
cocciferum; though authors have informed us of the
fame berry, as it is often called, being found at the
roots of the moufe-ear, rupture-wort, pimpernel, and
pellitory of the wall; and that it is in no other than
i’andy places that it is found at the roots of thofe plants.
Breynius in 1731, printed at Dantzick a very curious
account of this produftion, which proves it inconte-
ftably to be an animal. Towards the end of June the
coccus is in a fit ftate for being gathered. Every one
of the creatures is then nearly of a fpherical form, and
' of a fine violet colour. Some of them, however, are
not larger than poppy feeds, and others of the lize of
a pepper-corn ; and each of them is lodged, either in
part or entirely, in a fort of cup like that of an acorn.
More than half the furface of the body of the animal
is covered by this cup. The outfide of the covering
is rough, and of a blackilli brown; but the infide is
fmooth, poliflied, and {Inning. On fome plants they
find only one or two of thefe, and on others more 1
than forty; and they are fometimes placed near the Cochin>
origin of the ftalks of the plants.
Breynius began his obfervations on the animals in this
ftate, feveral of them being put into velfels of glafs; and
by the 24th of July, there was produced from efery one
of them a hexapod, or fix-legged worm, with two an¬
tenna on its head. Several of thefe were kept a fort¬
night, and {hewed no inclination to eat anything. They
run about, however, very fwiftly for fome time; but then
began to be more quiet, drew up their bodies Ihorter,
and ceafed to run about any longer. They were now
in a purple colour ; but in this {fate, though they did
not walk about, they were fubjeft to various contor¬
tions. At length, when they were become wholly
motionlefs, their bodies became covered with a fine
down ; this was white, and formed them a perfect
covering, which was fometimes of a fpherical, and
fometimes of an irregular figure : it was always,
however, very elegant; and the downy matter plain¬
ly enough tranl’pired out of the animal’s body. The
creatures remained in this ftate of reft, and covered
with this down, for five or fix days ; but at the end of
that time every one of them laid more than 150 eggs.
Thefe eggs were depofited upon the paper on which
the animals were placed, and were enveloped in fome
meafure by a downy matter. When the creatures
had laid all their eggs they died ; and about the 24th
of Auguft there came from every egg a fmall inleft,
which to the eye foarce feemed any other than a red
point; it might, however, be obferved very plainly
to move about. Thefe young animals lived about a
month, wholly without fultenance. Mr Breynius was
induced at firft to believe, that thefe animals came to
be in a ftate' to produce perfeft eggs, without any
congrefs with the male ; but farther obfervations con¬
vinced him of the error of this opinion. He law af¬
terwards a fort of very fmall flies with, two white
wings bordered with red, produced from feveral of the
cocci. Thefe flies are plainly of the fame kind with
the male gall-infefts.
It has before been obferved, that thefe cocci differ
in fize. The flies are produced by the fmall ones not
bigger than a poppy feed ; the others give the worms
before deferibed : and one obfervation of Mr Brey-
nius’s gives a plain proof that thefe flies are the male
infefts of the fpecies; fince all thofe of the females,
which had been a day or two accompanied by thofe
flies, quickly covered themfelves with down and be¬
gan to lay their eggs ; whereas thofe which had not
tins commerce with the flies remained in the fame
ftate, or elfe got only a very thin and flight covering
of down, and never laid any eggs. The manner of
this creature’s life, however, from its being hatched,
to its being found in‘the fhape of a berry at the roots
of the plants, is yet unknown : and how they afliunq
the flrape of a ball lodged in a cup, muft require a nice
obfervation to difoover.
COCCYGAsUS musculus. See Anatomy, Table
of the mufcles.
COCCYX,or Coccygis os. See Anatomy,n°34.
COCHIN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of the
fame name, on the Malabar coaft. The Dutch have
here
C O C [ 2049 ] c o c
| Cochin- here a fraali fort named Cranganore, which lies about
China, three miles up the river. Formerly it bore the name
"" of a kingdom ; and was once a republic of Jews, who
at that time could reckon 80,Ooo families, but are now
reduced to 4000. They have a fynagogue at Cochin
near the king’s palace, in which are preferved their
records, engraven on copper-plates in the Hebrew
characters ; and when any of the characters decay,
they have them frelh cut. They declare themfelves
to be of the tribe of ManafTeh, a part whereof was
by Nebuchadnezzar carried to the moft eaftern pro¬
vince of his dominions, which, according to them, ex¬
tended as far as Cape ComOrin : and this journey
20,000 of them performed in three years after their
letting out from Babylon. When they arrived in
Malabar, they were received with great civility by
the inhabitants, who allowed them liberty of con-
fcience, and the ufe of their own cuftoms. There,
having increaled in number and riches, they at length
purchafed the little kingdom of Kranganor, and chofe
two fons of an eminent family to govern the com¬
mon-wealth, and reign jointly over them. But one
of the brothers having killed the other, the fon re¬
venged his father’s death by that of the murderer;
upon which the ftate fell again into democracy,
and rtill continues. The lands have long reverted
into the hands of the Malabars, and many of the
Jews through poverty have embraced the Hindoo
religion.
Cochin-China, a kingdom of Alla, bounded on
the north by Tonquin; on the call, by the fea of
China ; on the fouth, by the Indian ocean ; and on the
well, by Cambodia, and a ridge of mountains inhabited
by a favage people called Kcmois, who live indepen¬
dent of any government. Little of the hiftory of this
kingdom is known ; what follows depends entirely on
the credit of M. le Poivre, a French traveller.- 
About half a century before the French lirft arrived
in thefe dillant regions, a prince of Tonquin, as he
fed from his fovereign, by whom he was purfued as
a rebel, had, with his foldiers and adherents crolTed
the river, which ferves as a barrier between Tonquiu
and Cochin-China. The fugitives who were warlike
and civilized men, foon expelled the fcattered inhabi¬
tants, who wandered about without any fociety or
form of government, and founded a new kingdom,
which foon grew rich and populous. During the
reigns of the firlt fix kings, no nation could be hap¬
pier than the Cochin-Chinefe. Their monarchs go¬
verned them as a father does his family, eftablifhing
no laws but thofe of nature, to which they themfelves
were the firft to pay obedience. They honoured and
encouraged agriculture, as the mofi: ufeful employment
of mankind ; and required from their fnbjeCts only a
fmall annual free-gift to defray the expence of their
defenfive war againll: the Tonquinefe, who were their
enemies. This impofition was regulated by way of
poll-tax, with the greatell equity. Every man, able
to till the ground, paid into the prince a final! fum
proportioned to the firength of his conftitution, and
the vigour of his arm : and nothing more.
Cochin-China continued happy under tliefe princes
for more than a century ; but the difcovery of gold¬
mines put a flop to thefe mild regulations. Luxury
Vol. III.
immediately took place- The prince began to defpife Cochin-
the fimple habitation of his anceftors, and caufed a fu- China.
perb palace to be built, a league in circumference,
furrounded with a wall of brick in the model of that
of Pekin, arid defended by 1600 pieces of cannon.
Not content with this, he would needs have a winter
palace, an autumn palace, and a fummer palace. The
old taxes were by no means fiuflicient to defray thefe
expences ; new ones Were devifed ; and oppreflion
and tyranny every where took place. His courtiers,
to flatter their prince, gave him the titlp of the king
of Heaven, which he rtill continues to airtime. When
fpeaking of his fubjeiits, he ftyles them his child¬
ren, but by no means behaves as if he was their fa¬
ther : for our author informs us, that he has feen
whole villages newly abandoned by their inhabitants,
who were harafled with toil and infupportable ex-
atilions ; the necelrtary confequence of which was,
that their lands returned to their former uncultivated
ftate.
M. le Poivre reprefents the Cochin-Chinefe as gentle,
hofpitable, frugal, and indurtrious. There is not a
beggar in the country ; and robbery and murder are
abfolutely unknown. A rtranger may wander over
the kingdom from one end to the other, (the capital
excepted), without meeting with the flighteft infult.
He will be every where received with the moft eager
curiofity, but at the fame time with the greateft be¬
nevolence. A Cochin-Chinefe traveller, who has not
money fnfficient to defray his expences at an inn, en¬
ters the firft houfe of the town or village he arrives at,
and waiting the hour of dinner, takes part with the
family, and goes away when he thinks proper, with¬
out fpeaking a word, or any perfon’s putting to him a
fingle queftion.
The country of Cochin-China is much of the fame
temperature with that of Tonquin; though rather
milder, as lying nearer the fea. Like Tonquin, it is
annually overflowed, and confeqnently fruitful in rice,
which requires no other manure than the mud left by
the inundations. They have fugar-canes, and the
fame kinds of fruits common to other parts of India.
The country produces no grapes, and therefore they
drink a liquor brewed from rice. They have vaft
woods of mulberry-trees, which run up as fait as our
hemp. Their filk is ftronger than that of China, but
not lb fine. They have the belt timber in the world,
particularly a fort which abounds in the mountains,
and is called the incorruptible tree; becaufe it never
rots under earth or water, and is fo folid that it ferves
for anchors. There are two kinds, black and red.
The trees are very tall, ftraight, and fo big that two
men can fcarce fathom them. They have alfo on the
mountains of the Kemois a tree of the moft fragrant
feent, which is fuppofed to be the fame with lignum
aloes. This, being reckoned the beft product of the
country, is engrofled by the king, and is fold from five
to 16 ducats/>c;r pound. It is highly valued both in
China and Japan, where the logs of it are fold for
200 ducats a pound, to make pillows for the king and
nobility ; and among thofe Indians which continue to
burn their dead, great quantities of it are ufed in the
funeral piles. The young trees called aquila, or eagle-
wood, are every one’s property, which makes the old
12 D ones
Cochin*
China
Cochlearia.
C O C . [ 2050 } G O C
ones called calaviba fo fcarce and dear. They have
oak, and large pines, for the building of (hips; lb that
this country is of the fame ufe to China, that Norway
is to Britain. In general, they have the fame kind of
trees and plants that are to be met with in Tonquiri.
They have mines of gold, as well as diamonds; but
the laft they do not value fo highly as pearl. They
alfo efteem their coral and amber very much. In all
the provinces there are great granaries filled with
rice, in fome of which that grain is kept upwards of
30 years. One of the greateit rarities in thefe parts,
efpecially in grand entertainments, is a ragout made
of the eatable birds nelts, which fome fay are found
only in Cochin-China, and others in four illands that lie
fouth of its coaft. See Birds-Nests.
The merchants of Cambodia, Tonquin, China, Ma¬
cao, Manila, Japan and Malacca, trade to Cochin-
China with plate, which they exchange for the com¬
modities of the country. The Portuguefe are the
moft favoured here of any Europeans. The Cochin-
Chinefe themfelves, not being inclined to travel, fel-
dom fail out of light of their own Ihore, but purchafe
many trifles from foreigners at great rates, particu¬
larly combs, needles, bracelets, glafs pendants, ire.
They are very fond of our hats, caps, girdles, Ihirts,
and other clothes ; and, above all, fet a great value on
coral. The country is laid to have 700 miles of coaft,
with many large inlets of the fea, and above 60 con¬
venient landing places; which, however, according
to Captain Hamilton, are but feldom vifited by ftran-
gers.
COCHINEAL. See Coccinella.
COCHLEA, the fliell-fnail, in zoology. See Helix.
Cochlea, in Anatomy. See Anatomy, n° 405.
COCHLEARIA, scurvy-grass ; a genus of the
filiculofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants. There are fix fpecies, the molt remarkable
of which are, r. The anglica, or garden feurvy-grafs,
grows naturally on the fea-lhore, in the north of Eng¬
land and in Holland; but is cultivated for ufe in the
gardens ndar London. It hath a fibrous root, from
which arife many round fucculent leaves, which are
hollowed like a fpoon ; the ftalks rife from fix inches
to a foot high : thefe are brittle, and garnilhed with
leaves which are oblong and finuated. The flowers
are produced in clufters at the end of the branches,
conlifting of four fmall white petals which are placed
in the form of a crofs; and are fucceeded by Ihort,
roundilh, fwelling, feed-velfels, having two cells di¬
vided by a thin partition. In each of thefe are lodged
four or five roundilh feeds. 2. The armoracia, or
horfe-radilh, is fo well known as to need no deferip-
tion.
The firft is propagated by feedsy which are to be
fown in July, in a moirt fpot of ground ; and when
the plants are come up they fhould be thinned, fo as.to
be left at about fix inches diftance each way. The
plants that are taken out may be tranfplanted into
other borders. In the fpring thefe plants will be fit
for ufe ; thofe that are left, will run up to feed in
May, and perfect their feeds in June. If the feeds
are fown in the fpring they feldom grow well. The
horfe-radilh is propagated by cuttings or buds from
the fides of the old roots. The belt feafon for this
work is in Odfober or February ; the former for dry Cochleafi*
lands, the latter for moift. It
Ufes. Scurvy-grafs is a pungent ftimulating medi- oc ' .
cine ; capable of dillblving vifeid juices, opening ob-
ftrutftions of the vifeera and the more diftant glands,
and promoting the more fluid fecretions. It is parti¬
cularly celebrated in feurvies, and is the principal
herb employed in thefe diforders in the northern
countries. See Materia Medica, n0 263. Horfe-
radilh root has a quick pungent fmell, and a pe¬
netrating acrid tafte ; it neverthelefs contains in cer¬
tain veflels a fweet juice, which fome times exfudes
on the furface. By drying it lofes all its acrimony,
becoming firft fweetilh, and then almoft infipid : if
kept in a cool place in land, it retains its qualities for
a confiderable time. The medical e fie ids of it are to
ftimulate the folids, attenuate the juices, and promote
the fluid fecretions : it feems to extend its atftion
through the whole habit, and to affeft the minuteft
glands. It has frequently done fervice in fome kinds
of feurvies and other chronic diforders proceeding
from a vifeidity of the juices or obftruclions of the
excretory dufts. Sydenham recommends it likewife
in droplies, particularly thofe which follow intermit¬
tent fevers. Both water and re&ified fpirit extra£l
the virtues of this root by infufion, and elevate them
in diftillations : along with the aqueous fluid, an eflen-
tial oil riles, poflefling the whole tafte and pungency of
the horfe-radilh.
COCHLITES, in natural liiftory, an appellation
given to the petrefied Ihells of the cochlete or fnails.
COCK, in zoology, the Englilh name of the males
of gallinaceous birds, but mote efpecially ufed for the
common dunghill cock. See Phasianus.
Black Cock. 7 c
Cock of the Wood. ^ ee T ■
Cock-Paddle, Lump-fijh, ox Sea-owl. See Cyclop-
terus.
Cock-pit, a fort of theatre upon which game-cocks
fight.
It muft appear aftonifliing to every refletding mind,
that a mode of diverfion fo cruel and inhuman as that
of cock-fighting Ihould fo generally prevail, that not
only the ancients, barbarians, Greeks and Romans,
Ihould have adopted It; but that a practice fo favage
and heathenilh fhould be continued by Chriftiansof all
forts, and even purfued in thefe better and more en¬
lightened times.
The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well known,
were wont to call all the nations in the world Bar¬
barians ; yet certainly, if we confider the many in-
ftances of cruelty praedifed among them, there was
very little teafon for the diftin<Stion. Human facri-
fices were common both to them and the barbarians ;
and with them the expofing of infants, the combats of
men with wild beafts, and of men with men in the
gladiatorial feenes, were fpetdacles of delight and fe-
ftivity.
The ifianders of Delos, it feems, were great lovers
of cock-fighting; and Tanagra a city in Boeotia, the
ifle of Rhodes, Chalcis in Euboea, and the country of
Media, were famous for their generous and magnani¬
mous race of chickens. The kingdom of Perlia was
probably included in the laft, from whence this kind
of
G O C [ 2051 ] COG
Cock. of poultry was find brought into Greece ; and if one
“ may judge of the red from the fowls of Rhodes and
Media, the excellency of the broods at that time con-
fided in their weight and largeneis, (as the fowls of
thofe countries were heavy and bulky), and of the
nature of what our fportfmen call fhakebags or turn-
pokes. The Greeks, moreover, had fome method of
preparing the birds for battle, by feeding ; as may be
collected from Columella.
It Ihould feem, that at fird cock-fighting was partly
a religious and partly a political inditution at Athens;
and was there continued for the purpofe of improving
the feeds of valour in the minds of their youth ; but
was afterwards abufed and perverted both here and
in the other parts of Greece to a common padime,
without any moral, political, or religious intention, and
as it is now followed and praidifed among us.
At Rome, as the Romans were prone to imitate the
Greeks, we may expert to find them following their
example in this mode of diverfion, and in the word
way, viz. without any good or laudable motives ;
fince, when they took and brought it to Rome, the
Greeks had forgotten every thing that was commend¬
able in it, and had already perverted it to a low and
unmeaning fport. Signior Hyam thinks the Romans
borrowed the padime from Dardanus in Afia ; but
there is little reafon for making them go fo far from
it, when it was fo generally followed in Greece, whofe
cudoms the Romans were addicted to borrow and
imitate. However, it is probable, they did not adopt
this opinion very early. It may be gathered from
Columella, that the Romans did not ufe the fport in
his time. This author diles cock-fighting, a Grecian
diverfion ; and fpeaks of it in terms of ignominy, as
an expenfive amufement, unbecoming the frugal
houfeholder, and often attended with the ruin of the
parties that followed it. The words are remarkable.
<( Nos enim cenfemus infituere vedtigal indudri patris
familias, non rixofarum avium lanidas, cujus plerumque
totum patrimonium pignus aleas, vi<5tor gallinaceus
pydles abdulitWhere he defcribes, as we think, the
manner, not of the Romans, but of the Greeks, who
had in his time converted the diverfion of cock-fight¬
ing into a fpecies of gaming, and even to the total
ruin of their families, as happens but too often in Eng¬
land at this day. The Romans, however, at lad gave
into the cudom, though not till the decline of the em¬
pire. The fird caufe of contention between the two
brothers Baffianus and Geta, fons of the emperor Sep-
timius Severus, happened, according to Herodian, in
their youth, about the fighting of their cocks ; and if
the battling between thefe two princes was the fird
indance of it, probably they had feen ,and learned it
in Greece, whither they had often accompanied the
emperor their father.
It is obfervable, that cocks and quails pitted for the
purpofe of engaging one another, a entrance, or to
the lad gafp, for diverfion, are frequently compared,
and with much propriety, to gladiators. Hence Pliny’s
expreffion, Galloruvi ceu gladiatorum ; and that
of Columella, rixofarum avium laniflte ; lanifa being
the proper term for the mader of the gladiators. Con-
fequently- one would expetd, that when the bloody
feenes of the amphitheatre were difearded, as they
were foon after the Chridian religion became the eda- Cock-
blilhment of the empire, the wanton Ihedding of mens
blood in fport, being of too cruel and favage a na¬
ture to be patronifed and encouraged in an inditution
fo harmlefs and innocent as the Chridian was, one
might judly expetd that the and the a^oc-
'Ifvo/AoiHx would have ceafed of courfe. The fathers
of the church are continually inveighing againd the
fpetdacles of the arena, and upbraiding their adverfa-
ries with them. Thefe indeed were more unnatural
and (hocking than a main of cocks; but this, however,
had a tendency towards infufing the like ferocity and
implacability in the breads and difpofitions of men.
Befides, this mode of diverfion has been in fa<d the
bane and dedrutdion of thoufands here, as well as
thole of lanifa avium, cock-feeders, mentioned by
Columella, whofe patrimonial fortunes were totally
diffipated and dedroyed by it.
The cock is not only an ufeful animal, but dately in
his figure, and magnificent in his plumage. “ Imperi-
tant fuo generi, fays Pliny, et regnum, in quacunque
funt domo, exercent.” Aridophanes compares him to
the king of Perfia ; authors mud alfo take notice of
the “ fpedtatifiimum infigne, ferratum, quod eorum
verticem regia corona modo exornat.” His tender-
nefs towards his brood is fuch, that, contrary to the
cudom of many other males, he will (cratch and pro¬
vide for them with an affiduity almod equal to that of
the hen ; and his generofity is fo great, that, on find¬
ing a hoard of meat, he will chuckle the hens toge¬
ther, and, without touching one bit himfelf, will relin-
quifli the whole of it to them. He was called the
bird, nxr efaxw, by many of the ancients; he was
highly edeemed in fome countries, and in others was
even held facred, infomuch that one cannot but regret
that a creature fo ufeful and noble, fliould, by a drange
fatality, be fo enormoufly abufed by us. It is true,
our a.'XtxTfvcpu.vsx, or the malfacre of Shrove Tuefday,
is now in a declining way ; and, in a few years, it is
to be hoped, will be totally difufed : but the cock-pit
dill continues a reproach to the humanity of Ehglilh-
men; and to their religion, the pured, the tendered,
and mod compaffionate, of all others, not excepting
even the Brachmannic.
It is unknown when the pitched battle fird entered
England ; but it was probably brought thither by the
Romans. The bird was here before Ctefar’s arrival;
but no notice of his fighting occurs earlier than the
time of William Fitz-Stephen, who wrote the life of
archbiftiop Becket, fome time in the reign of Henry H,
and defcribes the cocking as a fport of fchool-boys on
Shrove Tuefday. From this time at lead, the diver¬
fion, however abfurd, and even impious, was conti¬
nued amongd us. It was followed, thougfi difappro-
ved and prohibited 39 Edward III. ; alfo in the reign
of Henry VIII.; and vf. D. 1569. It has by fome
been called a royal diverfion ; and, as every one
knows, the cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by a
crowned head, for the more magnificent celebration
of it. There was another pit in Drury-Iane, and ano¬
ther in Javin-dreet. It was prohibited, however,
by one of Oliver’s adts, March 31st 1764. What ag¬
gravates the reproach and difgrace upon Englilhmen,
are thofe fpecies of fighting which are called the
12 D 2 Battle-royal
C O C [ 2052 ] c o c
Cock-pit Batik-royal and the Wiljh-rnaiu, known no where in
II the world but there ; neither in China, nor in Perfia,
Cocker- nor jn ]yiaiacca) nor among the favage tribes in Ame-
. inout rica. Tbefe are fcenes lo bloody as almofl to be too
Ihocking to relate ; and yet, as many may not be ac¬
quainted with the horrible nature of them, it may be
proper for the excitement of our averlion and dete-
ftarion to defcribe them in a few words. In the for¬
mer, an unlimited number of fowls are pitted ; and
when they have flaughtered one another for the di-
verfion {Dii bout!) of the otherwife generous and hu¬
mane Englifliman, the Angle furviving bird is to be
efteemed the victor, and carries away the prize. The
Wellh-main confifts, we will fuppofe of 16 pair of
cocks; of thefe, the 16 conquerors are pitted a fecond
time ; the 8 conquerors of thefe are pitted a third
time ; the 4 conquerors the fourth time ; and laltly,
the two conquerors of thele are pitted the fifth time ;
fo that, (ihcfedible barbarity!) 31 cocks are fure to
be moft inhumanely murdered for the fport and plea-
fure, the noife and nOnfenfe, nay (we may fay) the
profane curfing and fwearing, of thofe who have the
, efirontery to call therrifelves, with all thefe bloody do¬
ings, and with all this impiety about them, ChriJUa?is.
Cock-pit, of a Jhip of war, the apartment of the
furgeon and his mates ; being the place where the
wounded men are drolled in time of battle, or other-
wife. It is fituated under the lower deck.
Cockswain, or Coxen ; an officer on board a man
of war, who has the care of the barge, and all things
belonging to it, and muff be alfo ready with his crew
to man the boat on all occafions : he fits at the ftern
of the boat, and fteers.
COCKER.MOUTH, a town of Cumberland in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 3. 12. N. Lat. 54. 35. It
is a large town irregularly built, with broad ftreets.
It is waffled by the Derwent on the weftern fide;
divided in two by the Cocker ; and the parts are con-
ne&ed by a ffone-bridge of one Angle arch. The
number of inhabitants is between three and four
thoufand : the manufactures are flialloons, worlled
ftockings, and hats; the laft exported from Glafgow
to the Weft Indies. It is a borough-town, and the
right of voting is veiled by burges tenure in certain
houfes : this is alfo the town where the county elec¬
tions are made.—Here is a caftle feated on an arti¬
ficial mount on a bank above the Derwent. It is a
fquare building, and ftrengthened with feveral fquare
towers: on each fide of the inner gate are two deep
dungeons capable of holding jo perfons in either ;
they are vaulted at top, and have only a fmall open¬
ing in order to lower through it the unhappy pri(oners
into this dire prifon ; and on the outfide of each is a
narrow flit with a flope from it, down which were
(hot the provifions allotted for the wretched inhabitants.
This caftle was founded by Waldof, firft lord of Al-
lerdale, and fon of Gdfpatrick earl of Northumber¬
land, cotemporary with William the Conqueror. Wal¬
dof refided firft at Papcaftle, which he afterwards de-
moliflied; and with the materials built that at Cocker-
mouth, where he and his family long refided ; but fe¬
veral arms over the gate-way, which Cambden fays
are thofe of the Muttons, Humfranvillcs, Lucks, and
Piercies, evince it to have belonged in later times to
thofe families. It appears that it was firft granted by Cocket
Edward II. to Anthony de Lucie, fon of Thomas de II
Multon, who had afiluned that name, becaufe his mo- Coco5'
ther was daughter and co-heirefs to Richard de Lucie j
and afterwards, by marriages, this caftle and its ho¬
nours defeended to the Humfranvilles, and finally to
the Percies. In 1658, it Was garHfo'hed for the kirig;
and being befleged and taken by the rebels, was
burnt, and never afterwards repaired.
COCKET, is a feal belonging to the king’s cuftom-
houfe, or rather a fefoll of parchment fealed and deli¬
vered by the officers of the cuftoms to merchants, as
a warrant that their nlerchandifes are cuftbmed.
It is alfo uffed for the office where goods tranlported
were firft entered, and paid their cuftom, and had a
cocket or certificate of difeharge.
COCKLE, in ichthyology. See Cardium.
COCOA, in botany. See Cocos.
COCONATO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, famous
for being the birth-place of Columbus, who firft difeo-
vered America : E. Long. 8. o. N. Lat. 44. 50.
COCOS, the eocdA-NUT tree ; a genus of the
order of palmae, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants. There is only one fpecies known, which is
cultivated in both the Indies, and is of the greateft ufe
to the inhabitants. It is fuppofed to be a native of
the Maidive and fome defert iflartds in the Eaft In¬
dies ; and from thence to have been tranfported to all
the warm parts of America ; for it is not found in any
of the inland parts, nor any where far diftant from
fettlements. The tree frequently rifes 60 feet high.
The body of the trunk, which generally Jeans to one
fide, occafioned, as is fuppofed, by the great weight
of nuts it fuftains when young, is the exact fliape of
an apothecary’s large iron peftle, being of an equal
thicknefs at top and at bottom, but fdmewhat fmaller
in the middle ; its colour is of a pale brown through¬
out, and the bark frnooth. The leaves or branches are
often 14 or 15 feet long, about 28 in number, winged,
of a yellow colour, ftraight and tapering. The pinnae,
or partial leaves are green, often three feet long next
the trunk, but diminifhing in length toward the extre¬
mity of the branches. The branches are faftehed at
top by brown ftringy threads that grow out of them,
of the fize of ordinary pack-thread, and are interwo¬
ven like a web. The nuts hang at the top of the
trunk, in clufters of a dozen each. Each nut, next
the ftem, has three lioles clofely flopped ; oiie of them
being wider, and more eafily penetrated than the reft.
When the kernel begins to grow, it incrufts the infide
of the nut in a bluiffi, jelly-like fubftance; as this grows
harder, the inclofed liquid, diftilled into the nut from
the roots, becomes fomewhat acid ; And the kernel, as
the nut ripens, becomes ftill more folid ; and at length
lines the whole infide of the nut ffor“above a quarter
of an inch thick, being as white as fnow, and of the
flavour of an almond. The quantity of liquor in a
full grown nut is frequently a pint and upwards. The
bulky tegument of the nut confifts of ftrotig, tough,
ftringy ^laments, which, when removed from the
fruit, refemble coarfe oakhum, and may perhaps be
conveniently enough ufed as fu'ch. The fhells of thefe
nuts, being tipped with fiiver, are frequently ufed for
drinking bowls. The bark of the tree may be wrought
into
COD [ 2053 ] COD
Goftion into cordage, and the leaves into bafkets, brooms, ham-
i mocks in form of nets, mats, lacks, and other ufeful
utenlils. The liquor contained in the Ihell is a molt
cooling, wholefome beverage in thofe fultry climates,
and the white kernel a moli agreeable food. The Mal-
dive cocoa-nut is efteemed, by the inhabitants of thefe
iilands, as a powerful antidote againlt the bites of fer-
pents and other poifons. The cocoa-nut tree is pro¬
pagated by planting the nuts ; which, in fix weeks or
two months time, will come up, provided they are
frefh and thoroughly ripe ; but this is what few of
them are when brought into this country ; for they al¬
ways gather them before they are ripe, that they may
keep during their paflage. The bell way, therefore,
would be to gather fuch nuts as are thoroughly ripe
in their native country, and plant them in a tub of dry
fand, in order to keep them from the vermin during
their palfage. Here they will frequently fprout, which
will be an advantage, as they may then be immedi¬
ately planted in pots of earth, and plunged in the
bark-llove.
COCTION, a general term for all alterations made
in bodies by the application of fire or heat.
COCYTUS, one of the rivers of hell, according to
the theology of the poets. It has its name cstto ts#
xiiaufjv, from groaning and lamenting. Hence Mil-
ton,
Ctcytus nam'd of lamentation loud,
Heard on the rueful Jlream.
It was a branch of the river Styx ; and flowed, ac¬
cording to Horace, with a dull and languid ftream.
COD, in ichthyology. See Gadus, and Fishery.
Cod is alfo a term ufed, in fome parts of the king¬
dom, for a pod. See Pod.
Cov>-Cape, a promontory on the coaft of New Eng¬
land, near the entrance of Bollon harbour, W. Long.
69. 50. N. Lat. 42. o.
CODDY-moddy, the Englilh name of a fpecies of
Larus.
CODE, codex, a colledlion of the laws and confti-
tutions of the Roman emperors, made by order of
Juftinian.
The code is accounted the fecond volume of the ci¬
vil law, and contains twelve books ; the matter of
which is nearly the fame with that of the digefts, ef-
pecially the firft eight books : but the ftyle is neither
fo pure, nor the method fo accurate, as that of the di¬
gefts ; and it determines matters of daily ufe, where¬
as the digefts difcufs the more abftrufe and fubtle
queftions of the law, giving the various opinions of
the ancient lawyers. Although Juftinian’s code is di-
ftinguilhed by the appellation of code, by way of emi¬
nence, yet there were codes before his time ; fuch
Were, I.The Gregorian code, and Hermqgenean code;
co!le<ftions of the Roman laws, made by two famous
lawyers, Gregorius and Hermogenes, which included
the conftitutions of the emperors from Adrian to Dio-
fclefian and Maximinus. 2. The Theodofian code,
comprifed in 16 books, formed out of the conftitutions
of the emperors from Conftantine the Great to Theo-
dofius the Younger : this was obferved almoft over all
the weft, till it was abrogated by the Juftinian code.
There are alio feveral later codes, particularly the
ancient Gothic, and thofe of the French kings; as the
code of Euridic, code-Lewis, code-Henry, code-Mar- Codex
chande, code des Eaux, ire.; and the prefent king of II
PruIFia has lately publiflied a code, which comprizes Coecum•
the laws of his kingdom in a very fmall volume.
CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet on
which the ancients Wrote. It was of the bark of a
tree, of ivory, of parchment, or of paper.
CODIA, among botanifts, lignifies the head of any
plant, but more particularly a poppy-head ; whence
its fyrup is called diacodium.
CODICIL, is a writing, by way of fupplement tt)
a will, when any thing is omitted that the tellator
would have added, or wants to be explained, altered,
or recalled.
CODL1N, an apple ufeful in the. kitchen, being the
moft proper for baking.
CODLING, an appellation given to the cod-filh
when young. See Gadus.
CODON, Ku$uv, in antiquity, a cymbal, or rather
little brafs bell, refeinbling the head of a poppy. They
were faftened to the trappings and bridles of horfes.
CODRINGTON (Chriftopher,) a brave Englifh
officer, and not lels diftinguiffied for his learning and
benevolence ; was born at Barbadoes in the year 1668,
and educated at Oxford ; after which he betook him-
felf to the army, and, by his merit and courage, loon
recommending himfelf to the favour of king William,
was made a captain in the firft regiment of foot-guards.
He was at the fiege of Namur in 1695 ; and, upon the
conclufion of the peace of Ryfwick, was made captain-
general and governor in chief of the Leeward and
Caribbee iflands. However, in 1701, feveral articles
were exhibited againft him to the houfe of commons
in England ; to which he publiflied a diftinift and par¬
ticular aiifwer, and was honourably acquitted of all
imputations. In 1 703, he fliewed great bravery at the
attack of Guadaloupe : but at laft he refigned his go¬
vernment, and lived a ftudions retired life; for a few
years before his death, he chiefly applied himfelf to
church-hiftory and metaphyfics. He died at Barba¬
does, on the 7th of April 1710, and was buried there
the day following; but his body was afterwards brought
over to England, and interred, on the 19th of June
1716, in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. By
his laft will, he bequeathed his plantations in Barba¬
does, and part of the ifland of Barbuda, to the fociety
for propagating the gofpel in foreign parts ; and left
a noble legacy to All-Souls College, of which he had
been a fellow. This legacy confifted of his library,
which was valued at 6000 1.; and 10,0001. to be laid
out, 6000 in building a library, and 4000 in furnifh-
ing it with books. He wrote fome of the poems in
the Muf.r Anglican*:, printed at London in 1741.
CODRUS, the laft king of the Athenians, fell in
the defence of his country againft the Heradides. See
Attica, n° 26.
COECUM, or blind-gut. See Anatomy, n° 354.
Dr Mufgrave gives us an account, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfadtions, of the coerum of a dog being cut
out, without any prejudice to the animal. Mr Giles
gives us another of the caecum of a lady being diftend-
ed, fo as to form a tumour that held almoft three cho-
pins of a thin, greyiffi, almoft liquid fubftance, of which,
ffie died. And MrKnowler a third, of a boy’s coecum
being
COE [ 2054 ] COE
Coefficients being vaftly extended and fluffed with cherry-ftones,
H . which likewife proved mortal.
Coenobium COEFFICIENTS, in algebra, are filch numbers, or
known quantities, as are put before letters or quanti¬
ties, whether known or unknown, and into which they
are fuppofed to be multiplied. Thus, in 3 x, a x, or
6 x ; 3, a and b,, are the coefficients of x : and in 6 a,
f) b; 6, and 9, are the coefficients of a and b. See
Algebra.
COELESTIAL, or Celestial, in general, denotes
any thing belonging to the heavens : thus we fay, coe-
leflial observations, the cceleflial globe, be.
■ COEL1AC artery, in anatomy, that artery which
iffues from the aorta, juft below the diaphragm. See
Anatomy, n°387. f.
Coeliac PaJJion. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
Coeliac Vein, in anatomy, that running through
the inteflinum redtum, along with the coeliac artery.
COELOMA, among phyiicians, a hollow ulcer,
Teated in the tunica cornea of the eye.
COELUS, heaven, in Pagan mythology, the fon
of ./Ether and Dies, or Air and Day. According to
Hefiod, he married Terra, or the Earth; on whom he
begat Ourea, or the Mountains, the Ocean, &c. But
having at length imprifoned the Cyclops, who were
alfo his children, his wife, being offended, incited her
fon Saturn to revenge the injury done to his brothers;
and, by her affiftance, he bound and caftrated Coelus,
when the blood that flowed from the wound produ¬
ced the three furies, the giants, and the wood-nymphs;
and the genital parts being thrown into the fea, im¬
pregnated the waters, and formed the goddefs Venus.
This deity was called by the Greeks Uranus.
COEMETERY. See Cemetery.
COENOBITE, a religious who lives in a convent,
or in community, under a certain rule; in oppolition
to anachoret, or hermit, who lives in folitude. The
word comes from the Greek communis; and
/3t©-, vita, life. Caflian makes this difference between
a convent and a monaflery, that the latter may be ap¬
plied to the refidence of a Angle religious, or reclufe ;
whereas the convent implies coenobites, or numbers
of religious living in common. Fleury fpeaks of three
kinds of monks in Egypt; anacborets, who live in
folitude; ''coenobites, who continue to live in com¬
munity ; and farabaites, who are a kind of monks-
errant, that ftroll from place to place. He refers the
inflitution of coenobites to the times of the apoftles,
and makes it a kind of imitation of the ordinary lives
of the faithful at Jerufalem. Though St Pachomius
is ordinarily owned the inftitutor of the coenobite life ;
as being the firll who gave a rule to any community.
COENOBIUM, xgm&iov, the ftate of living in a fo-
ciety, or community, where all things are common.
Pythagoras is thought to be the author or firQ infti-
tutor of this kind of life; his difciples, though fome
hundreds in number, being obliged to give up all their
private eftates, in order to be annexed to the joint
ftock of the whole. The Effenians among the Jews,
and Platonifts, are faid to have lived in the fame man¬
ner. Many of the Chriftians alfo have thought this
the molt perfect kind of fociety, as being that in
which Chrilt and his apoftles chofe to live.
COESFELDT, a town of Germany, in Weftpha* Coesfeldt
lia, and in the territories of the bilhop of Munfter, II
where he often relides. It is near the river Burkel, Coifea'
E. Long. 64. 2. N. Lat. 51.-58.
COEVORDEN, one of the ftrongeft towns in the
United Provinces, in Overyffel, fortified by the fa¬
mous Cohorn. It was taken by the bilhop of Munfter,
1673 ; and the Dutch retook it the fame year. It is
lurrounded by a morafs. E. Long. 6. 41. N-Lat.
52. 40.
COFFEA, the Coffee-tree ; a genus of the mo-
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, fuppofed to be a
native of Arabia Felix. It feldom riles more than
16 or 18 feet in height; the main Item grows up¬
right, and is covered with a light brown bark; the
branches are produced horizontally and oppofite, crof-
ling each other at every joint; lb that every fide of
the tree is fully garnillied with them, and they form a
fort of pyramid. The leaves alfo Hand oppolite ; and,
when fully grown, are about four or five inches long,
and two broad in the middle, decreafing toward each
end ; the borders are waved, and the furface is of a
lucid green. The flowers are produced in clufters at
the root of the leaves, fitting dole to the branches;
they are tubulous, and fpread open at the top, where
they are divided into five parts; they are of a pure
white, and have a very grateful odour, but are of Ihort
duration. The fruit, which is the only ufefnl part,
refembles a cherry. It grows in clufters, and is rang¬
ed along the branches under the axillae of the leaves
of the fame green as the laurel, but fomething longer.
When it comes to be of a deep red, it is gathered for
the mill, in order to be manufactured into thofe coj-
fee-beans now fo generally known. The mill is com-
pofed of two wooden rollers furnilhed with iron plates
18 inches long, and ten or twelve in diameter. Thefe
moveable rollers are made to approach a third which
is fixed, and which they call the chops. Above the
rollers is a hopper, in which they put the coffee, from
whence it falls between the rollers and the chops,
where it is ftripped of it firft Ikin, and divided into
two parts, as may be feen by the form of it after it
has undergone this operation; being flat on the one
fide, and round on the other. From this machine it
falls into a brafs fieve, where the Ikin drops between
the wires, while the fruit Aides over them into baf-
kets placed ready to receive it: it is then thrown in¬
to a velfel full of water, where it foaks for one night,
and is afterwards thoroughly walked. When the
whole is finilhed, and well dried, it is put into ano¬
ther machine called the peeling-mill. This is a wood¬
en grinder, turned vertically upon its trendle by a
mule or horfe. In palling over the coffee it takes off
the parchment, which is nothing but a thin Ikin that de¬
taches itfelf from the berry in proportion as it grows
dry. The parchment being removed, it is taken out
of this mill to be put into another, which is called the
winnowing-mill. This machine is provided with font-
pieces of tin fixed upon an axle, which is turned by a
Have, with confiderable force ; and the wind that is
made by the motion of, thefe plates clears the coffee
of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. It is after¬
wards put upon a table, where the broken berries,
and
C O F [ 2055 ] C O F
Coffea. and any filth that may remain among them, are fepa-
——— rated by negroes, after which the cotfee is fit for fale.
The cofFee-tree is cultivated in Arabia, Periia, the
Eaft-Indies, the Ifle of Bourbon, and feveral parts of
America. It is alfo raifed in botanic gardens in feve¬
ral parts of Europe. Prince Eugene’s garden at Vien¬
na produced more coffee than was iutficient for his
own conlinnption. It delights particularly in hills and
mountains, where its root is almoft always dry, and
its head frequently watered with gentle fhowers. It
prefers a weftern afpeft, and ploughed ground with¬
out any appearance of grafs. The plants fhould be
placed at eight feet diftance from each other, and in
holes twelve or fifteen inches deep. If left to them-
felves, they would rife to the height of 16 or 18 feet,
as already obferved ; but, they are generally Ifinted
to five, for the conveniency of gathering their fruit
with the greater eafe. Thus dwarft, they extend
their branches fo, that they cover the whole fpot
round about them. They begin to yield fruit the third
year, but are not in full bearing till the fifth. W ith the
fame infirmities that moft other trees are lubjeCt to,
thefe are likewife in danger of being deitroyed by a
worm, or by the fcorching rays of the fun. The
hills where the coffee-trees are found, have generally
a gravelly or chalky bottom. In the laft, it lan-
guilhes for fome time and then dies: in the former,
its roots, which feldom fail of ftriking between ftones,
obtain nourifhment, and keep the tree alive, and
fruitful for 30 years. This is nearly the period for
plants of the coffee-tree. The proprietor, at the end
of this period, not only finds himfelf without trees,
but has his land reduced, that it is not fit for any kind
of culture ; and unlefs he is fo lituated, that he can
break up a fpot of virgin land, to make himfelf a-
mends for that which is totally exhaufted by the cof¬
fee-trees, his lofs is irreparable.
The coffee produced in Arabia is found fo greatly
to excel that railed in the American plantations or
elfewhere, that the cultivation, of the tree is now but
feldom praiftifed in any of the Britilh colonies. Large
plantations of this kind were formerly made, in fome
of them; and it was propofed to the parliament to
. give a proper encouragement for cultivating this com¬
modity there, fo as to enable the planters to under-
fell the importers from Arabia. Accordingly, there
was an abatement of the duty payable on all coffee
imported from mur colonies in America, which at that
time was fuppofed to be fufficient encouragement for
this kind of commerce; but the inferiority of the A-
merican coffee to the Arabian, hath almoft ruined the
projedl. Mr Miller propoles fome improvements in
the method of cultivation. According to him, the
trees are planted in too moift a foil, and the berries
are gathered too foon. They ought, he fays, to be
permitted to remain on the trees till their fldns are
ihrivelled, and they fall from the trees when fhaken.
This will indeed greatly diminilh'their weight, but
the value of the commodity will thereby be increafed
to more than double of that which is gathered fooner.
In Arabia, they always fliake the berries off'the trees,
fpreading cloths to receive them, and only take fuch
as readily fall at each time. Another caufe may be
the method of. drying the berries. They are, he oh-
ferves, very apt to imbibe moifture, or the flavour Coffea
of any thing placed near them. A bottle of rum 1
placed in a clolet, in which a canifter of coffee-berries Co ee‘
clofely {topped was {landing on a Jhelf at a confxder-
able diftance, in a few days fo impregnated the ber¬
ries as w> render them very difagreeable; the fame
hath alfo happened by a bottle of Ipirttof wine {land¬
ing in the fame clofet with coffee and tea, both which
were in a few days fpoiled by it. Some years ago,
a coffee fliip from India had a few bags of pepper put
on board', the flavour of which was imbibed by the
coffee, and the whole cargo fpoiled. For thefe rea-
fons, Mr Miller directs that coffee-berries {hould ne¬
ver be brought over in {hips freighted with rum, nor
laid to dry in the houfes where fugars are boiled or
rum diftilled. When they are fully ripe, they fliould
be fliaken off- when the trees are perfectly dry, and-
fpread upon cloths in the fun to dry, carrying them
every evening under cover, to prevent the dews or*
rain from falling on them. When perfe&ly dry, they
{hould have their outer {kins beaten off, and then be
carefully packed up in cloths or bags three or four
times double.
The coffee-tree, as we have already obferved, is
fometimes cultivated in European gardens; but for
this it requires the afliftance of a ftove. It makes a
fine appearance at all feafons of the year, (being an
evergreen), but efpecially when in flower, and when
the berries are red, which is generally in the winter,
fo that they continue a long time in that ftate. It is
propagated from the berries; but they mult be plant¬
ed immediately when gathered from the tree, for
they lofe their vegetative quality in a very fliort time,
when fent abroati by the poft they have conftantly
failed in thofe that have been a fortnight on their jour¬
ney ; fo that where thefe trees are defired, the young
plants mull be fent, if it be at any diftance from the
place where they grow. The frelh berries may be
planted in fmall pots, and plunged into a hot-bed
of tanners bark. If the bed be of a proper tem¬
perature, the young plants will appear in a month or
five weeks time ; and in fix weeks more, will be
ready for tranfplanting into feparate pots. During
fummer, they muft be frequently watered ; but not in
too great plenty, otherwife the roots will be apt to
rot. The firft lign of the plants being difordered is
their leaves fweating out a clammy juice ; after which
they are over-run with infers, that cannot be de-
ftroyed till the plants have recovered their health ; fo
that on the firft appearance of thefe infeefts, the trees
fhould be removed into frelh earth, and all poffible
care taken to recover them. The diforders incident
to them, generally proceed either from their having
been put into large pots, or from the earth about
them being too ftiff, or over-watered. The moft
proper foil for them, is that of a kitchen garden,
which is naturally loofe, and not fubjedi to bind,
efpecially if it has conftantly been well wrought and
dunged.
Coffee alfo denotes a kind of drink, prepared from
thefe berries; very familiar in Europe for thefe 80
years, and among the Turks for 150.
Its original is not well known. Some aferibe it to
the prior of a monaftcry ; who, being informed by a
goat-herd-'
CofTee.
C O F [ 2056 ] CpF
goat-herd that his cattle fo me times hrowzing on the
■ tree would wake and caper all flight, became curi¬
ous to prove its virtue: accordingly, lie fir It tried it
on his monks, to prevent their ileeping at mattins.
Others, from Sehehabeddin, refer the invention of
coffee to the Perfians: from whom it was learned in
the 1 $th century by Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, a city
near the mouth of the red fea; and who having tried
its virtues himfelf, and found that it diflipated the
fumes which opprefled the head, infpired joy, opened
the bowels, and prevented deep, without being in¬
commoded by it, recommended it iirff to his der-
vifes, with whom he ufed to ipend the night in prayer.
Their example brought coffee into vogue at Aden ;
the profeffors of the law for ftudy, artifans to work,
travellers to walk in the night, in fine every body
at Aden, drank coffee. Hence it paifed to Mecca;
where firff the devotees, then the reft of the people,
took it. From Arabia Felix it paffed to Cairo. In
1511, Kahie Beg prohibited it, from a perfuafion that
it inebriated, and inclined to things forbidden. But
Sultan Caufou immediately after took off the prohibi¬
tion ; and coffee advanced from Egypt to Syria and
Conftantinople. The dervifes declaimed againlt it
from the Alcoran, which declares, that coal is not of
the number of things created by God for food. Ac¬
cordingly, the mufti ordered the coffee-houfes to be
fliut; but his fucceffor declaring coffee not to be coal,
they were opened again. During the war in Candia,
the affemblies of news-mongers making too free with
ftate affairs, the grand Vizier Cuproli fuppreffed the
coffee-houfes at Conftantinople ; which fuppreffion,
though ftill on foot, does not prevent the public ufe
of the liquor there. Thevenot, the traveller, was
the firft who brought it into France ; and a Greek
fervant, named Pafqua, brought into England by Mr
Dan. Edwards, a Turky merchant, in 1652, to make
his coffee, firft fet up the profeflion of coffee-man,
and introduced the drink into this ifland.
The word coffee is originally Arabic: the Turks pro¬
nounce it caheuh, and the Arabians cahuab; which fome
authors maintain to be a general name for any thing
that takes away the appetite, others for any thing that
promotes appetite, and others again for any thing that
gives ftrcngth and vigour.—The Mahometans, it is
obferved, diftinguilh three kinds of cahuah. The fit ft
is wine, or any liquor that inebriates : the fecond is
made of the pods that contain the coffee-berry ; this
they call the Sultan's coffee, from their having firft
•introduced it on account of its heating lef’s than the
berry, as well as its keeping the bowels open : the
third is that made with the berry itfelf, which alone
is ufed in Europe, the pods being found improper for
tranfportation. Some Europeans who imported the
pods called them the fower of the coffee-tree. The
deep brown colour of the liquor oqcalioned its being
called fyrup of the Indian mulberry, under which fpe-
cious name it firft gained ground in Europe.
The preparation of coffee confifts in roafting, or gi¬
ving it a juft degree of torrefadlion on an earthen or
metalline plate, till it have acquired a brownifh hue
equally deepen all fides. It is then ground in a mill,
as much as ferves the prefent occalion. A proper quan¬
tity of water is next boiled, and the ground coffee put
into it. After it has juft boiled, it is taken from the Coffee.
fire, and the decotftion having ftood a while to fettle ~~ 
and fine, they pour or decant it into difhes. The or¬
dinary method of roafting coffee amongft us is in a tin
cylindrical box full of holes, through the middle
whereof runs a fpit: under this is a femicircular
hearth, whereon is a large charcoal-fire : by help of
a jack the fpit turns fwift, and fo roafts the berry ;
being now and then taken up to be lhaken. When the
oil rifes, and it is grown of h dark brown colour, it
is emptied into two receivers made with large hoops,
whole bottoms are iron plates: there the coffee is
fhaken, and left till almoft cold ; and if it look bright
and oily, it is a fign it is well done.
Very different accounts have been given of the me¬
dicinal qualities of this berry. To determine its real
effects on the human body. Dr Pereival has made fe-
veral experiments, the refult of which he gives in the
following words : “ From theje obfervations we may Effyr, 1
infer, that coffee is (lightly aftringent, and antifeptic ; Vol.II.
that it 'moderates alimentary fermentation, and is ?• I27- ]
powerfully fedative. Its action on the nervous fyftem
probably depends on the oil it contains ; which re¬
ceives its flavour, and is rendered mildly empyreu-
matic, by the procefs of roafting. Neuman obtained
by diltillation from one pound of coffee, five ounces
five drachms and a half of water, fix ounces and half
a drachm of thick fetid oil, and four ounces and two
drachms of a caput mortuum. And it is well known,
that rye, torrefied with a few almonds, which fur-
nidi the neceffary proportion of oil, is now frequently
employed as a fubftitute for thefe berries.
“ The medicinal qualities of coffee feem to be de¬
rived from the grateful fenfation which it produces in
the ftomach, and from the fedative powers it exerts
on the vis vita1. Hence it aflifts digeftion, and re¬
lieves the head-ach ; and is taken in large quantities,
with peculiar propriety, by the Turks and Arabians ;
becaufe it conteratffs the narcotic effects of opium, to
the ufe of which thofe nations are much addicted.
“ In delicate habits, it often occalions watchfulneis,
tremors, and many of thofe complaints which are de¬
nominated nervous. It has been even fufpedled of
producing palfie.s ; and from my own obfervation, I
lliould apprehend, not entirely without foundation.
Slate affirms, that he became paralytic by the too li¬
beral ufe of coffee, and that his diforder was remo¬
ved by abftinence from that liquor.
“ The following curious and important obferva¬
tion is extradled from a letter with which I was ho¬
noured by Sir John Pringle, in April 1773: “ On
reading your feftion concerning coffee, one quality
occurred to me which 1 had obferved of that liquor,
confirming what you have laid of its fedative virtues.
It is the beft abater of the paroxyfms of the periodic
afthma that I have feen. The coffee ought to be of
the belt Mocco, newly burnt, and made very ftrong
immediately after grinding it. I have commonly or¬
dered an ounce for one diffi ; which is to be repeated
frelh after the interval of a quarter or half an hour;
and which I direct to be taken without milk or fugar.
The medicine in general is mentioned by Mu(grave,
in his treatife De arthritide anomala; but I firft heard
of it from a phyfician in this place, who having once
pratSHfed
c O F [ 2057 ] C O F
Coffer pra&ifed it in Litchfield, had been informed by the
H old people of that place, that Sir John Floyer, during
Coffin' the latter year of his life, kept free from, or at leait
lived eafy under, his afthma, from the ufe of very
iixong coffee. This difcovery, it feems, he made af¬
ter the publication of his book upon that dileafe.”
Since the receipt of that letter, I have frequently di-
redled coffee in the afthma with great fuccefs.”
COFFER, in architecture, a fquare depreffure or
finking in each interval between the modillions of the
Corinthian cornice; ordinarily filled up with a rofe ;
fometimes with a pomegranate, or other enrichment.
Coffer, in fortification, denotes a hollow lodge¬
ment, athwart a dry moat, from 6 to 7 feet deep,
and from t6 to 18 broad ; the upper part made of
pieces of timber raifed two feet above the level of
the moat; which little elevation has hurdles laden
with earth for its covering, and ferves as a parapet
with embrafures: the coffer is nearly the fame with
the caponiere, excepting that this laft is fometimes
made beyond the counterfcarp on the glacis; and the
coffer always in the moat taking up its whole breadth,
which the caponiere does not. It differs from the
traverfe and gallery, in that thefe latter are made by
the befiegers, and the coffer by the befieged. The
befieged generally make ufe of coffers to repulfe the
befiegers when they endeavour to pal’s the ditch. To
fave themfelves from the fire of thefe coffers, the be¬
fiegers throw up the earth on that fide towards the
coffer.
COFFERER king’s household, a princi¬
pal officer in the court, next under the comptroller,
who, in the counting-houfe, and elfewhere at other
times, has a fpecial charge and overfight of other of¬
ficers of the houfe, for their good demeanor and
charge in their offices; to all which he pays their
wages.
COFFIN, the cheft in which dead bodies are put
into the ground.
The fepukhral honours paid to the manes of de¬
parted friends, in ancient times, demand attention,
and are extremely curious. Their being put into a
coffin has been particularly confidered as a mark of
the higheft diftindtion. With us the pooreft people
have their coffins. If the relations cannot afford them,
the parifli is at the expence. On the contrary, in
the eaft they are not at all made ufe of in our times ;
Turks and Chriftians, as Thevenot affures us, agree
in this. The ancient Jews feem to have buried their
dead in the fiime manner : neither was the body of
our Lord, it fhould feem, put into a coffin ; nor that
of Elifha, 2 Kings xiii. 21. whofe bones were touched
by the corpfe that was let down a little after into his
fepulchre. However, that they were anciently made
ufe of in Egypt, all agree ; and antique coffins of .ftone,
and fycomore-wood, are ftill to be feen in that country;
not to mention thofe faid to be made of a kind of
pafteboard; formed by folding or glueing cloth to¬
gether a great many times, curioufly plaftered, and
then painted with hieroglyphics. Its being an anci¬
ent Egyptian cuftom, and not pra«5lifed in the neigh¬
bouring countries, were, doubtlefs, the caufe that the
facred hiltorian exprefsly obferves of Jofeph, that he
* Gen. I.26. was not only embalmed, but put into a coffin too * ;
VoL. III.
both being managements peculiar to the Egyptians. Coffin
Bifhop Patrick, in his commentary on this paflage, “
takes notice of thefe Egyptian coffins of fycamore
wood, and of pafteboard ; but he doth not mention
the contrary ufage in the neighbouring countries,
which was requifite, one might fuppofe, in order fully
to illuftrate the place : but even this perhaps would
not have conveyed the whole idea of the facred au¬
thor. Maillet apprehends that all were not inclofed
in coffins who were laid in the Egyptian repofitories
of the dead ; but that it was an honour appropriated
to perfons of figure : for after having given an ac¬
count of feveral riches found in thofe chambers of
death, he adds f, “ But it muft not be imagined that f Let. vij.
the bodies depofited in thefe gloomy apartments were P- 2yi-
all inclofed in chejls, and placed in niches. The
greatefl part were limply embalmed and fwathed af¬
ter that manner which every one hath fome notion
of; after which they laid them one by the fide of
another without any ceremony. Some were even laid
in thefe tombs without any embalming at all; or fuch
a flight one, that there remains nothing of them in
the linen in which they were wrapped, but the bones,
and thofe half rotten. It is probable, that each
confiderable family had one of thefe burial-places to
themfelves; that the niches were defigned for the
bodies of the heads of the families ; and that thofe of
their domeftics or flaves had no other care taken of
them than the laying them on the ground, after ha¬
ving been embalmed, or even without that ; which,
without doubt, was alfo all that was done even to the
heads of families of lefs diftindtion.” After this he
gives an account of a way of burial, pradtifed anci¬
ently in that country, which had been but lately difco-
vered ; and which confifted in placing the bodies, af¬
ter they were fwathed, upon a layer of charcoal, and
covering them with a mat, under a depth of fand of
feven or eight feet.
That coffins then were not univerfally ufed in E-
gypt, is undoubted from thefe accounts ; and probably
they were only perfons of diftindlion who were buri¬
ed in them. It is alfo reafonable to believe, that in
times fo remote as that of Jofeph, they might be
much lefs common than afterwards; and confequently,
that Jofeph’s being put in a coffin in Egypt might be
mentioned with a defign to exprefs the great honours
which the Egyptians did him at his death, as well as
in life, being interred after the moft fumptuous man¬
ner of the Egyptians, embalmed, and put into a coffin.
Agreeably to this, the Septuagint verfion, which was
made for Egyptians, feems to reprefent coffins as a
mark of grandeur. Job xxi. 32.
It is no objection to this account, that the widow
of Nain’s fon is reprefented as carried forth to be
buried in a cro§©-, or “ on a bier for the pre-
fent inhabitants of the Levant, who are well known
to lay their dead bodies in the earth uninclofed, carry
them frequently out to burial in a kind of coffin. So
Dr Ruffel, in particular, defcribes the bier ufed for
the Turks at Aleppo, as a kind of coffin much in the
form of ours, only that the lid rifes with a ledge in
the middle. Chriftians indeed, as he tells us, are car¬
ried to the grave on an open bier: but as the moft
common kind of bier refembles our coffins, that ufed
12 E by
C O H
[ 2058 ]
C O H
Cogitation by the people of Nain might very poffibly be of the abfolutely determine that the power of cohefion was Cohefton.
fame kind; in which cafe the word crog®- was very
proper.
COGITATION, a term ufed by fome for the a&
of thinking.
COGNAC, a town of France in Angoumois, with a
caftle, where Francis I. was born. It is feated on the
river Charante, in a very pleafant country, abounding
in wine, and remarkable for excellent brandy. W.
Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 4J. 42.
COGNATE, in Scots law, any male relation thro’
the mother.
COGNATION, in the civil law, a term for that
line of confanguinity which is between males and fe¬
males, both defcended from the fame father ; as ag¬
nation is for the line of parentage between males only
defcended from the fame flock.
COGNI, an ancient and ftrong town of Caramania
in Turky in Afia, and the refidence of a beglerbeg.
It is feated in a pleafant country, abounding in corn,
fruits, pulfe, and cattle. Here are Iheep whofe tails
weigh 30 pounds. E. Long. 32. 56. N. Lat. 37. 56.
COGNITIONIS causa, in Scots law. When a
creditor charges the heir of his debtor to enter, in
an immaterial one; but thought it might poffibly arife,
as well as that of gravitation, from the adtion of an 2
ether. His account of the original conftitution of mat- His account
ter is as follows: “ It feems probable, that God in the of the ori-
beginning formed matter in folid, mafly, impenetrable, S'nal. con*|
moveable particles; of fuch fizes, figures, and other ftlt“tlon
properties, and in inch proportion to ipace, as molt
conduced to the end for which he formed them : and
that thefe primitive particles being folid, are incom¬
parably harder than any porous bodies compofed of
them ; even fo very hard as never to wear or break
in pieces ; no ordinary power being able to divide
what God himfelf made one at thefirll creation. While
the particles continue entire, they may compofe bodies
of one and the fame nature and texture in all ages ;
but fhould they wear away, or break in pieces, the
nature of all things depending on them would be chan¬
ged. Water and earth compofed of old worn particles
and fragments of particles, would not now be of the
fame texture with water and earth compofed of en¬
tire particles in the beginning. And therefore, that
nature may be lafting, the changes of corporeal things
are to be placed in the various feparations and new
order to conftitute the debt again!! him, and the heir alfociations and motions of thefe permanent particles;
renounces the fucceffion, the creditor can obtain no compound bodies being apt to break, not in the midil
decreet of conftitution of that debt again!! the heir ; of folid particles, but where thefe particles are laid to-
but only a decreet fubjefting the hareditas jacens, or
the eftate which belonged to the debtor, to his dili¬
gence : and this is called a decreet cognitionis caufa.
COGNIZANCE, or Connusance, in law, has
divers fignifications. Sometimes it is an acknowledge¬
ment of a fine, or confeffion of fomething done ; fome-
times the hearing of a matter judicially, as to take cog¬
nizance of a caufe ; and fometimes a particular jurif-
didtion, as cognizance of pleas is an authortity to call
a caufe or plea out of another court, which no perfon
can do but the king, except he can ffiow a charter for
it. This cognizance is a privilege granted to a city
or a town to hold plea of all contracts, be. within the
liberty ; and if any one is impleaded for fuch matters
in the courts at Weftminfter, the mayor* be. of fuch
franchife may demand cognizance of the plea, and
that it may be determined before them.
Cognizance is alfo ufed for a badge on a water¬
man’s, or ferving-man’s fleeve, which is commonly the
giver’s creft, whereby he is decerned to belong to this
or that nobleman or gentleman.
COGS, or Goggles, a kind of flat-bottomed boats
ufed on rivers.
COHABITATION, denotes the ftate of a man and
a woman who live together without being legally mar-
gether and touch in a few points.” It feems farther,
“ That thefe particles have not only a vis inertia, ac¬
companied with fuch paffive laws of motion as natu¬
rally refult from that force ; but alfo that they are
moved by certain adlive principles, fuch as that of gra¬
vity, and that which caufeth fermentation and the co¬
hefion of bodies. Thefe principles are to be confide-
red not as occult qualities, luppofed to refult from the
fpecific forms of things, but as general laws of nature
by which the things themfelves are formed ; their
truth appearing to us by phenomena, though their
caufe is not yet difeovered.” 3
The general law of nature, by which all the diffe- Attraaion^'
rent bodies in the univerfe are compofed, according 1116 general
to Sir Ifaac Newton, is that of attraction: i. e. “ Eve- law of ,la'J
ry particle of matter has an attradlive force, or a
tendency to every other particle ; which power is
ftrongeft in the point of contadt, and fuddenly de-
creales, infomuch that it adts no more at the leaft fen-
fible diftance ; and at a greater dillance is converted
into a repellent force, whereby the parts fly from
each other. On this principle of attradlion may we
account for the cohefion of, bodies, otherwife inex¬
plicable. 4
The fmalleft particles may cohere by the ftrong- Formation
ried. By the common law of Scotland, cohabitation eft attradlions, and compofe bigger particles of weaker °f particles/
for year and day, or a complete twelvemonth, is
deemed equivalent to matrimony.
CO-HEIR, one who fucceeds to a fhare of an inhe¬
ritance, to be divided among feveral.
COHESION, one of the four fpeerfes of attradlion,
denoting that force by which the parts of bodies ad-
r , here or flick together.
by sir Ifaac This power was fir!! confidered by Sir Ifaac New-
Newton as ton as one of the properties eflential to all matter, and
an eflential the caufe of all that variety we obferve in the texture
property of 0p different terreftrial bodies. He did not, however,
virtue ; and many of thefe may cohere, and compofe °f different
bigger particles, whofe virtue is ftill lefs ; and fo on flzes‘
for divers fucceffions, until the progreffion end in the
biggeft particles, on which the operations in chemiftry,
and the colours of natural bodies, depend ; and which,
by cohering, compofe bodies of a fenfible magnitude. ^
if the body is compadl, and bends or yields inward to DifUncUonj
preflure without any Aiding of its parts, it is hard and of bodies ’
elaftic ; returning to its figure with a force arifing 'i1*0 llar<3?j
from the mutual attraction of its parts. If the parts Ulml :
Aide from one another, the body is malleable or foft.
If
Cohefion.
6
i Exlftence
I of repulfive
i power pro¬
ved.
1 >
, No con-
| clufion to
j from this
| account.
Hi/?, of Vi-
fion, Vol. I.
P- 392.
8
Mr Mi-
chell’s hy-
pothefis a-
dopted by
Dr Prieft-
ky.
C O H [ 2059 ] C O H
If they flip eafily, and are of a fit fize to be agitated
by heat, and the heat is gre'at enough to keep them in
agitation, the body is fluid ; and if it be apt to Hick to
things, it is humid ; and the drops of every fluid affeOt
a round figure by the mutual attractions of their parts,
as the globe of the earth and lea affects a round figure
from the mutual attraction and gravity of its parts.
“ Since metals diflblved in acids attraCt but a final!
quantity of the acid, their attractive force reaches but
to a finall diltance. Now, as in algebra, where af¬
firmative quantities ceafe, there negative ones begin;
fo in mechanics, where attraction ceafes, there a re¬
pulfive virtue mull fucceed. That there really is fuch
a virtue 1'eems to follow from the reflections and in¬
flections of the rays of light ; the rays being repelled
by bodies in both thefe cafes without the immediate
contaCt of the reflecting or infleCting body. The fame
thing feems alfo to follow from the emiffion of light;
a ray, as foon as fhaken off from a body by the vibra¬
ting motion of the parts of the body, and got beyond
the reach of attraction, being driven away with ex¬
ceeding great velocity : for that force which is fuffi-
cient to turn it back in reflection may be fufficient to
emit it. From the fame repelling power it feems to
be that flies walk upon the water without wetting their
feet; that the objeCt-glaffes of long telefcopes lie up¬
on one another without touching ; and that dry pow¬
ders are difficultly made to touch one another fo as to
flick together, without melting them or wetting them
with water, which, by exhaling, may bring them to¬
gether.
“ The particles of all hard homogeneous bodies
which touch one another, cohere with a great force :
to account for which, fome philofophers have recourfe
to a kind of hooked atoms, which in effeCt is no¬
thing elfe but to beg the queflion. Others imagine,’
that the particles of bodies are conneCled by reft, i. e. in
effeCt by nothing at all; and others, by confpiring mo¬
tions, i. e. by a relative reft among themfelves. For
myfelf, it rather appears to me, that the particles of
bodies cohere by an attractive force, whereby they tend
mutually to each other.”
From this account of the formation and conftitution
of bodies, we can cpnclude nothing, except that they
are compofed of an infinite number of little particles,
kept together by a force or power ; but of what na¬
ture that power is, whether material or immaterial,
we muft remain ignorant till farther experiments are
made. Some of the Newtonian philofophers, how¬
ever, have pofitively determined thefe powers to be
ivnnaterial. In cnnlequence of this fuppofition, they
have fo refined upon attractions and repulfions, that
their fyftems feem not far from downright fcepticifm,
or denying the exiftence of matter altogether. A fy-
ftem of this kind we find adopted by Dr Prieftley *,
from Meflfs Bofcbvich and Michell, in order to folve
fome difficulties concerning the Newtonian doCirine of
light. “ The eafieft method (fays he) of folving all
difficulties, is to adopt the hypothefis of Mr Bofcovich,
who fuppofes that matter is not impenetrable, as has
been perhaps univerfally taken for granted ; but that
it confifts of phyfical points only, endued with powers
of attraction and repulfion in the fame manner as folid
matter is generally fuppofed to be : provided there¬
fore that any body move with a fufficient degree of Cohefon.
velocity, or have a fufficient momentum to overcome
any powers of repullion that it may meet with, it will
find no difficulty in making its way through any body
whatever ; for nothing elle will penetrate one ano¬
ther but powers, fuch as we know do in faCl exift
in the fame place, and counterbalance or over-rule
one another. The moft obvious difficulty, and indeed
almoft the only one that attends this hypothefis, as it
fuppofes the mutual penetrability of matter, arifes
from the idea of the nature of matter, and the diffi¬
culty we meet with in attempting to force two bodies 9
into the fame place. But.it is demonftrable that the Bodies op-
firft obftruClion arifes from no aClual contaCl of mat- P°fe eacl1
ter, but from mere powers of repulfion. This diffi- f^omac01
culty we can overcome ; and having got within one tuai con.
fphere of repulfion, we fancy that we are now im- taft.
peded by the folid matter itfelf. But the very fame
is the opinion of the generality of mankind with re-
IpeCl to the firft obftruClion. Why, therefore, may
not the next be only another fphere of repulfion,
which may only require a greater force than we can
apply to overcome it, without difordering the arrange¬
ment of the conftituent particles ; but which may be
overcome by a body moving with the amazing velo¬
city of light.
“ This fcheme of the immateriality of matter, as it
may be called, or rather the mutual penetration of
matter, firft occurred to Mr Michell on reading Bax- I0
ter on the immateriality of the Soul. He found that Mr Baxter’s
this author’s idea of matter was, that it confifted as opinion,
it were of bricks cemented together with imma¬
terial mortar. Thefe bricks, if he would be con-
liftent with his own reafoning, were again compofed
of lefs bricks, cemented likewife by an immaterial
mortar; and fo on ad infinitum. This putting Mr
Michell upon the confideration of the feveral ap¬
pearances of nature, he began to perceive that the
bricks were fo covered with this immaterial mortar,
that if they had any exiftence at all, it could not pof-
fibly be perceived ; every effeCl being produced, in
nine inftances of ten certainly, and probably in the
tenth alfo, by this immaterial, fpiritual, and pene¬
trable mortar. Inftead therefore of placing the world
upon the giant, the giant upon the tortoife, and the
tortoife upon he could not tell what, he placed the
world at once upon itfelf.” ,,
Other philofophers have fuppofed the powers both Cohefion
of gravitation and cohefion to be material; and to be fuppofed
only different adliops of the etherial fluid, or elemen- °]”ing to
tary fire. In fupport of this it hath been urged, that fire™ental^
before we have recourfe to a fpiritual and immaterial
power as the caufe of any natural phenomenon, we
ought to be well allured that there is no material fub-
Itance with which we are acquainted, that is capable
of producing fuch effects. In the prefent cafe, we
are fb far from having fuch aflurance, that the contra¬
ry is manifeft to our fenles. One inftance of this is
in the experiment with the Magdeburg hemifpheres, as
they are called. Thefe are two hollow hemifpheres
of brafs, exactly fitted to one another, fo as to form
one globe when joined together, without admitting any
air at the joining. In this ftate, if the air within
them is exhaufted by means of a pump, they will
it E 2 cohere
C O H [ 2060 ] C O I
CoheGon. cohere with fuch force, if they are five or fix inches
■ diameter, as to require a weight of fome hundreds of
pounds to feparate them. The preflure of the at-
mofphere, we fee, is in this cafe capable of produ¬
cing a very ftrong cohefion ; and if there is in nature
any fluid more penetrating, as well as more power¬
ful in its efFedts, than the air we breathe, it is poffible
that what is called the attraction of cohefon may fome
how or other be an effedt of the adtion of that fluid.
Such a fluid as this is the element of fire. It£ adlivity
is fuch as to penetrate all bodies whatever; and in the
ftate in which it is commonly called fire, it adis accord¬
ing to the quantity of folid matter contained in the
body. In this ftate, it is capable of diflolvifig the
ftrongeft cohefions obferved in nature : but whatever
is capable of diflblving any cohefion, muft neceflarily
be endued with greater power than that by which the
cohefion is caufed. Fire, therefore, being able to
diffolve cohefions, muft alfo be capable of caufing
them, provided its power is exerted for that purpofe.
Nor will it feem at all ftrange that this fluid fhould act
in two fuch oppofite ways, when we confider the dif¬
ferent appearances which it aflumes. Thefe are
three, viz. fire, or heat, in which it confumes, de-
ftroys and diflblves: light, in which it feems deprived
of all deftrudtive or diflblvent power, and to be the
moft mild, quiet, and placid being in nature. The
third ftate of this element is, when it becomes what
is called the eUClric fluid; and then it attradts, re¬
pels, and moves bodies, in a vaft variety of ways,
without either burning or rendering them vifible by
its light. In this ftate it is not lefs powerful than in
either of the other two ; for a violent fhock of elec¬
tricity will difplace and tear in pieces the moft heavy
and folid bodies. The feeming capricious nature of
this fluid, however, probably renders it lefs fufpedted
as the caufe of cohefion, than it otherwife would be,
were the attradlions regular and permanent, which
we obferve it to occafion. But here we muft obferve,
that the fluid has an exiftence in all bodies before the
experiments are tried which make its effedts vifible to
us, and was adling in them according to its fettled
and eftabliihed laws. While adling in this manner it
was perfedtly invifible; and all we can do is, to pro¬
duce fome little infringement of thefe regular laws
according to which it commonly adts. In fome caies,
however, the elediricai attradiions produced by art are
found to be pretty permanent and ftrong. Thus, Mr
Symmer, in fome experiments with filk ftockings,
found their attradlion fo ftrong, that it required up¬
wards of 15 pounds weight to feparate them from
each other; and this attradiion would continue for
more than an hour. In plates of glafs, too, he ob¬
ferved a remarkable cohefion when eledtrified. In
the Philofophical Tranfadtions for 1777, we find this
hypothefis taken notice of, and in fome meafure adopt¬
ed, by Mr Henly. “ Some gentlemen (fays he) have
fuppofed that the elediric matter is the caufe of the
cohefion of the particles of bodies. If the elediric
matter be, as I fufpedt, a real elementary fire inhe¬
rent in all bodies, that opinion may probably be well
founded: and perhaps the foldering of metals, and
the cementation of iron, by fire, may be confidered as
ftrong proofs of the truth of their hypothefis.”
On this laft hypothefis we muft obferve, that if the CohobatfoK \
elediric, or any other fluid, is fuppofed to be the caufe T
of the attradlion of cohefion univerfally, the particles Coilin5, v
of that fluid mnft be deftitute of all cohefion between
themfelves ; otherwife we fliould be at as great a lofs
to account for the cohefion of thefe particles, as for
that of terreftrial matter. Philofophers, indeed, do not
fuppofe any cohefion between the particles of the
eiedlric fluid themfelves; it is generally believed that
the particles of this fluid are repulfive of one ano¬
ther, though attradied by all other matter. If this is
a fadt, we cannot fuppofe the elediric fluid to be the
caufe of cohefion. The probability’ or improbabi¬
lity of the hypothefis juft mentioned, muft greatly
depend on its being afcertained whether the particles
of the elediric fluid do really repel one another, and
attradl all other kinds of matter, or not; but for this j
we muft refer to the article Eiectricity.
COHOBATION, in chemiftry, an operation by
which the fame liquor is frequently diftilled from the
fame body, either with an intention to diflblve this
body, or to produce fome change upon it. This is
one of thofe operations which the ancient chemifts
pradlifed with great patience and zeal, and which are
now negledled. To make this operation eafier, and
to prevent the trouble of frequently changing the vef-
fels, a particular kind of alembic, called a pelican, was
invented. This veflel was made in the form of a cu¬
curbit with an alembic-head, but had two fpouts com¬
municating with the body. As the vapour rofe up
into the head, it was gradually condenfed, and ran
down the fpouts into the body of the pelican, from
whence it was again diftilled; and fo oh. This vef-
fel is reprefented Plate LXXVII. fig. 6.
COHORN (N.) the greateft engineer Holland
has produced. Among his other works, which are e-
fteemed mafter-pieces of Ikill, he fortified Bergen-op-
zoom ; which, to the (lirprife of ali Europe, was taken
by the French in 1747. He wrote a treatife on for¬
tification ; and died in 1 704.
COHORT, in Roman antiquity, the name of part
of the Roman legion, comprehending about 600 men.
There were ten cohorts in a legion, the firft of
which exceeded all the reft both in dignity and num¬
ber of men. When the army was ranged in order
of battle, the firft cohort took up the right of the firlt
line; the reft followed in their natural order: fo that
the third was in the centre of the firft line of the le-
ion, and the fifth on the left; the fecond between the
rft and third ; and the fourth between the third and
fifth : the five remaining cohorts formed a fecond line
in their natural order.
COIF, the badge of a fergeant at law, who is cal¬
led fergeant of the coif, from the lawn coif they wear
under their caps, when they are created fergeants.
The chief ufe of the coif was to cover the clerical
tonfure. See Tonsure.
COILING, on Clipboard, implies a-fort of ferpen-
fine winding of a cable or other rope, that it may
occupy a fmall fpace in the Ihip. Each of the wind¬
ings of this fort is called a fake; and one range of
fakes upon the fame line is called a tier. There are
generally from five to feven fakes in a tier ; and three
or four tiers in the whole length of a cable. This,
however.
T
Coin.
C O I [ 2061 ] C O I
however, depends on the extent of the fakes. The
fmaller ropes employed about the fails are coiled up¬
on cleats ex fea, to prevent their being entangled a-
mongft one another in traverfing, contracting, or ex¬
tending the fails.
COILON, in the ancient Grecian theatres, the
fame with the cavea of the Romans.
COIMBRA, a handfome, large, and celebrated
town of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira,
with a bifliop’s fee, and a famous univerfity. The
cathedral and the fountains are very magnificent. It
is feated in a very pleafant country abounding in vine¬
yards, olive-trees, and fruits. It Bands on a moun¬
tain, by the fide of the river Mondego. W. Long.
8. 57. N. Lat. 40. 10.
COIN, a piece of metal converted into money by
the imprefling of certain marks or figures thereon.
Coin differs from Money as the fpecies from the
genus. Money is any matter, whether metal, wood,
leather, glafs, horn, paper, fruits, fhells, or kernels,
which have currency as a medium in Commerce.
Coin is a particular fpecies, always made of metal, and
flruck according to a certain procefs called Coining.
The precife epocha of the invention of money is
too ancient for our annals; and, if we might argue
from the neceflity and obvioufnefs of the thing, mull
be nearly coeval with the world.
Whether coins be of equal antiquity, may admit of
fome doubt; efpecially as moft of the ancient writers
are fo frequent and exprefs in their mention of lea¬
thern-moneys, paper-moneys, wooden-moneys, ire.
Some, however, notwithftanding this, are of opinion,
that the firft moneys were of metal: the reafons they
give, are the firmnefs, neatnefs, cleanlinefs, durable-
nefs, and univerfality of metals; which, however, do
rather conclude they ought to have been fo, than
that they actually were fo.
In effedt, the very commodities themfelves were
the firft moneys, i. e. were current for one another
by way of exchange ; and it was the difficulty of cut¬
ting or dividing certain commodities, and the impof-
fibility of doing it without great lofs, that firft put men
on the expedient of a general medium. See Ex¬
change.
Indeed, thus much may be laid in behalf of coins,
that, on this view, it was natural for men to have
their firft recourfe to metals; as being almoft the on¬
ly things whofe goodnefs, and as it were integrity,
is not diminilhed by partition ; befides the advantages
above exprefled, and the conveniencies of melting
and returning them into a mafs of any fize or weight.
It was probably, then, this property of metals
which fiift accuftomed people, who trafficked toge¬
ther, to account them in lieu of quantities of other
merchandizes in their exchanges, and at length to
fubftitute them wholly in their Head; and thus arofe
money: as it was their other property to preferve
any mark or impreflion a long time, which confirm¬
ed them in the right; and thus was the firft rife of
coins. See Metal.
In the firft ages, each perfon cut his metal into
pieces of different fizes and forms, according to the
quantity to be given for any merchandize, or accord¬
ing to the demand of the feller, or the quantity ftipu-
lated between them. To this end they went to mar- Coin,
ket loaden with metal in proportion to the purchafe "T^ :"
to be made, and furniffied with inftrurnents for por¬
tioning it, and feales for dealing it out, according as
occafion required. By degrees, it was found more
commodious to have piece ; ready weighed ; and as
there were different weights required according to the
value of the different wares, all thofe of the fame
weight began to be diftinguilhed with the fame mark
or figure : thus were coins carried one ftep further.
At length the growing commerce of money begin¬
ning to be difturbed with frauds, both in the weights
and the matter, the public authority interpofed; and
hence the firft ftamps or impreflions of money ; to
which fucceeded the names of the moniers; and a{
length the effigy of the prince, the date, legend, and
other precautions to prevent the alterations of the fpe¬
cies ; and thus were coins completed.
Modern Coins. In England the current fpecies of
gold are the guinea, half-guinea, Jacobus, laureat,
angel, and role-noble : the four laft of which are
now feldom to be met with ; having been mcfl of
them converted into guineas, chiefly during the reign
of Charles II. and James II. The filver coins are
the crown, half-crown. Hulling, and fixpence. Cop¬
per coins are the half-penny and farthing.
In Scotland, by the articles of the Union, it is ap¬
pointed that all the coins be reduced to the Englifh,
and the fame accounts obferved throughout. Till then
the Scots had their pounds, Shillings, and pence, as in
England ; but their pound was but 20 pence Engliffi,
and the others in proportion : accordingly, their merk
was igis. Scots, current in England at I3f d. their
noble in proportion. Befides thefe they had their
turnorer-pence and half-pence ; their penny of
that of England : belides bale money pf achifons, ba-
bees, and placks. The bodle \ of the penny, \ of
the achifon, ~ of the babee, and | of the plack.
In Ireland, the coins are as in England, viz. Ihillings,
pence, ire. with this difference, that their Hulling or
harper is but equal to nine pence fterling; whence
their pound is only | of ours, or 15 s.
But, for a view of all the coins prefently current in
the four quarter of the globe, with their values and
proportions, fee the Table fubjoined to the article
Money.
In many places Ihells are current for coins; particu¬
larly a fmall white kind dug out of the ground in the
Maldives, and fome parts of America, called in the
Indies cowries, or coris, on the coaft of Africa bonges,
and in America porcelaines; of which it takes a vaft
number to be equivalent in value to a penny. Of
zimbis, another kind of Ihell current, particularly in the
kingdoms of Angola and Congo, two thoufand make/
what the negroes call a macoute ; which is no real
money ; for of this there is none in this part of Africa
but a manner of reckoning: thus, two Flemilli knives
they efteem a macoute ; a copper-bafon two pounds
weight, and 12 inches diameter, they reckon three
macoutes ; a fufee 10, ire.
In fome places fruits are current for coins. Of
thefe there are three forts ufed ; two in America,
particularly among the Mexicans, which are the cacao
and maize : the other in the Eaft Indies, viz. almonds,
brought
C O I
[ 2062 ]
brought thither from Lar, and growing in the deferts
" of Arabia. Of cacao T 5 are efteemed equivalent to a
Spanilh rial, or feven pence iterling. Maize has ceafed
to be a common money (ince the difcovery of Ame¬
rica by the Europeans. Almonds are chiefly ufed
where the cowries are not current. As the year proves
more or lefs favourable to this fruit, the value of the
money is higher or lower. In a common year 40 al¬
monds are fet againft a pefcha, or half-penny fterling;
which brings each almond to of a farthing.
Ancient Coins are thofe chiefly which have been
current among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Their
values and proportions are as follows.
JEWISH. /. /. d. fter.
The Grecian gold coin was the J
ftater aureus, weighing two attic j
drachms, or half of the (later ar- !
genteus; and exchanging ufually
for 25 attic drachms of filver ; in j
our money —— J
According to our proportion of ? x
gold to (ilver   5
There were likewife the (later T
cyzicenus, exchanging for 28 attic >c
drachm's, or   j
Stater philippicus, and (later
alexandrinus, of the fame value.
Stater daricus,according to Jo- T
fephus, worth 50 attic drachms, > 1
Stater crasfms, of the fame value.
/. s. d. Sterl.
}>o : 16 : 11
I
I
J
Teruncius
Semilibella
Libella 7
As
c
ROMAN.
O I
40(20
1 -
Seftertius —
iQuinarius 7
2[Vidloriatus 3
Denarius
qrs. Sterl.
: °fo4o
: Iflo
: 3 tV
! 3!
! 3f
: 3
Note, Of thefe the drachma, didrachm, ire. were
of (ilver, the reft for the mod part of brafs. The
other parts, as tridrachm, triobolus, ire. were fome-
times coined.
Note alfo, the drachma is here, with the generality
of authors, fuppofed equal to the denarius : though
there is reafon to believe, that the drachma was fome-
what the weightier. See Drachma; and Denarius.
Note, Of thefe the denarius, vicloriatus, feftertius,
and fome times the as, were of filver, the reft of brafs.
See As, ire.
There were fometimes alfo coined of brafs the
triens, fextans, uncia, fextula, and dupondius.
/. s. r/.Sterl.
The Roman gold coin was thej
aureus, which weighed generally j
double the denarius; the value of ^ ^ ,
which, according to the firft pro- | 4 • 3*
portion of coinage, mentioned by (
Pliny, was   J
Accordingto the proportion that 7 T . 0
obtains now amongft us, worth 3 ‘ ' ^
According to the decuple pro- T
portion, mentioned by Livy and >0 : 12 : tt
Julius Pollux, worth j
According to the proportion J
mentioned by Tacitus, and which |
afterwards obtained, whereby the fO : 16 : i|
aureus exchanged for 25 denarii, |
its value ■— J
Coin, in architecture, a kind of dye cut diagonal-
wife, after the manner of a flight of a (lair-cafe, fer-
ving at bottom to fupport columns in a level, and at
top to correCt the inclination of an entablature fup-
porting a vault.
Coin is alfo ufed for a folid angle compofed of two
furfaces inclined towards each other, whether that
angle be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, ire. ox
interior, as the coin of a chamber or chimney. See
Quoin.
COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making mo¬
ney, as performed either by the hammer or mill.
Formerly the fabric of coins was different from
what it is at prefent. They cut a large plate of me¬
tal into feveral little fquares, the corners of which
were cut off with (heers. After having (haped thefe
pieces, fo as to render them perfectly conformable, in
point of weight, to the ftandard piece, they took each
piece in hand again, to make it exaClly round, by a
gentle hammering. This was called a planehet, and
was fit for immediate coining. Then engravers pre¬
pared, as they (lill do, a couple of fteel maffes in form
of dyes, cut and terminated by a flat (urface, rounded
off at the edges. They engraved or (lamped on it the
hollow of a head, a crofs, a fcutcheon, or any other
figure, according to the cuftom of the times, with a
(hort legend. As one of. thefe dyes was to remain
dormant, and the other moveable, the former ended
in a fquare prifm, that it might be introduced into the
fquare hole of the block, which, being fixed very fall,
kept
Coinage.
Plate
LXXXIV.
C 0 I [ 2063 J C O I
kept the dye as fteady as any vice could have done.
The planchet of metal was horizontally laid upon this
inferior mafs, to receive the ftamp of it on one fide,
and that of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered,
on the other. This moveable dye, having its round
engraved furface refting upon the planchet, had at its
oppolite extremity a flat fquare, and larger furface,
upon which they gave feveral heavy blows, with a ham¬
mer of an enormous fize, till the double ftamp was.
fufliciently, in relievo, impreffed on each fide of the
planchet. This being finilhed, was immediately fuc-
ceeded by another, and they thus became a ftandard
coin, which had the degree of finenei's the weight and
mark determined by the judgment of the infpectors,
to make it good current money. The ftrong tem¬
pering which was and is ftill given to the two dyes,
rendered them capable of bearing thofe repeated
blows. Coining has been confiderably improved and
rendered expeditious, by feveral ingenious machines,
and by a wife application of the fureft phyfical expe¬
riments to the methods of fining, dyeing, and damping
the different metals.
The three fineft inftruments the mint-man ufes, are
the laminating engine; the machine for making the im-
preflions on the edges of coins ; and the mill.
After they have taken the laminae, or plates of me¬
tal, out of the mould into which they are caft, they
do not beat them on the anvil, as was formerly done,
but they make them pafs and repafs between the fe¬
veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being
gradually brought clofer and clofer to each other, pre-
fently give the lamina its uniform and exadt thicknefs.
Inftead of dividing the lamina into fmall fquares, they
at once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can
contain, by means of a lharp fteel trepan, of a roun-
difh figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable
diameter, tofhape and cut off the piece at one and the
fame time. After thefe planchets have been prepared
and weighed with ftandard pieces, filed or fcraped to
get off the fuperfluous part of the metal, and then
boiled and made clean, they arrive, at laft, at the ma¬
chine, (fig. 1.), which marks them upon the edge;
and finally, the mill, (fig. 2.) which,Squeezing each
of them lingly between the two dyes,vbrought near
each other with one blow, forces the two. furfaces or
fields of the piece to fill exadlly all the vacancies of the
two figures engraved hollow. The engine which
ferves to laminate lead, gives a fufficient notion of
that which ferves to flaten gold and filver laminae be¬
tween rollers of a lelfer fize. See Laminating.
The principal pieces of the machine, (fig. 1.), to
ftamp coins on the edge, are two fteel laminae, about
a line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring,
is engraved on the thicknefs of one of the laminae,
and the other half on the thicknefs of the other; and
thefe two laminae are ftraight, although the pknchet
marked with them be circular.
When they ftamp a planchet, they firft put it be¬
tween the laminae in fuch a manner, as that thefe be¬
ing each of them laid flat upon a copper-plate, which
is faftened upon a very thick wooden table, and the
planchet being likewife laid flat upon the fame plate,
the edge of the planchet may touch the tv/o laminae
on each fide, and in their thick part.
One of thefe laminae is immoveable, and faftened Coinage.
with feveral fcrews; the other Aides by means of a  
dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on
the furface of the lamina. This Aiding lamina makes
the planchet turn in luch a manner, that it remains
ftamped on the edge, when it has made one turn.
Only crown and half-crown pieces can bear the im-
preflion of letters on the thicknefs of their edges.
The coining engine or mill is lb handy, (fig. 2.), ^
that a fingle man may ftamp twenty thoufand planchets
in one day : gold, filver, and copper planchets, are all
of them coined with a mill, to which the coining
fquares, (fig. 3.) commonly called dyes, are faftened ;
that of the face under, in a fquare box garnilhed with
male and female fcrews, to fix and keep it fteady; and
the other above, in a little box garniflied with the
fame fcrews, to faften the coining fquare. The plan¬
chet is laid flat on the fquare of the effigy, which is
dormant; and they immediately pulf the bar of the
mill by its cords, which caufes the fcrew fet within it
to turn. This enters into the female fcrew, which is |
in the body of the mill, and turns with. lb much
ftrength, that by pufliing the upper fquare upon that
of the eifigy, the planchet, violently prelfed between
both fquares, receives the impreffion of both at one
pull, and in the twinkling of an eye.
The planchet thus ftampt and coined, goes through
a final examination of the mint wardens, Irom whole
hands it goes.into the world.
In the Coining of Medals, the procefs is the fame,
in effedl, with that of money ; the principal difference
confifting in this, that money having but a fmall re¬
lievo, receives its impreflion at a fingle ftroke of the
engine ; whereas for medals, the height of their re¬
lievo makes it neceflary that the ftroke be repeated
feveral times: to this end the piece is taken out from
between the dyes, heated, and returned again; which
procefs in medallions and large medals, is repeated
fifteen or twenty times before the full impreffion be
given, care muft be taken, every time the planchet is
removed, to take off the fuperfluous metal ftretched
beyond the circumference with a file. Medallions,
and medals of a high relievo, are ufually firft caft in
fand, by reafon of the difficulty of ftamping them in
the prefs, where they are put only to perfetft them;
in regard the.fand does not leave them clear, fmooth,
and accurate enough. Therefore we may fee that
medals receive their form and impreffion by degrees,
whereas money receives them all at once.
Britijh Coinage, both by the beauty of the en¬
graving, and by the invention of the impreffions on the
edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the al¬
teration of the fpecies, is carried to the utmoft perfec¬
tion.
It was only in the reign of king William III. that
the hammer-money ceafed to be current in England,
where till then it was ftruck in that manner, as m
other nations. Before the hammer fpecies was called
in, the Englifli money was in a wretched condition,
having been filed and clipped by natives as well as fo¬
reigners, infomuch that it was fcarce left of half the
value : the retrieving this diftreffed ftate of the Eng-
lilh money is looked upon as one of the glories of king
William’s reign.
The
C O I [ 2064 ] C O I
Coinage. The Britifli coinage is now wholly performed in the
' Tower of London, where there is a corporation for
it, under the title of the mint. Formerly there were
here, as there are itill in other countries, the rights of
feinorage and braifage : but fmee the eighteenth year
of king Charles the Second, there is nothing taken
either tor the king, or for the expences of coining ;
fo that weight is returned for weight, to any perl'on
who carries their gold and filver to the Tower.
The fpecies coined in Great Britain are efteemed
contraband goods, and not to be exported. All fo¬
reign fpecies are allow'ed to be fent out of the realm,
as well as gold and filver in bars, ingots, duft, ire.
Barbary Coinage, particularly that of Fez and
Tunis is under no proper regulations, as every gold-
fmith, Jew, or even private perfon, undertakes it at
pleafure ; which practice renders their money ex¬
ceeding bad, and their commerce very unfafe.
Mufcovite Cow ben. In Mufcovy there is no other
coin llruck but filver, and that only in the cities of
Mufcow, Novogrod, Twere, and Plelkow, to which
may be added Peterfburgh. The coinage of each of
thefe cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the
royal revenue.
Perfian Coinage. All the money made in Perfia
is (truck with a hammer, as is that of the relt of Afia:
and the fame may be underftood of America, and the
coafts of Africa, and even Mufcovy : the king’s duty,
in Perfia, is feven and a half per cent, for all the mo¬
neys coined, which are lately reduced to filver and
copper, there being no gold coin there, except a kind
of medals, at the acceffion of a new fophi.
Spanijb Coinage is elteemed one of the leaft per-
fedt in Europe. It is fettled at Seville and Segovia,
the only cities where gold and (ilver are (truck.
COIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large
and handfdme town of Swilferland, and capital of the
country of the Grifons, with a bifhop’s fee whofe pre¬
late has the right of coining money. It is divided
into twro parts ; the lea(t of which is of the Roman
Catholic religion, and the greateft of the Proteftant.
It is governed by its own laws, and feated in a plain,
abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Plef-
fure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. 9. 27.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
COITION, the intercourfe between male and fe¬
male in the adt of generation. See Generation,
and Congress.
It is obferved that frogs are forty days in the adt of
coitio?i. Bart holme,, ixe. relate, that butterflies make
150 vibrations of the wings in one adt of coition.
COIX, job’s-tears ; a genus of the triandria or¬
der, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants. Of
this there is but one fpecies, a native of the Archipe¬
lago illands, and frequently cultivated in Spain and
Portugal, and alfo in the Weft Indies. It is an annual
plant, rifing from a fibrous root, with two or three
jointed (talks, to the height of two feet, with fingle,
long, narrow leaves at each joint, refembling thofe of
the reed ; at the bafe of the leaves come out the (pikes
of flowers (landing on (hort foot-ftalks; the feeds
greatly refemble thofe of Cromwell; whence the plant
has by fome writers been called Lithofpermum. This
plant may be propagated in this country by feeds
brought from Portugal, and Town on a hot-bed ; after Coke.
which the young plants are to be removed into a warm  
border, and planted at the diftance of two feet at leaft
from each other. They will require no other care
than to be kept free from weeds. In Spain and Por¬
tugal the poor people grind the feeds of this plant, in
times of fcarcity, and make a coarfe kind of bread of
them. The feeds are inclofed in fmall capiles about
the bignefs of an Englifh pea, and of different colours.
Thefe are ftrung upon (ilk, and ufed inftead of brace¬
lets by fome of the poorer fort in the Weft Indies, but
efpecially by the negroes.
COKE, or Cooke (Sir Edward), lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was de-
feended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and born
at Milcham in 1549. When he was a ftudent in the
Inner-Temple, the firft occafion of his diftinguilhing
hirnfelf Was his dating the cafe of a cook belonging to
the Temple fo exactly, that all the houfe, who were
puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the
whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage
with a lady of a great fortune, preferments flowed in
upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chofe
him for their recorder ; the county of Norfolk, for
one of their knights in parliament; and the houfe of
commons, for their fpeaker, in the 35th year of queen
Elizabeth. The queen appointed him folicitor-general
in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In
1603, he was knighted by king James I.; and in No¬
vember the fame year, upon the trial of Sir Walter
Raleigh, ire. at Winchefter, he treated that gentle¬
man with a feurrility of language hardly to be paral¬
lelled. June 27. he was appointed lord chief juftice
of the common pleas; and in 1613, lord chief juftice
of the king’s bench, and (worn one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1615, he was very vigorous in the difeovery
and profecution of the perfons employed in poifoning
Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612. His
conteft not long after with the lord chancellor Egeton,
with fome other cafes, haftened the ruin of his inte-
reft at court: fo that he was fequeftered from the
council-table and the office of lord chief juftice. In
1621, he vigoroufly maintained in the houfe of com¬
mons, that no proclamation is of any force againft the
parliament. The fame year, being looked upon as
one of the great incendiaries in the houfe of commons,
he was removed from the council of (late with dif-
grace; the king faying, that “ he was the fitreft in-
ftrument for a tyrant that ever was in Englandhe
was alfo committed to the Tower, and his papers were
feized. Upon the calling of a new parliament in
1625, the court-party, to prevent his being elected a
member, got him appointed (heriff of Buckingham-
ffiire ; to avoid the office, if poflible, he drew up ex¬
ceptions againft the oath of a (heriff, but was obliged
to undertake the office. In 1628, he fpoke vigoroufly
upon grievances; and made a fpeech in which he af¬
firmed, that “ the duke of Buckingham was the caufe
of all our miferies.” While he lay upon his death¬
bed, his papers and laft will were feized by an order
of council. He died in 1634, and publifhed many
works : the mod remarkable are his Inftitutes of the
laws of England; the firft part of which is only a tranf-
lation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one of
the
C G L [ 2065 ] ‘COL
Cokenhau- the chief juftices of the common pleas in the reign of
fen Edward IV.
II COKENHAUSEN, a ftrong Town of Livonia in
Co c icum. swe£jen, on the river Divina. E. Long. 24. 56. N.
Lat. 56. 40.
COL, a name given by fome to one of the weftern
iflands of Scotland; it abounds in corn, pafture, fal-
mon, eels, and cod. W. Long. 7. 35. N. Lat. 57. 8.
COLBERG, a ftrong, handfome fea-port town of
Germany, in Pomerania, belonging to the king of
Pruffia. It is remarkable for its falt-works; and is
feated at the mouth of the river Perfant, on the Bal-
tic-fea, 60 miles north-eaft of Stetin, and 30 north-
eaft of Camin. E. Long. 15. 57. N. Lat. 54. 18.
COLBERT (John Baptilt), marquis of Signelai, re¬
puted the greateft ftatefman Prance ever produced.
He was prime minifter to Lewis XIV. and was equally
renowned in every department of his extenfive adrni-
niftration. The polite arts, commerce, and manufac¬
tures, flood indebted to him for fome lignal advantage
every year of his miniftry. His attention to the ma¬
rine lervice was no lefs confpicuous ; for he built ar-
fenals at Mar fellies, Toulon, Breft and Rochfort, which
he kept well provided with naval and military ftores.
The regulations he effected in the courts of judicature,
and in the finances, completed his character, and ren¬
dered it much more renowned than that of Sully, be-
caufe his views were more extenfive. He died
in 1683, aged 64. The houfe of -Colbert has produ¬
ced feveral eminent men in the church, the army, and
the cabinet of France.
COLCHESTER, the capital of the county of Effex
in England. It is by fome thought to be the place
mentioned by Antoninus under the name of Colonia,
different from Colotfia Camalodurii, and by the Saxons
called Cacr Colin. It is a beautiful, populous, and
pleafant town, extended on the brow of a hill from
eaft to weft, and adorned with 10 churches. It had
formerly ftrong walls and a caftle, but now there are
fcarce any remains of either. This place is faid to
have given birth to FI. Julia Helena, mother to Con-
ftantine the Great, and daughter to king Coelus, fo
much celebrated for her piety and zeal in propagating
the Chriftian religion. Here, and in the neighbour¬
ing towns, is a great manufacture of bays and fays.
It is alfo famous for its oyfters ; in pickling and barrel¬
ling which, the inhabitants excel. The rendering na¬
vigable the river Coin, on which the town ftands,
has greatly promoted its trade and manufactures. The
town had formerly an abbey whofe abbot was mitred
and fat in parliament. In the time of the civil wars
it was befieged by the parliament’s troops and redu¬
ced by famine. It was formerly a corporation, but
lately loft its charter for fome mifdemeanor; however,
it flill fends two members to parliament. E. Long.
1.2. N. Lat. 51. 55.
COLCHICUM, meadow-saffron ; a genus of the
trigynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. There are three fpecies, all of them bulbous-
rooted, low, perennials, poffefling the fingular property
of their leaves appearing at one time, and their flow¬
ers at another; the former rifing long and narrow
from the root in the fpring, and decaying in June ;
the flowers, which are monopetalous, long, tubular,
. Vol. III.
ereCt, and fix-parted, rife naked from the root in au- Co leothar
tumn, not more than four or five inches high. Their II
.colours afford a beautiful variety; being purple, va- 0 ’
negated purple, white, red, rofe-coloured, yellow, ire.
with fingle and double flowers. They are all hardy
plants, infomuch that they will flower though the roots
happen to lie out of the ground; but by this they are
much weakened. They are propagated by offsets
from the roots of which they are very prolific. Thefe
are to be taken up and divided at the decay of the
leaf in fummer, planting the whole again before the
middle of Auguft. They are to be placed at nine
inches diftance from one another, and three inches
deep in the ground.
The root of this plant is poifonous. When young
and full of fap, its tafte is very acrid ; but when old,
mealy and faint. Two drachms of it killed a large
dog in 13 hours, operating violently by ftool, vomit,
and urine. One grain of it fwallowed by a healthy
man, produced heats in the ftomach, and foon after
flufhing heats in different parts of the body, with fre¬
quent fhiverings, followed by colicky pains ; after
which an itching in the loins and urinary paffages was
perceived; then came on a continual inclination to
make water, a tenefmus, pain in the head, quick pulfe,
thirft, and other difagreeable fymptoms. Notwith-
ftanding thefe effeifts, however, an infufion of the roots
in vinegar, formed into a fyrup with honey or fugar,
proves a fafe and powerful pecftoral and diuretic, and
is often of fervice in dropfies, ire. The virtues of
colchicum feem much to refemble thole of fquills,
COLCOTHAR, the fubftance remaining after the
diftillation or calcination of martial vitriol by a violent
fire. See Chemistry, n° 112.
COLD, in a relative fenfe, generally fignifies that
fenfation which accompanies the tranlition of the fine
velfels of the human body from an expanded to a
more contracted ftate. In an abfolute fenfe, it means
the agent by which that fenfation is produced. r
Concerning the caufe of this fenfation, which alone Different
can be properly called cold in the abftract, philofo- hypotheses
phers are by no means agreed; fome maintaining, £°yCrnln®
that the term is merely relative, and owing only to
the different degrees of heat contained in dift’erent bo¬
dies ; others, that cold is as really and truly a fubftance
as heat itfelf. The arguments on both lides may be
ftated as follows: 2
1. The fenfation of cold may be produced without Arguments
abftracffing from the human body any part of its fen- lts
fible heat; nay, from fome obfervations made by the
thermometer, it appears, that a violent degree of ftance.
cold may be felt when the body is really Aotfer than
ufual. Examples of this occur in the cold fits of inter-
mittents, and the chilnefs which ufually precedes fe¬
vers of all kinds.
2. The body may be fo difpofed, that the fame fub¬
ftance may feel hot and cold to different parts of it.
Thus, fuppofe a perfon has one hand cooled fo as to
fink Fahrenheit’s thermometer to 6o°, while the o-
ther raifes it to 90 ; if both of them are now plunged
into a veflel of water reduced to the temperature of
75°, this water will feel hot to one hand and cold to
the other.
3. Thoutrh we fee a vifible fpring and fountain of
12 F • heat,
COL [ 2066 ] COL
Cold, heat, viz. the fun, who by his light diffufes warmth
 to the whole world, yet we perceive no 1’uch fpring
or origin of cold. The fun’s prefence always brings
warmth ; and of this warmth there is a very evident
caufe, viz. the light which is continually flowing from
him: his abfence is as certainly attended with cold ;
but for this cold we obferve no pofitive caufe. We
fee, that to produce the molt intenfe cold nothing elfe
than the mere privation of the fun’s light is requifite.
As therefore we have already feen that it is poflible
to produce diflerent fenfations of heat and cold, with¬
out varying the temperature of the fuhflance by which
they are produced, it feems moft probable, that thefe
fenfations are the refult of a mere negation, or want
of that heat to which our bodies have been accultomed,
or which is neceffary to their fubfiflence.
2 In anfwer to the above, it hath been urged,
Anfwered. I. The two firft inftances prove nothing. From
them it only appears, that cold produces a contra&ion
of the fine veflels of our bodies ; and that, by what¬
ever caufe this contra&ion is produced, the fame fen-
fation always follows it: but whether this fenfation
is produced in all cafes by a negative or a pofitive, can
by no means be determined by fuch experiments.
2. The third argument proves by far too much :
for if the mere abfence of the fun’s light and heat was
fuflicient to produce cold, then caves and other places
that are never expofed to the fun, ought to be cold
beyond all imagination. The contrary, however, is
manifeft to daily experience. At a certain depth be¬
low ground, an uniform temperature is obferved, which
fcarce ever varies', provided a circulation of air is pre¬
vented as much as polfible. In feme caverns indeed,
fuch as thofe in Mount Aetna, where the air circulates
*Seejf7«.r.'freely, the cold is very intenfe*.. It would feem
4 therefore, that as the fun is the origin and fountain of
Atmo- heat, fo is our atmofphere the fonree from whence
fphere, the coici is derived ; and that this atmofphere, or fome-
cddCC thing in ir> is as really and pofitively co/d, as the light
of the fun is really and pofitively ieaf. This will be¬
come the more probable when we confider, that the
beams of the fun are not capable, as emitted from him,
of heating the atrnofphere. They nmft firft be de¬
tained in it by reflection from the earth; and where
this refle&ion cannot reach, as on the tops of very
high mountains, an intenfe degree of cold is always
found to take place. Again, even in thofe places
where the cold is moft intenfe, it is found only to af-
fe<5t the furface of the ground. This Ihews, that the
caufe of cold lies in the atmofphere, and not in the ab-
fence of the fun’s light; otherwise, in thofe regions,
however cold the furface was, the under parts of the
foil muft be much colder. We fee, therefore, that there
is in nature a pofitive fource of cold as well as of heat;
the atmofphere being the fource of the one, as the fun
is of the other: and thefe two always a<fting oppofite
to one another, contribute to preferve that exaeft ba¬
lance which is necelfary for the exiftence of the fyftem
of nature in the form we fee it; and, were the one or
the other finally to get the better, the whole world,
or at leaft its inhabitants, muft perifh in a miferable
manner.
It will fcarce be denied, that, were the fun to ceafe-
The emiflion of his light for a few months, the moft
intenfe and violent cold would by that time have ta- Cold,
ken place in the atmofphere. But, what has become
of the immenfe quantity of heat and light emitted from
the fun fince the creation of the world ? It is abforbed
by terreftrial bodies, we know;, but what becomes of
it afterwards ? The atmofphere perhaps takes it from
terreftrial bodies: nay, indeed, there is here not the
leaft doubt; for we know that expofure to the air is
a very ready way to cool any thing. Still, however,,
the difficulty is not folved : for it is moft certain, that,
fince the world was created, the earth and its atmo¬
fphere have received as much heat from the fun as
would have been fufficient to have fet them on fire a
thoufand times over; and feeing this hath not been
done, we muft neceflarily conclude, either that heat,
after fume time, ceafes to be //cat, or that there is in
nature a power able to countermand or fufpend its ef-
fetfts; and that this power, though invifible as heat it-
felf is, muft be really and truly a pofitive fubftance,
and is that which we commonly call co/d.
The firft of thefe pofitions, viz. that heat, after
fome time, ceafes to be />cat, is contrary to all expe¬
rience. It is certain, that no body whatever lofes its
heat but by communicating it to others. Were there
not, therefore, an oppofite principle in nature, the
quantity of heat accumulated in terreftrial bodies muft.
have been continually increafing ; and, as already ob¬
ferved, would long fince have deftroyed the whole
world. By luppofing, however, a cold principle as
Well as a hot one, the difficulty entirely vanifhes. On
this fuppofition it is impoffible that a quantity of heat
can enter any fubftance without expelling an equal
quantity of cold from it. When the caufe producing
the heat is removed, the cold then re-enters and dif-
places the heat, and fo on. $
3. That cold is a pofitive principle is not a mere Experi-
hypothefis, but may be afeertained by experiment, ment, pro-
From what we have juft now faid it follows, that if a ^n®eCaolQ
body is heated, the cold ought to fly from it, and, attack-
ing thofe fubftances in the vicinity of the heated body, flance.
make them colder than before. To tliis purpofe we
have an experiment recorded in the philofophical
Tranfaeftions, n0 2 74, p. 951. It was made by M. Ge-
offroy. “ I put (fays he) fome cold water into a great
bafin. I put into the middle of the water a cucurbit
of gldfs full of water equally cold. I put into the cu¬
curbit a very good thermometer, which I let lie a good
while for a trial. When it was adjufted to a degree
proportionable to the cold of the water, I threw fud-
denly into the water in the bafin four or five fhovels
full of coals well lighted ; and in an inftant the liquor
of the thermometer defeended two or three lines. Af¬
ter fome moments the liquor rofe again, when the heat
in the water of the balin was communicated to the
glafs.”
Thefe are the principal arguments that have been
urged />ro and con in this queftion. The laft mentioned
experiment, if it can be depended on, feems to be de-
cifive in favours of thofe who affert cold to be a pofi¬
tive fubftance. But however philofophers may de¬
cide this queftion, we believe the generality of man¬
kind will always take it for granted that cold is a fub-
Jlance as well as heat.
Among thofe who allow cold to be a fubftance,
there
COL [ 2067 ] COL
ji Cold. there is no fmall difagreement about what fort of fub-
| 2 ’ ttance it is- Some have fuppofed it to confill in certain
Conjee- nitrous or faliue particles diffufed through the atmo-
1 tures con- fphere; others attribute cold to the adlion of the elec-
ceming the trie fluid. The flrit hypothelis is evidently falfe ; for
fubflanceofif fuch faline particles exifted, it is impoflible but they
muft on fome occafions difeover themfelves, which
they are never known to do. Concerning the latter,
no-experiments either have been or probably can be
made; becaufe every experiment in eleflricity we can
make is only throwing the fluid into fome kind of mo¬
tion, in which cafe it would be more apt to produce heat
than cold. It is obfervable, however, that the readiert
conductors of the eledtric fluid are likewife the bell
conductors of heat and cold; and vice verj'a. Thus,
metals, which are the bell conductors of eleClricity,
alfo tranfmit heat or cold very readily through them :
whereas wool, hair, filk, irr. which will not conduCt
this fluid, are found to be the belt prefervatives a-
I 7 gainll excefles of heat or cold. See Electricity.
Cold pro- Moll kinds of faline fubltances mixed with water
duced arti- make the mixture confiderably colder than either the
ficially by fah or the water was before. In the paper quoted
fiks"5 at,ove> Mr Geoffroy gives an account of feveral expe¬
riments with regard to this power of the falts to pro¬
duce cold. Four ounces of fal ammoniac, mixed with a
pint of common water, made his thermometer defeend
two inches and nine lines below the temperature of
the water, in lefs than a quarter of an hour. An ounce
of the fame fait, put into four or five ounces of diltil-
led vinegar, made the liquor defeend two inches and
three lines. Half an ounce of fal ammoniac, mixed
with three ounces of fpirit of nitre, made the thermo¬
meter defeend two inches and five lines ; but on ufing
fpirit of vitriol inllead of that of nitre, it funk three
inches and fix lines; and what is very remarkable,
though this mixture was fo extremely cold, the va¬
pours raifed by it had a confiderable degree of heat.
Four ounces of faltpetre mixed with a pint of water,
funk the thermometer one inch three lines; but a like
quantity of fea-falt funk it only two lines. With acids,
even with its own fpirit, fea-falt produced a confide¬
rable heat. Volatile alkaline falts produced cold in
proportion to their purity; but fixed alkalies, heat.
The greatefl degree of cold, however, as yet produ¬
ced by mixtures of this kind, was fliewn by Mr Hom-
berg ; and the experiment may be performed as fol¬
lows. <f Take a pound of corrofive fublimate, and
as much fal ammoniac ; powder them feparately, and
mix both the powders very exactly ; put the mixture
into a vial, pouring upon it a pint and a half of diltil-
led vinegar, and fhake all well together. This com-
pofition grows fo cold that a man can fcarce hold it in
his hands in fummer. And it happened, as Mr Hom-
berg was making the experiment, that the fubjeft
froze.” This alfo once happened to M. Geoffroy
with common water and fal ammoniac ; but he fays
he never could make the experiment fucceed again.
If inftead of making thefe experiments with water
in its fluid flate, we take it when converted into ice
or rather fnow, incredible degrees of cold may be
produced. A mixture of fnow and common fait finks
Fahrenheit’s thermometer to o. If pot-afhes are mix¬
ed with powdered ice, it finks 8° farther. Two affu-
fions of fpirit of fait on pounded ice funk it l/ji0 be- Cold
low o ; but by repeated affufions of fpirit of nitre, II
Mr Fahrenheit funk it to 409 below o; and the fpirit ColdlnSUfn
of nitre itfelf though very Itrong was then frozen. 8
Even thefe exceflive degrees of cold are naturally pro- Excelfive
duced by the atmol'phere in fome parts of the world. oi"
In 1708 Mr Derham acquaints us that his thermome-
ter was within one tenth of an inch of its ftation when
plunged into a mixture of fnow and fait. In 1732,
the thermometer at Peterfburgh flood at 28° below o.
In 1737, when the French academicians wintered at
the north polar circle or near it, the thermometer
funk 330 below o. The (pirit of wine with which
Ibme of their thermometers were filled was then fro¬
zen ; the air, when fuddenly admitted into their warm
rooms, became intolerable to their bodies, their breafts
feemed to be rent when they breathed it, and the
moifture of the air was immediately converted into
whirls of fnow. In this degree of cold every metallic
fubftance, when touched, bliftered the fldn like red-
hot iron. This, however, is but trifling in compari-
fon of what hath been obferved at a place in Siberia,
lying in Lat. 58. 10. where the thermometer fell to
118° below o ; nay, by fome late accounts from that
country, we are informed, that the cold hath been ob¬
ferved there of fuch a ftrength as to freeze the quick-
filver in the thermometers. When Mr Brown firfl
made this famous experiment of freezing quickfilver,
the thermometer at Peterlburg flood at 400 below o.
By repeated affufions of fpirit of nitre on fnow, he
made it fink 108 degrees lower; after which the cold
became immeafurable, becaufe the quickiilver was
frozen. But for a particular account of this experi¬
ment, fee the article Congelation. Very great
degrees of cold alfo may be produced by evaporation ;
for a particular account and explanation of which,
fee the article Evaporation.
Cold, in medicine. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
Cold, in farriery. See there, § iii.
COLDENIA, a genus of the tetragynia order, be-
longing to the tetrandria clafs of plants. There is but
one fpecies, a native of India. It is an annual plant,
whofe branches trail on the ground, extending about
fix inches from the root. They are adorned with
fmall blue flowers growing in clufters, which come
out from the wings of the leaves. They are propa¬
gated by feeds fown on a hot-bed : when the plants
come up, they may be removed each into a feparate
pot, and plunged into a hot-bed of tanner’s bark>
where they are to remain conftantly.
COLDINGHAM, a barren heathy moor on the
borders of Scotland. It is only remarkable for a con¬
vent formerly filled with moft heroic nuns ; who, to
preferve themfelves inviolate from the Danes, cut off
their lips and nofes; and thus rendering themfelves
objects of horror, were, with their abbefs Ebba, in
870, burnt in the monaftery by the difappointed fa-
vages.
COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, and diocefe of Ripen. It is remarkable for
its bridge, over which pafs all the oxen and other
cattle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings
in a confiderable revenue to the king. It is feated on
12 F 2 an
COL [ 2068 ] COL
Ctdtl an eminence, in a pleafant country abounding with
H game. E. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 55. 35.
Coles. COLJ)-finch, a fpecies of Motacilla.
COLD-SHIRE iron, that which is brittle when
cold.
COLE (William,) the meft famous botanift of his
time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordihire, about
the year 1626, and ftudied at Merton college in Ox¬
ford. He at length removed to Putney, near London;
and publiihed “ The Art of Simpling; and Adam in
Eden, or Nature’s Paradife.” Upon the reftoration
of king Charles II. he was made fecretary to Dr
Duppa, bifhop of Winchefter ; but died two years
after, aged 37.
COLE-fish, a fpecies of Gad us.
CoiE-£tf<.'</, the feed of the nafwj faliva, or long-
rooted, narrow-leaved rapa, called in Englilh navcvj,
and reckoned by Linnaeus among the braflicas, or cab¬
bage-kind. See Brassica.
This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many
parts of England, on account of the rape oil exprelfed
from its leeds. The practice of fowing it was firil
introduced by thofe Germans and Dutchmen who
drained the fens of Lincolnlhire ; and hence the notion
hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in a
marftiy foil, but this is now found to be a miftake. In
preparing the land which is to receive it, care mull
be taken to plow it in May, and again about mid-
fummer, making the ground as fine and even as pof-
fible. It is to be fown the very day of the laft plow¬
ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of Ja¬
nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food
for cattle, and will fprout again when cut; after which
it is excellent nourilhment for Iheep. After all, if it
is not too clofely fed, it will bear ieed againfl next
July. The fame caution, however, is requifite with
this food as with clover, till cattle are accuftomed to
it, otherwife it is apt to fwell them. When this plant
is cultivated folely with a view to the feed, it muft
be fown on deep llrong land without dung, and mull
be fuffered to Hand till one half of the feeds at leall
are turned brown ; which, according to the feafons,
svill be fometimes fooner fometimes later. In this Hate
it is to be cut in the fame manner and with the fame
care as wheat; and every handful as it is cut is to be
regularly ranged on Iheets, that it may dry leifurely
in the fun, which will commonly be in a fortnight ;
after which it is to be carefully threlhed out, and car¬
ried to the mill for exprefling the oil. The produce
of cole-feed is generally from five to eight quarters
on an acre ; and is commonly fold at 20 s. per quar¬
ter.
COLEOPTERA, or Beetle, the name of Lin-
nseus’s firil order of infects. See Zoology.
COLEWOR.T. See Brassica.
COLERA1N, a large town of Ireland, in the county
of Londonderry and province of Ulfter; feated on the
river Bann, in W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. 10.
COLES (Elilha,) author of the well known Latin
and Englilh dictionary, was born in Northamptonlhire
about the year 1640; and was entered of Magdalene
College Oxford, which he left without taking a de¬
gree ; and taught Latin to young people, and Englilh
to foreigners, in London, about the year 1663. He
afterwards became an ullier in Merchant-taylor’s Cokt
fchool; but for fome great fault, nowhere exprefsly
mentioned, he was forced to withdraw r0 Ireland, 0 ie‘
from whence he never returned. He Was, however,
a good critic in the Englilh and Latin tongues ; and
wrote feveral ufeful books of inltnuflion in his pro-
felfion.
COLET (John), dean of St Paul’s, the fon of Hen¬
ry Colet knight, was born in London in the year 1466.
His education began in St Anthony’s fchool in that
city ; from whence, in 1483, he was lent to Oxford,
and probably' to Magdalene college. After 7 years
ftudy of logic and philofophy, he took his degrees in
arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Paris,
and thence to Italy, probably with a defign to improve
himfelf in the Greek and Latin languages, which at
this time were imperfectly taught in our univerfities.
On his return to England in 149 7, he took orders; and
returned to Oxford, where he read leclures gratis, on
the epillles of St Paul. At this time he poflefled the
reclory of Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had
been inftituted at the age of 19. He was alfo pre¬
bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand
in London. In 1502, he became prebendary of Sarum ;
prebendary of St Paul’s, in 1505; and immediately af¬
ter, dean of that cathedral, having previoufly taken
the degree of doHor of divinity. He was no fooner
railed to this dignity, than he introduced the practice
of preaching and expounding the Scriptures; and foon
after eltablilhed a perpetual divinity ledture in St
Paul’s church, three days in every week ; an inllitution
which gradually made way for the reformation. About
the year 1508, dean Colet formed his plan for the
foundation of St Paul’s fchool, which he completed in
1512, and endowed with eftates to the amount of
122 1. and upwards. The celebrated grammarian,
William Lilye, was his firft mafter, and the company
of mercers were appointed truftees. The dean’s no¬
tions of religion were fo much more rational than
thofe of his cotemporary priefts, that they deemed
him little better than a heretic ; and on that account
he was fo frequently molefted, that he at laft deter¬
mined to fpend the reft of his days in peaceful retire¬
ment. With this intention he built a houfe near the
. palace at Richmond; but, being feized with the fweat-
ing ficknefs, he died in 1519, in the 53d year of his
age. He was buried on the fouth fide of the choir of
St Paul’s ; anda ftone was laid over his grave, with no
other inlcription than his name. Befides the prefer¬
ments above-mentioned, he was reHor of the guild
of jefus at St Paul’s, and chaplain to king Henry VIII.
Dean Colet, though a papift, was an enemy to the
grofs fuperftitions of the church of Rome. He dif-
approved auricular confeflion, the celibacy of the
priefts, and fuch other ridiculous tenets and ceremo¬
nies as have ever been condemned by men of found
underllanding in every age and country. He wrote
i.Rudimenta grammatices. 2. The conftruHion of
the eight parts of fpeech. 3. Daily devotions. 4. E-
piftolse ad Erafmum. 5. Several fermons; and other
works which ftill remain in manufeript.
COLIAS, in ichthyology. See Scomber.
COLIC, a fevere pain in the lower venter, fo cal¬
led becaufe the colon was formerly fuppofed to be the
part
C O L [ 2069 ] COL
Colic part affe&ed. See (the Index ftibjoined to) Medicine.
H Colic, in farriery. See there, § xiii.
Co1 al- COLIGNI (Gafpard de), admiral of France, was
born in 1516. He fignalized himfelf in his youth, in
the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made
colonel of infantry and admiral of France in 1552.
Henry II. employed him in the moft important affairs;
but after the death of that prince he embraces} the re¬
formed religion, and became the chief of the Prote-
Ilant party : he ftrongly oppofed the houfe of Guife,
and rendered this oppolition fo powerful, that it was
thought he would have overturned the French go¬
vernment. On the peace made after the battles of
Jarnac and Montcontour, Charles IX. deluded Coligni
into fecurity by his deceitful favours; and though he
recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended
the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was in¬
cluded in the dreadful maffacre of the Proteftants on
St Bartholomew’s-day 1572, and his body treated
with wanton brutality by a mifguided Popifli populace.
COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be
called an infpector, having an eye over what pafles
in every court or tribunal of the empire.
In order to render him impartial, he is kept indepen¬
dent, by having his poll for life. The power of the
colirs is fuch, that, they make even the princes of the
blood tremble.
COLIMA, a fea-port town of Mexico in North
America, and capital of a fertile valley, of the fame
name. It is feated at the mouth of a river in W. Long.
109. 6. N. Lat. 18. 30.
COLIOURE, a final!, but ancient and ftrong town
of France, in Roufillon, feated at the foot of the Py¬
renean mountains, with a fmall harbour. E. Long.
3. 10. N. Lat. 43. 24.
COLISEUM, in ancient archite&ure, an oval am¬
phitheatre at Rome, built by Vefpafian, wherein were
Itatues fet up, reprefenting all the provinces of the
empire : in the middle whereof flood that of Rome,
holding a golden apple in her hand. This ftruifture
was fo large, that it would hold near 100,000 fpec-
tators.
COLITES, in natural hiftory, a name given by fome
writers to a kind of pebble, found in the fliape of the
human penis and teftes, and that either feparately, or
both together.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a fort of chain put
generally round the neck of flaves that had run away,
after they were taken, with an infeription round it,
intimating their being deferters, and requiring their
being reftored to their proper owners, ire.
Collar, in a more modern fenfe, an ornament
confifting of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently fet
with ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the
order hanging at the bottom, wore by the knights of
feveral military orders over their fhoulders, on the
mantle, and its figure drawn round their armories. ,
Thus, the collar of the order of the garter confifls
of S S. with rofes enamelled red, within a garter en¬
amelled blue, and the George at the bottom.
Lord Mayor's Collar is moreufually called chain.
See Chain.
Knights of the Collar, a military order in the re¬
public of Venice, called alfo the order of St Mark, or
the medal. It is the doge and the fenate that confer
this order ; the knights bear no particular habit, only
the collar, which the doge puts around they- neck,
with a medal, wherein is reprefented the winged lion
of the republic.
Collar of a Dr aught-horfe, a part of harnefs made
of leather and canvas, and fluffed with flraw or wool,
to be put about the horfe’s neck.
COLLAR AGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars of
wine-drawing horfes.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, ire.
fituated by the fide of another.
Collateral, in genealogy, thofe relations which
proceed from the fame flock, but not in the fame line
of afeendents or defeendents, but being, as it were, afide
of each other. Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces
and coufins, are collaterals, or in the fame collateral
line : thofe in a higher degree, and nearer the com¬
mon root, reprefent a kind of paternity with regard
to thofe more remote. See Consanguinity.
Collateral Succeffion. When a defunft, for
want of heirs defeended of himfelf, is fucceeded in his
eflate by a brother or filter, or their defeendents, the
eflate is faid to have gone to collateral heirs.
COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or be-
flo^ing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bilhop,
who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs
from inftitution in this, that inflitution is performed
by the bilhop, upon the prefentation of another; and
collation is his own aft of prefentation : and it dif-
fereth from a common prefentation, as it is the giving
of the church to the perfon, and prefentation is the
giving or offering of the perfon to the church. But
collation fupplies the place of prefentation and infti¬
tution ; and amounts to the fame as inftitution where
the bilhop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the
right of prefentation, to all churches, was in the bi¬
lhop ; and.now if the patron neglects to prefent to a
church, then this right returns to the bilhop by colla¬
tion : if the bilhop negleCls to collate within fix months
after the elapfe of the patron, then the archbilhop
hath a right to do it; and if the archbilhop negleifts,
then it devolves to the king ; the one as fuperior, to
fupply the defeats of hilltops, the other as fupreme, to
fupply all defedls of government.
Collation, in common law, the comparifon or
prefentation of a copy to its original, to fee whether
or not it be conformable ; or the report or a<ft of the
officer who made the comparifon. A collated a<5t is
equivalent to its original, provided all the parties con¬
cerned were prefent at the collation.
Collation, in Scots law, that right which an heir
has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable
eftates of the deceafed into one mafs, and lharing it
equally with the others in the fame degree of kindred,
when he thinks fuch lhare will be more than the value
of the heritage to which he had an exclufive title.
Collation is alfo vulgarly ufed for a repafl be¬
tween dinner and fupper.
COLLEAGUE, a partner or affociafe in the fame
office or magiftrature. See Adjunct.
COLLECT, collection, a voluntary gathering
of money, for fome pious or charitable purpofe. See
Alms, Charity, tife. Some fay, the name colled,
or-
Coflar
II
Collefl.
COL 1 2070 ] COL
Colleft or colleBion, was ufed, by reafon thofe gatherings
II were anciently made on the days of collects, and in
Collese- coiuas, i. e. in aifemblies of Chriftians; but, more
probably, quia colligcbatur pecunia.
Collect is fometimes alfo ufed for a tax, or im-
pofition, raifed by a prince for any pious defign.
Thus, hiliories fay, that in 1x66, the king of England,
coming into Normandy, appointed a collett for the
relief of the holy land, at the de’lire and after the
example of the king of France. See Croisade.
Collect, in the liturgy of the church of England,
and the mafs of the Romanilts, denotes a prayer ac¬
commodated to any particular day, occafion, or the
like. See Liturgy, and Mass.
In the general, all the prayers in each office are
called colletts; either becaufe the prieit Ipeaks in the
name of the whole alTembly, whofe fentiments and de¬
fires he fums up by the word oremus, “ let us pray,”
as is obferved by pope Innocent III. or, becaufe thofe
prayers are offered when the people are afl’embled
together, which is the opinion of Pamelius on Tertul-
lian.
The congregation it felf is in fome ancient authors cal¬
led collett. The popes Gelafius and Gregory are faid to
have been the firft who eftabliffied colletts. Defpence,
a doctor of the faculty of Paris, has an exprefs treatife
on collstts, their origin, antiquity, authors, ire.
COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term ap¬
plied to a noun expreffing a multitude, though itfelf
be only fingular ; as an army, company, troop, &c.
called collettive nouns.
COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a perfon who
gets or brings together things formerly difperfed and
feparated. Hence,
Collector, in matters of civil polity, is a perfon
appointed by the commiffioners of any duty, the inha¬
bitants of a parilh, tsV. to raife or gather any kind of
tax.
Collector, among botanifts, one who gets to¬
gether as many plants as he can, without Undying
botany in a fcientifical manner.
COLLEGATORY, in the civil law, a perfon who
has a legacy left him in common with one or more
other perfons.
COLLEGE, an alfemblage of feveral bodies or fo-
cieties, or of feveral perfons into one fociety.
College, among the Romans, ferved indifferently
for thofe employed in the offices of religion, of go¬
vernment, the liberal and even mechanical arts and
trades; fo that, with them, the word figniHed what
we call a corporation or company.
Each of thefe colleges had diftinefi meeting-places or
halls; and likewife, in imitation of the ftate, a trea-
fury and common cheft, a regifter, and one to repre-
fent them upon public occafions, and a£Is of govern¬
ment. Thefe colleges had the privilege of manumit¬
ting Haves, of being legates, and making by-laws for
their own body, provided they did not claflt with
thofe of the government.
There are various colleges on foot among the mo¬
derns, founded on the model of thofe of the ancients.
Such are the three colleges of the empire, viz.
College of Elettors}or their Deputies, alfembled in
the diet of Ratifbon.
College of Princes; the body of princes, or their College.^!
deputies, at the diet of Ratilbon. 1
College of Cities, is, in like manner, the body of
deputies which the imperial cities lend to the diet.
College of Cardinals, or the Sacred College ; a
body compofed of the three orders of cardinals. See
Cardinals.
College is alfo ufed for a public place endowed
with certain revenues, where the feveral parts of
learning are taught.
An alfemblage of feveral of thefe colleges conftitute
an univerfity. The erection of colleges is part of the
royal prerogative, and not to be done without the
king’s licenfe.
The eftablilhment of colleges or univerfities, is a
remarkable period in literary hiftory. The fchools
in cathedrals and monaftries confined themfelves
chiefly to the teaching of grammar. There were on¬
ly one or two mafters employed in that office. But,
in colleges, profeffors are appointed to teach all the
different parts of fcience. The firft obfeure mention
of academical degrees in the univerfity of Paris, (from
which the other univerfities in Europe have bor¬
rowed moft of their cuftoms and inftitutions), occurs
A. D. 1215.
College of Civilians, commonly called Dottors-
commons, founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the arches,
for the profeflors of the civil law refiding in the city
of London. The judges of the arches, admiralty, and
prerogative court, with feveral other eminent civilians,
commonly refide here.
To this college belong 34 proftors, who make
themfelves parties for their clients, manage their
caufes, give licenfes for marriages, ire.
In the common-hall of Doctors-commons are held
feveral courts, under the jurifdiftion of the civil law ;
particularly the high court of admiralty, the court of
delegates, the arches court of Canterbury, and the
prerogative court of Canterbury, whofe terms for fit¬
ting are much like thofe at Weftminfter, every one
of them holding feveral court-days; moft of them
fixed and known by preceding holidays, and the reft
appointed at the judge’s pleafure.
College of Phyjicians; a corporation of phyficians
in London, whofe number, by charter, is not to ex¬
ceed So. The chief of them are called fellows; and
the next candidates, who fill up the places of fellows
as they become vacant by death, or otherwife. Next
to thefe are the honorary fellows ; and laftly, the li¬
centiates ; that is, fuch as being found capable, upon t i
examination, are allowed to pra&ife phyfic.
This college has feveral great privileges granted by
charter and a<5ts of parliament. No man can pradtife
phyfic in, or within feven miles of, London, without
licenfe of the college, under the penalty of 5 /. Alfo,
perfons pradtifing phyfic in other parts of England
are to have letters teftimonial from the prefident and
three eledts, unlefs they be graduate phyficians of Ox¬
ford or Cambridge. Every member of the college is
autborifed to pradlife furgery in London or elfewhere;
and that they may be able at all times to attend
their patients, they are freed from all parifli-offices.
The college is governed by a prefident, four cen-
fors, and 12 eledtors. The cenfors have, by charter,
power
COL [ 2071 ] COL
oilege. power to furvey, govern, and arreft ail phyficians, or
  others, pra&ifing phyfic in or within feven miles of
London ; to fine, amerce, and imprifion them at dil-
cretion; to fearch apothecaries (hops, ire. in and about
London ; to fee if their drug?, <trc. be wholefome,
and the compolition according to the form pretcribed
by the college in their difpenfaries; and to burn, or
otherwife deitroy, thofe that are defedlive or decay¬
ed, and not fit for ufe.
In 1696, 42 members of the college made a fub-
feription, to let on foot a difpenfary for the relief of
the lick poor, who are advil'ed gratis every day but
Sunday, and have medicines fold-at the intrinfic
value ; fince this, they have eredled two other dif¬
penfaries.
Edinburgh College of Phyficians was eredled on
the 29th November 1681. The defign of this infiitu-
tion was, to prevent the abufes daily committed by
foreign and illiterate impoftors, quacks, tec. For this
reafon, his majefty, at the time above-mentioned,
granted letters patent to erecl into a body corporate
and politic, certain phyficians in Edinburgh and their
fuccelfors, by the title of “ the Prefident and Royal
College of Phyficians at Edinburgh,” with power to
chufe annually a council of feven, one whereof to be
prefident: thefe are to eledi a treafurer, clerk, and
other officers r to have a common feal; to fue, and he
fued ; to make laws for promoting the art of phyfic,
and regulating the pradlice thereof, within the city of
Edinburgh, town of Leith, and dillridls of the Canon-
gate, Weft-port, Pleafance, and Potter-row; through
all which the jurifdidlion of the college extends.
Throughout this jurifdidlion,- no perfon is allowed to
pradlife phyfic, without a warrant from the college,
under the penalty of 5 A fterling the firft month, to be
doubled monthly afterwards while the offence is con¬
tinued; one half of the money arifing from-fuch fines
to go to the poor, the other to ufe of the college.
They are alfo empowered to puniffi all licentiates in
phyfic within the above-mentioned bounds, for faults
committed againft the inftitutions of the college ; and
to fine them of fums not exceeding 40 j. On fuch oc-
eafions, however, they muft have one of the bailies
of the city to fit in judgment along with them, other-
wife their fentence will not be valid. They are alfo
impowered to fearch and infpedl all medicines within
their jurifdidlion, and throw out into the ftreet all
fuch as are bad or unwholefome. That they may the
better attend their patients, they are exempted from
watching, warding, and ferving on juries. They are,
however, rtftrained from eredting fchools for teach¬
ing the art of phyfic, or conferring degrees on any
perfon qualified for the office of a phyfician ; but 1 are
obliged to licenfe all fuch as have taken their degrees
in any other univerfity, and to admit as honorary
members all the profelfors of phyfic in the reft of the
nniverfities of Scotland. Thefe privileges and immu¬
nities are not, however, to interfere with the rights
and privileges of the apothecary-furgeons, in their
pradlice of curing wounds, contufions, fradlures, and
other external operations.
Edinburgh College of Surgeons. This is but a
very late inftitution, by which the furgeons of Edin¬
burgh are incorporated into a Royal College,, and autho-
rifed to carry into execution a fcheme for making pro-
vifion for their widows and children, &c.
College of Jufice, the fupreme civil court of£
Scotland ; otherwile called Court of fefion, or, of coun¬
cil andfeffiou. See Law, Part III. N° clvii. 4.
Sion College, or the college of the London
clergy, was formerly a religious houfe, next to a fpit-
tal or hofpital; and now it is a compofition of both,
viz. a college for the clergy of London, who were in¬
corporated in 1631, at the requeft of Dr White, un¬
der the name of the Prefident and Fellows of Sion-
college ; and an hofpital of 10 poor men ; the firft:
within the gates of the houfe, and the latter without.
This college confifts of a prefident, two deans, and
four affiftants, who are annually chofen from among
the redlors and vicars in London, fubjedt to the vifita-
tion of the biffiop. They have one of the fineft li¬
braries in England, built and flocked by Mr Simpfon,
chiefly for the clergy of the city, without excluding
other ftudents on certain terms; they have alfo a hall
with chambers for the ftudents, generally, filled with
the minillers of the neighbouring parifhes.
GreJham-Q.os.lege, or College of Philofophy, a
college founded by Sir Thomas Greffiam, who built the
Royal-exchange; a moiety of the revenue whereof he
gave in truft to the mayor and commonalty of Lon¬
don and their fucceffors for ever, and the other
moiety to the company of mercers; the firft to find
four able perfons to read in the college, divinity, aftro-
nomy, mufic, and geometry; and the laft, three or
more able men to read rhetoric, civil-law, and phyfic
a ledlure upon each fubjedl is to be read in term-time,
every day, except Sundays, in Latin, in the forenoon,
and the fame in Engliih in the afternoon ; only the
mufic-ledlure is to be read alone in Engliih. The lec¬
turers have each 501. per annum, and a lodging in the
college.
In this college formerly met the royal fociety ; that
noble academy, celebrated throughout the world for
their improvements-in natural knowledge. See So¬
ciety.
College of Heralds, commonly called the Her aids
Office; a corporation founded by charter of king
Richard III. who granted them feveral privileges, as
to be free from fubfidies, tolls, offices, tec. They had
a fecond charter from king Henry VI.; and a houfe
built near Dodlors-commons, by the earl of Derby, in
the reign of king Henry VII. was given them by the
duke of Norfolk, in the reign of queen Mary, which
houfe is now rebuilt.
This college is fubordinate to the eari-marlh’al of
England. They are affiftants to him in his Court of
chivalry, ufually held in the common-hall of the col¬
lege, where they fit in their rich coats of his majefty’s
arms. See Herald.
COLLEGIATE, or Collegial, churches are thofe
which have no bilhop’s fee, yet have the ancient re¬
tinue of the bifhop, the canons and prebends. Such
are Weftminfter, Rippon, Windfor, tec. governed by
deans and chapters.
Of thefe collegiate churches there are:two kinds;,
fome of royal, and others of ecdefiaftical foundation;
each of them, in matters of divine fervice, regulated
in the fame manner as the cathedrals. There are
College
1
ollegiate.
even;
COL L 2072 ] COL
Collet even Tome collegiate churches that have the epifcopal
jl rights. Some of thefe churches were anciently abbeys,
^o ier' which in time were fecularized. The church of St
Peter’s, Weftminfter, was anciently.a cathedral; but
the revenues of the monallery being by aft of parlia¬
ment 1 Elizabeth vefted in the dean and chapter,
it commenced a collegiate church. In feveral caules
the ftyling it cathedral, inftead of collegiate, church of
Wellminlter, has occaftoned error in the pleadings.
COLLET, among jewelers, denotes the horizontal
face or plane at the bottom of brilliants. See Bril¬
liant.
Collet, in glafs-making, is that part of glafs vef-
fels which (ticks to the iron inftrument wherewith the
metal was taken Out of the melting-pot: thefe are
afterwards ufed for making green glafs.
COLLETICS, in pharmacy, denote much the fame
with AgGlutinants or Vulneraries.
COLLIER (Jeremy), a learned Englifh nonjuring
divine, born in 1650, and educated in Caius college
Cambridge. He had iirft the fmall reciory of Amp-
ton, near St Edmuncf’s Bury in Suffolk ; which in (ix
years he refigned, to come to London, in 1685,
where he was made lefturer of Gray’s-lnn: but the
change of government that followed, foon rendered
the public exercife of his funftion imprafticable. He
was committed to Newgate . for writing againll the
revolution; and again, for carrying on a correfpon-
dence which that change of events made treafonable;
but was releafed both times, without trial, by the in¬
tervention of friends. It is obfervable that he carried
his fcruples fo far, as to prefer confinement to the ta¬
cit acknowledgment of the jurifdiftion of the court by
accepting his liberty upon bail. Suitable to thefe
principles, he next afted A very extraordinary part
with two other clergymen of his own way of think¬
ing, at the execution of Sir John Friend and Sir Wil¬
liam Perkins for the affaffination plot; by giving them
folemn abfolution, and by impolition of hands: ab-
Iconding for which, he continued under an outlawry
to the day of his death in 1 726. Thefe proceedings
having put a flop to his aftivity, he employed his re¬
tired hours rather more ufefully in literary works.
In 1698, he attempted to reform our theatrical enter¬
tainments, by publifhing his Short view oj' the immo¬
rality atid profanetiefs of the Englijh Jlage; which en¬
gaged him in a controverfy with the wits of the time 1
but as Mr Collier defended his cenfures not only with
wit, but wdth learning and reafon, it js allowed that
the decorum obferved, for the mod part, by fucceed-
ing dramatic writers, has been owing to his animad-
verfions. He next undertook a tranflation of Mor-
reri’s great Hiftorical and Geographical Diftionary;
a work of extraordinary labour, and which appeared
in 4 vols. folio. After this he publifiied “ An Eccle-
fiaftical Hiftory of Great Britain, chiefly of England,”
in 2 vols folio; which is allowed to be written with
great judgement, and even with impartiality. He
was befides engaged in feveral controverfles, which
his conduft and writing gave rife to, not material to
mention. In queen Anne’s reign, Mr Collier was
tempted, by offers of confiderable preferment, to a
fubmiflion; but, as he was a nonjuror upon principle,
he could pot be brought to liften to any terms.
Collier, or Coallier. See Coallier. Collier
COLLIERY, Coalery, or Coalliery. See
COALERY. Collln5-
COLLINS (Anthony), a polemical writer, born at
Helten near Hounflow in the county of. Middlefex
in 1676, was the fon of Henry Collins, a gentleman
of about L. 1500 a-year. He was firft bred at Eaton
college, and then went to King’s-coliege Cambridge,
where he had for his tutor Mr Francis Hare, after¬
wards biftiop of Chichefter. He was afterwards a
(ludent of the Temple ; but not relifliing the law,
foon abandoned that (ludy. He was an ingenious
man, and author of feveral curious books. His firlt
remarkable piece was publifhed in 1707, “ An Elfay
concerning the ufe of reafon in propofitions, the evi¬
dence whereof depends on human teflimony.” In
1702, he entered into the controverfy between Mr
Clark and Mr Dodwell, concerning the immortality
of the foul. In 1713, he publilhed his difcourle on
free-thinking ; which made a prodigious noife. In
1715, he retired into the county of Eflex, and afted
as a juftice of peace and deputy lieutenant for the
fame county, as he had done before for that of Mid¬
dlefex and liberty of Wedminlter. The fame year,
he publifhed a “ Philofophical Eflay concerning hu¬
man liberty.” In 1718, he was chofen trealiirer of
the county of ElTex; and, this office he difeharged
with great honour. In 1724, he publilhed his “ Hif¬
torical and critical Eflay on the 39 articles.” Soon
after, he publiflied his “ Difcourfe of the grounds and
reafons of the Chriltian religion;” to which is prefix¬
ed, “ An Apology for free debate and liberty of
writing;” which piece was immediately attacked by
a great number of writings. In i 726, appeared his
“ Scheme of literal prophecy confidered, in a view of
the controverfy occafioned by a late book entitled, A
difcourfe of the grounds, &c.” In this difcourfe, he
mentions a MS. diflertation of his to (hew the Sibyl¬
line oracles to be a forgery made in the times of the
primitive Chriftians, who, for that reafon, were cal¬
led Sibyllijls by the Pagans; but it never appeared in
print. His fcheme of literal prophecy was replied to
by feveral writers ; and particularly by Dr John Ro¬
gers in his “ Neceflity of divine revelation aflert-
ed.” In anfwer to which, our author wrote “ A
letter to the Reverend Dr Rogers, on occafion, £sfc.”
His health began to decline fome years before his
death, and he was very much afflifted with the (lone,
which at laft put an end to his life at his houfe in Har¬
ley Square in 1729. He was interred in Oxford cha¬
pel, where a monument was erefted to him, with
an epitaph in Latin. His curious library was open to
all men of letters, to whom he readily communicated
all the afliftance in his power; he even furnilhed his
antagonifts with books to confute himfelf, and direc¬
ted them how to give their arguments all the force of
which they were capable. He was remarkably averfe
to all indecency and obfeenity of difcourfe ; and was,
independent of his fcepticifm, a (incerely good man.
Collins (John), an eminent accountant and ma¬
thematician, born in 1624, and bred a bookfeller at
Oxford. Befides feveral treatifes on praftical fubjefts,
he communicated fome curious papers to the royal fo-
ciety, of which he was a member, which are to be
found
COL [ 2073 ] COL
7 'Collins found in the early numbers of their Philofophicai Tran-
| II factions: and was the chief promoter of many other
a 0 n on‘ Icientifical publications in his time. He died in 1683 ;
and about 2f years after, all his papers coming into
the hands of the learned William Jones, Elq; F. R. S.
it appeared that Mr Collins held a conflant correfpond-
ence for many years with all the eminent mathema¬
ticians ; and that many of the late difcoveries in phy-
iical knowledge, if^ not actually made by him, were
yet brought forth by his endeavours.
Collins (William), an admirable poet, was born
at Chichelter, about the year 1724. He received his
claffical education at Winchefter ; after which he Itu-
died at New college, in Oxford, was admitted a com¬
moner of King’s college in the fame univerfity, and
was at length elected a demy of Magdalene college.
While at Oxford, he applied himfelf to the Itudy of
poetry, and publilhed his Oriental Eclogues ; after
which, he came to London. He was naturally pof-
felfed of an ear for all the varieties of harmony and
modulation; his heart was fufceptible of the fineft
feelings of tendernefs and humanity, and was particu¬
larly carried away by that high enthufiafm which gives
to imagination its ftrongeft colouring; and he was at
once capable of foothing the ear with the melody of
his numbers, of influencing-the paffions by the force
of the pathos, and of gratifying the fancy by the luxu¬
ry of dejcription. With thele powers, he attempted
lyric poetry; and in x 746, publilhed his Odes, de-
Icriptive and allegorical: but the fale of this work be¬
ing not at all anfwerable to its merit, he burnt the
remaining copies in indignation. Being a man of a
liberal fpirit and a fmall fortune, his pecuniary re-
fources were unhappily foon exhaufted; and his life
became a miferable exampfe of neceffity, indolence,
and diflipation. He projected books which he was
well able to execute; and became in idea an hiftorian,
a critic, and a dramatic poet; but wanted the means
and encouragement to carry thefe ideas into execu¬
tion. Day iucceeded day, for the fupport of which
lie had made no provifion ; and he was obliged to fub-
lift, either by the repeated contributions of a friend,
or the generofity of a cafual acquaintance. His fpi-
rits became opprefled, and he funk into a fullen de-
fpondence. While in this gloomy Hate of mind, his
uncle colonel Martin died, and left him a confiderable
fortune. But this came too late for enjoyment; he
had been fo long harraffed by anxiety and djftrefs,
that he fell into a nervous diforder, which at length
reduced the fined underftanding to the moft deplor¬
able childilhnefs. In the firft Itages of this diforder,
lie endeavoured to relieve himfelf by travelling, and
I - paired into France; but the growing malady obliged
him to return ; and having continued, with Ihort in¬
tervals, in this pitiable date till the year 1756, he
died in the arms of his fider. The ingenious Mr
'Longhorne has publilhed his poetical works, with me¬
moirs of the author, in one volume duodecimo.
COLLINSON (Peter), fellow of the royal fociety,
defcended from an ancient family in the north, was
born in 1693: he was bred a quaker, and being,
with a brother James, educated to the bufinefs of
men-mercers, they entered into that trade in part-
nerfhip. Peter, while a youth, difcovered a drong
VOL. III.
attachment to natural hiltory ; and his diligent curio- Collinfonk
fity introduced him to an acquaintance with Derham, 11
Woodward, Sir Hans Sloane, and other eminent na- Colluflon'
turalilh. Belide this propenfny, his knowledge in
the antiquities of his own country was fo confiderable,
that he was a member of the lociety of antiquarians
from its fird inditution; and was eledled a member
of the royal fociety in 1 728 : he was a mod diligent
aflbciate in both, furnilhing, and procuring, many
valuable articles of intelligence, relating to the parti¬
cular objects of their inquiries, as well at home as
abroad. Among his many correfpondents was the
celebrated Linnaeus, with whom, during his relidence
in England, he contracted an intimate Iriendfhip. As
his mercantile connexions were chiefly in North A-
merica, fo he intereded himfelf in whatever might
promote the advantage of that country. In the year
1 730, when a fubfcription library was negociating at
Philadelphia, Mr Collinfon not only made feveral
valuable prefents himfelf, but procured others from
his friends: and tranfmitted over to. the directors of
this library, among whom was Dr Franklin, the ear-
lied account of every new improvement in agricul¬
ture and the arts. He was the fird who fent over ac¬
counts, in 1745, of the new experiments in electrici¬
ty, which had been made in Germany, together with
a glafs tube ; which were the fird notices Dr Frank¬
lin received on a fubjeCl he afterward fo much excel¬
led in himfelf. Without any pretenfions to what is
generally called learning, Mr Collinfon knew more,
both of nature and art, than nine out often who pride
themfelves in the podlflion of it. He was no Ids
didinguilhed by his virtues in private life, than by his
knowledge; and died of a fupreffion of urine in 1768.
COLL1NSONIA, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia order belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
There is but one Ipecies, a native of North America,
but poffedcd of no remarkable properties.
COLLIQUAMENTUM, in natural hidory, an ex¬
treme tranlparent fluid in an egg, oblervable after
two or three days incubation, containing the fird ru¬
diments of the chick. It is included in one of its own
proper membranes ; didinCt from the albumen. Har¬
vey calls it the oculus.
COLLIQUATION, in chemidry, is applied to ani¬
mal, vegetable, and mineral fubdances, tending to¬
wards fufion. See Fusion.
Col liquation, in phylic, a term applied to the
blood, when it lofes its cralis or balfamic texture ;
and to the folid parts, when they wade away, by
means of the animal fluids flowing off through the
feveral glands, and particularly thole of the (kin,
fader than they ought: which occafions fluxes of ma¬
ny kinds, but modly profufe, greafy, and clammy
fweats.
COLLIQUATIVE fever, in phyfic, a fever at¬
tended with a diarrhoea, or with profufe fweats.
COLLISION, the linking of one hard body againd
another; or the friClion or perculfion of bodies mo¬
ving violently with different direClions, and dalhing
againd each other.
COLLUSION, in law, a fecret underdanding be¬
tween two parties, who plead or proceed fraudulent-
ly againd each, to the prejudice of a third perfon.
12 G COLLUM
COL [ 2074 j COL
Cotturft C0LLUM, the fame with Neck.
II COLLYR1UM, in pharmacy, a topical remedy for
Cologne. a difoj-det- 0f the eyes; defigned to cool and repel
hot fliarp humours.
They are generally of two kinds; the one liquid,
and the other dry. Liquid collyria are compofed of
ophthalmic powders in waters; a.s rofe-water, plan¬
tain-water, or that of fennel, eye-bright, <4rc. where¬
in tutty, white vitriol, or fome other proper powder,
is diflblved.
The dry collyrium is troches of rhafis, fugar-candy,
tutty prepared, blown into the eye.
COLMAR, a confiderable town of France, in Up¬
per Alface, of which it is the capital. It has great
privileges, and the Proteftants have liberty of con-
fcience. It is feated near the river 111, in E. Long.
7. 16. N. Lat. 48. 5.
COLMARS, a town of France in Provence, and
the diOcefe of Sens. It is feated near the Alps, in
E. Long. 6. 2J. N. Lat. 44. 17.
COLMOGOROD, a town of the empire of Ruffia,
with an archbifliop’s fee, feated in an bland formed
by the river Divina, in E. Long. 23. 30. N. Lat.
36. 32.
COLNBROOK, a town of Buckingham-lhire in
England, feated on the river Coin, which feparates
this county from Middlefex. It is a great thorough¬
fare on the weftern road, and has feveral good inns.
W. Long. o. 19. N. Lat. 51. 30.
COLNE, a town of Lancashire in England, feated
on a fmall hill near die confines of the county. W.
Long. 2. 2. N. Lat. 53. 45.
COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Morea in
Tufky in Europe. E. Long. 23.2. N. Lat. 36. 32.
COLOCYNTHIS, in botany. SeeCucuMiS.
COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, feated on the
Danube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an
afehbilhop’s fee. It was taken by the Turks in 16816,
but afterwards retaken by the Irnperialifts. E. Long.
19. 42. N. Long. 46. 33.
COLOGNA, a town of Italy in Padua, and in the
territory of Venice. E. Long. 1 r. 43. N. Lat. 45. 39.
COLOGNE (the archbifhoprick or diocefe of ) is
one of the dates that compofe the electoral circle of
the Rhine, in Germany. It is bouhded on the north
by the duchy of‘Cleves and Gueldres, on the weft by
that of Juliers, on the fouth by the archbifhoprick of
Cleves, and on the eaft by the duchy of Berg, from
which it is almoft wholly fepafated by the Rhine.
This country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which
the inhabitants difpofe of by embarking it on the
Rhine, it extending about feventy miles along that
river. It is divided into the Higher and Lower Dio¬
cefe ; the Higher Diocefe contains that part which lies
above Cologne, wherein is Bonne, the capital town
of this electorate, and where the elector refides; be-
fides which there are Leithnich, Andernach, Bruyl,
Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocefe is on the
other fide of Cologne, and contains the towns of
Zonz, Neuys, Heizarwart, Kempen, Rhynberg, and
Alpen. The city of Cologne and county of Meurs,
though within the diocefe of Cologne, do not belong
to it; for Cologne is a free city, and Meurs belongs
to the houfe of Naflau-Orange; but, by way of re-
compence, the elector has confiderable pofTeflions in Cologne.
Weftphalia, which they call the Domain. It contains  
the duchy of Weftphalia and the county of Rechlinchu-
fen. This prelate is one of the electors of the em¬
pire, and holds alternately with that of Treves the
1'econd or third rank in the electoral college. He is
arch-chancellor of the empire in Italy; which dignity
was very important when the emperors were matters
of Italy, but now it is next to nothing. When the
emperors were crowned at Aix la Chapelle, the arch-
bilhop of Cologne performed the ceremony, which
caufed him to pretend to the fame right elfewbere;
but he was oppofed by the archbifhop of Mentz. This
occafioned an order, that they fliould each of them
have that honour in their own diocefe, but if it was
done eifewhere, they fhould perform it alternately.
The archbifhop of Cologne is elected by the chapter
in that city, which is the moft illuftrious in all Ger¬
many. They are all princes or counts, except eight
doctors, who have no occafion to prove their nobility.
Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of
Germany, in the diocefe of that name, with an arch-
bifhop’s fee, and a famous univerfity, feated oh the •
river Rhine, in E. Long. 6. 38. N. Lat. 50. 50. In
the times of the Romans, this city was called Colonia
Agrippina, and Ubiorum, becaufe it was built by A-
grippina the wife of Claudius I. and mother of Nero;
and becaufe the Ubii inhabited this country on the
Lower Rhine. In 755, it was an archbifhopric, and
in 1260 entered into the Hanfeatic league. The uni¬
verfity was eftablifhed in 1388 by Pope Urban VI.
The city is fortified with ftrong walls, flanked with
83 large towers, and furrounded with three ditches;
but thefe fortifications being executed after tire an¬
cient manner could make but a poor defence at pre-
fent. It lies in the fhape of a half-moon, and is laid
to have 20 gates, 19 parishes, 37 monafteries, ami
365 churches and chapels; but the ftreets in general
are dirty and badly paved, the windows of the houf es
compofed of fmall bits of round glafs, and the inhabi¬
tants are but few for fo large a place. It is inhabited
moftly by Papifts; but there are alfo many Prote¬
ftants, w ho repair to the neighbouring town of Mu!-
heim, in the duchy of Berg, for public worfbip. Its
trade, which is cunfiderable, especially in Riieniih
wine, is chiefly in the hands of Proteftants, and car¬
ried on by the Rhine. The {hips with which they
trade to the Netherlands are of a particular form,
and confiderabie burthen. The clergy here are very
numerous, and have large revenues. That of the
archbifhoji is L. 130,000. Baron Polnitz fays, that
though Cologne is one of the greateft cities, it is one
of the moft melancholy in all Europe; there being
nothing to be feen but priefts, friars and Undents, ma¬
ny of whom beg alms with a fong; and nothing to be
heard but the ringing of bells: that there are very
few families of quality; that the vulgar are very
clownifh ; and that the noblemen of the chapter ftay
no longer in town than their duty obliges them. Mr
Wright, in his travels, fays, that the women go veil¬
ed ; and that the heft gin is that diftilled from the ju¬
niper berries which grow in this neighbourhood. This
city is perhaps the moft remarkable of any in the
world for the great numbers of precious relics it con¬
tains,
COL [ 2075 ] COL
Cologne, tains, of which the Popifli clergy, no doubt, make
 their advantage. In the church of St Urfula, they
pretend to Ihew her tomb, and the bones of the 11,000
pretended virgin martyrs, though that ftory is entire¬
ly owing to a miftaken infcription. The heads of
fome of thefe imaginary martyrs are kept in cafes of
fiiver, others are covered with Huffs of gold, and fome
have caps of cloth of gold and velvet. Brevat fays,
he law between 4 and 5000 fculls, decked with gar¬
lands, and coronets, ranged on fiielves. The ca-
noneffes of St Urfula, who muff be all countelfes,
have a handfome income. In their church they pre¬
tend to fhew three of the thorns of our Saviour’s
crown, and one of the veffels which contained the
water that he converted into wine at the marriage of
Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of
Moorifh Cavaliers, faid to have been in the army of
Conftantine before it was converted, and to have
been beheaded for refufxng to facrifice to idols. Eve¬
ry one of the heads has a cap of fcarlet, adorned with
pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the
three wife men who came from the eaft to vifit our
Saviour, are faid to be interred. They lie in a large-
purple flirine fpangled with gold, fet upon a pedtf-
tal of brafs, in the midft of a fquare maufoleum, faced
within and without with marble andjafper. ft is
opened every morning at nine o’clock, if two of the
canons of the cathedral are prefent, when thefe kings
or wife men are feen lying at full length, with their
heads bedecked with a crown of gold garnilhed with
precious Hones. Their names, which are Gafpar, Mel-
chier, and Balthafar, are in purple characters on a
little grate, which is adorned with an infinite number
of large rich pearls and precious Hones, particularly
an oriental topaz as big as a pigeon’s egg, and valued
at above 30,000 crowns. Over againlt them are fix
large branches of fiiver, with wax candles, which
burn night and day. The bones of thefe men, we
are told, were brought to Confiantinople by Helena
mother to Confiantine; from thence to Milan by Eu-
Horpius hifliop of that fee, ands afterwards hither by
archbifhop Rainold. In the Jefuits college are the
portraits of the firfi 13 generals of that order, with
Ignatius Loyola at their head; and in the church, winch
is the finefi in Cologne, are many rich Hatues, with an
amazing quantity of fine fiiver plate ; and the utenfils
for mal's are all of gold enriched with precious Hones.
In the Cordeliers church, is the tomb of the famous
Dons Scotus, furnamed Doftor Subtilis, with this epi¬
taph, “ Scotia me genuit, Anglia me fufeepit, Gallia
me docuit, Colognia me tenet.” Cologne is a free im¬
perial, and as fuch has a feat and voice at the diets of
the empire, and circle of the Lower Rhine. In thofe
of the empire, it has the firfl place on the Rhenifh
bench. Towards the defence of the empire, its, affefT-
ment is 825 fiorins; and towards the maintenance of
the chamber-court, 405 rix-dollars, 72^ kruitzers
each term. Its militia confiHs of four companies of
foot, who keep guard at the gates. It is governed
by its own fenate, in refpedt to civil matters and
caufes ; hut the criminal juriidiclion belongs to the
eledlor and his chapter; and fo jealous are the inha¬
bitants of him, that they will not permit him to (by
in the city above three days at a time, nor to come
into it with a large retinue. For this reafon the elec- Cologne
tor refides commonly at Bonn. Colon
CoLOGNE-£«r/A, a kind of very light bafiard 0 °n'
ochre, of a deep brown colour.
COLOMBO, a handfome, pleafant, and flrong
town of Alia, leated on the eaHern fide of the ifland
of Ceylon in the EaH Indies. It was built by the Por-
tuguefe in 1638 ; and in 1658, they were driven from
it by the natives, afliHed by the Dutch, who are now
-in poffelfion of it. It is about three quarters of a mile
long, and as much in breadth. The natives live in
the old town, without the walls of the new: the
Hreets of this laH are wide and fpacious; and the build¬
ings are in the modern tafie, particularly the gover¬
nor’s houfe which is a haudlbme HrucSlure. E. Long.
80. 25. N. Lat. 7. o.
COLOMEY, or Cglomia, a town of Poland in
Red Ruffia, feated on the river Pruth, in E. Long.
25. 9. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLOMNA (Fabio), a very learned bofanifi, born
at Naples about the year 1567. He became flcilled
in the languages, in mufic, deligning, painting, and
the mathematics; and died about the middle of the
i 7fh century. He wrote, 1. QiTcPxaa*®', feu Pian-
tarum aliquot (ac pifeium) hifloria. 2. Minus cogni-
tarum rariqrumque Hirpium ixppasnc; itemque de
aquatilibus, aliifque nonnullis animalibus, libellus; and
other works.
COLON, in anatomy, the firfi and tnofi confider-
able of the large intefiines. See Anatomy, under
n° 3 54-
Col on, in grammar, a point, or charadler form¬
ed thus [:], ferving to mark a paufe, and to divide
the members of a period. See Pointing ; fee allb
Peaiod, Comma, and Semicolon. Grammarians
generally aflign the ufe of a colon to be, to mark the
middle of a period ; or to conclude a fenfe lefs per-
fedl than the dot, or period :—bur, a fenfe lefs perfect
than the period, is an exprefiion extremely vague
and indeterminaie. See Period.
Others fay, a colon is to be ufed when the fenfe is
perfecit, but the fentence not concluded-but neither is
this over clear and exprefs.
A late author, in an ingenious difeourfe, Dr rations
intsrjyuu^endi, marks the office of the colon, and where¬
in it differs from the femicolon, ire. more precifely.
A colon, on his principles, ferves to difiinguilh thole
conjundt members of a fentence, which are capable of
being divided into other members; whereof one, at
leafi, is conjunfL Thus, in the fentence, r4s we can¬
not difeern the Jhadow moving along the dial-plate, ,fo
the advances we make in knowledge are only perceived
by the dijlance gone overthe two members being
both fimple, are only feparated by a comma. In this,
As we perceive the Jhadow to have moved, but did not
perceive it moving ; fo our advances in underjiauding,
in that they confijl of fuch minute fleps, are only per¬
ceivable by the dijlance;—the fentence being divided
into two equal parts, and thofe conjunct ones, fince
they include others; we feparate the former by a fe¬
micolon, and the latter by commas. But in this, Js
we perceive the Jhadow to have moved along the dial,
but did not perceive it moving; and it appears the grafs
has grown, though no body ever faw it grow : fo the ad-
Colonel
Colonfay.
COL [ 2076 ] COL
vancis we make in knowledge, as they confifl of fuch
minute fteps, are only perceivable by the dijlance—the
advancement in knowledge is compared to the motion
of a fhadow, and the growth of grafsj which compa-
rifon divides the 1'entence into two principal parts:
but fmce what is faid of the movement of the fhadow,
and likewife of the growth of grafs, contains two
fimple members, they are to be leparated by a femi-
colon; confequently, a higher pointing is required to
feparate them from the other part of the 1'entence,
which they are oppofed to : and this is a colon. See
Punctuation.
COLONEL, in military matters, the commander in
chief of a regiment, whether horfe, foot, or dragons.
A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in ar-
reft, but muft acquaint the general with it; he is not
allowed a guard, only a centry from the quarter-
guard.
Q,o-LOHi-£.\.-Lieutcnant, he who commands a regi¬
ment of guards, whereof the king, prince, or other
perfon of the firft eminence, is colonel. Thefe colo¬
nel-lieutenants have always a colonel’s commiffion,
and are ulually general officers.
Lieute?iant-<^olo ne r, the fecond officer in a regi¬
ment, who is at the head of the captains, and com¬
mands in the abfence of the colonel.
COLONNA, a town of Italy, in the campagna of
Home, 18 miles eaftward of that city. E. Long.
13. 15. N. Lat. 42 o.
Coj.onna (Pompey), cardinal archbiffiop of Mon¬
treal in Sicily, and bifhop of a very great number of
places, made a eonfpieaous figure in the world. He
was equally qualified to wear the cardinal’s hat and
the helmet, and experienced more than once the re¬
veries of fortune. Julius II. removed him from all
his dignities; but Leo I. reflored him, created him
cardinal, and fent him on feveral embaffies. Cle¬
ment VII. divefied him of the purple, and again re-
ftored him to it. It was pretended he was obliged to
him for his exaltation to the papal throne. The pope
refufing him fome requeft, he reproached him, fay¬
ing, “ That it was by his interelt he had arrived at
his dignity.” The pope replied, “ It is true, but let
me be pope, and do not endeavour to be fio yourfelf;
for by ailing as you do, you endeavour to difpofTefs
me of that you have raifed me to.” He died vice¬
roy of Naples in 1532. He wrote fome poems in
praife oflfabella Filamarini, in which he protefts the
chaftity of his wifhes. He wrote another work, De
laudibus mulierum.
COLONNADE, in architecture, a periftyle of a cir¬
cular figure ; or a feries of columns difpofed in a circle,
and infulated witlun fide.
APolyjlHe Colohm)?., is that whofe numbers of
columns is too great to be taken in by the eye at a
fingle view. Such is the colonade of the palace of
St Peter’s at Rome, confifting of 284 columns of the
Doric order, each above four feet and an half diame¬
ter, all in Tiburtine marble.
COLONSAY, one of the Hebrides or Weftern
I (lands belonging to Scotland. It comprehends that
of Oronfay, from which it is only feparated in time
of Hood, and both belong to the fame proprietor, viz.
Mr M'Neil. See Oronsay.
COLONUS, an hufbandman, or villager, who was
bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain
times of the year to plough fome part of the lord’s
land ; and from hence comes the word clown, who is
called by the Dutch boor.
COLONY, a company of people tranfplanted into
a remote province in order to cultivate and inhabit it.
We may diflinguifh three kinds of colonies. Firft,
thofe ferving to eafe or difcharge the inhabitants of a
country, where the people are become too numerous,
fo that they cannot any longer conveniently fubfift.
The fecond are thofe eftablifhed by victorious prin¬
ces and people in the middle of vanquifhed nations,
to keep them in awe and obedience.
The third may be called colonies of commerce ; be-
caufe, in effeCt, it is trade that is the foie occafion and
objeCt thereof.
It was by means of the firft kind of colonies, that,
fome ages after the deluge, the eaft firft, and fuccef-
fively ail the other parts of the earth, became inha¬
bited r and without mentioning any thing of the Phoe¬
nician and Grecian colonies, fb'famous in ancient hi-
ftory, it is notorious that it was for the eftablifhment
of fuch colonies, that, during the declenlion of the em¬
pire, thofe torrents of barbarous nations, ifluing, for
the generality, out of the north, over-run the Gauls,
Italy, and the other fouthern parts of Europe ; and,
after feveral bloody battles, divided it with tfie anci¬
ent inhabitants.
For the fecond kind of colonies, the Romans ufed
them more than any other people ; and that to fecure
the conquefls they had made from the weft to the
eafL Every one knows how many cities in Gaul,.
Germany, Spain, and even England, value themfelves
on their having been of the number of Roman colo¬
nies.
There were two kinds of colonics among the Ro¬
mans : thofe fent by the fenate; and the military ones,,
confifting of old foldiers, broken and difabled with the
fatigues of war, who were thus provided with lands
as the reward of their fervices. See Benefice. The
colonies fent by the fenate were either Roman or La¬
tin, i. e. compofed either of Roman citizens or Latins.
The colonies of Roman citizens had the right of fuf-
frages ; but had no part in the offices or honours of
the republic. The inhabitants of Latin colonies, had
no right of fuffi-ages without an exprefs- permiffion..
According to Ulpian, (l. 1. D. deCenf) there were
other colonies, which had little more than the name ;
only enjoying what they called jus Italicum, i. e. they
were free from the tributes and taxes paid by the pro¬
vinces. Such were the colonies of Tyre, Berytus, He¬
liopolis, Palmyra, ire. M. Vaillant has filled a volume
in folio with medals (truck by the feveral colonies, in
honour of the emperors who founded them. The or¬
dinary fymbol they engraved on their medals, was
either an eagle; as when the veteran legions were
diftributed in ths colonies : or a labourer, holding a
plough drawn by a pair of oxen ; as when the colony
confifted of ordinary inhabitants. On all'the medals
are feen the names of the decemviri, who held the
fame rank and had the fame authority there as the
confuls had at Rome.
Laftly, the colonies of commerce, are thofe efta¬
blifhed
COL [ 2077 ] COL
>ny. bliflied by the Englifli, French, Spaniards, Portuguefe,
■and other nations within thefe two laft centuries, and
which they continue ftill to ertablifh, in feveral parts
of Afia, Africa, and America; either to keep up a
regular commerce with the natives, or to cultivate the
ground, by planting fugar-canes, indigo, tobacco, and
other commodities. The principal of this kind of co¬
lonies, are in the one and the other America, nor¬
thern and fouthern ; particularly Peru, Mexico, Ca¬
nada, Virginia, New-England, Carolina, la Louiliana,
1’Acadia, Hudl’on’s Bay, the Antilles Illands, Jamaica,
Domingo, and the other illands.—In Africa, Mada-
galcar,Capeof Good Hope, Cape Verd, and its illands,
and all thofe valt coalts extended thence as far as to
the Red Sea.—Laltly, in Afia, the famous Batavia of
the Dutch ; Goa, Diu, of the Portuguefe ; and fome
other lels conliderable places of the Englilh, French,
and Danes.
The practice of fettling commercial colonies in di-
ftant countries hath been adopted by the wife!! nations
of antiquity, who acted fyliematically upon maxims
of found policy. This appears to have been the cafe
with the ancient Egyptians, the Chinefe, the Phoeni¬
cians, the commercial Rates of Greece, the Carthagi¬
nians, and even the Romans; for though the colonies
of the latter were chiefly military, it could eafily be
fhewn that they were likewife made ufe of for the
purpofes of trade. The favage nations who ruined
the Roman empire, fought nothing but to extirpate
or hold in vafTalage thofe whom they overcame ; and
therefore, whenever princes enlarged their dominions
at' the expence, of their neighbours, they had recourfe
to ftrong forts and garrifons to keep the conquered in
awe. For this they have been blamed by the famous
Machiavel; who labours to Ihow, that the fettling of
colonies would have been a cheaper and better me¬
thod of bridling conquered countries, than building
fortrelfes in them. John de Witt, who was one of
the able 11: and belt Itatefmen that ever appeared,
ftrongly recommended colonies; as affording a refuge
to fuch as had been unfortunate in trade ; as opening
a field for fuch men to exert their abilities, as through
want of interefl could not raife themfelves in their
own country ; and as a fupplement to hofpitals and
other charitable foundations, which he thought in time
might come to be overcharged. Some, however,
have ridiculed the fuppofed advantages of colonies,
and afferted that they mult always do mifchief by de¬
populating the mother-country. But it mult be con-
fidered, that fuch as are inclined to leave their native
country to go to a colony, would in all probability do
fo to go to a foreign nation. Before any colonies
were fent from Britain, multitudes left this illand and
went fo the continent, from a variety of caufes. In
the time of queen Elizabeth, many thoufands of
Brownilts retired to Holland and Zealand; but no
fooner did thefe people hear of the ad! of religious
toleration being puffed, than moft of them left the
dominions of the States, and went to New Eng¬
land.
From this example, and many others which might
be adduced, it clearly appears, that colonies, fo far
from being the meajis of depopulating a Rate, are the
very reverfe, and contribute to the preferyation of a
number of fubjedts that would otherwife be totally loR Colony,
by their removal into other countries.
It would befides be no very difficult matter to fhow
from reafon alone, that plantations are highly bene¬
ficial, as contributing more to the riches and welfare
of any country, or at leaR of any trading country, than
fixing fettlements in foreign parts; and more efpe-
ciully in fuch a country as America, where vaft regi¬
ons may be obtained merely by eRablilhing colonies,
in them. Let us confider what rendered the Portu-
gut fe heretofore rich and powerful, and what in fome
meafure keeps them fo Rill; is it not their planta¬
tions ? If we alk the fame queflion with regard to
Spain, we muR receive the fame anfwer; and yet
there is nothing more certain, than that both thefe na¬
tions are under vafi inconveniencies with refpeci to
their plantations: for they draw nothing from them
but in fatisfadtion for commodities and manufadtures,.
and yet the far greateR part, indeed almofl all thefe
commodities and manufadtures, they purchafe them¬
felves from other nations; notwithRanding which pro¬
digious obfiacle, it is apparent that their plantations
are not only the great and conllant, but almofl the
foie fource of their riches. This alone, to a man of
fenfe and reficdlion, will afford a full convidlion of the
truth of what has been advanced, as to the benefit of
plantations in general.
There is no ffioner method with relpedl to our
own in particular, than to confider one that.has fome
Raple commodity, which may ferve as a model for
the reR; and none can anfwer this purpofe better
than Virginia, one of the oldeR, belt cultivated, and
molt populous of our colonies upon the continent. It
is computed that the number of fouls indiferiminately
may amount in Virginia to about half a million, and
of thefe about 120,000 men, women, and children,
may be white, which Ihews this colony is in itl'elf a
thing of prodigious importance. The next thing is to
find out what advantages this country derives from
fuch a number of its fubjedts dwelling there. In the
firfl place it mufl be obierved, that as the value of la¬
bour differs in feveral parts of this kingdom, fo the la-
. hour of a man in molt of the plantations is not only as
advantageous to his native country as if he worked at
home, but much more fo : upon a moderate compu¬
tation, we may reckon, that fueh a perfon contributes
to the public Rock four times as much. So that we
may with reafon reckon, that the. white people in
Virginia, one with another, produce 12I. to this na¬
tion ; the reafon of which will appear, when we con--
fider the nature of their commerce more particularly.
But befides this, the negroes are of great advantage
to this kingdom, though of infinitely- lefs than the.
white people would be, if they were employed in the
fame work ; for every one of thefe poor creatures
conlumes yearly two hilling-hoes, two weeding-hoes,
two grubbing-hoes, befides axes, laws, wimbles^ nails,
and other iron tools and materials. On the whole,,
there can be no fort of queRion, becaufe it appears a
plain matter of fad!, that thefe people neceffarily take
off the fumr of 150,000!. in the commodities of this
country.
This computation muR feem prodigious to fuch as
have not applied themfelves to calculation ; but we
muft
C O L [ 207S ] COL
Colony, muft confider, that the people in this colony of Vir-
   ginia live exactly as vve do, or rather more freely, in
that generous, open, hofpitable, and confequently ex-
peulive method that prevailed here in the laft age.
But as they are fupplied both with neceflaries and
conveniencies, with the inhniinents of labour, as well
as the means of luxury, from England, it follows of
courfe, that they muft employ an infinite number of
hands to provide thefe. For it is generally known,
that thefe demands muft be fupplied from thole han¬
dicrafts and mechanics that have mofthandsintheir
fervice, fiicb as weavers, {hoe-makers, hatters, iron¬
mongers, turners, joiners, taylors, cutlers, fmiths, ba¬
kers, brewers, rope-makers, hofiers, and indeed all
the mechanics in Britain, their manufaclures being
good merchandize in Virginia. The commodities
lent thither, belides linen, lilks, India goods, wine,
and other foreign manufa<5tures, are cloth, coarfe and
fine ferges, ftufi’s, bays, hats, and all forts of Intber-
dafliers ware ; hoes, bills, axes, nails,_adzes, and other
iron ware ; deaths ready made, knives, bifcuit, flour,
ftockings, Ihoes, caps for fervants, ire.
But if they employ tltefe people, they muft feed
them likewife, and pay them their wages; and not
only them, but thofe who take the pains to go be¬
tween the planters aud thefe workmen; by which
we mean the agents, merchants, or factors, who,
tiro’ fewer in number, yet have their fervants and de¬
pendents, who, from the nature of their employments,
exped to be paid at a better rate. Neither is this
all: for when things are made and brought to the fac¬
tor, they muft be put into the hands of a new' fet of
people, who are to be paid for the carriage of them.
So that the moft common capacity may underftand
how the labour of every head in any plantation muft
be worth four times as much to the community of his
mother-country as if be wrought at home ; for if he
{pends lb much, and pays for what he has, both of
which are undeniable, his labour muft produce fo much.
This {hews the benefit of plantations to their mother-
country, aud how much regard and rtTped is due
from tlrofe who manage the affairs of the mother-
country, to thofe who live and labour for her in the
plantations. But becaufe it is not impofGble we may
err a little in the meafure of thefe computations, we
{hall lay it down as a thing certainly to be depended
upon, that every white perfon in Virginia, one with
another, is worth to this nation 101. which will make
the value of the whole plantation equal to an annuity
of 1,200,0001. to Great Britain.
In order to {hew how this ftim, or at leaft the
greateft part of it, is received,, we muft confider that
the trade of Virginia, as well as that of Maryland,
confifts almoft entirely of tobacco: for though the
country would produce feveral excellent commodities
fit for trade, yet the planters are fo wholly bent on
planting tobacco, tliat they feem to have laid afide all
thoughts of other improvements. This trade is brought
to fuch perfecilion, that the Virginia tobacco, efpeci-
ally the fweet-feented, which grows on York river, is
reckoned the belt in the world, and what is generally
vended in Britain for the home-confumption : the o-
ther forts, called Oronoac, and that of Maryland, are
hotter in the mouth ; but they turn to as good account.
being in demand in Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and Colon}*,
Germany : it is therefore from this commodity that “ •
we are to look for the belt part of that vaft fum which
we have mentioned.
In time of peace, there is very little lefs than
100,000 hogflieads of tobacco exported every year
from this colony ; that between three and four hun¬
dred {hips are employed in this trade, and upwards of
4000 feamen. If we take things upon this foot, then
the 100,000 hogflteads of tobacco will produce about
the’fum at which we have fixed the produce of this
colony to the nation; but it may be faid, that if we
take tobacco for the commodities and manufactures
that we {’end to Virginia% it differs very widely from
an annuity, and that, inftead of receiving 1,200,cool,
from the perfons inhabiting this plantation, we return
them the moft valuable things we have,for 60,000,000
pounds of tobacco, which in itfelf is no neceffary of
life, and which we might very well do without. But,
to folve this difficulty, let us confider that tobacco was
in ufe among!! us long before it was cultivated, or at
leaft brought to perfection, as appears by king James I.
writing a book againft it ; what we ufed came hither
from Brazil, or from the Spanjfli plantations, and was
actually fold here from four to 17 s. a pound. In cafe
the confumption of tobacco had become equal to what
it is now, and we had been furniflted with it by fo¬
reigners, it would have carried off all our commodities
and manufactures into the bargain; but fuppofe it had
fallen to 5 s. a poond only, this alone would have colt
us {even millions either in goods or in money. At 5 s.
a pound indeed, tobacco could not have grown into
general ufe, but into frequent and common ufe it
would have grown ; and therefore it muft have ‘coft
us a great deal; whence it may be juftly inferred,
that our home ccnfumption is a laving of as much as
the value amounts to. Befkies this, we export annually
40,000 Iroglheadsjwhich produces us generally 300,000
pounds, the neit annual income of one commodity
brought over from one of our colonies.
AH the other colonies, fettlcments, and eftablifit-
ments, which we have in different parts of the world,
contribute in like manner, but in different proportions,
to take off the. commodities and manufactures, to em¬
ploy the people,, to increafe the {hipping, and to ex¬
tend the trade of this nation ; and with this fingular
and valuable advantage, that fo long as vve behave to¬
wards them with the duty and tendernefs of a parent,
it is limply impofiible that this trade fliould fail us, or
that we fitould lofe any part of our plantation com¬
merce. We have already ftrown, how the commodi¬
ties we have from thence, become, when wrought, to
ail intents and purpofes, our own manufactures ; lb
that the people in the colonies, and their Haves,
where they have Haves, undergo all the drudgery
and labour, while we fuhlift our own people by the
manufacture of their commodities, and draw from
thence annually immenfe profits, in which the people
of the plantations have no {hare whatfoever. Such are
the prerogatives of a mother-country, and fuch and fo
great the benefits flic reaps by being fo!
After having thus examined into the reafon of the
thing, let us next afk, What was the condition of this
country before we had any plantations ? The anfwer
drawn
COL [ 2079 ] COL
Colony, drawn from hiftory and obfervation muft be to this
effefl: At the time queenjElizabeth entered upon the
government, the cuftoms produced 36,000!. a-year;
at the reiteration, they were lett to farm for 400,000!.
and produced conftderabiy above double that fum be¬
fore the revolution. The people of London, before
we had any plantations, and but very little trade, were
computed at about 100,000 : at the death of queen
Elizabeth, they were increafed to 1 jo,ooo ; and are
now about fix times that number. In thofe days we
had not only our naval (tores, but our fliips, from our
neighbours. Germany furnilbed us with all things
made of metal, even to nails: wine, paper, linen, and
a thoufand other things, came from France. Portu¬
gal furnifhed us with iiigars ; all the produce of Ame¬
rica was poured upon us from Spain ; and the Vene¬
tians and Genoefe retailed to us the commodities of
the Eaft Indies at their own price. In (liort, the le¬
gal imereft of money was 12 per cent, and the com¬
mon price of our land to or 12 years purchafe. We
may add, that our manufactures were few, and thofe
but indifferent; the number of Engtifh merchants very
fmail; and our (hipping much inferior to what now
belong to the northern colonies. Thefe are plain and
certain facts. But, as foon as we began to extend our
trade, and to make fettlements abroad, rhe face of
our affairs changed : the inhabitants of the metropo¬
lis were doubled by the end of the laft period, and
are again doubled before the end of this; our (hipping
increafed in a (till greater proportion ; we coined,
within 20 years after that queen’s death, about five
millions at the Tower ; in 20 years after that, feven ;
and in the next 20 years, eight; which are indubitable
proofs that we had gained a prodigious balance of
trade in our favour.
The next point to be confidered is. What our con¬
dition has been fince ? And with refpeft to this it may
be boldly affirmed, that k has altered for the better,
almoft to a degree beyond credibility or computation.
Our manufactures are prodigioufly increafed, chiefly
by the demand for them in the plantations, where
they at lead take off one half, and fumiffi us with many
valuable commodities for exportation. In dead of ta¬
king the quantities we were wont to do of goods from
other nations, we actually export thofe very goods,
and fometimes to the very lame nations. Sugar, rum,
and tobacco, are the fources of private wealth and
public revenue,' which would have been lb many
drains that would have beggared us, had they not
been railed in our plantations. It is no longer in the
power of the Ruffians to make us pay what they pleafe
for flax and hemp. The Swedes cannot compel us
to pay their own price, and that too in ready money,
for pitch and tar ; nor would it be in their power to
d.drels us, (hoxild they attempt it, by railing the price
of copper and iron. Logwood is funk 75 per cent. ;
indigo, and other dyeing materials, are in our power,
and at moderate prices. In (liort, the advantages are
infinite that redound to us from our American empire ;
where we have at lead a million of Britifh fubje&s,
and between 1500 and 2000 fail of (flips conllantly
employed.
Such have been the fruits, fitch is the condition,
of our plantations; — or rather, fitch, till of late,
was their condition. The fad reverfe that has ta- Colony.
ken place is well known to all our readers. For us  1
to depidt it, would be a tad? equally fuperfluous and
painful. And as to what may be the iffue of the un¬
happy conteft, or what coni'equences may finally en-
lue ; thefe can only be the fubject of our anxiety, of January
our hopes or fears: for clouds and darknefs as yet 1779-
reft upon the profpedt.
The hiftory of the Britifh colonies, however, (hows,
that when colonifts become numerous and opulent,
it is very difficult to retain them in proper fubjeeftion
to the parent (late. It becomes then a queftion not
very eafily anfwered, how far they are entitled to
the rights they had as inhabitants of the mother-coun¬
try, or how far they are bound by its laws i Qn this
fubjedt Mr Blackftone hath the following obfervations.
“ Plantations, or colonies in diftant countries, are
either inch where the lands are claimed by right of
occupancy only, by finding them defert and unculti¬
vated, and peopling them from the mtxher country ;
or where, when already cultivated, they have either
been gained by conqueft, or ceded to us by treaties;
And both thefe rights are founded upon the law of na¬
ture, or at leaft on that of nations. But there is a
difference between thefe two (pedes of colonies
with refpect to the laws by which they are bound.
For it hath been held, that if an uninhabited country
be difeovered and planted by Englith fubjedls, all the
Englifh laws then in being, which are the birthright
of e very fubjedi, are immediately there in force. But
this muft be underftood with many and very great re-
ftriftiens. Such colonifts carry with them only lb much
of the Englilh law as is applicable to their own (itiia-
tion, and the condition of an infant colony ; fiich, fi r
inftance, as the general rides of inheritance, and of
protedlion from perfonal injuries. The artificial re- .
finements and diftinetions incident to the property of a
great and commercial people, the laws of policy and
revenue (fueh efpecially as are enforced by penalties);
the mode of maintenance for the cftahlfflied clergy,
the jurkdiftion of fpiritual courts, and a multitude of
other provilions, are neither neccffary nor convenient
for them, and therefore are not in force. What (hall
be admitted, and what-rejected, at what times, and
under what reftridtions, muft, in cafes of difpute, be
decided in the firft inftance by their own provincial
judicature, fubjedi to the revifion and controul of the
king in council; the whole of their conftitution being
alfo liable to be new-modelled and reformed by the
general fuper-intending power of the legiflature in the
mother-country. But in conquered or ceded countries,
that have already laws'of their own, the king may in¬
deed alter and change thofe laws; but, rilldie does
actually change them, the* ancient laws of the country
remain, unlefs fiich as are againft the law of God, as
in an infidel country. Our American plantations are
principally of this'latter fort, beingobtained in the laft
century, either by right of conqueft and driving out
the natives (with what natural juftice I (hall not at
prefent inquire), or by treaties. And therefore, the
common law of England, as fuck, has no allowance or
authority there 5 they being no part of the mother
country, but diftindl (though dependent) dominions.
They are lubjedl, however, to the contron! of the
parliament ;
COL [ 2080 ] COL
Colony, parliament; though, (likeIreland,Mann, and the reft,)
, i not bound by any acts of parliament, unlets particu-
Colophuny. jnr]v namefl(»
With refpeeft to their interior polity, our colonies
are properly of three forts. 1. Provincial eftablilh-
xnents, the conftitutions of which depend on the re-
fpetftive commiffions ifliied by the crown to the go¬
vernors, and the inftnuftions which ufually accompany
thofe commiffions; under the authority of which, pro¬
vincial aflemblies are conftituted, with the power of
making local ordinances not repugnant to the laws of
Britain. 2. Proprietary governments, granted out
by the crown to individuals, in the nature of feuda¬
tory principalities, with all the inferior regalities, and
fubordinate powers of legiilation which formerly be¬
longed to the owners of counties palatine : yet ftill,
with thefe exprel’s conditions, that the ends for which
the grant was made be fubftantially purfued, and that
nothing be attempted which may derogate from the
lovereignty of the mother-country. 3. Charter go¬
vernments, in the nature of civil corporations ; with
the power of making bye-laws for their own interior
regulation, not contrary to the laws of Britain ; and
with fuch rights and authorities as arc fpecially given
them in their feveral charters of incorporation. The
‘form of government, in moft of them, is borrowed
from that of England. They have a governor named
by the king (or, in fome proprietary colonies, by the
proprietor), who is reprefentative or deputy. They
have courts of juftice of their own, from whole decilions
an appeal lies to the king in council here in England.
Their general aflemblies, which are their houle of
commons, together with their council of ftate, being
their upper houfe, with the concurrence of the king,
or his reprefentative the governor, make laws 1'uited
to their own emergencies. But it is particularly de¬
clared, by flat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 22. that all laws,
bye-laws, ufages and cuftoms, which lhall be in prac¬
tice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any law
made or to be made in this kingdom relative to the
faid plantations fliall be utterly void, and of none ef¬
fect. And, becaufe feveral of the colonies had claim¬
ed the lole and exclufive right of impofing taxes upon
themfelves, the ftatute 6 Geo. III. c.12. exprefsly
declares, that all his Majefty’s colonies in America,
have been, are, and of right ought to be, fubordinate
to and dependent upon the imperial crown and par¬
liament of Great Britain ; who have full power and
authority to make laws and ftatutes of fufficient vali¬
dity to bind the colonies arid people of America, fub-
jecfts to the crown of Great Britain in all cafes what-
foever. And the attempting to enforce this by other
a6ls of Parliament, penalties, and at laft by military
power, gave rile, as is well known, to the prefent
revolt of our colonies.
COLOPHONY, in pharmacy, black refin, or tur¬
pentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or,
which is ftill better, the caput mortuum remaining af¬
ter the diftillation of the etherial oil, being further
urged by a more intenfe and long continued fire.—It
receives its name of colophotiia, from Colophon,-a city
of Ionia ; becaufe the belt was formerly brought from
thence. Two forts are mentioned in ancient writings;
the one dry, the other in a liquid form. The latter
feems to have been liquid pitch, which is the crude Coloqnior
refill of the pine brought from Colophon ; the other tida ,|
was called refma frifla, and confifted only of the for- Co®ouf I
mer deprived of its humid parts.  
COLOQUINTIDA, in botany. See Cucumis.
COLOPiATURA, in mufic, denotes all manner of
variations, trillos, duninutions, ire. ferving to make
a long agreeable. -
COLORNO, a town of Italy, in the Parmazan,
near the river Po, 8 miles from Parma. The duke
of Parma has a pleafure-houfe here, one of the moft
delightful feats in all Italy, and the gardens are very
fine. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 44. 54.
COLOSSUS, a ftatue of enormous or gigantic fize.
The moft eminent of this kind was the Colafj'uj of
Rhodes; a ftatue of Apollo, fo high, that fliips palled
with full fails betwixt its legs. It was the workman-
fliip of Chares, a difciple of Lyfippus ; who fpent 12
years in making it : it was at length over thrown by
an earthquake, after having flood 1360 years. Its
height was flxfcore and fix feet : there were few
people could fathom its thumb, ire. Some critics ob-
i’erve, that the Ccloffus of Rhodes gave its own name
to the people among whom it flood ; and that many,
at leaft among the ancient poets, call the Rhodians,
Colojfians ; hence they advance an opinion, that the
Coloffians in feripture, to whom St Paul diredls his
epiftle, are, in reality, the inhabitants of Rhodes. Of
this fentiment are Suidas, Calepine, Munfter, ire.
When the Saracens became pofleffed of the illand, the
ftatue was found proftrate on the.ground : they fold
it to a Jew, who loaded 900 camels with the brafs.
The bafis that fupported it was a triangular figure,
its extremities were fuflained with 60 pillars of
marble.' There was a winding-llair-cafe to go up to
the top of it; from whence one might difeover Syria,
and the fhips that went into Egypt, in a great look-
ing-glafs, that was hung about the neck of the ftatue.
Among the antiquities of Rome, there are feven
famous Colo[fufes : two of Jupiter, as many of Apollo,
one of Nero, one of Domitian, and one of the Sun.
COLOSTRUM, the firft milk of any animal after
bringing forth young, called beeflings. It is remark¬
able that this milk is generally cathartic, and purges
tlae meconium ; thus ferving both as an aliment and
medicine.
An emulfion prepared with turpentine diflblved
with the yolk of an egg, is fometimes called by this
name.
COLOSWAR, a large and celebrated town of
Tranfylvania, where the fenates have their meetings..
It is feated on the river Samos in E. Long. 22. 45.
N. Lat. 46. 53.
COLOUR, in phyfics, a property inherent in light,
by which, according to the various fizes of its parts,
or from fome other caufe, it excites different vibra¬
tions in the optic nerve ; which propagated to the
fenforium, affeift the mind with different fenfations.
See Chromatics and Optics.
Colour, in painting, is applied both to the drugs,
and to the tints produced by thofe drugs varioufly
mixed and applied.
The principal colours ufed by painters are red and
white lead, or cerufs; yellow and red ochres ; feveral
kinds E
COL.
kinds of earth, umbre, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt
ivory, black lead, cinnabar or vermilion, gamboge^
lacca, blue and green, allies, verdigreafe, biitre, bice,
fmalt, carmine, ultramarine : each of which, with
their ufes, ire. are to be found under their proper ar¬
ticles.
Of thefe colours fotne are ufed tempered with gum-
water ; fome ground with oil; others only in frefco;
and others for miniature.
Painters reduce all the colours they ufe tinder thefe
two claffes, of dark and light colours : dark colours
are black, and all others that are obfeure and earthy,
as umbre, biftre, ire.
Under light colours are comprehended white, and
all that approach nearelt to it.
Painters aifo diftinguilh colours into fimple and mi¬
neral.
Under fimple colours they rank all thofe which are
extracted from vegetables, and which will not bear
the fire ; as the yellow made of faflron, French ber¬
ries, lacca, and other tinclures extracted from flowers,
ufed by limners, illuminers, ire.
The mineral colours are thofe which being drawn
from metals, ire. are able to bear the fire, and there¬
fore ufed by enamellers. Changeable and permanent
dolours is another divifiori, which, by fome, is made of
colours.
Changeable colours are Inch as depend on the fitua-
tion of the objects with refpe<5t to the eye, as that of
a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, &c. the fir A however be¬
ing attentively viewed by the microfcope, each fibre
of the feathers appears compofed of feveral little
fquares, alternately red and green, fo that they are
fixed colours.
Water Cq%&vrs, are fuch as are ufed in painting
with gum-water, or fize, without being mixed with
oil.
Incapacity ef diflhiguijhing Colours. Of this ex¬
traordinary defeat in vifion, we have the following
inftances in the philofophical Tranfadtions for 1777.
One of the perfons lived at Maryport in Cumberland.
The account was communicated by Mr Huddart to
Dr Prieftley, and is as follows. u His name was
Harris, by trade a fhoe-maker. I had often heard
from others, that he could difeern the form and mag¬
nitude of all objedts very dirtindtly, but could not di-
flinguifh colours. This report having excited my cu-
riofity, I converfed with him frequently on' the fub1-
jedl. The account he gave was this: That he had rea-
fon to believe other perfons faw fomething in objects
which he could not fee ; that their language feemed-
to mark qualities with precifion and confidence, which
he could only guefs at with hefitafion, and frequently
with error. His firft fufpicion of this arofe when he
was about four years old. Having,by accident found
in the ftreet a child’s flocking, he carried it to a neigh¬
bouring houfe to inquire for the owner : he obferved
the people called it a red flocking, though he did not
underftand why they gave it that denomination, as
he himfelf thought it completely deferibed by being
called a flocking. This circumftance, however, re¬
mained in his memory, and, together with fubfequent
obfervations, led him to the knowledge of his defeat.
“ He alfo obferved, that when young, other chil-
Vol. III.
COL
dren could difeern cherries on a tree, by fome pretend- Colour,
ed difference of colour, though he could only diflin-
guifh them from the leaves by the difference of their
lize and fhape. He obferved alfo, that by means of
this difference of colour they could fee the cherries at
a greater diflance than he could, though he could fee
other objects at as great; a diftance as they, that is,
where the fight was not aflifted by the colour. Large
objects he could fee as well as other perions; and
even the fmaller ones if they were not enveloped in
other things, as in the cafe of cherries among the
leaves.
u I believe he Could never do more than guefs the
name of any colour; yet he could diflinguifh white front
black, or black from any light or bright colour. Dove
or flraw colour he called white, and different colours he
frequently called by the fame name, yet he could dif¬
eern a difference between them when placed toge¬
ther. In general, colours of an equal degree of
brightnefs, however they might otherwife differ, he
confounded together. Yet a flriped ribbon he coulct
diftinguifh from a plain one ; but he could not tell*
what the colours were with any tolerable exactnefs.
Dark colours, in general, he often mifiook for black ;
but never imagined white to be a dark colour, nor
dark to be a white colour.
“ He was an intelligent man, and very defirous of
underflanding the nature of light and colours; for
which end he had attended a courf’e of leHures in
natural philofophy.
“ He had two brothers in the fame circumflances
as to fight; and two other brothers and filters, who,
as well as their parents, had nothing of this defedt.
“ One of the firfl mentioned brothers, who is now
living, I met with at Dublin, and wifhed to try his
capacity to diftinguilh the colours in a prifm ; but not
having one by me, I afked him, whether lie had ever
feen a rain-bow ? he replied, He had often, and could
diftinguifh the different colours; meaning only, that it
was compofed of different colours, for he could not
tell what they were.
“ I then procured, and fliewed him a piece of rib¬
bon : he immediately, and without any difficulty, pro¬
nounced it a ftriped, and not a plain, ribbon. He
then attempted to name the different llripes : the fe¬
veral ftripes of white he uniformly and without hefi-
tatiqn called white : the four black ftripes he was de¬
ceived in ; for thrde of them he thought brown,
though they were exafily of the fame fliade with the
other, which he properly called black. He fpoke,
however, with diffidence, as to all thofe ftripes ; and
it muft be owned, that the black was not very di-
ftindt: the light green he called yellow ; but he was
not very politive : he faid, “ I think this is what you
call yellow.” The middle ftripe, which had a flight
tinge of red, he called a fort of blue. But he was
moft of all deceived by the orange colour; of this he
fpoke very confidently, faying, “ this is the colour of
grafs, this is green.” I alfo ffiewed him a great va¬
riety of ribbons, the colour of which he fometimes
named rightly, and fometimes as differently as pof-
fible from the true colours.
“ I alked him, whether he imagined it poffible for
all the various colours he faw to be mere difference of
12 H light
[ 2d8l ]
COL [ 2082 ] COL
Colour, light and ihade; and that all colours could be compo-
  fed of thefe two mixtures only ? With feme helitation
he replied, No, he did imagine there was fome other
difference.
“ It is proper to add, that the experiment of the
ftriped ribbon was made in the day-time, and in a
good light.”
CoLOURsyir Jiainitig different kinds of Stones. See
Chemistry, n° 197.
, Colour, in dyeing. See Dyeing.
Colour of Plants, is ah attribute found to be very
variable. Different colours are obferved, not only in
different individuals of the fame fpecies, but likewife in
different parts of the fame individual. Thus, marvel
of Peru, and fweet-William, have frequently petals of
different colours on the fame plant. Three or four
different colours are frequently found upon the fame
leaf or flower ; as on the leaves of the amaran-
thus, tricolor, and the flowers of the tulip, auricula,
three-coloured violet, and others. To produce the
moft beautiful and Ilriking variety of colours in fuch
flowers, is the principal delight and bufinefs of the
florift.
: The primitive colours, and their intermediate {hades
or gradations enumerated by botanifts, are as follow.
Water- colour, hy alinus.
White.
Lead-colour,
Black, niger.
Brown,/ayraj.
Pitch-black, ater.
Yellow,
Straw-colour, flames.
Flame-colour, flulvus.
Iron-colour, gilvus.
Red.
Flefli-colour, incarnatus.
Scarlet, coccineus.
Purple.
Violet-colour, cceruleo-purpureus.
Blue, ceeruleus.
Green.
Thefe colours feem to be appropriated to particular
parts of the plant. Thus, white is moft common in
roots, fweet berries, and the petals of fpring flowers.
Water-colour, in the filaments and ftyles. Black, in
the roots and feeds; rarely in the feed-veffel, and
fcarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is fre¬
quent in the antherae or tops of the ftamina ; as like¬
wife in the petals of autumnal flowers, and the com¬
pound ligulated flowers of Linnaeus. Red is common
in the petals of fummer flowers, and in the acid fruits.
Blue and violet-colour, in the petals. Green, in the
leaves and calix, but rarely in the petals. In the in¬
terchanging of colours, which in plants is found to
depend upon differences in heat, climate, foil and cul¬
ture, a fort of eledlive attradlion is obferved to take
place. Thus, red is more eafily changed into white
and blue; blue into white and yellow ; yellow into
white ; and white into purple. A red colour is often
changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother
of thyme, betony, pink, vifeous campion, cucubalus,
trefoil, orchis, fox-glove, thiftle, cudweed, faw-wort,
rofe, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. Ret? paffes in- Colour,
to blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in . -
bell-flower, greek-valerian, bindweed, columbine,
violet, vetch, milk-wort, goat’s rue, viper’s buglofs,
comfrey, borrage, hyffop, dragon’s-head, fcabious,
blue-bottle, and fuccory. Blue is changed into yellow
in crocus. Yellow paffes eafily into white in melilot,
agrimony, mullein, tulip, blattaria, or moth-mullein,
and corn marigold. White is changed into purple in
wood-forrel, thorn-apple, peafe, and daify.
Although plants are fometimes obferved to change
their colour upon being moiftened with coloured juices,
yet that quality in vegetables feems not fo much
owing to the nature of their nonrifhment, as to the ac¬
tion of the internal and external air, heat, light, and
the primitive organifation of the parts. In fupport
of this opinion, we may obferve with Dr Grew, that
there is a far lefs variety in the colours of roots than
of the other parts of the plant, the pulp, within the
Ikin, being ufually white, fometimes yellow, rarely
red. That-this effedt is produced by their fmall in-
tercourfe with the external air appears from this cir-
cumftance, that the upper parts of roots, when they
happen to ftand naked above the ground, are often
dyed with feveral colours : thus the tops of forrel
roots turn red ; thofe of turnips, mullein, and radifhes,
purple ; and many others green : whilft thofe parts
of the fame roots which lie more under ground are
commonly white. The green colour is fo proper to
leaves, that many, as thole of fage, the young fprouts
of St John’s wort, and others which are reddifli when
in the bud, acquire a perfect green upon being fully
expanded. In like manner, the leaves of the fea-fide
grape, polygonum, which when young are entirely
red, become, as they advance in growth, perfedily
green, except the middle and tranfverfe ribs, which
retain their former colour.
As flowers gradually open and are expofed to the
air, they throw off their old colour, and acquire a new
one. In fadt, no flower has its proper colour till it is
fully expanded. Thus the purple ftock-julyflowers
are white, or pale in the bud. In like manner ba¬
chelor’s buttons, blue-bottle, poppy, red dailies, and
many other flowers, though of divers colours when
blown, are all white in the bud. Nay, many flowers
change their colours thrice fucceflively; thus, the Very
young buds of lady’s looking-glafs, buglofs, and the like,
are all white ; the larger buds purple, or murrey ; and
the open flowers blue.
With refpedt to the colours of the juices of plants,
we may obferve, that moft refinous gums are tindiu-
red ; fome, however, are limpid ; that which drops
from the domeftic pine is clear as rock-water. The
milk of fome plants is pale, as in burdock ; of others
white, as in dandelion, euphorbium, and fcorzonera;
and of others yellow, as in lovage, and greater ce¬
landine. Moft mucilages have little colour, tafte or
fmell. Of all the colours above enumerated, green
is the moft common to plants, black the moft rare.
Colour being a quality in plants fo apt to change,
ought never to be employed in diftinguifhing their
fpecies. Thefe ought to be charadlerifed from cir-
cumftances not liable to alteration by culture or other
accidents. The fame inconftancy of colour obferved
in
COL
Colour, in the flowers, is likewife to be found in the other
parts of plants. Berries frequently change from green
to red, and from red to white. Even in ripe fruits,
the colour, whether white, red, or blue, is apt to vary ;
particularly in apple, pear, plumb, and cherry trees.
Seeds are more con If ant in point of colour than the
veflel which contains them. In the feeds, however,
of the poppy, oats, pea, bean, and kidney-bean, va¬
riations are frequently obferved. The root too, al¬
though not remarkably fubjetSl to change, is found to
vary in fome fpecies of carrot and radilh. Leaves
frequently become fpotted, as in a fpecies of orchis,
hawk-weed, ranunculus, knot-grafs, and lettuce ; but
feldom relinquilh their green colour altogether. Thofe
of fome fpecies of amaranthus, or flower-gentle, are
beautifully coloured. The fpots that appear on the
lurface of the leaves are of different colours, liable to
vary, and not feldom difappear altogether. The
leaves of officinal lung-wort, and fome Ipecies of fow-
bread, forrel, trefoil, and ranunculus, are covered with
white fpots. Thofe of dog’s-tooth violet, with purple
and white. Thofe of feveral fpecies of ranunculus,
and orchis, and a kind of knot-grafs called by Tourne-
fort perftcaria ferrume quinum ref evens, with black and
purple. Thofe of amaranthus, tricolor, with green,
red and yellow. Thofe of ranunculus acris, and a
fpecies of bog-bean, with red or purple. The under
furface of the leaves of fome fpecies of pimpernel
and the fea-plantain is marked with a number of dots
or points; a white line runs through the leaves of
Indian reed, black-berried heath, and a fpecies of ca¬
nary grafs : and the margin or brim of the leaf, in
fome fpecies of box, honey-fuckle, ground-ivy, and
the ever-green oak, is of a filver-white colour. The
whole plant is often found to aflume a colour that is
unnatural or foreign to it. The varieties in fome
fpecies of eryngo, mugwort, orrach, amaranthus, pur-
flane, and lettuce, furnilh examples.
Such being the inconltancy of colour in all the parts
of the plant, fpecific names derived from that quality
are, very properly/ by Linnaeus, deemed erroneous;
whether they refpett the colour of the flower, fruit,
feeds, root, leaves, or exprefs in general the beauty
or deformity of the entire plant, with a particular
view to that circumftance. Of this impropriety com¬
mitted by former botanifts, Linnaeus himfelf is not al¬
ways guiltlefs. Thus the. two fpecies of farracena,
or the fide-faddle flower, are diftinguilhed by the co¬
lour of their petals into the yellow and purple farra¬
cena ; although the fhapes and figure of the leaves
afforded much more conftant as well as ftriking
characters. The fame may be faid of his lupinus
albus, and luteus ; refeda alba, glauca, and lutea ;
angelica atro-purpurea ; diCtamnus albus ; lamium al¬
bum ; felago coccinea ; fida alba ; paffiflora rubra,
lutea, incarhata, and coerulea ; and of many others,
in which the fpecific name is derived from a charac¬
ter or quality that is lb ..liable to vary in the fame
Ipecies.
We lhall conclude this article with obferving, that
of all fenfible qualities, colour is the leaft ufeful in in¬
dicating the virtues and powers of vegetables. The
following general pofitions oh this fubjeCt are laid down
by Linnaeus, and feem fufficiently confirmed by ex-
C O L
periment. A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter Colour,
talte; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and other
yellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or four talte ;
"'-as in cranberries, barberries, currants, rafp-berries,
mulberries, cherries ; the fruit of the rofe, fea-buck-
thorn, and fervice-tree. Herbs that turn red towards
autumn, have likewile a four talle ; as forrel, wood-
forrel, and bloody-dock. Green indicates a crude al¬
kaline tafte, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale
colour denotes an infipid tafte, as in endive, afparagus,
and lettuce. White promifes a fweet, lufcious falte ;
as in white currants, and plumbs, fweet apples, ire.
Laftly, black indicates a harlh, naufeous, difagreeable
tafte ; as in the berries of deadly night-lhade, myrtle¬
leaved fumach, herb-chriltopher and others ; many
of which are not only unpleafant to the tafte, but per¬
nicious, and deadly in their effetfts.
To be afeertained of the acid or alkaline property
of any plant, exprefs fome of the juice, and rub it up¬
on a piece of blue paper ; which, if the plant in que-
ftion is of an acid nature, will turn red ; if of an al¬
kaline, green. For the methods of extracting colours
from the different parts of plants, fee the article
Co L o 0 Vi-Maki?sg.
Colour of the Human Species, Difference of Few
queftions in philofophy have engaged the attention of
naturalifts more than the diveriities among the human
fpecies, among which that of colour is the moft re¬
markable. The great differences in this refpeCt have
given occafion to feveral authors to affert, that the
whole human race have not fprung from one original;
but that as many different fpecies of men were at firft
created, as there are now different colours to be found
among them. Under the article Am erica, n°42—
53. we have (hewn that all the arguments which can be
brought for fpecific differences among mankind, whe¬
ther drawn from a difference of colour, llature, or
difpofition, muft neceffarily be inconclulive. It re¬
mains, however, a matter of no fmall difficulty to ac¬
count for the remarkable variations of colour that are
to be found among different nations. On this fubjeCl
Dr Hunter hath publifhed a thefis, in which he conli-
ders the matter more accurately than hath commonly
been done, and determines abfolutely againft any fpe¬
cific difference among mankind. He introduces his
fubjedt by obferving, that when the queftion has been
agitated, whether all the human race conftitute only
one fpecies or not, much confofion has arifen from the
fenfe in which the term fpecies has been adopted. He
therefore thinks it neceflary to fet but with a defini¬
tion of the term. He includes under the fame fpecies
all thofe animals which produce iffue capable of propa¬
gating others refembling the original flock from
whence they fprung. This definition he illuftrates by
having recourfe to the human fpecies as an example.
And in this fenfe of the term he concludes, that all of:
them are to be confidered as belonging to the fame
fpecies. And as, in the cafe of plants, t>ne fpecies
comprehends feveral varieties depending upon climate,
foil, culture, and fimilar accidents; fo he confiders the
diverlities of the human race to be merely varieties
of the fame fpecies, produced by natural caufes. Of
the different colours obfervable among mankind, he
gives the following view :
12 H 2
[ 2083 ]
Black.
Colour.
COL [ 2084 ] COL
Black. Africans under the line.
Inhabitants of New Guinea.
Inhabitants of New Holland.
Swarthy. The Moors in the northern parts
of Africa.
The Hottentots in the fouthern
parts of it.
Copper-coloured. The Eaft Indians.
Red-coloured. The Americans.
Brown-coloured. Tartars.
Perfians.
Arabs.
Africans on the coaft of
the Mediterranean.
Chinefe.
Brownish. The inhabitants of the fouthern
parts of Europeas
Sicilians,
Abyffinians,
Spaniards,
Turks, and likewife the Samoie-
des and Laplanders.
White. Moft of the European nations; as
Swedes,
Danes,
Englifh,
Germans,
Poles, &c.
Kabardiniki,
Georgians,
Inhabitants of the illands in the Paci¬
fic Ocean.
It? attempting to inveftigate the caufes of thefe dif¬
ferences, our author oblerves, that there can be no
ciilpjite of the feat of colour being placed in the Ikin;
that it is not even extended over the whole of this,
but confined to that part named the cuticle, confifting
of tire epidermis and reticulum ; and that it chiefly
occupies the latter of thefe. The cuticle is much
thicker and harder, in black people than in white ones;
the reticulum in the latter being a thin mucus, in the
former a thick membrane. He concludes that this
feat of colour in whites is tranfparent, and either to¬
tally deprived of veflcls, or only furnilhed with very
few ; as the yellow colour appearing in jaundice va-
nifhes on the caufe of the difeafe being removed ;
which is ppt the cafe with ftains in the cuticle from
gunpowder, or limilar caufes. He next points out
three caufes deftroying the pellucictity of the cuticle,
giving it a brown colour, and rendering it thicker.
Thele are, accefs of air, naftinefs, and the heat of the
fun. The influence of each of thefe he proves by
many examples ; and from thefe he is inclined to con-
ftder the lafi as by much the moll powerful. If, how¬
ever, it be admitted that thefe caufes have this effedl,
he thinks that all the diverfity of colour which is to
be obferved among mankind, may be thus accounted
for. He remarks, that all the inhabitants of the tor¬
rid zone incline more or lefs to a black colour. When
we obferve the differences which occur amongfl them,
we mufl at the fame time remember, that a black co¬
lour is not referred to heat alone, hut to the other
caufes alfo : and when we attend to the diverfity of
temperature that occurs even in the torrid zone,' the
exiltence of a white nation there would by no means '
deftroy the argument. He is farther of opinion, that
the exiftence of a brown colour, and of conftderable
varieties from white, in the northern and cold eft parts
of Europe, may very eafily be explained. This he
accounts for from the manner of life of the inhabitants,
by which they are either expofed to the inclemency
of the air, or to conftant naftinefs from fmokyhoufes.
Having thus attempted to account, from natural
caufes, for the varieties which occur among mankind
with refpect to colour, our author obferves, that, to all
this reafoning, an objection will naturally be made,
from confidering that infants bring thefe marks into
the world along with them, before they can be expo-
fed to any fuch caufes. Dr Hunter imagines, how¬
ever, that this may readily be explained upon the
fuppolitioii that many peculiarities acquired by parents
are tranfmitted to their pofterity; and of this, he
thinks, ho one can entertain the lead doubt who at¬
tends to hereditary difeafes. Thus, gout, fcrophula,
mania, and many other affections, although at firft in¬
duced by particular accidents, will continue to affect
families for many generations. In the fame manner,
a parent expofed to caufes deftroying the natural
whitenefs of his complexion, will beget fwarthy chil¬
dren ; and the fame caufes continuing to operate up¬
on the fon, the blacknefs will be increafed. Thus all
the different (hades may have been at flrft induced,
and afterwards continued.
Colour, in heraldry. The colours generally ufed
in heraldry, are red, blue, black, green and purple,
which the heralds call gules, azure, fable, vert or fi-
nopie, and purpure ; tenne or tawny, and fanguine,
are not fo common : as to’ yellow and white, called
or, and argent, they are metals, not colours.
The metals and colours are fometLines expreffed in
blazon by the names of precious ftones, and fometimes
by tbofe of planets or ftars. See Blazoning.
Oenomaus is faid to have firft invented tlie diftinc-
tion of colours, to diftinguifli the gunriillae of comba¬
tants of the Circenfian games; the green for thofe
who reprefented the earth, and blue for thofe who re-
prefented the fea.
Colours, in the military art, include the banners,
flags, enfigns, .ire.' of all kinds, borne in the army or
fleet. See Flag, and Standard-.
Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are
ufed to diftinguifli feveral rayfteries and feafts,'cele¬
brated therein.
Five colours only are regularly admitted into the
Latin church; thefe are white, green, red, Violet,
and black : the white is for the myfteries of our Sa¬
viour, the feafts of the virgin, thofe of tine angels,
faints, and confeffors; the red is for the myfteries
and folemnities of the holy facrament, the feafts of the
apoftles and martyrs ; the green for the time between
pentecoft and advent, and from epiphany to feptuage-
fima ; the violet in advent and Chriftmas, in vigils,
rogations, ire. and in votive malfes in time of war ;
laftly, the black is for the dead, and the ceremonies
thereto belonging.
In the Greek church, the ufe of colours is almoft
aholilhed, as well as among us; red was, in the Greek
church.
Colour,
ivifion of
^opaque
r colours.
■ 3
imple and
otn pound
C 6 L [ 2085 ] COL
church, the colour for Chriftmas, and the dead, as
black among us.
To Colour fir angers goods, is when a freeman al¬
lows a foreigner to enter goods at the cuflom-houfe
in his name.
Colo UR-Making, the art of preparing the diffe¬
rent kinds of colours ufed in painting.
This art properly belongs to chemiftry j and is one
of the moll curious, though leaft underllood, parts of
it. The principles o'n which colour-making depends
are entirely different from thofe on which the theory
of other parts of chemillry is founded ; and the prac¬
tical part being in the hands of thofe who find it their
inter-ell to conceal their methods as much as polfible,
it thence happens,' that there is not only no dillincl
theory of this art, but fcarce a fingle good receipt for
making any one colour hath ever appeared.
The fir ft general divilion of 'colours is into opaque
and tranlparent. By the firll are meant fuch colours
a*s, when laid over paper, wood, ire. cover them fully
fo as to efface any other painting or Haiti that might
have been there before; the others are of fuch a na¬
ture as to leave the ground on which they are laid,
vifible through'them. Of the firll kind are white-
lead, red-lead, vermilion, &c. of the latter kind are
the colours tiled for illuminating maps, ire.
Another divilion is into oil-colours, and water-co¬
lours ; by which is meant fuch as are appropriated to
painting in oil, and in water. Moft of thofe which
are proper for painfingj in water, are alfo proper for
being ufed in oil. There is, however, this remark¬
able difference betwixt colours when mixed with wa¬
ter and with oil, that fuch as are quite opaque in wa¬
ter, will become perfectly tranfparent in oil. Thus,
blue verditer, though exceedingly opaque in water,
if ground with oil, feems totally to diflolve, and will
become very tranfparent. The fame thing happens
to fuch colours as have for their bafts the calx of tin,
alabafter, or calcareous earth. The moft perfectly
opaque colours in oil are fuch as have lead, mercury,
or iron, for their bafts : to the latter, however, Pruf-
fian blue is an exception ; for though the bafts of that
colour is iron, it proves quite tranfparent when ground
with oil. In water-colours, thofe prepared from me¬
tals, Pniflian blue alone excepted, are always opaque;
from vegetables or animals, tranfparent. Coals, how¬
ever, Whether vegetable or animal, are opaque both
in water and oil.
Colours again may be confidered as either fimple or
compound. The fimple ones are fuch as require no¬
thing to be fuperadded to them, in order to make a
full ftrong colour, without regarding whether they are
formed of many or few ingredients; and in this view,
white-lead, red-lead, vermilion, calces of iron, 4rc.
are fimple colours. The compound ones are formed
by the union of two or more colouring fubftances ; as
blue and yellow u'nited together to form a green, red
and yellow to form an orange, a white earth or ealx
with the red colour of cochineal or brazil, to form a
lake, and thus, carmine, lake, role-pink, Dutch-
pink, Englifh-pink, ire. are compound colours.
The laft and Vnoft important divifion of colonrs is
into true and falfe. By the former are meant thofe
which retain their colour under every poffible variety
of circumftances, without fading in the leaft: the others ©Wr-
are fuch as do not; but either lofe their colour alto- maklrlP'•
gether, or change to fome other. What is chiefly apt *
to affedt colours, is their being expofed to the fun in
fumqier, and to the cold air in winter ; but to this
there is one exception, viz. white-lead, which, when
ground with oil, retains its whitenefs if expofed to the
weather, but degenerates into a brownilh or yellowifh
colour if dole kept. In water this fubftance is very
apt to lofe its colour, whether expofed to the air or
not. The great delideratum in colour-making is to
produce the firft kind of colours, viz. fuch as will not
fade by expofure to the weather; and indeed it is
to be regretted, that the moft beautiful are in general
the leaft permanent. It may, for the moft part, how¬
ever, be expedied, that the more fimple any colour
is, the lefs liable will it be to change upon expofine
to the air.
The great difficulty of knowing a priori whether a
colour will fade or not, is owing to our ignorance con¬
cerning the nature of colouring fubftances. With all
our diladvantages, however, we may ohferve, that
whatever change of colour is produced in any fubftance
by expofnre to the fun and air, that colour to which
it changes will bid fair for being permanent, and
therefore ought to be employed where it can be done. ^
Of thefe changes, the inftances are but very rare, inftar.ces of.
One is in the purple of the ancients, which affumed colours pro-
tts colour by expofure to the fun, and confequently duced by
was exceedingly permanent. Another is in the folu- ^fun and"
t-iori of-lilver, which, being mixed with chalk, the a;r>
precipitate turns to purpliftl black where it is expofed
to the fun. A third is in folutions of indigo by alka¬
line fubftances, which conftantly appear green till ex¬
pofed to the air by fpreading them very thin,, upon
which they become almoft inftantaneoully blue, and ^
continue fo ever after. Sometimes, though ftiil more By the mix—
rarely, a very remarkable change of colour happens, ture of two
upon mixing two vegetable juices together. Almoft ye_£e,taWc
the only inftance of this we have on the authority 0fJmces'
Mr George Forfter, who informs us that the inbabi- 1
tants of Otaheite dye their cloth of a crimfon-colour,
by mixing together the yellow juice of a fmaff fpecies
of fig, with the greeniffi juice of a kind of fern. But:
the moft remarkable alteratioris of colour are effected
by different metallic and faline folutions mixed with
certain animal or vegetable fubftances ; and with
thefe the colour-maker will be principally eonverfant.. ^
It is a common obfervation in chemiftry, that acids Effefts ©P
mixed with blue vegetable juices turn them red, and acids and
alkalies, green. It is equally certain, though not fo alkal'es o'11’
generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend co^ai!r!”
to heighten red colours, fo as to make them approach
to the Icarlet or true crimfon; and alkalies to darken,
or make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed
with yellow colours, acids alfo univerfally tend to
brighten the yellow; and alkalies to turn- it to an
orange, and make it become more dull. But though
this is very generally the cafe, we are not to expeiff
that all acids are equally powerful in this refpeft. The
nitrous acid is found to heighten the moft of any, and
the marine acid the leaft of the mineral ones/ The
vegetable, as might be expefted, are lefs powerful
than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a timfture of
cochineal,.
COL [ 2086 ] COL
making.
8
Permanen*
cy of co¬
lours, by
what deter-
Opaque or
tranlparent
colours,
how form¬
ed.
Calx of tin,
the moft
proper bafis
cochineal, either in water or fpii it of wine, is mixed
the pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an
exceeding high orange or flame-colour, which it will
impart to cloth. If the vitriolic acid is ufed, a full
fcarlet, inclining to crimfon rather than, orange, is
produced. With marine acid a true crimfon-colour,
bordering on purple, is the confequence. Alkalies,
both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple,
which is brighter with the volatile than the fixed al¬
kalies.
Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are- pro¬
duced by the mixtures of different fublfances together,
the permanency of thefe colours can only be in pro¬
portion to the ability of fuch mixtures to refift the
weather. Thus, fuppofe a high fcarlet or orange co¬
lour is produced by means of fpirit of nitre, it is plain
that, was fuch a colour expofed to the air, it could re¬
main no longer than the fpirit of nitre which produced
it remained. In proportion, therefore, as the fpirit
of nitre was exhaled into the air, or otherwife deftroy-
ed, it behoved the colour to fade, and at laft to be totally
deftroyed; and thus, in proportion to the deflruOlibi-
lity of the fubftances by which colours are produced,
will be the difpolltion of fuch colours to fade, or the
contrary. In this refpedt alkalies are much more de-
Itruclible than acids, and confequently lefs proper for
the preparation of colours. With regard to acids,
the nitrous feems moft deftrucftible, the vitriolic lefs
fo, and the marine the leaf! of all. From the ex¬
treme fixity of the phofphorine acid and fedative fait,
perhaps they might be of fervice in preferving colours.
As all colours, whether derived from the animal or
vegetable kingdom, muft be extracted either by pure
water or fome other liquid menftruum, they cannot
be ufed for the purpofes of painting till the colouring
fubftance is united with fome earthy or folid matter,
capable of giving it a bedy, as the workmen call it;
and according to the nature of this fubftance, the co¬
lour will be - tranfparent or otherwife. This bafis
ought to be of the moft fixed and durable nature ;
unalterable by the weather, by acids, or by alkalies.
It ought alfo to be of a pure white colour, and eafily
reducible into an impalpable powder. For this reafon
all earthy fubftances fhould be avoided as being acfted
upon by acids; and therefore, if any of thefe were
added to heighten the colour, they would not fail to
be deftroyed, and their effe<ft totally loft. Precipitates
of lead, bifmuth, though exceedingly fine and
white, ought alfo to be avoided, as being apt to turn
black by expofure. The only fubftance to be chofen
in preference to all others, is calx of tin, prepared
either by fire or the nitrous acid. This is fo exceed¬
ingly refractory as not only to be unalterable by al¬
kalies, acids, or the fun and weather, but even by
the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is be-
fides white as fnow, and capable of being reduced to
an extreme degree of finenefs, infomuch that it is
made ufe of for polilhing metalline fpeculums. For
thefe reafons it is the moft proper bafis for all fine co¬
lours. For coarfe ones, the white precipitate of lead,
mentioned under the article Chemistry, n° 152, will
anfwer very well. It hath a very ftrong body, i. e. is
very opaque, and will cover well; may be eafily
ground fine, and is much lefs apt to turn black than
white-lead; it is befides very cheap, and may be pre- Colour-'
pared at the fmall expence of 3 d. per pound. maklng-
If what we have juft now obferved is attended to, ,2
the general method of extracting colours from any'General
vegetable or animal fubftance, and fixing them on a method of.
proper bafis, muft be very eafily underftood. For
this purpofe, a quantity of calx of tin is to be procur- ’ J
ed in proportion to the quantity of colour defined.
This mult be well rubbed in a glafs mortar, with a
little of the fubftance defigned for brightening the co-l
lour, as alum, cream of tartar, fpirit of nitre, ire.
after which it muft be dried, and left for fome time,
that the union between the two fubftances may be
as perfeCt as poffible. If the colour is to be a very
fine one, fuppofe from cochineal, the colouring matr
ter muft be extracted with fpirit of wine without
heat. When the fpirit is fufficiently impregnated, it
is to be poured by little and little upon the calx, rub¬
bing it conftantly, in order to diftribute the colour
equally through all parts of the calx. The fpirit foon
evaporates, and leaves the calx coloured with the co¬
chineal. More of the tinCIure is then to be poured
on, rubbing the mixture conftantly as before; and:
thus, with proper management, may very beautiful
colours, not inferior to the beft carmine, be prepared
at a moderate expence. If, inftead of cochineal, we
fubftitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, ire. differ¬
ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced.'
For the coarfer colours, aqueous decoCtions are tp be
ufed in a fimilar manner; only as thefe are much
longer of evaporating than the fpirit of wine, very
little muft-be poured on at a time, and the colours
ought to be made in large quantity, on account of the
tedioufnefs of the procefs. j
Hitherto we have confidered only the effeCIs of the EfTefts of 1
pure and fimple falts, viz. acids and alkalies, on differ- different j
ent colours; but by combining the acids with alka-°f |
lies, earths, or metals, thefe effeCts may be varied ,a ts'
almoft in infinitum ; neither is there any rule yet laid
down by which we can judge a priori of the changes
of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or
that particular fait with any colouring fubftance. In
general, the perfect neutrals a<51 weakly; the imper¬
fect ones, efpecially thofe formed from metals, much
more powerfully. Alum and fal ammoniac confider-
ably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme¬
ric, fuftic, madder, logwood, ire. The fame thing
is done, though in a lefs degree, by common fait,
Glauber’s fait, falt-petre, and many other neutrals.
Solutions of iron in all the acids ftrike a black with,
every one of the above mentioned fubftances;. and
likewife with fumach, galls, and other aftringents.
Solutions of lead, or faccharum faturni, univerfally-
debafe red colours to a dull purple. Solution of
copper changes the purple colour of logwood to a
pretty good blue; and, in general, folutions of this
metal are friendly to blue colours. The effedls of
folutions of gold, filver, and mercury, are not fo
well known ; they feem to produce dark colours of 14
no great beauty. The moft powerful folution, how- Solution of
ever, with regard to a great number of colours, istinthemoft
that of tin, made in aqua regia. Hence we may fee Power™-
the fallacy of Mr Delaval’s hypothefis concerning co- * s.cc
lours*, that the leaft refrangible ones are produced
by
olj'otour-
! 14
ireflions
| the
louring
iterials.
COL [ 2087 ] COL
by the moft denfe metals: for tin, which hath the lealt
denfity of any metal, hath yet, in a Hate of folution,
' the moft extraordinary effects upon the leaft refran¬
gible colours as well as thofe that are moft fo. The
colour of cochineal is changed by it into the moft
beautiful fcarlet; a fimilar change is made upon the
colouring matter of gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made
to yield a fine purplilh crimfpn; logwood, a beautiful
dark purple; turmeric, fuftic, weld, and all yellow¬
colouring woods and flowers, are made to communi¬
cate colours far more beautiful than can be got from
them by any other method. The blue colour of the
flowers of violets, eye-bright, iris, l$c. are heighten¬
ed fo as to equal, if not excel, the blue produced by
a folution of copper in volatile alkali. In fttort, this
folution feems to be of much more extenfive ufe in
colour-making, when properly applied, than any thing
hitherto thought of. It is not, however, univerfally
ferviceable. The colour of madder it totally deftroys,
and likewife that of faf-flower, changing thetp both
to a dull orange. It likewife fpoils the colour of ar¬
chil; and what is very remarkable, the fine red co¬
lour of tin&ure of rofes made with oil of vitriol, is by
folution of tin changed to a dirty green.
The moft important confideration in colour-making
is to make choice of fuch materials as produce the
moft durable colours; and if thefe can be procured,
an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to
a bright one from thofe which fade fooner. In what
the difference confifts between the colours that fade,
and thofe which do not, is not known with any de¬
gree of certainty. From fome appearances it would
feem that thofe fubftances which are moft remarkable
for keeping their colour, contain a vifcous, glutinous
matter fo combined with a refmous one as to be fo-
luble both in water and fpirit of wine. The moft du¬
rable red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is
very ftrongly refmous, though at the fame time fo
far glutinous, that the colouring-matter can be ex¬
tracted from it by water. Next to gum-lac, are
madder roots and cochineal. The madder is an ex¬
ceedingly penetrating fubftance, infomuch, that when
given to animals along with their food, it tinges their
bones of a deep red colour. Its colouring-matter is
foluble both in water and fpirit of wine. Along with
the pure red, however, there is in madder a kind of
vifcous, aftringent fubftance, of a dark brown colour,
which feems to give the durability to the whole. The
colouring-matter of cochineal, though foluble both in
water and fpirit of wine, is v, y tenacious and muci¬
laginous, in which it bears lome refemblance to the
purpura of the ancients, which kept its colour exceed¬
ingly well. Where the colours are fugitive, the tinging
fubftance feems to be too refinous, os too mucilagi¬
nous. Thus the colours of brazil, turmeric, are
very refinous, efpecially the latter; infomuch that
the colouring-matter of turmeric can fcarcely be ex¬
tracted by water. Both thefe are perilhable, though
beautiful colours ; and much more are the red, purple
and blue flowers,, commonly to be met with. Thefe
i'eem to be entirely mucilaginous without the leaft
quantity of refinous matter. The yellow flowers are
different, and in general keep their colour pretty
well. Whether it would be pofiible, by adding occa-
fionally a proper quantity of gum or refin, to make Cdour-
the fugitive colours more durable, hath not yet been making.
tried, but feems to have fome probability. What   
tends a little to confirm this, is a procefs given by Mr MrHellot's
Hellot for imparting durability to the colour of bra- method of
zjl. It confifts only in letting deco&ions of the wood improving
Hand for fome time in wooden calks till they grow
ftale and ropy. Pieces of woolen cloth now dyed in
the liquor acquired a colour fo durable, that they
were not in the leaft altered by expofure to the air
during four months in the winter feafon. Whether
this change in the durability of the colour was effeCled
by the ropinefs following the fermentation, or by
fome other caufe, or whether the experiment can be
at all depended upon, muft be referred to future ob-
fervation. j6
Having thus collected all that can as yet be de- Prepara-
pended upon for eftablifliing a general theory of co- tion of dif¬
lour-making, we lhall now proceed to give an account ferent co-
of the different, pigments generally to be met with in k'1'1'5,
the colour-fhops. , 7
1. Black. Thefe are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue- Lamp¬
black, and Indian-ink. The firft is the fineft of what black,
are called the foot-blacks, and is more ufed than any
other. Its preparation is defcribed in the Swedilh
Tranfadtions for the year 1 754, as a procefs dependent
on the making of common refin : the impure refinous
juice colledted from incifions made in pine and fir
trees, is boiled down with a little water, and ftrained
whilft hot through a bag : the dregs and pieces of
bark left in the {trainer are burnt in a low oven,
from which tfie fmoke is conveyed through a long
paffage into a fquare chamber, having an opening on
the top on which is a large fack made of thin woolen
fluff: the foop, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the
chamber, from whence it is fwept out once in two or
three days, and partly in the fack, which is now and
then gently ftruck upon, both for fliaking down the
foot, and for clearing the interftices betwixt the
threads, fo as to procure a fufficient draught of air
through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at
the turpentine houfes in England, from the dregs and
refufe of the refinous matters which are there manu-
fadlured.
On this fubjedi, Dr Lewis hath fome envious obfer- jg
vations. “ The foot, (fays he,) arifing in'common Dr Lewis'*
chimneys, from the more oily or refinous woods, as the obferva-
fir and pine, is obferved to contain more diffoluble tlons>
matter than that from the other woods : and this dif¬
foluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of
an oily or refinous nature than in the latter; fpirit of
wine extracting it moft powerfully from the one, and
water from the other. The oilynefs and folubility of
the foot feeming, therefore, to depend on thofe of
the fubjedt it is made from, it has been thought that
lamp-black muft poflefs thefe qualities in a greater de¬
gree than any kind of common foot. Neverthelefs,
on examining feveral parcels of lamp-black, procured
from different {hops, I could not find that it gave any
tindlure at all, either to fpirit or to water.
“ SufpeCling fome miftake or fophiftication, or that
the lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to
fit it for fome particular ufes, I prepared myfelf fome
foot from linfeed oil, by hanging a large copper pan
over
COL L 2088 ] COL
Colour- over the ffamef of a bmp to receive its fmoke. In
making, this manner the more curious artiffs prepare iamp-
black for the nicer purpofes; and from this collection
of it from the flame of a lamp, the pigment probably-
received its name. The foot_fo prepared gave no
tincture either to water or to fpirits, any more than
the common lamp-black of the limps. I tried differ¬
ent kinds of oily and refmous bodies with the fame
event; even the foots obtained from fifh-oils and tal¬
low did not appear to differ from thofe of the vege-
tabfe-oife and refins. They were all of a finer colour
than the bmp-black commonly fold.
“ Some foot was collected in like manner from fir
and other woods, by burning fmall pieces of them
ilowiy under a copper-pan. All the foots were of a
deeper black colour than thofe obtained from the fame
kinds of woods in a common chimney, and very little,
if at all, inferior to thofe of the oils: they gave only
a juft dlfcernible tinCture to water and fpirit, while
the foots of the chimney imparted a ftrong deep one
to both. The foot of mineral bitumens, in this clofe
Way of burning, appears to be of the fame qualities
with thofe of woods, oils, and relins: in fome parts
of Germany, great quantities of good lamp-black are
prepared from a kind of pit-coal.
“ It appears, therefore, that the differences of foots
, do not depend altogether On the qualities of the fub-
jeCfs, but in a great meafure on the manner in which
the fubject is burnt, or the foot caught. The foots
produced in common chimneys, from different kinds of
wood, refmous and not refinous, dry and green, do
not differ near fo much from one- another, .Is thofe
which are produced from one kind of wood in a com¬
mon Chimney, and in the confined way of burning
above-mentioned.”
Ivory- Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt
black. in a clofe veffel. This, when finely ground, forms a
more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black ;
but in the common methods of manufa&uring, it is fo
much adulterated with charcoal-duff, and fo grofsly le¬
vigated, as to be unfit for ufe. An opaque deep black
for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black
With gum-Water, or with the liquor which fettles from
the whites of eggs after they have been fuffered to
Hand a little. Some ufe gum-water and the widths
of eggs together, and report, that a fmall addition of
the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from
the pencil, and improves its gloffinefs. It may be ob-
ferved, however, that though ivory-black makes, the
deepeii colour in water as well’ as in oil-painting, yet
it is not on this account always to be preferred to 0-
ther black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is fel-
dom wanted in painting ; and in the lighter {hades.
Whether obtained by diluting the black with white
bodies^ or by applying it thin on a white ground, the
particular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great mea-
20 fure loft.
Blue-blaek. Blue-black is faid to be prepared from the burnt
ftalks and tendrils of the vine. Thefe, however, the
colour-makers feldom give themfelves the trouble of
procuring, but fubffitute in its place a mixture of ivory-
21 black and the common blue tried' for cloaths.
Indian-ink. Indian-ink is an excellent black for water-colours.
It hath been difcovered by Dr Lewis to confift: of a
mixture of lamp-black and common ghie. Ivory- Cotour*
black, or charcoal, he found to anfwer equally well, maltw8'
provided they were levigated to a fufficient degree of
finenefs, which indeed requires no final! trouble. 22
2. iVhite. The White colours commonly to be met white i
with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined' hai tfhorn, colours. !
pearl-white, Spanifli-white, egg-fliell white, and magi-
ffery of bifimuth. The flake-white and White-lead'are
properly the fame. The preparation of the former is
kept a lecret; the method of preparing the latter is
defended under Chemistry, n° 281. Thele are the
only whites that can be ufed in oil, all the reft being
traniprrfent unlefe they are laid on with water. Cal¬
cined hartfhorn is the moft u'feful of the earthy whites,
as being the leaft alkaline. Spanifti-white is only
finely prepared chalk. Pearl-white is made from
oylter • {hells; and egg-{hell white from the {hells-of
eggs. All thefe, by their attraction for acids, muff
necelfariiy deffroy Inch colours as have any acid or
metallic fait in their compofition. The magiftery Of
bifinuth is apt to turn black, as are alio flake-white
and white-lead, when ufed in water. The white
precipitate of lead recommended under Chemistry,
n° 152, is grearly fuperior as a water-colour to all
thefe ; being perfectly free of any alkaline quality,
and not at all apt to lofe its own colour, or to injure
that of other f'ubftances. ^ ’
3. Red. The red colours ufed in painting are of Red co-
two forts; viz. thofe which incline to the purple, and lours. I
fuch as are of a full fcarlet and tend rather to the
orange. The firft are carmine, lake, rofe-pink, red-
ochre, and Venetian-red. The fecond are vermilion,
red-lead, {barlet-ochre, common Indian-red, Spanifti-
brown, and terra di Sienna, burnt.'
We have already laid down fome general rules
for the preparation of carmine and lake. Particular
receipts have been' delivered With the grfeateft confi¬
dence for making thefe fine colours; but all of them
muff: rteceflarily prove ineffectual, becaufe an earthy
bafis is recommended’ for ftriking the colour upon :
from the principles of chemiffry, however, we are cer¬
tain, that if aqua fortis, Or folntion of tin, is made ufe of
for brightening a colour made with any earthy bafis, it
muft infallibly be deffroyed by that bafis, by reafon of
its alkaline quality. Carmine is the brigliteft and moft
beautiful red colour known at prefertt; the beft comes
from France. Lake differs from it in being capable
Of mixtnre with' oil; which carmine is not, imlefs with
great difficulty. The former is alfo much more in¬
clined to purple than carmine. This laft quality,
however, is reckoned a defeeft ; and accordingly, the
more that lake approaches to the fcarlet or true crim-
fon, the more it is valued. On dropping folution of
tin into an aqueous tiniPuire of brazil-wood, a beauti¬
ful precipitate falls, of a purplilh crimfon colour. This
may be very well fubftituted in place of the dearer
lakes, on many occafions.
Rofe-pink is a very beautiful colour, inclining more
to the purple than fcarlet. It fee ms to be made of chalk
coloured with a decodti'on of brazil-wood, heightened
by an alkaline fait; for which reafon it is exceedingly
perifliable, and but little efteemed. The colour might
be made mhch more durable as well as better, by em¬
ploying for a bafis the white precipitate of lead above-
mentioned,
COL [ 2089 ] COL
Colour- mentioned, and brightening it with foiution of tin.
making. Red-ochre and Venetian-red differ in nothing from
• the colcothar of vitriol well calcined. The calces of
iron may be made to appear either purplilh, or inclin¬
ing to the fcarlet, according to the manner in which
the calcination is performed. If the matter is per-
feclly deprived of its phlogilton, and liibjedted to an
intenfe fire, it always turns out red ; but the mix¬
ture of a fmall quantity of inflammable matter gives
it a purplilh call. Hence various paints are kept in
the (hops under different names, which yet differ from
each other only in the flight circumltance above-men¬
tioned : and fuch are the Icarlet-ochre, Spanifh-brown,
and terra di Sienna burnt. It is remarkable, that the
calces of iron never fliow their colour till they become
cold. Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears
of a very dark, dufky purple.
Of the preparation of vermilion and red-lead, an
account is given under the article Chemistry, n° 402,
474. Thefe are very durable colours; the firfl: is the
bell red ufed in oil-painting, but does not anfwer well in
water: the other is rather an orange ; and, like other
preparations of lead, is in fome cafes apt to turn black.
Orange co- 4* Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints
; lours. are red-orpiment and orange-lake. The firft is a
fublimate formed of arfenic and fulphur; the other
may be prepared from turmeric infufed in fpirit of
wine, having its colour (truck upon calx of tin, and
brightened by a foiution of thar metal. All the (hades
of orange, however, may-be extemporaneoufly pre¬
pared by mixing red and yellow colours together in
due proportions.
Yellow co- $• YzU™' The yellow paints mod commonly in
(ours. ufe are, king’s-yellow, Naples-yellow, Dutch-pink,
Engli(h-pink, malticot, common orpiment, yellow-
ochre, terra di Sienna unburnt, and Turbith-mineral.
King’s-yellow is evidently an arfenical preparation.
Its colour is exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade ;
on which account, and its great price, it is feldom
u(ed.
Naples-yellow was for a long time thought to be a
preparation of arfenic, but is now difcovered to have
* See Ne- lead for its bafis*. It is therefore apt to turn black
fles-jclloiu. and lofe its colour, which makes it the lefs valuable.
It is neverthelefs ufed in preference to king’s-yellow,
on account of its inferiority in price. This colour is
particularly liable to be fpoiled by iron when moirt,
and therefore (hould never be touched by that metal
unlefs previoufly ground in oil.
Dutch-pink is laid to be prepared by ftriking the
colour of yellow berries upon finely levigated chalk.
But of this there is great reafon to doubt; the bafis
of Dutch-pink feems much more hard and gritty than
chalk, • and its colour more durable than thofe (truck
upon that earth ufually are. Very good yellows may
be prepared with the white precipitate of lead for¬
merly mentioned, by ulihg either yellow berries,' u-
(tic, or any other fubrtance capable of yielding that
colour. Englifli-pink is paler than the Dutch, and
keeps its colour greatly worfe.
Mafticot is prepared by calcining white-lead till it
aflumes a yellowifli colour. It is- not apt to change,
but the colour is fo dull that it is feldom ufed either
in oil or watei
Vol III.
Common orpiment is a pretty bright greenifh-yel" Colom-
low, prepared by fubliming arfenic with lulphur. Its making,
naufeous fmell, which is greatly increafed by grind-
ing in oil, makes it very difagreeable ; nor does it
keep its colour for any length of time. That kind of
orpiment lead inclined to green is to be preferred for
the purpofes of painting.
Yellow-ochre and terra di Sienna, are ferruginous
earths, capable of becoming red by calcination. Green
vitriol precipitated by lime may be advantageoufly
fubllituted to either of them. SeeCHEMisxRY, n° 148.
Turbith-mineral is but little ufed in painting, though
its fine yellow colour feemS greatly to recommend it.
This preparation is alfo in all probability very durable ;
and Ihould feem therefore worthy of a preference ei¬
ther to king’s, or Naples, yellow. The method of
preparing it is defcribed under Chemistry, n0 154.
Gamboge is a paint that can only be ufed in water,
and is the mod common yellow made ufe of for co¬
louring maps, ire. but for this it is not very proper,
being neither quite tranfparent, nor very durable. 26
6. Green. The only Ample green colour that hath Green ca-
a tolerable degree of brightnefs is verdigreafe, or pre- lours-
parations of it. This, however, though a very beau¬
tiful colour, is far from being durable. It is improved
in colour, though not in durability, by diffolution and
crydallization in diddled vinegar ; in which date it is
called dtflilleii verdigreafe. A more durable water¬
colour is made by diffolving the verdigreafe in cream of
tartar, or rather the pure tartarous acid; but in oil
this is found to be equally fugitive with the verdigreafe
itfelf. For an account of thefe preparations, feeCHE-
mistry, n° 298.
Compound greens are either made of Pruffiap, or
fome other blue, mixed with yellow ; but in what¬
ever way thefe colours can be compounded, the beauty
of the green produced is greatly inferior to diltilled,
or even common, verdigreafe. The tartarous foiution
of verdigreafe, mixed with a little gamboge, is the bed
tranfparent green water-colour vve have had an op¬
portunity of trying ; and a mixture of Pruflian-blue
and turbith-mineral is probably the bed opaque one.
Sap-green is a Ample colour, but exceedingly infe¬
rior to diddled verdigreafe, or even to the tartarous
foiution of verdigreafe with gamboge. It is prepared
from the juice of unripe buckthorn-berries evaporated
to the confidence of a gum. Its green-colour is greatly
inclined to yellow. A kind of compound green has
been fometimes ufed, called Pruflian~green, which con-
fids only of Pruflian-blue and yellow-Ochre. It has
no beauty, nor is it durable. It is prepared as Pruf-
fian-blue, only not pouring on any fpirit of fait to dif-
folve the ochreous fediment which falls at the fame
time.
Another green fometimes ufed is called terra verte.
This is a native earth, probably impregnated with
copper. It is of a bluilh green colour, much of that
taint called fea-green. It is gritty, and therefore mud
be well levigated before it is ufed. Its colour is du¬
rable, but not very bright. 27
7. Blue. The blue colours are ultramarine, Pruf- Blue co-
fian-blue, verditer, fmalt, bice, and indigo. Of thefe lours,
the ultramarine is the fined, but its great price hin¬
ders its being much ufed. . It is a preparation from
12 I lapis
COL [ 2090 ] COL
Colour- lapis lazuli; is an exceeding bright colour, and never
making, fades with whatever Jubilance it is mixed. It is now,
' however, in a great meafure fuperfeded by Pruffian-
blue, to the difadvantage of painting in general; as
Pruffian-blue, though very beautiful, is far from being
durable. For an account of its preparation fee the
article Ultramarine.
The procefs for making Pruffian-blue is defcribed,
and its nature fully confidered, under Chemistry,
n° 387 : fo that it is fufficient here to obferve, that
Pruffian-blue is to be accounted of the belt quality
when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple.
It ought to be tried by mixture with white-lead, as
the brightnefs of the colour will appear much more
when diluted than when concentrated in the lumps of
the blue itfejf.
Blue verditer is an exceeding bright blue colour,
inclining to green. The method of preparing it is
• See Che- kept a lecret *. It is durable in water, but dilfolves
fniftrh in oil, and has then all the inconveniences of verdi-
greafe above-mentioned.
Smalt is glafs-coloured with zalfre, a preparation
f See Zaffrc from cobalt f. It is commonly fo grofsly powdered
and Smalt. tiiat jt eannot be ufed in painting, and its texture is fo
hard that it cannot eafily be levigated. Its colour is
exceedingly bright and durable; fo that when finely
levigated it is ufed inftead of ultramarine. The moll;
proper materials for levigating this fubflance feem to
be the plates of M. Reaumur’s porcelain recommend¬
ed by Dr Lewis. See Chemistry, n° 92, 97. For
the preparation and qualities of bice, fee the articles
Tapis Armenus and Bice.
Indigo is but little ufed in painting either in oil or
water, on account of the dulnefs of the colour. It re¬
quires no other preparation than being walked over.
Its goodnefs is known by the darknefs and brightnefs
23 of the colour. See Indigo.
Purple co- Purple. The only limple colour of this kind
lours. ufed at prefent is colcothar of vitriol. A beautiful
purple lake may be prepared from logwood by means
of folution of tin ; but this method of preparing co-
29 lours is very little known as yet.
Brown co- 9. Brown. The brown colours are, biftre, brown
lours. ochre, Cologne-earth, timbre, and brown pink. Under
the article Bistre is given a procefs for making that
30 colour, by infufing foot in water, pouring-off the tinc-
Dr Lewis’s ture, and then evaporating it to an extradl; but Dr
opinion Lewis is of opinion, with Mr Landois in the French
bhtre™111^ Encyclopedie, that the foot is either boiled in water,
or ground with a little liquid of fome kind into a fmooth
pafte : it is then diluted with more water, and after
Handing for about half an hour till the groffer fub-
ftance of the foot has fettled, the liquor is poured off
into another veffel, and fet by for two or three days
that the finer parts may fall to the bottom, and this
fine matter is the bidre. This is a very ufeful colour
in water, being exceedingly fine, durable, and not apt
to fpoil any other colours with which it is mixed.
The brown pink is laid to confift of chalk tinged with
the colouring matter of fuftic, heightened by fixed al¬
kaline falts. It is therefore very perifliable, and is
feldom ufed. The other browns are a kind of ochre-
ous earths ; for a defcription of which fee their pro¬
per articles.
Having now confidered moft of the colouring fub- Colour-
ftances ufually to be met with in the (hops, we fliall mak'ng. -
next take notice of fome attempts that have been 3I
made to produce all the different colours from vege- Attempts to |
tables, after the manner of lakes ; which, though the make lakes 1
methods hitherto tried have for the molt part failed co' |
of fuccefs, may perhaps fome time or other be found
applicable to valuable purpofes. 32 |
From infufions of aflringent vegetables mixed with Slack from »
green vitriol, is produced a deep black liquor of very aftringents.!
extenfive ufe in dyeing*. The fubftances which pro- * See Dye-
duce the deepeft blacks are galls and logwood. When tn£’
a decoction or infufion of the galls is dropped into a
folution of the vitriol largely diluted with water, the
firlt drops produce bluilh or purplifh red clouds, which
foon mingling with the liquor, turn it uniformly of
their own colour. It leems to be on the quality of
the water that this difference in the colour depends.
With diftilled water, or the common fpring-waters,
the mixture is always blue. If we previoufly difiblve
in the water the moft minute quantity of any alkaline
fait, too fmall to be difcovered by any of the common
means'by which waters are ufually tried, or if the
water is in the leaft putrid, the colour of the mixture
proves purple or reddifh. Rain-water caught as it
falls from the clouds in an open field in clean glafs-
veffels, gives a blue ; but fuch as is colleifted from the
tops of the houfes, grows purple with the mixture of
vitriol and galls: from whfence it may be prefumed,
that this laft has contracted a putrid tendency, or re¬
ceived an alkaline impregnation, though fo flight as
not to be fenfible on other ways of trial.
Both the purple and blue liquors, on adding more
of the aftringent infufion, deepen to a black, more or
lefs intenfe according to the nature of dilution : if the
mixture proves of a deep opaque blacknefs, it again
becomes bluilh or purplifli when further diluted. If
fuffefed to ftand in this diluted ftate for two or three
days, the colouring matter fettles to the bottom in
form of a fine black mud, which by flightly fliaking
the velfel, is diffufed again through the liquor, and
tinges it of its former colour. When the mixture is of
a full blacknefs, this feparation does not happen, or in
a far lefs degree ; for though a part of the black mat¬
ter precipitates in Handing, yet fo much remains difl-
Iblved, that the liquor continues black. This fufpen-
fion of the colouring fubftance, in the black liquid,
may be attributed in part To the gummy matter of the
aftringent infufion increafing the confiftence of the
watery fluid ; for the feparation is retarded in the
diluted mixture, by a fmall addition of gum Arabic.
If the mixture either in its black or diluted ftate is
poured into a filter, the liquor pafles through colour¬
ed ; only a part of the black matter remaining on the
filter. The filtered liquor on Handing for fome time
becomes turbid and full of fine-black flakes : being
freed from thefe by a fecond filtration, it again puts
on the fame appearance ; and- this repeatedly, till all
the colouring parts are feparated, and the liquor has
become colourlefs.
Dr Lewis, from whofe Philofophical Commerce of
Arts this account is taken, further informs us, that this
colouring matter, when feparated from the liquor and
dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not feem
to
*C O L [ 2091 ] COL
!o3 Colour- to have fuffered any change from the air by expofure
j|| making. for UpWai cjs of four months. Made red-hot, it glowed
and burnt, but did not flame, and became a rufly
brown powder, which was readily attrafted by
a magnetic bar ; though in its black ftate the mag¬
net had no adtion upon it. The vitriolic acid, di¬
luted with water and digefted on the black powder,
diflblved greatelt part of it, leaving only a very fmall
quantity of whitifli matter. Solution of pure fixed
alkaline fait diflblved very little of it: the liquor re¬
ceived a reddilh brown colour, and the powder be¬
came blackiih brown. This refiduum was attracted
by the magnet after being red-hot, though not before:
the alkaline tindture, pafled through a filter, and
mixed with a folution of green vitriol, flruck a deep
* brownilh black colour, nearly the fame with that which
refults from mixing with the vitriolic, folutjon, an al-
22 kaline tindlure of galls.
Black from It hath alfo been attempted to produce black from
a combiua- a combination of other colours ; as green may be pro-
1 tion °f °- duced from a mixture of blue and yellow. Mr le Blon,
U loursC°* ^ Harmony of Colours, gives a method of forming
3 ‘ black, by mixing together the three colours called
primitive, viz. blue, red, and yellow ; and Mr Cartel,
in his Optique des Couloirs, publiflied in 1740, lays
that this compound black has an advantage, in paint¬
ing, above the Ample ones, of anfwering better for
the darkening of other colours. Thus, if blue, by the
addition of black, is to be darkened into the colour
called blue-black, the fimple blacks, according to him,
if ufed in fufficient quantity to produce the requifite
deepnefs, conceal the blue, while the compound blacks
leave it diftinguilhable. Le Blon does not mention
the proportions of the three colours neceflary for pro¬
ducing black. Cartel directs 15 parts of blue ; five of
red, and three of yellow; but takes notice, that thefe
proportions are rather fpeculatively than pratrtically
juft, and that the eye only can be the true judge ; our
colours being all very imperfect, and our pigments or
other bodies of one denomination of colour being
very unequal in their degree of intenfity. He ob-
Iferves, that the pigments fttould all be of the deepeft
and darkeft kind ; and that, inftead of taking one pig¬
ment for each colour, it is better to take as many as
can be got; for the greater difcord there is of hete¬
rogeneous and difcordant drugs, the more true and
beautiful, he fays, will the black be, and the more
capable of uniting with all other colours, without
fupprefling them, and even without making them
tawney.
Dr Lewis acquaints us, that by mixing different
blue, red, and yellow colours, he has not been able to
p-oduce a perfect black ; but has often obtained from
them very dark colours, fuch as may be called brown-
blacks, or grey-blacks ; fuch as we commonly fee in the
dark parts of paintings, and fuch as the charcoal and
foot blacks appear when diluted a little. The ingre¬
dients being each of a dark deep colour is a very ne-
ceffary condition ; for bright blues, bright reds, and
bright yellows, mixed in fuch proportions that neither
colour prevailed, produced only a grey. In effeift,
all compofitions of this kind, phyfically confidered, can
be no other than greys, or fome of the interme¬
diate teints between wbitenefs and darknefs; and
thefe greys will be fo much the lighter or darker, as CoWr-
the component colours of themfelves are bright or dark. makinS-
With regard to the extraction of the colouring
matter from the different kinds of vegetables com¬
monly to be met with of all colours, this would cer¬
tainly,be a very valuable acquifition, could the colours
fo procured be made durable. On this fubjeCt nothing
hath yet appeared more fatisfaCtory than what is de¬
livered by Dr Lewis in his notes on Neuman’s che-
miftry. His obfervations are curious, but promile very
little fuccefs to any who fliall attempt to fix thefe ve¬
getable colours.
“ Among the infinite variety of colours, (fays he,) jjr Lewis’s
which glow in the flowers of plants, there are very experi-
few which have any durability, or whole fugitive ments on
beauty can be arrefted by art, fo as to be applied to Stable
any valuable purpofes. The only permanent ones
are the yellow : the red, the blue, and all the inter¬
mediate lhades of purples, crimfons, violets, Ire. are
extremely’perilliable. Many of thefe flowers lofe
their colours on being barely dried ; efpecially if they
are dried flowly as has been ufually direCled, in a
lhady, and not warm place. The colours of all of
them perilh on keeping even in the clofeft veflels.
The more hartily they are dried, and the more per¬
fectly they are fecured from the air, the longer they
retain their beauty. The colouring matter extracted
and applied on other bodies is ftill more perHhable :
oftentimes it is changed or dertroyed in the hands of
the operator.
“ The colour of many blue flowers is extracted by
infufion in water; but there are fome from which water
gains only reddilh, or purplilh blue. Of thole that have
been tried there is not one which gives any blue tinc¬
ture to fpirituous liquors : fome gi ve no colour at all,
and fome a reddifti one. The juice preffed out from
the frelh flowers is for the moll part blue. The blue
juices and infufions are changed red by all acids. . The
marine add feems to ftrike the molt florid red. The
flowers themfelves macerated ki acid liquors, impart
alfo a deep red tinCture. Alkalies, both fixed and
volatile, and lime-water, change them to a green.
Thofe infulions of the juices, which have , nothing of
the native colour of the flowers, fuffer the lame
changes from the addition of acid and alkaline liquors :
even when the flowers have been kept till their co¬
lour is loft, infufions made from them acquire ftill a
red colour from the one, and a green from the other,
though in a lefs degree than when the flowers were
frelh. The red colour produced by acids is fcarcely
more durable than the original blue : applied upon
other bodies and expofed to the air, it gradually de¬
generates into a faint purplilh, and at length difap-
pears, leaving hardly any ftain behind. The green
produced by alkalies changes to a yellow, which does
not fade fo foon. The green, by lime-water, is more
permanent and more beautiful: green lakes, prepa¬
red from thefe flowers by lime-water, have been ufed
as pigments by the painter. The flowers of cyanus
have been greatly recommended, as affording elegant
and durable blue pigments ; but I have never been
able to extract from them any blue colour at all.
They retain their colour indeed, when haftily dried,
longer than fome other blue flowers : but they com-
12 I 2 municate
COL [ 2092 ] COL
Colour- municate nothing of it to any kind of menflrnum.
making. Infufions of them in watery, fpirituous, and oily liquors,
“ are all of them more or Ids of a reddilh call, without
any tendency to blue. Alum, which is laid to heighten
and prderve their blue colour, changes it, like that of
other blue flowers, to a purplilh red ; acids .to a deep
red : alkalies and lime-water to a green : folution of
tin added to the watery jnfufion, turns it of a fine
crimfon : on ftanding, a beautiful red foecula fubfides,
but it lofes all its colour by the time it is dry. The
watery infufion, inl'piflated to the conliftence of an
extract, a'ppears of a dark reddifh brown : an extract
made with rectified fpirit is of a purplifh colour. The
colour of both extracts fpread thin and expofed to the
air quickly fades. The flowers employed in thefe ex¬
periments were thofe of the common blue-bottle of
the corn-fields;
“ Red flowers readily communicate their own red
colour to watery menftrua : among thofe that have
been tried, there is not one exception. Thofe of a
full red colour give to rectified fpirit alfo a deep red
tincture, brighter, though fomewhat paler than the
watery infufion : but the lighter red flowers, and
thofe which have a tendency to purplifh, impart very
little colour to fpirit, and feem to partake more of the
nature of the blue, flowers than of the pure red. Infu¬
fions of red flowers are fuppofcd to be heightened by
acids, and turned green by alkalies, like thofe of the
blue ; but this is far from being univerfal. Among
thofe I have examined, the role-colours and purplifh
reds were changed nearly in the fame manner as the
blues ; but the full deep reds were not. The deep
infufion of red poppies is changed by‘alkalies, not to a
- green, but to a dufky purple.
“ The colours of yellow flowers, whether pale or
deep, are in general durable. Many of them are as
much fo, perhaps, as any of the native colours of vege¬
tables. The colour is extracted both by water and by
fpirit. The watery infufions are the deepeff. Neither
alkalies nor acids alter the fpecies of the colour, though
both of them vary its lhade ; acids rendering it pa¬
ler, and alkalies deeper : alum likewife confiderably
heightens it, though not fo much as alkalies. An in¬
fufion of the flowers, made in alkaline leyj precipi¬
tated by alum, gives a durable yellow lake. In feme
of the deep reddifh yellow, or .orange-coloured flowers,
the yellow matter feems to be of the -fame kind with
that of the pure yellow flowers, but the red to be of
a different kind from the pure red ones ; watery
menftrua take up only the yellow, and leave the red,
which may afterwards be extraifted by rectified fpirit
of wine, or by water acuated by fixed alkaline fait.
Such particulary are the faffron-coloured flowers of
carthamus. Thefe, after the yellow matter has been
extrafted by water, are faid to give a red tindture to
ley; from which on {landing at reft for fome time, a deep
bright red fecula fubfides; called from one of the names
of the plant which produces it, fa flower; and from
the countries whence it is commonly brought to us,-
Spanijh-red, and China-lake. This pigment impreg¬
nates fpirit of wine with a beautiful red tindture, but
communicates no colour to water. I have endea¬
voured to feparate by the fame treatment, the red
matter of fome of the other reddifh. yellow flowers,
as thofe of garden marigold, but without fuccefs. Colour-
Plain water extradted a yellow colour, and alkaline making.
ley extradted afterwards only a paler yellow ; though
the digeftions were continued till the flowers had loft
their colour, the tindtures were no other than yellow,
and not .fo deep as thofe obtained from the pure yel¬
low flowers. The little yellow flofeuli, which in
fome kinds of flowers, are colledted into a compadt
round dife, as in the daily and corn-marigold, agree
fo far as they have been examined, with the expand¬
ed yellow petala. Their colour is afledted in the lame
manner by acids, by alkalies, and by alum ; and
equally extradted by water and by fpirit. But the
yellow farina, or fine cluft, lodged on the tips of the
ftamina of flowers, appears to be of a different kind.
It gives a fine bright yellow to fpirit, and a duller
yellow to water; the undiflblved part proving in both .
cafes of a pale yellowifh- white. Both the watery and
fpirituous tindtures were heightened by alkaline li¬
quors, turned red by acids, and again to a deep yel¬
low on adding more of the alkali: I know no other
vegetable yellow that is turned red by acids.
“ White flowers are by no means deftitute of co¬
louring matter. Alkaline lixivia extradl from fome.
of them a green tindlure, and change their colourlefs
expreffed juices to the fame colour ; but I have not
obierved, that they are turned red by acids. The
flowers of the common wild convolvulus or bind-weed,
which in all their parts are white, give a deep yel¬
low or Orange tindture to plain water; which, like the
tindtures of flowers that are naturally of that colour,
is rendered paler by adds, heightened a little by alum,
and more confiderably by alkaline falls. The vapours
of the volatile vitriolic acid, or of burning fulphur,
which whiten or deflroy the colour of the coloured
flowers, make no change in the white.
“ The red juices of fruits, as currants, mulberries, Colours
elder-berries, morello and black cherries, ixc. gently from fruits,
infpilfated to drynefs, difTolve again almofl totally in
water, and appear nearly of the fame red colour as
at firft. Redtified fpirit extradls the tinging particles, ■
leaving a confiderable portion of mucilaginous matter
undiffolved ; and hence ^he fpiritnous tindture proves
of a brighter colour than the watery. The red folu-
tions, and the jtiices themfelves, are fometimes maile
dull and fometimes more florid, by acids, and gene¬
rally turned purplifh by alkalies. The colours of thefe
juices are for the moll part perifhable. They refill,
indeed, the power of fermentation, and continue al¬
mofl unchanged, after the liquor has been converted
into wine, but when the juice is fpread thin upon o-
ther bodies, exficcated, and expofed to the air, the
colour quickly alters and decays: the bright lively red
change the foonefl : the dark dull red ftain from the
juice of the black cherry, is of confiderable durability.
The fruit of the American opuntia or prickly pear,
the plant upon which the cochineal infect is produced,
is perhaps an exception : This bright red fruit, ac¬
cording to Labat, gives a beautiful red dye. Some
experiments, however, made upon the juice of that
fruit, as brought into England, did not promife to
be of any great advantage : but the particulars I can¬
not now recolle<5t.
“ The ripe berries of buckthorn Itain paper of a
green
]
COL
COL [ 2093
Colour- green colour. From the fe is prepared-tlie fubftance addition of any other colouring matter; particularly Colour-
making, called fap-gretn, a pigment fuificiently durable, rea- thole of the wild chervil, or cow-weed, the common making,
dily foluble in water, but not miicible with oil. The ragwort, and dev-il’s-bit. The leaves of many kinds
berries dried while green, and macerated in alum- of herbs and trees give a yellow dye to wool or
water, are laid to yield a yellow pigment; and when woolen doth that has been previoully boiled with a
they have grown over ripe fo as to fall off fpontane- folution of alum and tartar. Weld, in particular, af-
oully, a purple one. It is faid that the berry of the fords a fine yellow, and is commonly made ufe of
heliotropium triooccum, which grows wild about for this purpol'e by the dyers, and cultivated in large
Montpelier, llains paper of a green colour, and that quantity in fome parts of England. There is no co-
this green turns prel’ently to a blue: that the com- lour for which we have fuch plenty of materials as
mon blue paper receives its colour from this juice: for yellow. Mr Hellot obferves, that all leaves,
and that the red rags called turufol, employed for co- barks and roots, which on being chewed, difeover a
louring wines and other liquors, are tindured by the- flight aflxingency, as the leaves of the almond, peach,
fame juice turned red by acids. According to M. and pear-trees, afh-bark, (efpcciatly that taken off
Niffole of the French academy of fcienCes (as quoted after the firft rifing of the fap in the fpring), the
by Savary in his Didionaire de Commerce), the co- roots of wild patience, ire. yield durable yellows,
louring juice is obtained, not from the berries, but more or lefs beautiful according to the length of time
from tops of the plant gathered in Auguft, ground in that the boiling is continued, and the proportions of
mills, and then committed to the prefs. The juice is alm^j and tartar in the preparatory liquor; that a
expofed to the fun about an hour, the rags dipt in it, large quantity of alum makes thel’e yellows approach
dried hi the fun, moiltened by the vapour which to'the elegant yellow of weld : that if the tartar is
arifes during the flaking of quicklime with urine, then made to prevail, it inclines then to an orange : that
dried again in the fun, and dipped again in the juice.' if the roots, barks, or leaves, he too long boiled, the
The Dutch and others are laid to prepare turnftol rags, yellow proves tarniflied, and acquires fliades of brown.’*
and turnfol in the mafs, from different ingredients. See the article Dyeing.
among which archil is a principal one. The molt capital preparations from the leaves of
“ In fome plants, peony for inllance, the feeds at plants, are thofe of indigo and weld ; which are both
a certain point of maturity are covered with a fine very much ufed in dyeing, though the firff only in
fluning red membrane. The pellicles of the feeds of painting*. Both the indigo and woad plants give *Seein<ffgo
a certain American n ee aftbrd the red. tnafies brought out their colour, by proper management, to water, and
into Europe under the names of an/iotto, orlcan, and in form of a blue fecula or lake. Mr Hellot fufpedts p V .
5ee An* roucou*. Mr Pott, in the Berlin Memoirs for the that a like blue fecula is procurable from many other Onndi<io>a
tto. year 1752, mentions a very extraordinary property vegetables. Blue and yellow blended together, com- accoumed
of this concrete. ‘ With the vitriolic acid it pro- poie a green. He fuppol’es the natural greens in ve- for.
duces a blue colour, of extreme beauty ; but with getables to be compounded in like manner of thefe
this capital defeat, that all falts and liquors, and even two colours; and that the blue is oftentimes the rnoft
common water, deltroy it.’ The fpecimen of arnot- permanent, fo as to remain entire after the putrefac-
to, which I examined, was not fenfibly atSled upon tion or deflrutflion of the yellow. The theory is fpe-
by fpirit of vitriol; it received no change in its own cious, and perhaps juft : we know of no other that
colour, and corqmunicated none to the liquor. Nor accounts in any degree for the production ofthe indi-
did any vifible change enfue upon dropping the acid go and woad blue. Dr Lewis, however, informs us,
26 into tinctures of annotto made in water, or in fpirit. that he never was able to produce the leaft appear-
dours “ The green colour of the leaves of plants is ex- ance of either blue or yellow from any of the plants
")m traCted by rectified fpirit of wine and by oils. The he tried by treating them in the manner ufed for the
ives. Ipirituous tinCtures are generally of a fine deep green, preparation of indigo. 38
even when the leaves themfelves are dull-coloured, There are fundry mofles, which in their natural Colours
or yellowifli, or hoary. The colour, however, fel- ftate, like the indigo and woad plants, proinife nothing
dom abides long even in the liquor; much lefs when of the elegant colours that can be extracted from them 1
the tinging matter is feparated in a iblid form, and by art. The meft remarkable of thefe is archil, for
expofed with a large furface to the air. The editor the preparation of which, and the colours that may
of the Wirtemberg Pharmacopeia obferves, that the be produced from it, fee the article. Linnaeus fu-
leaves of acanthus, brankurfine, or bear’s-breach, fpeCts that there are fever,al other more common
give a more durable green tinCIure to fpirit than thofe mofles from which valuable colours might be extraCl-
of any other herb. Alkalies heighten the colour both ed : a quantity of fea-mbfs, having rotted in heaps on
of the tinClUres* and green juices; acids weaken, de- the fhore, he obferved the liquor in the heaps to be
ftroy, or change it to a brownifli: lime-water im- as red as blood ; the fea-water, the fun, and [the
proves both the colour and durability : by means of putrefaClion, having brought out the colour. Mr
lime, not inelegant green lakes are procurable from Kalm, in an appendix to Linnasus’s paper 101745,
the leaves of acanthus, lily of the valley, and feveral mentions two forts of mofles iCIually employed in
other plants. There are very few herbs which com- Sweden for dyeing woolen red: one is the Lichenoides
municate any fliare of their green colour to water ; coralliforme apicibus coccineis of Ray’s Synopfis; the
perhaps none that give a green of any confiderable other the Lichenoides tartareum, farinacenm, fcutel-
deepnefs. It is faid, however, that the leaves of larum umbone fufeo, of Dillenius. This laft is a white
lb me plants give a green dye to woolen, without the fubftance like meal clotted together, found on the fides
and
COL [ 2094 ] COL
Colour- anti tops of hills. It is fhaved off from the rocks af-
rnaking- ter rain, purified from the ftony matters intermixed
among it by wafhing with water, then dried in the
fun, ground in mills, and again wafhed and dried : it
is then put into a velfel with urine, and fet by for a
month : a little of this tinfture added to boiling wa¬
ter makes the dyeing liquor. In the fame tranfa&ions
for the year 1754, there is an account of another mofs,
which, prepared with urine, gives a beautiful and
durable red or violet dye to wool and filk. This is
the lichen foliaceus umbilicatus fubtus lacunenfis, Linn,
flor. Suec. It grows upon rocks, and is readily dif-
tinguilhable from others of that clafs, by looking as if
burnt, or parched, con lifting of leaves as thin as pa¬
per, convex all over on the upper fide, with corre-
fponding cavities underneath, adhering firmly to the
flones by a little root under the leaves, and corning
affunder, when dry, as foon as touched. It is gather¬
ed after rain, as it then holds beft together, and parts
eafieft from the ftone. In France, a cruftaceous mofs,
growing upon rocks in Auvergne, is prepared with
lime and urine, and employed by the dyers as a fuc-
cedaneum for the Canary archil, to which it is faid to
be very little inferior. Mr Hellot relates, that he
has met with feveral other moffes, which, on being
prepared in the fame manner, acquire the fame co¬
lour. The mofl: expeditious way, he fays, of trying
whether a inofs will yield an archil or not, is to moil-
ten a little of it with a mixture of equal parts of fpi-,
rit of fait ammoniac and ftrong lime-water, and add
a fmall proportion of crude fal ammoniac. The glafs
is then to be tied over with a piece of bladder, and
fet by for three or four days. If the mofs is of the
proper kind, the little liquor which runs from it upon
inclining the veffel, will appear of a deep crimfon
colour; and this afterwards evaporating, the plant
itfelf acquires the fame colour. Dr Lewis informs us
that he has tried- a good number of the common
moffes, many both of the cruftaceous and foliaceous
kind, and not a few of the fungi; as alfo the herbs
chamomile and milfoil, which yield a blue eflential
oil ; and thyme, whole oil becomes blue by digeftion
with volatile fpirits; but never met with any that
yielded a colour like archil. Moft of them gave a
yellow or reddilh brown tindlure. A few gave a
deep red colour to the liquor : but, when diluted, it
Ihewed a yellowilh caft, and when applied on cloth it
38 gave only a yellowilh red.
Some blue To thefe obfervations we {hall only add, that though,
flowers may jn general, the blue colours of flowers are exceeding-
Vield peyr. ^ penfhable, there feem to be at lead two exceptions
manent co- t0 th'3 fule ; for the blue flowers of iris, or flower-
lours. de-luce, and thofe of columbine, when treated with
folution of tin yielded a colour tolerably permanent.
Indeed, when experiments are made with a view to
extract the colour from any part of a vegetable, it
will always be proper to try whether it can bear a
mixture with this folution. If the colour is not de-
ftroyed by it, there is a very great probability that the
folution will, by proper management, preferve, and
give a durability to it, which could fcarce be obtained
by any other method. It muft, however, be obfer-
ved, that there are feveral fubftances ufed in colour¬
making, which folution of tin cannot bear to be mixed
with. Thefe are principally fugar of lead and cream Colouring a
of tartar, as well as all the calcareous earths and al- 1 s
kaline lalts. With alum it may be mixed very fafely, Colt' 1
and is in many cafes the better for it. The roots of 39 1
plants, however, feem to promile more durability of Colours I
colour than the upper parts. We have feen a blue fl0ni roots,|
colour of confiderable durability and hrightnefs pre¬
pared from the roots of common radilhes by expr.ef-
fing the juice, combining it with tobacco-pipe day,
and brightening it with a little alum. The root of
the red beet is alfo. faid to yield a durable colour of a
beautiful red, inclining to fcaplet; but this we cannot
affirm from our own experience. 40 |
With regard to liquid colours for maps, <tc. we Colours a
apprehend there can be very little difficulty of pre- f°r maPs’ I
paring all the poffible Varieties of them, if what we
have above laid down is attended to. The only co¬
lour with which there can be any difficulty is blue-;
but the common folutions of indigo in alkalies or acids
may be made to anfwer this purpofe, though, on ac¬
count of their ftrongly faline quality, they are not
very proper. A very curious method of procuring
a beautiful tranfparent blue colour is by extrading the
colouring matter from Pruffian blue, by means of a
cauftic alkali. This when laid upon paper appears of
a dirty brown colour; but if walked over with a weak
folution of green vitriol, is inftantly changed to a moft
beautiful blue. This feems to afford a method of pro¬
curing blue tranfparent colours of greater beauty than
they are dually met with.—See fpecimens of tranf-
parent colours prepared according to the above rules,
on the Chart fubjoined to History.
COLOURING, among painters, the manner of ap¬
plying and conduding the colours of a pidure ; or the
mixtures of light and fltadows, formed by the various
colours employed in painting. See Painting.
Colouring o/" UA?/}. See Glass.
Colouring of Porcelain. See Porcelain.
COLT, in zoology, a general name for the young
of the horfe-kind : the male being likewife, for dif-
tindion’s fake, called a horfe~colt: the female, a filly.
After the colts have been foaled, you may fuffer spsrtfman’s
them to run with the mare till about Michaelmas, Dirtiomiry.
fooner or later, according as the cold weather comes
in ; then they muft be weaned ; though fome perfons
are for having them weaned after Martinmas, or the
middle of November. The author of the Complete
Horfeman is of opinion, that the reafon why moft foals
advance fo {lowly, and are not capable of fervice till
they are fix or feven years old, is becaufe they have
not fucked long enough ; whereas, if they had fucked
the whole winter over, they would he as good at four
or five years old, as they are now at eight.
They ought now to be kept in a convenient houfe,
with a low rack and manger for their hay and oats,
which muft be fweet .ind good ; with a little wheaten"
bran mixed with the oats to caufe them to drink, and
to keep their bodies open. But, fince there are fome
who alledge that oats make foals become blind, or
their teeth crooked ; the fame author is of opinion,
that oats will wear their teeth, and make them the
fooner to change, and alfo to raze ; therefore he
judges it to be the beft way to break them in a mill,
becaufe that by endeavouring with their jaws to bruife
COL
[ 2095 ]
COL
and chew them, they ftretch and fwell their eye and You will not need a cavelTon of cord, which is a head
nether-jaw veins, which fo attract the blood and hu- ftrain, nor a pad of Itraw ; but only a common faddle, ~
mours tjiat they fall down upon the eyes, and fre- and a common cavellbn on his nofe, fuch as other
quently occafion the lofs of them : fo that it is not the horfes are ridden with ; but it ought to be well lined
heating quality of the oats, but the difficulty in chew- with double leather ; and if you pleafe you may put
ing, that is the caufe of their blindnefs. ' on his mouth a watering bit, but without reins, only
Further, colts thus fed with grain do not grow the head-ltall, and this-but for a few days ; and then
thickiffi upon their legs, but grow broader and better put on luck a bit as he ffiould be always ridden with :
' ' ‘ ' and be fure not to uie fpurs for fome time after back¬
ing. Take notice, that as yearlings muft be kept a-
broad together, fo thole of two years old together j
the like for thole of three yearlings, which ordering
is moll agreeable to them.
In order to make him endure the faddle the better,
the way to make-it familiar to him will be by clap¬
ping the faddle with your hand as it Hands upon his
back, by linking it, and fwaying upon it, dangling
the Itirrups by his lides, rubbing them againll his hdes,
and making much of him, and bringing him to be fa¬
miliar with all things about him ; as llraining the
crupper, fallening and loofening the girths, and taking
up and letting out the flirrups. Then as to the mo¬
tion of him, when he will trot with the faddle obe¬
diently, you may wafh a trench of a full mouth, and
put the fame into his mouth, throwing the reins over
knit than if they had eaten nothing but bay and bran,
and will endure fatigue the better. But above all
they mull be kept from wet and cold, which are hurt¬
ful to them, nothing being more tender than they are.
For proof of this, take a Spanilli llallion, and let him
cover two mares, which for age, beauty, and comeli-
nefs may admit of no difference between them ; and
if they produce bothhorfe-colts, or both fillies, which is
one and the fame thing, let one run abroad, and the o-
thcr be honied every winter, kept warm, and ordinari¬
ly attended ; and that colt that has been kept abroad
lhall have large flelhy llioulders, flabby and gouty legs,
weak palterns, and ill hoofs ; and lhall be a dull heavy
jade, in comparifon to the other which is houfed, and
orderly kept ; and which will have a fine forehead,
be fine lhaped, and have good legs and hoofs, and be
of good ftrength and fpirit: by which you may know,
that to have the fineli flallion, and the beautifullell the forepart of the faddle, fo that he may have a full
mare, is nothing if they are fpoiled in the breeding feeling of it ; then put on a martingale, buckled at
tip. It is worth obfervatton, that fome foals, under
fix months old, though their dams yield plenty of milk,
yet decay daily, and have a cough, proceeding from
certain pellicles or Ikins that breed in their flomachs,
which obltrudl their breathing, and at lafl deftroy
them entirely. To remedy this malady, take the bag
wherein the colt was foaled, dry it, and give him as
much of it in milk as you can take up with three fin-
fucli a length that he may but juft feel it when he
jerks up his head ; then take a broad piece of leather,
and put it about his neck, and make the ends of it
faft by plating of it, or fome other way, at the withers,
and the middle part before his wealand, about two
handfuls-below the thropple, betwixt the leather and
his neck; let the martingale pafs fo, that when at
any time he offers to duck, or throw down his head.
gers: but if you have not preferved the bag, procure the caveffon being placed upon the tender griftle of his
The lungs of a young fox, and ufe it inftead of the
aforefaid powder.
It will be proper to let the colts play an hour or
two in fome court-yard, fife, when it is fair weather,
provided you put them up again carefully, and fee
that they take no harm. When the winter is fpent,
turn them into fome dry ground, where the grafs is
fhort and fweer, and where there is good water,
that they may drink at pleafure : for it is not necef-
fary that a colt ffiould fill his belly immediately, like
a horfe that labours hard. The next winter you may
take them into the houfe, and uie them juft as,you do
your other horfes ; but let not your horfe-colts and
fillies be kept together after the firft year. This me-
nofe, may correifl and punilh him ; which will make
him bring his head to, and form him to an abfolute
rein : trot him abroad, and if you find the reins or
martingale grow flack, flraiten them, for when there
is no feeling there is no virtue.
Coi.t-£W, among; farriers. See Farriery,,
§ xxviii. 4.
Colt-Taming, is the breaking of a colt fo as to en¬
dure a rider. Colts are moft eafily broke at three
or four years of age ; but he who will have patience
to fee his horfe at.full five, will have him much more
free of difeafes and infirmities than if he was broke
fooner.
Preparatory to their breaking for the faddle, they
thod may be obferved every fummer and winter till Ihould be ufecl to familiar adlions, as rubbing, clawing,
you break them, which you may do after they have haltering, leading to water, taking up their feet.
been three years old ; and it will be a very eafy thing
if you obferve the aforefaid method of honfing them :
knocking their hoofs, <bc. In order to bridle and'
faddle a colt, when he is made a little gentle, take a
for ordering them the feeond year as you do your fweet watering trench, waftied and anointed with
other horfes, they will be fo tame and gentle, that honey and fait, which put into his mafli, and fo place
you need not fear their leaping, plunging, kicking,
or the like ; for they will take the faddle quietly. As
it that it may hang about his tulh; then offer him the
faddle, but take care not to fright him with it. Suf-
for all thofe ridiculous methods of beating and cowing fer him to fmell at it, to be rubbed with it, and then
tliem, they are in effecfl fpoiling them, whatever they
cal! it, in ploughed fields, deep ways, or the like ;
inftead of which, let the rider ftrive to win them by
gentle ufage, never corre(fting them but when it is him out to water and bring him in again : when he
npceffary, and then with judgment and moderation, has Hood reined upon the trench an ho iff or more,.
to feel it ; after that, fix it and gird it faft; and make'
that motion the moft familiar to him to which he feems
moft averfe. Being thus faddled arid bridled, lead'
COL [ 2096 ] COL
Coltle take off the bridle and faddle, and let him go to his
II meat till the evening, and then lead him out as be-
Coluber- fore . anci wiien you carry him in again to fet him
up, take off his faddle gently, clothing him for all the
night.
COLTIE, a term ufed by timber-merchants, for a
defedl or blemilh in fome of the annular circles of a
tree, whereby its value is much diminilhed.
COLUBER, in zoology, a genus of ferpents be¬
longing to the order of amphibia. The characters
are thefe : they have a number of fcuta, or hard crufts
on the belly ; and fcutellas, or fcales on the tail. Lin¬
naeus enumerates'no lefs than 97 fpecies under this
name, diftinguifhed folely by the number of fcuta and
fcutellae. The moft remarkable are the following.
I. The Vipera, or common viper of the Amps, has
118 fcuta, and only 22 fcutellae. The body is very
fliort, and of a pale colour, with brownilh fpots; and
the head is gibbous, and covered with fmall fcales. It
is a native of Egypt, and other warm countries. It
has always been remarkable for its poifonous nature ;
infomuch that vipers, when numerous, have often been
thought the minifters of divine vengeance, like the
plague, famine, and other national calamities. A no¬
tion alfo prevailed among the- ancients, that few or
none of the parts of a viper were free from poifon ;
for which reafon they made no experiments or dif-
coveries concerning the nature of thefe creatures.
It is now, however, proved, by undoubted experi¬
ments, that the poifon of vipers, as well as of all
other ferpents whofe bite is hurtful, lies in a bag at
the bottom of their two greater teeth or fangs. Thefe
teeth are perforated; and when the creature bites,
the compreflion of the bag forces out a little drop of
the poifon into the wound, where it produces its mif-
chievous effects. Dr Mead has given a curious anato¬
mical dilfcrtation on thofe parts of a viper which have
any connexion with its poifon, by which the truth of
the above mentioned pofition is afcertained beyond a
doubt. With regard to the poifon itfelf, Dr Mead
fays its quantity is fo inconfiderable, that one good
drop does all the execution. When viewed through
a microfcope, the liquor had a faliue appearance. At
firft he perceived only a quantity of minute falls nim¬
bly floating here and there : but in a very Ihort time
the appearance was changed ; and thefe faline particles
were now fliot out into cryftals of extreme tenuity
and lharpnefs, with fomething-like knots here and
there, from whence they feemed to proceed : fo that
the whole texture did, in fome meafure, refemble a
fpider’s web, though infinitely finer. He made va^
rious experiments in order to determine the quality
and fpecies of thele cryftals, but without effect. Half
an ounce of human blood, newly drawn, was not vi-
fibly altered, either in colour or confiftence, by a mix¬
ture with the poifon. It then was, and remained,
undiftinguiftiable from the fame blood taken into ano¬
ther glafs in which there was no poifon. Thefe por¬
tions of blood were feverally mixed with acids and
alkalies : the empoifoned blood was, after fuch mix¬
tures, of the fame colour and conliftence with the
other. Spirit of nitre, fpirit of fait, and juice of le¬
mons, feverally poured upon the faides itfelf, produ¬
ced neither fermentation, nor any change of colour.
Oleum tartari per deliquium, and the Ample fpirit of Coluber,
hartfhorn, dropped upon the poiibn, neither altered —
its colour, nor raifed any ebullition. Syrqp of vio¬
lets mixed with the poifon did not change its colour
either to red or green. The timfture of heliotropium,
that is blue paper, was not altered by the fanies ejec¬
ted upon it: and this drying ftill retained its yellowifh
colour. Thefe experiments were tried by Dr Mead,
in prefence of a number of gentlemen. They ended
their inquiries by tailing the poifonous liquor. Ha¬
ving diluted it with a little warm water, feveral of
them ventured to touch it with the tip of their tongues.
They all agreed that it tailed very (harp and fiery,
as if the tongue had been Itruck through with fome¬
thing fcalding or burning. This fenfation went not
off in two or three hours ; and one gentleman who
would not be fatisfied without trying a large drop un¬
diluted, found his tongue Iwelled with a little inflam¬
mation, and the forenefs lafted two days ; but.without
any farther inconvenience. The purpofe anfwered
by this poilbnous liquor to the creatures themfelves,-
is probably the deftrudlion of their prey ; for as fer¬
pents frequently feed upon animals of very confider-
able magnitude and ftrength, they would often un¬
doubtedly make their efcape, did not the poifonous
juice inftilled into the wounds made by the ferpent’s
teeth almoft inftantly deprive them of life, or at leaft
of all power to Itruggle with their enemy. For an
account of the fymptoms produced by the bites of vi¬
pers and-other venomous ferpents in the human body,
together with the belt methods of cure, fee the />/-
Ax fubjoined to Medicine. After the viper is de¬
prived of thefe bags which contain its poifon, it is en¬
tirely harmlefs: nay the flefh of it is highly nutritive,
and juftly efteemed a great reftorative. It hath been
much recommended in fcrophulous, leprous, and other
obftinate chronical diforders ; but, to anfwer any good
purpofe, it mull undoubtedly be ufed for a confiderable
time as food. The dried flelh which comes to this
country from abroad, is juftly efteemed by Dr Lewis
to be totally infignificant. A volatile fait was former¬
ly drawn from vipers, and fold at a great price, as a
fovereign-remedy againft the bites of vipers and other
poifonous animals ; but it is now found not to be ma¬
terially different .from the volatile alkaline falls pro¬
cured by diftilling other animal fubftances.
2. The berus, or common Britilh viper, is found in
many countries of Europe. They fwarm in the //v-
brides, or Vveftern Britilh ifles, and abound in many
parts of Britain ; particularly in the dry, ftony, and
chalky counties. According to Mr Pennant and other
naturalifts, they are viviparous, but proceed from an
internal egg; being of that clafs of animals of whofe
generation Ariftotle fays, “ They conceive a perfect
egg within, but bring forth their young alive.” This
fpecies is far from being prolific ; 11 eggs being the
utmoft that were ever heard of in one viper. Thefe
eggs are, as it were, chained together ; and each
about the fize of the egg of a black-bird. This viper
feldom grows longer than two feet ; though Mr Pen¬
nant tells us he once law a female (which is nearly
a third larger than the male) almoft three feet long.
The ground colour of this ferpent is of a dirty yellow,
that of the female deeper. Its back is marked the
- -whole
COL [ 2097 ] COL
Coluber, whole length with a feries of rhomboidal black fpots,
touching each other at the points; the fides with tri¬
angular ones ; the belly entirely black. It hath 146
fcuta, and jp fcutellae. There is a variety wholly
black; but the rhomboid marks are very confpicuous
even in this, being of a deeper and more glofly hue
than the reft. The head of the viper, fays Mr Pen¬
nant, is inflated, which diftinguiftxes it from the com¬
mon fnake. Mr Catelby afliires us, that the difference
between the vipers and other ferpents is, that “ the
former have long hollow fangs, or tulles, with an open¬
ing near the point; the neck is finall, the head broad,
the cheeks extending wide, feales rough, the body for
the moft part flat and thick ; they are flow of motion ;
fwell the head and neck when irritated, and have a
terrible and ugly afpe<ft.”_ The tongue is forked, the
teeth fmall; the four canine teeth are placed two on
each fide the upper jaw : thefe inftruments of poifon
are long, crooked, and moveable ; capable, like thofe
of the former fpecies, of being raifed or depreffed at
the pleafure of the animal, and they inftill their poi-
£bn in the fame manner. The vipers are faid not to
arrive at their full growth till they are fix or feven
years old ; but they are capable of engendering at
two or three. They copulate in May, and go about
three months with their young. Mr Pennant tells us,
that he has been aflured of a faft mentioned by Sir
* Vulgar Thomas Brown *, who was far from being a credu-
114^ lous writer, that the young of the viper, when terri-
1 fled, will run down the throat of the parent, and feek
for flicker in its belly, in the fame manner as the
young.of the opoflum retire into the ventral pouch of
the old one. From this fome have imagined that the
■ viper is fo unnatural as to devour its own young : but
this affertion deferves no credit; it being well known
that the food of thefe ferpents is frogs, toads, lizards,
mice, and, according to Dr Mead, even an animal fo
large as a mole. Thefe they fwallow entire ; which,
if we confider the narrownefs of their neck, fliews it
capable of a diftenllon hardly credible, had we not
ocular proofs of the fadt. It is alfo faid, from good
authority, that they will prey on young birds ; but
whether on fuch as neftle on the ground, or whether
they climb up trees for them, as the Indian ferpents
do, is quite uncertain : the fadl, however, is very far
from being recent; for Horace tells us,
Ut ajfidens implumibus pullis avis
Ssrpentium allapfis timet. Epod. I.
Thus for its young the anxious bird
The gliding ferpent fears.
The viper is capable of fupporting very long ab-
ftinence j it being known, that fome have been kept
in a box fix months without food, and yet did not a-
bate of their vivacity. They feed only a fmall part
of the year, but never during their confinement; for
if mice, their favourite diet, fliould at that time be
thrown into their box, though they will kill, yet they
never will eat them. The violence of their poifon
decreafes in proportion to the length of their confine¬
ment, as does alfo the virtue of their flefli whatever
it is. The animals, when at liberty, remain torpid
throughout the winter; but, when confined, have ne¬
ver been obferved to take their annual repofe. The
method of catching them is by putting a cleft ftick on
Vol. III.
or near their head; after which they are feized by Colubc*-.
the tail, and inftantly put into a bag. The viper- ' ~
catchers are very frequently bit by them in the pur-
fuit of their bufinefs, yet we very rarely hear of their
bite being fatal. Sallad oil, if applied in time, is faid
to be a certain remedy *. The flefh of the Britifh * (die
viper has been celebrated as a reftorative, as well as f”** fub-
that of the foreign kind. Mr Keyfler relates, that Sir ^Medicine.
Kenelm Digby ufed to feed his wife, who was a moft
beautiful woman, with capons fattened with the flefh
of vipers.
3. The punftatus of Linnaeus, by Mr Catefby cal¬
led the water-viper, is a native of Carolina. Accord¬
ing to Linnaeus it is afh-coloured, variegated with
yellow fpots. Mr Catefbv informs us, that the
head and back of this ferpent are brown ; the belly
marked tranfverfely with yellow, and alfo the fides
of the neck. The neck is fmall, the head large, and
the mouth armed with the deftrudlive fangs of the vi¬
per or rattle-fnake, next to which it is reckoned the
largeft ferpent in this country. Contrary to what is
obferved in moft other vipers, thefe are very nimble
and adtive, and very dextrous in catching fifh. In
fummer, great numbers are feen lying on the branches
of trees hanging over rivers ; from which, on the
approach of a boat, they dr;op into the water, and
often into the boat on the mens heads. They lie in
wait in this manner to furprife either birds or filh : af¬
ter the latter they plunge with furprifing fwiftnefs,
and catch fome of a large fize, which they bring
afliore and fwallow whole. The tail of this animal is
fmall towards the end, and terminates in a blunt horny
point about half an inch long. This harmlefs little
horn hath been the occalion of many terrible reports;
as, that by a jerk of its tail, the animal is capable of
inftantly deftroying both men and beafts ; that a
tree ftruck with this terrible horn, in a {hurt time
grows black, withers, and dies, ire. but all thefe Mr
Catelby affures us have not the leaft foundation in fadl.
4. The cherfea is a native of Sweden, where it is
called afping. It is a fmall reddifli ferpent, whofe
bite is faid to be mortal. Concerning this fpecies Mr
Pennant aflks, “ Is it poflible that this could be the
fpecies which has hitherto efcaped the notice of our
naturalifts 1 I the rather fufpedt it, as I have been in¬
formed that there is a fmall fnake that lurks in the
low grounds of Galloway, which bites and often proves
fatal to the inhabitants.”
5. The prefter of Linnaeus, or black viper of Mr
Catelby, is a native of Carolina and Virginia. It is
fliort and thick, flow of motion, fpreads its head fur-
prifingly when irritated, very flat and thick, threat¬
ening with a horrid hifs. They are very poifonous;
their bite being as deadly as that of the rattlefnake.
They frequent the higher lands, and are of a rufty
black colour.
6. The coluber luridus of Forfter, called by Mr Ca¬
telby the brown viper; is a native of the fame countries
with the preceding. It is about two feet long, and large
in proportion ; very flow in its motion, even when
threatened with danger : notwithftanding which, it
defends itfelf very fiercely when attacked, and its bite
is as venomous as any. They prey upon efts, lizards,
and other animals of that kind.
12 K
Befides
COL [ 2098 ] COL
Coluber. Befides thefe fpecies of which we have a particular
' defci iption, the following are alfo reckoned among the
poifonous ferpents, viz. 7. The atropos,with 131 fcuta
and 22 fcutelke. It is a native of America,'the body
white, and the eyes brown, with a white iris. 8. The
leberis, with no fcuta and 50 fcutellse, is a native of
Canada, and has many black linear rings. 9. The
ammodites, with 142 fcuta and 32 fcutelke, is a na¬
tive of the Ealt. It is about fix inches long, and has
a flefhy protuberance on its nofe. 10. The afpis,
with 146 Icuta and 46 fcutellae, is a native of France ;
and is of a reddifh colour, with dulky fpots on the
back. rr. The lebetinus, with 153 fcuta and 46 fcu-
tellas, is a native of Afia, and is of a cloudy colour,
with red fpots on the belly. 12. The feverus, with
170 fcuta and 42 fcutellte, is likewife a native of Afia,
and is afh-coloured with white belts. 13. The ftola-
tus, with 143 icuta and 76 fcutella?, is a native of Afia;
and is of a greyilh colour, with two white fillets. 14.
The ladieus, with 203 fcuta and 32 fcutelke, is a na¬
tive of the Indies. Its colour is white, with black fpots.
iji The naja, with 193 fcuta and 60 ffcutelke, is a na¬
tive of the Eaft Indies, and is reckoned the moft poi¬
fonous of all ferpents. It is killed by the ichneumon.
16. The atrox, with 196 fcuta and 69 fcutelke, is a
native of Afia . It is of a hoary colour, and the head
is comprelfed and covered with finall fcales. 17. The
niveus, with 209 fcuta and 62 fcutellae, is a native of
Africa. It is white, and without any fpots. 18. The
corallinus, with 193 fcuta and 82 fcutelke, is a native
of Afia. It is greyilh, with three brown fillets. 19.
The dipfas, with 132 fcuta and 135 fcutelke, is a na¬
tive of America. It is of a bluilh colour, with the
margins of the fcales white. 20. The mydierizans,
with 192 fcuta and 167 fcutelke, is a native of Ame¬
rica. It hath a llretched out triangular fnout.
The above 20 fpecies are all the ferpents of the
genus of coluber that are reckoned poifonous. Of the
reft we lhall only mention the following, which are
the moft remarkable.
21. The erythrogafter of Forfter, called by Mr Ca-
telby the capper-bellied fnake, is a native of Carolina,
and grows fometimes near to the fize of a rattlefnake.
It is of a brown colour in all parts of its body, except
the belly which is of a red copper colour. They fre¬
quent water, and probably prey on filh ; but they will
alfo devour birds and fuch other animals as they are
able to overcome. They are bold and active, fre¬
quently entering poultry-houfes, devouring the fowls
and fucking their eggs.
23. The conftridlor, or black fnake, is a native of
feveral parts of America. They are very long, fome¬
times meafuring fix feet, and are all over of a Ihining
black. They are the moft numerous of all; and are
very bold and furious, leaping at and biting thofe that
attack them. It is commonly faid, that they will at¬
tack and devour rattlefnakes. This Mr Catelby fays
he cannot affirm as truth from his own experience ;
but aflures us, that large ferpents of any fpecies will
very often fwallow the fmaller ones indifcrinriinately.
The black fnakes are preferved on account of their
dexterity in deftroying rats; which animals they pur-
fue to their hiding places in the roofs of houfes, tsfc,
with wonderful agility.
23. The annulatus, or little brown bead-fnake, is Coluber
always fmall, and is feldom found above ground, but II
commonly dug up, and found twilling about the roots Co u a°
of fhrubs and plants. All the back and other parts of
the body have tranfverfe fpots of brown and white fo
difijofed as to have fome refemblance to a firing of Eng-
lifh beads ; whence probably it takes its name. It is
quite harmlefs, and is a native of Virginia and Carolina.
24. The flagellum, or coach-whip fnake, is of a
brown colour, very long, flender, and active. It runs
fwiftly, and is quite inoffenfive; but the Indians imagine
it is able to cut a man in two with a jerk of its tail.
25. The fulvius, or corn-fnake, is beautifully mark¬
ed with red and white, refembling a fpecies of Indian
corn, whence'its name. It is harmlefs as to its bite,-'
but frequently robs heri-roofts.
26. The seftivus, or green fnake, is all over of a
green colour ; it is of a fmall fize, and eafily becomes
tame and familiar, infomuch that fome people will
carry them in their bofom.
27. The fafciatus, or wampum fnake, derives its
name from its refemblance to the Indian wampum.
It fometimes grows to the length of five feet ; and,
like other large fnakes, is very voracious, but its bite
is not venomous. The back is of a dark blue, the
belly finely clouded with fpots of a brighter blue ; the
head is fmall in proportion to the reft of the body.
COLUMBA, the pigeon, in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order of pa (feres. The characters
of this genus‘’are as follow : The bill is ftrait, and de-
fcends towards the point; the noftrils are oblong, and
half covered with a foft tumid membrane ; and the
tongue is entire, i. e. not cloven. There are 40 fpe¬
cies, all natives of different countries. The following
are the moft remarkable.
1. The cenas, or domeftic pigeon, and all it.s beau¬
tiful varieties, derive their origin from one fpecies,.
the ftcck-dovc ; the Englilh name implying its being
the ftock or Item from whence the other domeftic
birds fpring. Thefe birds, as Varro obferves, take
their Latin name, coluviba, from their voice or coo¬
ing : and, had he known it, he might have added the
Britilh alfo; for k’lommen, kylebman, kulm, and helm,
fignify the fame bird. They were, and ftill are, to
be found in moft parts of our ifland in a ftate of na¬
ture ; but probably the Romans firft taught the Britons
how to conftrmfl pigeon-houfes, and make the birds
domeftic. The charadlers of the domeftic pigeon are
the following. It is of a deep bluilh afli-colour ; the
bread dafhed with a fine changeable green and purple ;
the fides of the neck with fliining copper-colour; its
wings marked with two black bars, one on the coverts
of the wings, the other on the quill feathers; the back
white, and the tail barred near the end with black.
They weigh 14 ounces. In the wild ftate it breeds
in holes of rocks and hollows of trees; for which rea-
fon fome people ftile it columba cavernalis, in oppo-
fition to the ring-dove, which makes its neft on the
boughs of trees. Nature always preferves fome
agreement in the manners, charaifters, and colours of
birds reclaimed from their wild ftate. This fpecies
of pigeon foon takes to build in artificial cavities, and
from the temptation of ^a ready provifion becomes
eafily domefticated. Multitueds of thefe wild birds
are
C O I, [ 2099 ] COL
Columba. are obferved to migrate into the fouth of England : Ihire, and the weft of England. They are very fliy
and, while the beeth-woods were fuffered to cover and retired, breeding in thick woods, generally of
large tradts of ground, they ul'ed to haunt them in my- oak: in autumn they migrate into other countries,
riads, reaching in ftrings a mile in length, as they 4. The paflerina, or ground-dove of Carolina, is
went out in the morning to feed. They vifit Britain about the iize of a lark. The bill is yellow, and
the lateft of any bird of paflage, not appearing till black at the end; the iris red ; the breaft and whole
November, and retiring in the fpring. Mr Pennant front of a changeable purple, with dark purple fpots,
imagines; that the fummer haunts of thefe creatures the large quill-feathers are of a muddy purple j the
are in Sweden, as Mr Eckmark makes their retreat legs and feet of a dirty yellow; but the whole bird
thence coincide with their arrival in Britain. Num- has fuch a compofmon of colours in it, that a very par¬
sers of them, however, breed on cliffs of the cpaft of ticular defcription is impoffible. They fly many of
Wales, and of the Hebrides. The varieties produ- them together, and make Ihort flights from place to
ced from the domeftic are very numerous, and ex- place, generally lighting on the ground,
tremely elegant; they are diftinguiflred by names ex- 5. The migratoria, or pigeon of paflage, is about
preflive of their feveral properties, as tumblers, car- the fize of an Englilh wood-pigeon ; the bill black;
riers, jacobinss, croppers, pointers, runts, turbits, owls, iris red ; the head of a duiky blue ; the breaft and
tiuns, &c. The moft celebrated of thefe is the car- belly of a faint red ; above the flioulder of the wing
rier, of which an account is already given under the there is a patch of feathers flxining like gold ; the
article Carrier-P^ow. The nature of pigeons is wing is coloured like the head, havingfome few fpots
to be gregarious ; to lay only two eggs, and to breed of black (except that the larger feathers of it are dark
many times in the year. So quick is their increafe, brown with fome white on the exterior vanes ; the
that the author of the “ Oeconomy of Nature” ob- tail is very long, and covered with a black feather,
ferves, that in the fpace of four years, 14,760 pigeons under which the reft are white; the ieJJs and feet
may come from a Angle pair. They bill during their are red. They come in prodigious numbers from
courtlhip : the male and female At, and alfo feed their the north, to winter in Virginia and Carolina. In
young, by turns : they cart proviAon out of their craw thefe countries they rooft upon one another’s backs in
into the young ones mouth ; and drink, not by Ap- fuch quantities that they often break down the limbs of
ping, like other birds, but by continued draughts like oaks which fupport them, and leave their dung fome
quadrupeds; and have mournful or plaintive notes. inches thick below the trees. In Virginia Mr Catelby
2. The palumbus, or ring-dove is a native of Eu- has feen them fly in fuch continued trains for three
rope and Afla. It is the largeft pigeon we have, and days fucceflively, that they were not loft Aght of for
might be diftinguifhed from all others by its Aze alone, the leaft interval of time, but fomewhere in the air
Its weight is about 20 ounces ; its length 18, the they were feen continuing their flight fouthward.
breadth 30 inches. The head, back, and covers of They breed in rocks by the Ades of rivers and lakes
the wings are of a bluifh alh-colour : the lower fide far north of St Laurence. They fly to the fouth only
of the neck and breaft are of a purplilh red, dallied in hard winters, and are never known to return,
with alh-colour : on the hind part of the neck is a fe- Columba (S1), in alluflon to whole name the if-
mi-circular line of white; above and beneath that, land of Jona (one of the Hebrides) received its name ;
the feathers are glofly, and of changeable colours as Jona being derived from a Hebrew word Agnifying
oppofed to the light. This fpecies forms its neft of a dove. This holy man, inftigated by his zeal, left
a few dry fticks in the boughs of trees. Attempts have his native country, Ireland, in the year 565, with the
been -made to domefticate them by hatching their pious deAgn of preaching the gofpel to the Piets. It
eggs under the common pigeon in dove-houfes ; but appears that he left his native foil with warm refent-
as foon as they could fly, they always take to their ment, vowing never to make a fettlement within flght
proper haunts. In the beginning of winter they af- of that hated illand. He made his firft trial at Oran-
femble in great flocks, and leave off cooing, which fay; and flnding that place too near to Ireland, fuc-
they begin in March when they pair. ceeded to his wilh at Hy, for that was the name of
3. The turtur, or turtle-dove, is a native of India. Jona at the time of his arrival. He repeated here the
. The length is twelve inches and a half; its breadth experiment on feveral hills, erefting on each a heap
21 ; the weight four ounces. The irides are of a of ftones; and that which he laft afeended is to this
Ane yellow, and the eye-lids encompafled with a day called Carnan-chul-reh-Eirinn, or the eminence
beautiful crimfon circle. The chin and forehead are of the back turned to Ireland.
whitilh ; the top of the head afh-coloured, mixed Columba was foon diftinguilhed by the fan<Tttty of
with -olive. On each Ade of the neck is a fpot of his manners : a miracle that he wrought, fo operated
black feathers prettily tipt with white : the back alh- on the Pitftilh king Bradeus, that he immediately
coloured, bordered with olive brown : the fcapulars made a prefent of the little ille to the faint. It ieems
and coverts of a reddilh brown fpotted with black: that his majefty had refufed Columba an audience ;
the breaft of a light purplifh red, having the verge and even proceeded fo far as to order the palace-gates
of each feather yellow : the belly white. The tail to be fliut againft him : but the faint, by the power
is three inches and a half long; the two middle fea- of his word, inftantly caufed them to fly open. As
thers of a duiky brown ; the others black, with white foon as he was in pofleflion of Jona, he founded a cell
tips ; the end and exterior fide of the outmoft feathers of monks, borrowing his inftitutions from a certain
wholly white. In the breeding feafon thefe birds oriental monaftic order. It is faid that the firft refl¬
ate found inBuchingham-Ihire,Gloucefter-fliife, Shrop- gious were canons regular ; of whom the founder was
12 K 2 the
Columl>a-
Pennant’s
Tour.
COL [ 2100 ] COL
Colnmba- the firft abbot: and that; his monks, till the year 716,
nus differed from thofe of the church of Rome, both in
. H the obfervation of Eaffer, and in the clerical tonfure.
°root. °" Columba led here an exemplary life, and was highly
 refpe<ited for the fandtity of his manners for a confi-
derable number of years. He is the firft on record
who had ^he faculty oi fecond fight, for he told the
victory of Aidan over the Pi6ls and Saxons on the
very infhmt it happened. He had the honour of bu-
rying in his ifland, Convallius and Kinnatil, two kings
of Scotland, and of crowning a third. At length, worn
out with age, he died, in Jona, in the arms of his dif-
ciples ; was interred there, but (as the Irifh pretend)
in after times tranllated to Down ; where, according
to the epitaph, his remains were depofited with thofe
of St Bridget and St Patrick.
Hi tres in Duno tumulo tumulantur in uno;
Brigida, Patricius, at<jue Columba pius.
But this is totally denied by the Scots; who affirm,
that the contrary is (hewn in a life of the faint, ex-
tra&ed out of the pope’s library, and tranflated out
of the’ L|tin into Erie, by Father Call 0 horati; which
decides, in favour of Jona, the momentous difpute.
COLUMBANUS (S'), a Latin poet, was born in
Ireland in 560. He retired from the world, and lived
a folitary life in the mountains of Wales for fome
years. He next went over to France and built a
inonaftery ; bur, being exiled from that country, he
travelled to Italy, where he founded the abbey of
Bohio, and died in it in 615.
COLUMBINE, in botany. See A^uilegia.
COLUMBO-root, an article newly introduced
into the materia medica, of the natural hiflory of
which we know very little. Dr Percival is the only
perfoA who hath written particularly concerning it, and
the fubltance of his account follows.
The Cohimbo-root grew originally on the continent
of America ; from whence it was tranfplanted to Co-
lumbo, a town in Ceylon, which gives name to it, and
fupplies all India with it. The inhabitants of thefe
countries have for a long time ufed it In diforders of
the ftomach and bowels. They carry it about with
them, and take it diced or fcraped in Madeira wine.
This root comes to us in circular pieces, which are
from half an inch or an inch to three inches in diame¬
ter ; and divided mtofrufta, which meafure from two
inches to one quarter of an inch. The fides are co¬
vered with a thick corrugated bark, of a dark brown
hue on its external furface, but internally of a light
yellow colour. The furfaces of the tranfverfe feclions
appear very unequal, higheft at the edges, and form¬
ing a concavity towards the centre. On feparating
this furface, the root is obferved to confift of three
lamina, viz. the cortical, which, in the larger roots,
is a^quarter of an inch thick; the ligneous, about half
an inch ; and the medullary, which forms the centre^
and is near an inch in diameter. This laft is much
fofter than the other parts, and, when chewed,
feems mucilaginous ; a number of fmall fibres run
longitudinally through it, and appear on the fur¬
face. The cortical and ligneous parts are divided
by a black circular line. All the thicker pieces
have fmall holes ’drilled through them, for the con¬
venience of drying. Columba-root has an" aroma¬
tic fmeil ; but is difagreeably bitter, and llightly pun- Columb<*
gent to the tafte, fomewhat refembling multard-leed, root.
when it has loll, by long keeping, part of its effential
oil. Yet, though ungrateful to the tafte, when recei¬
ved into the Ifomach, it appears to be corroborant,
antifeptic, fedative, and powerfully antiemetic. In
the cholera morbus it alleviates the violent tormina,
checks the purging and vomiting, corrects the putrid
tendency of the bile, quiets the inordinate motions of
the bowels, and fpeedily recruits the exhauited ftrength
of the patient. It was adminillered to a great number
of patients, fometimes upwards of 20 in a day, afflic¬
ted with the cholera morbus, by Mr Johnfon of Chef-
ter, in 1756. He generally found that it foon flopped
the vomiting, which was the moft fatal fymptom, and
that the purging and remaining complaints quickly
yielded to the fame remedy. The dole he gave was
from half a drachm to two drachms of the powder,
every three or four hours, more or lefs, according to
the urgency of the fymptoms. Though this medi¬
cine pofleffes little or no aflringency, it has been ob¬
ferved to be of great fervice in diarrhaeas, and even in
the dyfentery. In the firfl ftage of thefe diforders,
where aflringents would be hurtful, Columbo-root
may be preferibed with fafety; as, by its antifpaf-
modic powers, the irregular actions of the prims vis
are corrected. But as a cordial, tonic, and antifeptic
remedy, it anfwers better.when given towards their
decline. Its efficacy has alfo been obferved in the
vomitings which attend the bilious cholic ; and in fuch
cafes, where an emetic is thought neceffary, after ad-
miniftering a fmall dofe of ipecacuan, the. ftomach may¬
be waffled with an infufion of Columbo-root. This
will tend to prevent thole violent and convulfive reach-
ings which in irritable habits abounding with bile are
fometimes excited by the mildeft emetic. In bilious,
fevers, 15 or 20 grains of this root, with an equal or
double quantity of vitriolated tartar, given every four,
five, or fix hours, produce very beneficial effedls.
From its efficacy in thefe bilious difeafes of this coun¬
try, it is probable that it may be ufeful in the yellow
fever of the Well Indies, which is always attended
with great ficknefs, violent reachings, arid a copious
difeharge of bile. The vomiting recurs at fhort in¬
tervals, often becomes almoft inceffant, and an in¬
credible quantity of bile is fometimes evacuated in a
few hours. Children during dentition are often fub-
je<5l to fevere vomitings and diarrhoeas. In thefe cafes
the Columbo-root is an ufeful remedy, and hath often
procured almofi inflant relief, when other efficacious
remedies have been tried in vain. This root is alfo
extremely beneficial in a languid Hate of the ftomach,
attended with want of appetite, indigeftion, naufea
and flatulence. It may be given either in fubflance,
with fome grateful aromatic, or infufed in Madeira
wine. Habitual vomiting, when it proceeds from a
weaknefs or irritability of the ftomach, from an irre-
gnlar gout, acidities, acrimonious bile, or an increa-
fed and depraved fecretion of the pancreatic juice,
is greatly relieved by the ufe of Columbo-root, in
conjunction with aromatics, chalybeates, or the tefta-
ceons powders. In the naufea and vomiting occafion-
ed by pregnancy, an infufion of Columbo-root fucceeds
better than any other medicine that hath been tried.
From
COL [21
Colunabo From Dr Percival’s experiments on this root, it ap-
11 pears, that rectified fpirit of wine extracts its virtues
Columbus- jn tjie greateft perfection. The watery infufion is
more periftiable than that of other bitters. In 24
hours a copious precipitation takes place ; and in two
days it becomes ropy, and even multy. The addition
of orange-peel renders the infuiion of Columbo-root
lefs ungrateful to the palate. An ounce of the powder¬
ed root, half an ounce of orange-peel, two ounces of
French brandy, and 14 ounces of water, macerated n
hours without heat, and then filtered through paper,
afford a fufficiently ftrong and tolerably pleafant in¬
fufion. The extraCf made firlt by fpirit and then
with water, and reduced by evaporation to a pilular
confiftence, is found to be equal if not fuperior in ef¬
ficacy to the powder. As an antifeptic, Columbo*root
is inferior to the bark ; but as a corrector of putrid
gall, it is much fuperior to the bark; whence alio it
is probable that it would be of fervice in the Weft
India yellow fever. It alfo reltrains alimentary fer¬
mentation, without imparing digeftion; in which pro¬
perty it refembles muftard. Hence its great fervice
in preventing acidities. It hath alfo a remarkable
power of neutralizing acids already formed. It doth
not appear to have the leaft heating quality; and
therefore may be ufed with propriety and advantage
in the pthifis pulmonalis and in heCtical cafes, to cor-
reCl acrimony and ftrengthen digeftion. It occafions
no difturbance, and agrees very well with a milk-diet,
as it abates flatulence, and is indifpofed to acidity.
Columbo, a maritime town of the ifland of Ceylon
in the Eaft Indies, feated on the fouth-weft part of its
coaft, and fubjeCl to the Dutch. E. Long. 68. 10.
N. Lat. 7. 5.
COLUMBUS, or congregation of St Columbus, a
fociety of regular canons, who formerly had 100 abbeys
or monafteries in the Britifh ifles.
Columbus (Chriftopher), a Genoefe, the celebra¬
ted navigator, and firft difcoverer of the iflands of
America, was a fubjeCl of the republic of Genoa.
Neither the time nor the place of his birth, however,
are known with certainty ; only he was defcended of
an honourable family, who, by various misfortunes,
had been reduced to indigence. His parents were
fea-faring people; and Columbus having difcovered, in
his early youth, a capacity and inclination for that
way of life,, was encouraged by them to follow the
fame profeflion. He went to fea at the age of 14:
his firft voyages were to thofe ports in the Mediter¬
ranean, frequented by the Genoefe ; after which he
took a voyage to Iceland ; and proceeding ftill further
north, advanced feveral degrees within tire polar
circle. After this, Columbus entered into the fervice
of a famous fea-captain of his own name and family.
This man commanded a fmall fquadron, fitted out at
his own expence, and by cruifing, fometimes againft
the Mahometans, and fometimes againft the Venetians;
the rivals of his country in trade, had acquired both
wealth and reputation. With him Columbus conti¬
nued for feveral years, no lefs diftinguilhed for his
courage than his experience as a failor. At length, in
an obftinate engagement, off the coaft of Portugal,
with fome Venetian caravals returning richly laden
from the Low Countries, the veffel on board which he
01 ] COL
ferved took fire, together with one of the enemies Columbus,
(hips to which it was fall grappled. Columbus threw *
himfelf into the lea ; laid hold of a floating oar ; and by
the fupport of it, and his dexterity in Iwimming, he
reached the fliore, though above two leagues diltant.
After this difafter, Columbus repaired to Lilbon,
where he married a daughter of Bartholomew Pere-
ftrello, one of the captains employed by prince Henry
in his early navigations, and who had difcovered and
planted the iflands of Porto Santo and Madeira. Having
got poffeflion of the journals and charts of this experi¬
enced navigator,Columbus was feizedwith an irrelilti-
ble delire of vifiting unknown countries. In order to
indulge it, he made a voyage to Madeira, and continued
during feveral years to trade with that ifland, the Ca¬
naries, Azores, the fettlements in Guinea, and all the
other places which the Portuguefe had difcovered on.
the continent of Africa.
By the experience acquired in fuch a number of
voyages, Columbus now became one of the moll Ikil- •
ful navigators in Europe. At this time, the great ob¬
ject of difcovery was a paffage by fea to the Eaft
Indies. This was attempted, and at laft accomplilhed
by the Portuguefe, by doubling the Cape of Good
Hope. The danger and tedioul'nefs of the pallage,
however, fuppofing it to be really accompliflied, which
as yet it was not, fet Columbus on confidering whe¬
ther a (horter and more direct paffage to thefe regions
might not be found out; and after long confideration, ,
he became thoroughly convinced, that, by failing
acrofs the Atlantic ocean, directly towards the weft,
new countries, which probably formed a part of the
vaft continent of India, muft infallibly be difcovered.
His reafons for this were, in the firft place, a know¬
ledge he had acquired of the true figure of the earth.
The continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, as far as
then known, form but a fmall part of the globe. It
was fuitable to our ideas, concerning the wifdom and
beneficence of the Author of nature, to believe, that
the vaft fpace, ftill unexplored, was not entirely co¬
vered by a wafte and barren ocean, but occupied by
countries fit for the habitation of man. It appeared
likewife extremely probable, that the continent oil
this fide the globe was balanced by a proportional
quantity of land in the. other hemifphere. Thefe
conjectures were confirmed by the obfervations of mo¬
dern navigators. A Portuguefe pilot, having ftretch-
ed farther to the weft than was ufual at that time,
took up a piece of timber, artificially carved, floating
upon the fea ; and as it was driven towards him by a
wefterly wind, he concluded that it came from fome
unknown land fituated in that quarter. Columbus’s
brother-in-law had found to the weft of the Madeira
ifles, a piece of timber fafliioned in the fame manner,
and brought by the fame wind ; and had feen alfo
canes of an enormous fize floating upon the waves,
which refembled thofe defcribed by Ptolemy, as pro-
duClions peculiar to the Eaft Indies. After a courfe
of wefterly winds, trees, torn up by the roots, were
often driven upon the coafts of the Azores ; and at
one time the dead bodies of two men, with lingular
features, which refembled neither the inhabitants of
Europe nor Africa, were call alhore there. The moft
cogent reafon,. however, was a miltaken notion of
the
C olumbus.
COL [ 2102 ] COL
the ancient geographers, concerning the immenfe ex- lumbus immediately quitted Portugal, and applied to Columbus,
tent of the continent of India. Though hardly any of the king of Spain ; but left he fliould be here again dil- '
them had penetrated beyond the river Ganges, fome appointed, he fent his brother Bartholomew into Eng-
Greek writers had ventured to defcribe the provinces land, to whom he had fully communicated his ideas,
beyond that river, which they reprefented as regions in order that he might negociate at the fame time
of an immenfe extent. Cteilas affirmed that India with Henry VII. who was reckoned one of the moft
was as large as all the reft of Alia. Oneficritus, fagacious as well as opulent princes of Europe. Bar-
whom Pliny the naturalift follows, contended that it tholomew was very unfortunate in his voyage : he
was equal to a third part of the habitable earth, fell into the hands of pirates, who ftripped him of
Nearchus aflerted that it would take four months to every thing, and detained him a prifoner for feveral
march from one extremity of it to the other in a years. M laft he made his efcape, and arrived in
ftraight line. The journal of Marco Polo, who travel- London, but in fuch extreme indigence, that he was
led into Alia in the 13th century, and who had pro- obliged to employ himfelf, during a confiderable time,
ceeded towards the eaft far beyond the limits to jn drawing and felling maps, in order to pick up as
which any European had ever advanced, feemed alfo much money as would purchafe a decent drtfs in
4b much to .confirm thefe accounts, that Columbus which he might venture to appear at Court. The
was perfuaded, that the diftance from the moft propofals were received by Henry with more appro-
wefterly part of Europe, to the moft eafterly part of bation than by any monarch to whom they had hi- - .!
Alia, was not very confiderable ; and that the ffior- therto been prefented.
left as well as moft dire (ft courfe to the remote re- Columbus himfelf made his propofals to the king of
gions of the eaft, was to be found by failing due weft. Spain, not without many doubts of fuccefs, which
In 1474, Columbus communicated his ideas on this foqn appeared to be \vell founded. True fcience had
fubje(ft to one Paul a phyfician in Florence, a man e- as yet made fo little progrefs in the kingdom of Spain,
minent for his knowledge in cofmography. He that moft of thofe to whom the confideration of his
approved of the plan, fuggefted feveral fa<fts in con- plan was referred were utterly ignorant of the firft
firmation of it, and warmly encouraged Columbus principles on which he founded his hopes. Some,
to perfevere in an undertaking fo laudable, and which from miftaken notions concerning the dimenfions of
mult redound fo much to the honour of his country, the globe, contended that a voyage to thofe remote
and the benefit of Europe. Columbus, fully fatisfied regions of the Eaft which Columbus expetfted to dif-
of the truth of his fyftem, was impatient to fet out on cover, could not be performed in lei's than three
a voyage of diicovery. The firft ftep towards this years. Others concluded, that either he would find
was to fecure the patronage of fome of the coniider- the ocean of infinite extent, according to the opinion
able powers of Europe capable of undertaking fuch an of fome ancient philofophers; or that if he ffiould per-
enterprife. He applied firft to the republic of Genoa; fift in fleering weftwards beyond a certain point,
but his countrymen, ftrangers to his abilities, incon- the convex figure of the globe moft infallibly pre-
fiderately rejetfted his propofal as the dream of a chi- vent his return, and he muft periffi in the vain at-
merical projeiftor, and thus loft forever the opportu- tempt to unite the two oppofite hemifpheres, which
nity of reftoring their commonwealth to its ancient nature had for ever disjoined. Even without deign-
luftre. His next application was to the court of For- ing to enter into any particular difcuffion, fome re*
tugal, where king John II. liltened to him in the moft jetted the fcheme in general, upon the credit of a
gracious manner, and, referred the confideration of maxim made ufe of by the ignorant in all ages, “ That
his plan to Diego Ortiz, bifhop of Ceuta, and two it is prefumptuous in any perfon to fuppofe that he
Jewiffi phyficians, eminent cofmographers, whom he alone poffefles knowledge fuperior to all the reft of
was accuftomed to confult in matters qf this kind, ijnnkind united.” By continual difappointments
Unhappily thefe were the perfons who had been the and delays, he was at laft wearied out, and refolved
chief directors of the Portuguefe navigations, and had to repair to the court of England in perfon, in hopes
advifed to fearch for a pafl'age to India by fleering a of meeting with a favourable reception there. He
courfe dire<ftly oppofite to that which Columbus had had already made preparations for this purpofe, and
recommended as ffiorter and more certain. They taken meafures for the difpofal of his children during
could not therefore approve of his propofal, without his abfence, when Juan Perez, the prior of the mo-
fubmitting to the double mortification of condemning nailery of Rabida near Palos, in which they had beeh
their own theory, and of acknowledging his fuperio- educated, earneftly folicited him to defer his journey
rity. The refult of their conferences was, that they for a lliort time. Perez was a man of confiderable
advifed the king to fit out a velfel privately, in order learning, and fome credit with queen Ifabella. To
to attempt the propofed difcoyery, by following ex- her therefore he applied ; and the confequence of his
a<ftly the courfe which Columbus feemed to point out. application was a gracious invitation of Columbus back
John, forgetting on this occafion the fentiments of a to court, accompanied with the prefent of a fmall
monarch, meanly adopted this perfidious counfel. But fum to equip him for the journey. Ferdinand, how-
the pilot, chofen to execute Columbus’s plan, had nei- ever, ftill regarded the proje<ft as chimerical; and had
ther the genius nor fortitude of its author. Contrary the addrefs to employ, in this new negociation with
winds arofe ; no fign of approaching land appeared ; him, fome of the perfons who had formerly pro-
his courage failed ; and he returned to Lilbon, execra- nounced his fcheme to be impracticable. To their
ting the proje<ft as equally extravagant and dangerous, aftonilhment, Columbus appeared before them with
On discovering this diflionourable tranfatftion, Co- the fame confident hopes of fuccefs as formerly, and
infilled
COL [ 2103 ] COL
(jCohimbus. infifted^on the fame high recompence. He propofed
■' that a fmall fleet fhould be fitted out, under his com¬
mand, to attempt the difcovery; and demanded to
be appointed perpetual and hereditary admiral and
viceroy of all the feas and lands which he fliould difco-
ver; and to have the tenth of the.profits arifing from
them fettled irrevocably upon him and his defcendents
forever. At the fame time he offered to advance
the eighth part of the fum neceflary for accomplifhing
his delign, on condition that he fliould be entitled to a
proportional fhare in the adventure. If the enterprize
Ihould,totally mifcarry, he made no flipulation for any
reward or emolument whatever. Thefe demands
were thought unreafonable; Ifabella broke off the
treaty fhe had begun, and Columbus was once more
difappointed. He now refolved finally to leave Spain ;
and had actually proceeded fome leagues on his jour¬
ney, when he was overtaken by a meifenger from
Ifabella, who had been prevailed upon by the argu¬
ments of Quintanilla and Santangel; two of Colum¬
bus’s patrons, again to favour his undertakings. The
negociation now went forward with all manner of lit-
cility and difpatch ; and a treaty with Columbus was
figned on the 17th of April 1492. The ciiief articles
of it were, that Columbus flionld be conftituted high
admiral in all the feas, iflands and continents he fliould
difcover, with the fame powers and prerogatives that
belonged to the high admiral of Caflile within the li¬
mits of his jurifdidlion. He was alfo appointed vice¬
roy in all thofe countries to be difcovered; and a
tenth of the profits accruing from their productions
and commerce was granted to him forever. Allcon-
troyerfies or law-fuits with refpeft to mercantile tranf-
aCtions were to be determined by the foie authority of
Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. He
was alfo permitted to advance one-eighth part of the
expence of the expedition, and of carrying on com¬
merce with the new countries; and was entitled, in
return, to an eighth part of the profit. But, though
the name of Ferdinand was joined with Ifabella in
this tranfadlion, his diftruft of Columbus was ftill
fo violent tfiat he refufed to take any part in the en-
terprife as king of Arragon i and as the whole ex¬
pence of the expedition was to be defrayed by the
crown of Caflile, Ifabella referved for her fubjecis of
that kingdom an exdufive right to all the benefits
which might accrue from its fuccefs.
At laft our adventurer fet fail with three frrrall fliips,
the whole expence of which did not exceed L. 4000.
During his voyage he met with many difficulties from
the mutinous and timid difpofition of his men. He
was the firft who obferved the variation of the com-
pafs, which threw the failors into the utmoft terror.
For this phenomenon, Columbus was obliged to invent
a reafon, which though it did not fatisfy himfelf, yet
ferved to difpel their fears, or filence their murmurs.
At laft, however, the failors loft all patience ; and
the admiral was obliged to promife folemnly, that in
cafe land was not difcovered. in three days he ffiould
return to Europe. That very night, however, the
ifland of San Salvador was difcovered, which quickly
put an end to all their fears. The failors were then
as extravagant in the praife of Columbus, as they had
before been, infoleni in reviling and threatening him.
They threw themfelves at his feet, implored his par- Columbus-
don, and pronounced him to be a perfon infpired by ||
heaven \vith more than human fagacity and fortitude, Colunielh.
in order to accomplifh a defign lb far beyond the ideas
and conception of all former ages. Having vifited
feveral of the Weft-India iilands, and fettled a colony
in Hifpaniola *, he again let fail for Spaih ; and after • gee H/J-
efcaping great dangers from violent tempefts, arri- pmtoL.
ved at the port of Palos on the x 5th of March 1493.
As foon as Columbus’s fhip was difcovered ap¬
proaching, all the inhabitants of Palos, ran eagerly
to the fliore, where they received the admiral with
royal honours. The court was then at Barcelona,
and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint
the king and queen of his arrival. They were no
lefs delighted than aftonifhed with this unexpected
event. They gave orders for conducing him into
the city with all imaginable pomp. They received
him clad in their royal robes, and feated on a throne
under a magnificent canopy. When he approached,
they flood up, and, railing him as he kneeled to kifs
their hands, commanded him to take his feat upon a
chair prepared for him, and to give a circumftantial
account of his voyage. When he had finilhed his ora¬
tion, which he delivered with much modefty and fim-
plicity, the king and queen, kneeling down, offered
up folemn thanks to God for the difcovery. Every pof-
fible mark of honour that could be fuggefted by gra¬
titude or admiration was conferred on Columbus; the
former capitulation was confirmed, his family was en¬
nobled, and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, to
enable him to go in queft of thofe more opulent coun¬
tries which he ftill confidently expeCted to find.
Notwithflanding all this refpecfl, however, Colum¬
bus was no longer regarded than he was fuccefsful.
The colonifts he carried over with him were to the
laft degree unreafonable and unmanageable ; fo that
he was obliged to ufe fome feverities with them ;
and complaints were made to the court of Spain
againft him for cruelty. On this, Francis de Bova-
dilia, a knight of Calatrava, was appointed to inquire
into the condudl of Columbus ; with orders, in cafe
he found the charge of maladminiftration proved, to
fuperfede him, and alfume the office of governor of
Hifpaniola. The confequence of this was, that Co¬
lumbus was fent to Spain in chains. From thefe,
however, he was freed immediately on his arrival,
and had an opportunity granted him of vindicating his
innocence. He was however deprived of all power ;
and notwithftanding hfs great fervices, and the ib-
Jemnity of the agreement between him and Ferdi¬
nand, Columbus never could obtain the fulfilment of
any part of that treaty. At laft, difgufted with the
ingratitude of a monarch whom he had ferved with
fuch fidelity and fuccefs, and exhaufted with fatigues,;
he ended his life on the 29*11 of May 1506.
Columbus (Bartholomew), brother to Chriftopher,
famous for his marine charts and fpheres, which he'
prefented to Henry VII. of England. He died in 1514.
Columbus (Don Ferdinand), fon of Chriftopher,
and writer of his life. He entered into the ecclefiafti-
cal ftate ; and founded a library, which he bequeathed
to the church of Seville, to this day called the Colum¬
bine library. He died in X 560.
COLUMELLA.
COL [ 2104 ] COL
■Columella COLUMELLA (Lucius Junius Moderatus), a Roman
I philofopher, was a native of Cadiz, and lived under
the emperor Claudius, about the year 42. He wrote
a book on agriculture, intitled De Rs ruJUca, and a-
nother De Arboribus.
COLUMEY, a town of Red Ruffia in Poland, feat-
ed on the river Pruth, towards the confines of Mol¬
davia, about 38 miles from Haliez, and 63 fouth of
Leopol. This town has been very ill treated by the
Coflacks, infomuch that it is now inconfiderable,
though there are feveral mines of fait in its diftrift.
E. Long. 16. 25. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLUMN, in architecture, a round pillar made
to fupport and adorn a building, and compofed of a
bale, a lhaft, and a capital. See Architecture,
n° 38.
Columns, denominated from their ufe.—Aftrono-
mical Column, is a kind of obfervatory, in form of
a very high tower built hollow, and W'ith a fpiral af-
cent to an armillary fphere placed a-top for obferving
the motions of the heavenly bodies. Such is that of
the Doric order erected at the Hotel de Soiflbns at
Paris by Catharine de Medicis for the obfervations of
Orontius Fineus, a celebrated aftronomer of that time.
Chronological Column, that which bears fome hif-
torical infcription digefted according to the order of
time; as by luftres, olympiads, falti, epochas, an¬
nals, ire. At Athens, there were columns of this
kind, whereon were inferibed the whole hiftory of
Greece digefted into olympiads.
Funeral Column, that which bears an urn, where¬
in are fuppofed to be inclofed the allies of fome de-
ceafed hero ; and whofe fhaft is fometimes overfpread
with tears and flames, which are fymbols of grief
and of immortality.
Gnomonic Column, a cylinder whereon the hour
of the day is reprefented by the fliadow of a ftile.
See Dial.
Hiflorical Column, is that whofe fliaft is adorned
with a baflb-relievo, running in a fpiral line its whole
length, and containing the hiftory of fome great perfon-
age: fuch are the Trajan and Antonine columns at Rome.
Hollow Column, that which has a fpiral ftair-cafe
withinfide, for the convenience of afeending to the
top ; as the Trajan column, the ftair-cafe where¬
of coniifts of 185 fteps, and is illumined by 43 little
windows, each of which is divided by tambours of
white marble. The monument, or fire-column, at
London, has alfo a ftair-cafe ; but it does not reach to
the top. Thefe kinds of columns are alfo called co¬
lumn# coclidec, or cochlidex.
Indicative Column, that which ferves to fhow the
tides, ire. along the fea-coafts. Of this kind there is
one at Grand Cairo of marble, whereon the over¬
flowings of the Nile are exprefled : by this they form
a judgment of the fucceeding feafon ; when the wa¬
ter, for inftance, afeends to 23 feet, it is a fign of great
fertility in Egypt, See Nilometer.
lufiruttive Column, that railed, according to Jo-
fephus, lib. i. cap. 3. by the fons of Adam, whereon
were engraven tlie principles of arts and fciences.
Baudelot tells us, that the fon of Pififtratus raifed ano¬
ther of this kind, of ftone, containing the rules and
precepts of agriculture.
Itinerary Column, a column with feveral faces, Column,
placed in the crofs-ways in large roads; ferving to ~
Ihow the different routs by infenptions thereon.
LaClary Column, at Rome, according to Feftus,
was a column erected in the herb-market, now the
place Montanara, which had a cavity in its pedeftal,
wherein young children abandoned by their parents,
out of poverty or inhumanity, were expofed, to be
brought up at the public expence.
Legal Column. Among the Lacedemonians there
were columns raifed in public places, whereon were
engraven the fundamental laws of the ftate.
Limitrophous or Boundary Column, that which
Ihows the limits of a kingdom or country conquered.
Such was that which Pliny fays Alexander the Great
ereifted at the extremity of the Indies.
Manubiary Column, from the Latin manubiec,
“ fpoils of the enemy;” a column adorned with tro¬
phies built in imitation of trees, whereon the fpoils of
enemies were anciently hung. See Trophy.
Memorial Column, that raifed on occafion of any
remarkable event; as the monument of London, built
to perpetuate the memory of the burning of that city
in 1666. It is'of the Doric order, fluted, hollow, with
a winding ftair-cafe ; and terminated a-top with wa¬
ving flames. There is alfo another of the kind, in
form of an obelilk, on the banks of the Rhine in the
Palatinate, in memory of the famous paflage of that
river by the great Gultavus Adolphus and his army.
Menian Column, any column which fupports a bal¬
cony or meniana. The origin of this kind of column,
Suetonius and Afcanius refer to one Menias ; who ha¬
ving fold his houfe to Cato and Flaccus, confuls, to be
converted info a public edifice, referved to himfelf
the rightj of railing a column withoutfide, to bear a
balcony, whence he might fee the lliews.
Military Column, was a column of marble raifed
by order of Auguftus in the middle of the Roman fo¬
rum ; from whence, as a centre, the diftances of the
feveral cities, ire. of the empire were reckoned, by
other milliary columns difpofed at equal diftances on
all the grand roads. This column was of white mar¬
ble, the fame with that which is now feen on the bal-
luftrade of the perron of the capitol at Rome. Its
proportion is maflive, being a fliort cylinder, the fym-
bol of the globe of the earth. It was called milliareum
aureum, as having been gilt, at leaft the ball, by or¬
der of Auguftus. It was reftored by the emperors
Vefpafian and Adrian, as appears by the inferiptions.
Military Column, among the Romans, a column
whereon was engraven a lift of the forces in the Ro¬
man army, ranged by legions, in their proper order ;
with defign to preferve the memory of the number of
foldiers, and of the order preferved in any military
expedition. They had another kind of military co¬
lumn, which they called columna bellica, Handing be¬
fore the temple of Janus ; at the foot whereof the
conful declared war, by throwing a javelin towards
the enemies countries.
Sepulchral Column, anciently was a column erec¬
ted on a tomb or fepulchre, with an infcription on its
bafe. Thofe oyer the tombs of perfons of diftintftion
were very large; thofe for the common people fmall:
thefe laft are called ftela and cippi.
Statuary
Column
Colymbus.
COL [2i
Statuary Column, that which fupports a ftatue.
Such was that erected by pope Paul V. on a pedeftal
before the church of St Maria at Rome ; to fupport a
ftatue of the Virgin, which is of gilt brafs. This co¬
lumn was dug up in the temple of peace ; its fhaft is
a fingle block of white marble 491 feet high, and five
feet eight inches diameter, of the Corinthian order.
The term Jlatuary column may likewife be applied
to caryatides, perfians, termini, and other human fi¬
gures, which do the office of columns; and which Vi¬
truvius calls, telamones, and atlantes. See Archi¬
tecture, n° 59.
Triumphal Column, a column eretfted among the
ancients in honour of an hero; the joints of the ftones,
or eourfes whereof, were covered with as many crowns
as he had made different military expeditions. Each
crown had its particular name, as vallaris, which was
befet with fpikes, in memory of having forced a pali-
fade. Muralis, adorned with little turrets or battle¬
ments, for having mounted an aflault. Navalis, of
prows and beaks of veflels ; for having overcome at
lea. Objidionalis, pr graminalis, of gral's; for having
raifed a fiege. Ovans, of myrtle ; which exprefied
an ovation, or little triumph : and triumphalis, of lau¬
rel, for a grand triumph. See Crown.
COLUMNEA, in botany, a genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, a native of Marti-
nico, of which we have no particular defcription.
COLUMNIFERI, in botany, an order of plants in
the fragment a methods naturalis of Linnaeus, in which
are the following genera, viz. bixa, corchorus, helio¬
carpus,. kiggelaria, microcos, muntingia, thea, tilea,
turnera, triumfetta, ayenia, grevia, heli&eres, klein-
hovia, adanfonia, alcaea, althaea, bombax, camellia,
gofypinm, hermannia, hibifcus, lavatera, malope, mal-
va, melochia, napaea, pentapetes, fida, ftewartia, theo-
broma, urena, waltharia.
COLURES, in aftronomy and geography, two great
drcles fupppfed to interfed each other at right angles
in the poles of the world, and to pafs through the fol-
ftitial and equinotftial points of the ecliptic. See Geo¬
graphy.
COLURI, a little ifland in the gulph of Engia, in
the Archipelago, formerly called Salamis. The prin¬
cipal town is of the'fame name, and feated on the louth
fide, at the bottom of the harbour, which is one of the
fineft in the world. The famous Grecian hero, Ajax,
who makes fuch a figure in Homer’s Iliad, was king
of this ifland. It is now, however, but a poor place ;
its commodities confift of wheat, barley, tar, rofin,
pit-coal, fpunges, and pot-aflies, which they carry to
Athens. It is feven miles Couth from Athens, and is fe-
parated from the continent by a ftrait about a mile over.
COLUTEA, bastard-sena, in botany ; a genus
of the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia
clafs of plants. There are three fpecies, all of them
deciduous flowering flirubs, adorned with many lobed
leaves, and butterfly-ihaped flowers, of a deep yellow
or red colour. They are propagated both by feeds and
layers, and are hardy enough, though they fortietimes
require a little flicker, when the weather is very cold.
COLYMBUS, in ornithology, a genus belonging to
the order of anferes. The bill has no teeth, is fubu-
Vol. III.
05 ] COL
lated, ftrait, and lharp-pointed ; the teeth are in the Colymbus.
throat; the noftrils are linear, and at the bale of the
bill; and the legs are unfit for walking. Tliis genus
includes the grebes and divers. The fpecies are eleven.
1. The grylle is in length 14 inches, in breadth 22 ;
the bill is an inch and an half long, ftrait, flender,
and black; the infide of the mouth red; oh each wing
is a large bed of white, which in young birds is fpot-
ted; the tips of the lefler quill-feathers, and the co¬
verts of the wings, are white: except thofe, the whole
plumage is black. In winter it is faid to change to
white; and a variety fpotted with black and white
is not uncommon in Scotland. The tail confifts of 12
feathers; the legs are red. Thefe birds are found
on the Bafs Ifle in Scotland ; in the ifland of St Kilda ;
and, as Mr Ray imagines, in the Fam Iflands off the
coaft of Northumberland. It has alfo been feen on the
rocks of Llandidno, in Caernarvonfliire, in Wales.
Except in breeding-time it keeps always at fea ; and
is very difficult to be flrot, diving at the flafli of the
pan. The Wellh call this bird /o«£»r, or “the
failor’s hatred,” from a notion that its appearance fore¬
bodes a ftorm. It vifits St Kilda’s in March ; makes
its neft far under ground ; and lays a grey egg, or, as
Steller fays, whitiffi and fpotted with ruft, and fpeckled
with afli-colour.
2. The troile weighs 24 ounces; its length is 1 7
inches, the breadth 27L ; the bill is three inches long,
black, ftrait, and ffiarp-pointed ; near the end of the
lower mandible is a fmall procefs ; the infide of the
mouth yellow ; the feathers on the upper part of the
bill are fliort and foft like velvet ; from the eye to
the hind part of the head is a fmall divifion of the
feathers. The head, neck, back, wings, and tail, are
of a deep moufe-colour ; the tips of the leffer quil!-
feathers white ; the whole under part of the body is
of a pure white ; the fides under the wings marked
with dulky lines. Immediately above the thighs are
fome long feathers that curl over them. The legs are
dulky. They are found in amazing numbers on the
high cliffs of feveral of the Britifii coafts, and appear
at the fame time with the auk. They are very Ample
birds; for notwithftanding they are Ihot at, and fee
their companions killed by them, they will not quit
the rock. Like the auk they lay only one egg, which
is very large : fome are of a fine pale blue ; others
white, fpotted, or moft elegantly ftreaked with lines
croffing each other in all directions. They continue
about the Orkneys the whole winter.
3. The feptentrionalis is more elegantly fliaped than
the others. It weighs three pounds. The length to
the end of the tail is two feet; to the toes, two feet
four inches: the breadth, three feet five inches. The
head is fmall and taper 1 the bill ftrait; the head and
chin are of a fine uniform grey ; the hind part of the
neck marked with dulky and white lines pointing
downwards; the throat is of a dull red; the whole
upper part of the body, tail, and wings, of a deep
grey, almolt dulky; but the coverts of the wings and
the back are marked with a few white fpots; the un¬
der fide of the body is white ; the legs dnlky. This
fpecies breeds in the northern parts of Europe, on the
borders of lakes; but migrates fouthward during win¬
ter. They build their nefts upon the Ihore without
12 L art,
COL [21
Colymbus. art, and lay a couple of eggs: they run with great
" quicknefs upon the water ; and prefage ftorms by fly¬
ing and crying with a miferable tone of voice.
4. The ar&icus is fomewhat larger than the laft r
the bill is black, and alfo the front; the hind part of
the head and neck cinereous; the fides of the neck
marked with black and white lines pointing down¬
wards ; the fore part of a gloffy variable black, purple,
and green. The back, fcapulars, and coverts of the
wings, are black, marked, the two firft with fquare,
the laft with round fpots of white ; the quill-feathers
dulky the breaft and belly white; the tail fttort and
black; legs partly dulky, and partly reddijh.
J. The glacialis is three feet five inches in length ;
the breadth four feet eight; the bill to the corners of
the mouth four inches long, black and ftrongly made.
The head and neck are of a deep black ; the hind
part of the latter is marked with a large femilunar
white band ; immediately under the throat is another ;
both marked with black oblong ftrokes pointing down :
the lower part of the neck is of a deep black, glofled
with a rich purple ; the whole under fide of the body
is white; the fides of the breaft marked with black
lines; the back, coverts of the wings, and fcapulars,
are black marked with white fpots; thofe on the fca¬
pulars are very large, and of a fquare lhape; two at
the end of each feather. The tail is very Ihort, and
almoft concealed by the coverts, which are dulky,
fpotted with white ; the legs are black. Thefe birds
inhabit the northern parts of Britain, live chiefly at
fea, and feed on filh; but it is not known whether
they breed here as they do in Norway, which has
many birds in common with Scotland. In the High¬
lands it is called mur-bitachaill, or “ the herdfman of
the fea,” from its being fo much in that element.
6. The immer, or ember-goofe, is fuperior in fize
to a common goofe. The head is dulky ; the back,
coverts of the wings, and tail, clouded with lighter
and darker lhades of the fame. The primaries and
tail are black ; the under fide of the neck fpotted with
dulky ; the breaft and belly filvery ; the legs black.
They inhabit the feas about the Orkney Illands; but in
fevere winters vifit the fouthern parts of Great Britain.
They live fo much at fea, that it has been imagined
they never quitted the water ; and that the young
were hatched in a hole formed by nature under the wing
for that end. Their Ikins are uncommonly tough, and
in the northern countries have been ufed as leather.
7. The cryftalus, or cargoofe, weighs two pounds
and an half. Its length is 21 inches, the breadth 30 j
the bill is two inches and a quarter long, red at the
bafe, and black at the point; between the bill and the
eyes is a ftripe of black naked Ikin ; the irides are of
a fine pale red ; the tongue is a third part Ihorter than
the bill, llender, hard at the end, and a little divided ;
on the head is a large dulky creft, feparated in the
middle. The cheeks and throat are furrounded with
a long pendent ruff, of a bright tawney colour, edged
with black1; the chin is white ; from the bill to the
eye is a black line, and above that a white one ; the
hind part of the neck and the back are of a footy hue;
the rump, for it wants a tail, is covered with long foft
down. The covert-feathers on the fecond and third
joints of the wing, and the under coverts are white ;
06 ] COL
all the other wing-feathers, except the fecondaries, Colymbtis.
are dulky, thofe being white ; the breaft and belly     
are of a moft beautiful filvery white, glolly as fattin :
the outlide of the legs, and the bottom of the feet, are
dulky ; the infide of the legs, and the toes, of a pale
green,' Thefe birds frequent the meres of Shrop-
Ihire'and Chelhire, where they breed; and the great
fen of Lineolnlhire, where they are called gaunts.
Their Ikins are made into tippets, and fold at as high
4 price as thofe which come from Geneva. This fpe-
cies lays four eggs of a white colour, and the fame
fize with thofe of a pigeon. The neft is formed of
the roots of bugbane, ftalks of water-lily, pond-weed,
and water-Violet, floating independent among the
reeds and flags ; the water penetrates it, and the bird
fits and hatches the eggs in that wet condition ; the
neft is fometimes blown from among the flags into the
middle of the water : in thefe circumftances the fable
of the halcyon’s neft may, in feme meafure, be vindi¬
cated. It is a careful nurfe of its young ; being ob-
ferved to feed them moft afliduoully, commonly with
fmall eels; and when the infant-brood are tired, the
parent will carry them either on its back, or under its
wings. It preys on filh, and is almoft perpetually di¬
ving ; it does not Ihow much more than the head a-
bove water ; and is very difficult to be ffiot, as it darts
down on the leaft appearance of danger. It is never
feea on land; and, though dilturbed ever fo often,
will not fly farther than the end of the lake. Its Ikin
is out of feafon about February, lofing then its bright
colour; and in the breeding time its breaft is almoft
bare. The flelh is exceflively rank.
8. The auritus, or eared dob-chick, is in length one
foot to the rump: the extent is 22 inches: the bill
black, llender, and llightly recurvated; the irides
crimfon ; the head and neck are black; the throat
fpotted with white ; the whole upper fide of a blackilh
brown, except the ridge of the wing about the firft
joint, and the fecondary feathers, which are white ;
the breaft, belly, and inner coverts of the wings are
white ; the fubaxillary feathers, and fome on the fide
of the rump ferruginous. Behind the eyes, on each
fide,, is a tuft of long, loofe, ruft coloured feathers
hanging backwards; the legs are of a dulky green.
They inhabit the fens near Spalding, where they
breed. No external difference is to be obferved be¬
tween the male and the famale of thi^ fpecies. They
make their neft not unlike that of the former ; and
lay four or five fmall eggs.
9. The ufinator differs from the cryftaJus only in
being rather lefs, and wanting the creft and ruff.
The fides of the neck are ftriped downwards from the
head with narrow lines of black and white : in other
relpefls the colours and marks agree with that bird.
This fpecies has been Ihot onRoftern Mere in-Chelhire.
It is rather fcarce in England, but is common in the
winter time on the lake of Geneva. They appear
there in flocks of 10 or twelve and are killed for the
fake of their beautiful Ikins. The under fide of them
being drelfed with the feathers on, are made into
muffs and' tippets: each bird fells for about 14 Jhillings.
10. The dominicus, with lobated feet, a fmooth
head, and the belly very much fpotted.
H. The padiceps, or pied-bill dob-chick, weighs
half '
Com
Combina'
COM [2i
half a pound ; the eyes are large and encotnpafled
with a white circle ; the throat has a black fpot;
a black lift crofles the middle of the bill; the lower
. mandible next the bafts has a black fpot. The head
and neck are brown; the crown of the head and back
part of the neck are darkeft ; the feathers of the
breaft are light brown mixed with green ; the belly
is dulky white ; the back and wings brown ; they fre¬
quent many of the frelh water ponds in the inhabited
parts of Carolina.
COM, a town of Afia in the empire of Perfia, and
province of Iracagemi. It is a large populous place,
but has fuffered greatly by the civil wars. E. Long.
49. 1. N. Lat. 34. o.
COMA, or Coma-vigil, a preternatural propen-
fity to fleep, when, neverthelefs, the patient does not
fleep, or if he does, awakes immediately without any
relief. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
Coma Berenices, Berenice’s hair, in aftronomy, a
conftellation in the northern hemifphere, compofed of
ftars near the lion’s tail. This conftellation confifts of
three ftars, according to Ptolemy ; of 13, according to
Tycho ; and of 40, in the Britannic Catalogue.
Com^ Somnolentum, is when the patient continues
in a profound fleep, and, when awaked, immediately
relapfes, without being able to keep open his eyes.
COMARUM, marsh-cin qu e fo i l ; a genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the icofandria clafs of
plants. There is but one fpecies, a native of Britain.
It riles about two feet high, and bears fruit fomewhat
like that of the ftrawberry. It grows naturally in
bogs, fo is not eafily preferved in gardens. The root
dyes a dirty red. The Irilh rub their milking pails
with it, and it makes the milk appear thicker and
richer. Goats eat the herb ; cows and Iheep are not
fond of it ; horfes and fwine refufe it.
COMB, an inftrument to clean, untangle, and drefs,
flax, wool, hair, ire.
Combs for wool are prohibited to be imported into
England.
Comb is alfo the creft, or red flelhy tuft, growing
upon a cock’s head.
COMBAT, in a general fenfe, denotes an engage¬
ment, or a difference decided by arms. See Battle.
Combat, in our ancient law, was a formal trial of
fome doubtful caufe or quarrel, by the fwords or
ballons of two champions. This form of proceeding
was very frequent, not only in criminal but in civil
caufes i being built on a fuppofition that God would
never grant the vidiory but to him who had the bell
right. The laft trial of this kind in England, was be¬
tween Donald lord Ray appellant, and David Ram-
fay Efq; defendant; when after many formalities, the
matter was referred to the King’s pleafure. See the
article Battle.
COMBINATION, properly denotes an alfemblage
of feveral things two by two.
Combination, in mathematics, is the variation or
alteration of any number of quantities, letters, or the
like, in all the different manners poffible. See Chan¬
ges.
Jlphorifms. I. In all combinations, if from an arith¬
metic decreafing feries, whofe firft term is ihe number
out of which the combinations are to be ft rmed, and
07 ] COM
whofe common difference is 1, there be taken as
many terms as there are quantities to be combined ;
and thefe terms be multiplied into each other: and if
from the feries 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. there may be taken
the fame number of terms, and they be multiplied in¬
to each other, and the firft produdl be divided by the
fecond ; the quotient will be the number of combina¬
tions required. Therefore, if you would know how
many ways four quantities can be combined in feven,
multiply the firft four terms of the feries, 7, 6, 5,
4, ire. together, and divide the product, which will
be 840, by the product of the firft four terms of the
feries, 1, 2, 3, 4, ire. which is 24, and the quotient
35 will be the combinations of 4 in 7. II. In all
permutations, if the feries 1, 2, 3, 4, t$c. be con¬
tinued to as many terms as there are quantities to be
changed, and thofe terms be multiplied into each o-
ther ; the produtft will be the number of permutations
fought. Thub, if you would know how many permu¬
tations can be formed with five quantities, multiply
the terms 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 together, and the produdt 120
will be the number of all the permutations.
Problems. I. To find the number of changes that
may be rung on ia bells. ’ It appears by the fecond
aphorifm, that nothing is more neceflary here than
to multiply the numbers from 1 to 12 continually into
each other, in the following manner, and the laft pro-
du(5l will be the number fought.
2
3
~6
_4
24
_£
120
6
720
 7
5040
 8
40320
 9
362880 ■
to
3628800
11
39916800
 12
479,001,600
II. Suppofe the letters of the alphabet to be wrote
fo fmall that no one of them fliall take up more fpace
than the hundredth part of a fquare inch: to find how
many fquare yards it would require to write all the
permutations of the 24 letters in that fize. By fol¬
lowing the fame method as in the laft problem, the
number of permutations of the 24 letters will be found
to be 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000. Now the
inches in a fquare yard being 1296, that number mul¬
tiplied by 100 gives 129600, which is the number of
r letters
Combing-
COM [21
Combina- letters each fquare yard will contain ; therefore if we
tion- divide 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000 by 129600
the quotient, which is 478,741,050,720,092,160, will
be the number of yards required, to contain the
above-mentioned number of permutations. But as
all the 24 letters are contained in every permuta¬
tion, it will require a fpace 24 times as large ; that is,
11,489,785,217,282,211,840. Now the number of
fquare yards contained on the furface of the whole
earth is but 617,197,435,008,000, therefore it would
require a fnrface 18620 times as large as that of the
earth to write all the permutations of the 24 letters in
the fize above-mentioned.
III. To find how many diiferent ways the eldeft
hand at piquet may take in his five cards. The eldeft
hand having 12 cards dealt him, there remain 20
cards, any five of which may be in thofe he takes in;
confequently we are here to find how many ways five
cards may be taken out of 20. Therefore, by apho-
rifm I. if we multiply 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, into each
other, which will make 1860480, and that number be
divided by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, multiplied into each other,
which make 120, the quotient, which is 15504, will
be the number of ways five cards may be taken out of
20. From hence it follows, that it is 15503 to x, that
the eldeft hand does not take in any five certain cards.
IV. To find the number of deals a perfon may play
at the game of whift, without ever holding the fame
cards twice. The number of cards played with at
whift being 52, and the number dealt to each perfon
being 13, it follows, that by taking the fame me¬
thod as in the laft experiment, that is, by multiply¬
ing 52 by 51, 50, &c. fo on to 41, which will make
3,954,242,643,911,239,680,000, and then dividing
that fum by 1, 2,. 3, ire. to 13, which will make
6,227,020,800, the quotient, which is 635,013,559,600
will be the number of different ways 13 cards may be
taken out of 52, and confequently the number fought.
« Ci ro so ^ co oso w <s
08 ] COM
The conftruction of this table is very fimple. The Combina-
line A a confifts of the firft 12 numbers. The line tiQn'
A £ confifts every where of units; and fecond term 3,
of the line B c, is compofed of the two terms 1 and 2
in the preceding rank: the third term 6, in that line,
is formed of the two terms 3 and 3 in the preceding
rank : and fo of the reft ; every term, after the firft,
being compofed of the two next terms in the preced¬
ing rank: and by the fame method it may be conti¬
nued to any number of ranks. To find by this table
how often any number of things can be combined in
another number, under 13, as fuppofe 5 cards out of
8 ; in the eighth rank look for the fifth term, which is
56, and that is the number required.
Though we have {hewn in the foregoing problems
the manner of finding the combination of all numbers
whatever, yet as this table anfwers the fame purpofe,
for fmall numbers, by infpeftion only, it will be found
ufeful on many occafions; as will appear by the fol¬
lowing examples.
V. To find how many different founds may be
produced by ftriking on a harpfichord two or more
of the feven natural notes at the fame time. 1. The
combinations of two in feven, by the foregoing tri¬
angle are - - 21
2. The combinations of 3 in 7, are - 35
3. The combinations of 4 in 7, are - 35
4. The combinations of 5, are - 21
5. The combinations of 6, are - 7
6. The feven notes all together once 1
Therefore the number of all the founds will
be - - - 120
VI. Take four fquare pieces of pafteboard, of the
fame dimenfion, and divide them diagonally, that is
by drawing a line from two oppofite angles, as in the
figures, into 8 triangles; paint 7 of thefe triangles
with the primitive colours, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, and let the eighth be white. To
find how many chequers or regular four-fided figures,
different either in form or colour, may be made out
of thofe eight triangles. Firft, by combining two of
thefe triangles, there may be formed either the trian¬
gular fquare A, or the inclined fquare B called a rhomb.
Secondly, by combining four of the triangles, the large
fquare C, may be formed ; or the long fquare D, cal¬
led a parallelogram.
Now the firft two fquares, confifting of two parts
out of 8, they may each of them, by the eighth rank
of the triangle be taken 28 different ways, which
makes
Combina¬
tion.
COM [ 2169 ] COM
makes 56. And the laft two fquares, confifting of four
parts, may each be taken by the fame rank of the
triangle 70 times, which makes 140
To which add the foregoing number 56
And the number of the different fquares that
may be formed of the 8 triangles, will be 196
VII. A man has 12 different forts of flowers, and a
large number of each fort. He is defirous of fetting
them in beds or flourifhes, in his parterre. Six flowers
in fome, 7 in others, and 8 in others ; fo as to have
the greateft variety poffible ; the flowers in no two
beds to be the fame. To find how many beds he
muft have. 1. The combinations of 6 in 12 by the
laft rank of the triangle, are - 924
2. The combinations of 7 in 12, are - 792
3. The combinations of 8 in 12, are - 495
Therefore the number of beds muft be - 2211
VIII. To find the number of chances that may be
thrown on two dice. As each die has 6 faces, and as
every face of one die may be combined with all the
faces of the other, it follows, that 6 multiplied by 6,
that is 36, will be the number of all the chances ; as
is alfo evident from the following table :
6-3
4.T
3-3
6.1
4.46.2
3.6
3|
3.22.3
4.2
5.56.4
6.5;
6.6
•4]
4.3 3.4
3-5j
It appears by this table, 1. That the number of
chances for each point continually increafes to the
point of feven, and then continually decreafes till 12 :
therefore if two points are propofed to be thrown,
the equality, or the advantage of one over the other,
is clearly vifible *. 2. The whole number of chances
on the dice being 252, if that number be divided by
36, the number of different throws on the dice, the
quotient is 7: it follows therefore, that at every throw
there is an equal chance of bringing feven points.
3. As there are 36 chances on the dice, and only 6
of them doublets, it is 5 to 1, at any one throw,
againft throwing a doublet.
By the fame method the number of chances upon
any number of dice may be found : for if 36 be mul¬
tiplied by 6, that product, which is 216, will be the
chances on 3 dice ; and if that number be multiplied
by 6, the produft will be the chances on 4 dice, ire.
Combinations of the Cards. The following ex¬
periments, founded on the doftrine of combinations,
may poffibly amufe a number of our readers. The
tables given are the bafts of many experiments, as
well on numbers, letters, and other fubjedls, as on
the cards ; but the effect produced by them with the
laft is the moft furprifing, as that which Ihould feem to Comblna-
prevent any collufion, that is, the Ihuffling of the cards, tlon'
is on the contrary the caufe from whence it proceeds.
It is a matter of indifference what numbers are made
ufe of in forming thefe tables. We lhall here confine
ourfelves to fuch as are applicable to the liibfequent
experiments. Any one may conftrudt them in fuch
manner as is agreeable to the purpofes he intends they
lhall anfwer.
To make them, for example, correfpond to the
nine digits and a cipher, there muft be ten cards, and
at the top of nine of them muft be wrote one of the
digits, and on the tenth a cipher. Thefe cards muft
be placed upon each other in the regular order, the
number 1 being on the firft, and the cipher at bottom.
You then take the cards in your left hand, as is com¬
monly done in Ihuffling, and taking off the two top
cards, 1 and 2, you place the two following, 3 and 4,
upon them ; and under thofe four cards the three fol¬
lowing 5, 6, and 7 : at the top you put the cards 8
and 9, and at the bottom the card marked o. Con-
ftantly placing in fucceffion 2 at top and 3 at bottom,
and they will then be in the following order :
8.9.. 3.4..1.2...5.6.7..0
If you Ihuffle them a fecond time, in the fame man¬
ner, they will then ftand in this order :
6.7.. 3.4..8.9..1.2.5..0
Thus, at every new Ihuffle, they will have a diffe¬
rent order, as is expreffed in the following lines :
1 Ihuffle 8.9.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.0
2 6.7.3.4.8.9.1.2.5.0
3 2.5.3.4.6.7.8.9.1.o
4 9.i.3.4.3.5-6.7.8.o
5 7.8.3.4.9.1.2.5.6.0
6 5.6.3.4.7.8.9.1.2.0
7 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0
It is a remarkable property of this number, that
the cards return to the order in which they were firft
placed, after a number of ihuffles, which added to the
number of columns that never change the order, is
equal to the number of cards. Thus the number of
Ihuffles is 7, and the number of columns in which the
cards marked 3, 4> fcfc. never change their places is 3,
which are equal to 10, the number of the cards. This
property is not common to all numbers; the cards fome-
times returning to the firft order in lefs number, and
fometimes in a greater number of Ihuffles than that of
the cards.
TABLES or COMBINATIONS,
Conftru&ed on the foregoing principles.
I. For ten numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1 It deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
* It is eafy from hence to determine whether a bett propofed at hazard, or any other game with the dice, be advantageous or
not; if the dice be true; (which, by the way, is rarely the cafe for any long time together, as it is fo ealy for thofe that are
pofleffed of a dexterity of hand to change the true dice for falfej.
COM
COM [ 2110 ]
Combina- ■ Thefe tables, and the following examples at piquet
tion. except the 36th, appear to have been compofed by
M. Guyot.
II. For twenty-four numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1 ft deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
IV. For thirty-two numbers.
Order before dealing. After ift deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
I?
M
15
16
17
18
19
23
2+
23
24
18
19
*3
M
8
9
3
4
*5
16
17
J5
5
6
9
3
18
19
23
24
13
14
8
4
16
17
7
13
14
3
18
6
9
19
23
III. For twenty-feven numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1 ft deal. After the 2d. After die 3d.
23
24
18
19
13
14
8
9
3
4
17
18
19
23
24
28
29
30
31
32
28
29
23
24
18
19
13
14
16
17
30
31
32
26
8
23
19
13
9
3
15
r6
25
30
31
32
9
3
28
29
2
14
17
20
26
27
23
24
18
19
13
4
5
6
IS
. 16
21
30
31
32
20 I. << Several letters that contain no meaning, being"
2 “ wrote upon cards, to make them, after they have
^ “ been twice fhuffled, give an anfwer to a queftion
1 ^ “ that fliall be propofed; as for example, What is
C( love?” Let 24 letters be wrote on as many cards,
5 which, after they have been twice Ihuffled, Ihall give
1 the following anfwer.
jg d dream of joy that foon is o'er.
21 Firft, write one of the letters in that line on each
22 of the cards*. Then write the anfwer on a paper,
5 and affign one of the 24 firft numbers to each card,
6 in the following order:
9 A DREAM OF J O Y T H A T S O O N
19 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ion 1213 1415 161718 19
23 I S O’ER.
24 2021 22 23 24
8 Next, write on another paper a line of numbers,
4 from 1 to 24, and looking in the table for 24 combi-
I nations you will fee that the firfl; number after the fe-
10 cond ftniffle is 21, therefore the card that has the firft
It letter of the anfwer, which is A, muft be placed
16 againft that number, in the line of numbers you have
25 juft madef. In like manner the number 22 being the
26 fecond of the fame column, indicates that the card
27 which anfwers to the fecond letter D of the anfwer,
muft
11 capitals on one of the corners of each card, that the words may be eafily legible when the
AF°r *e f*mcJ^fon ‘f y°" w’°uld have the anfwer after one Ihuffle, the cards muft be placed according to the firft column
ot the table; ^or if after three Ihuffles, according to the third column.
13
*4
15
16
17
18
19
23 21
24 22
25 25
26 26
27 27
* Thefe letters (hould be wrote
e fpread open.
15
5
6
9
3
18
19
23
24
14
8
4
16
17
20
25
26
27
COM [2:
Combina- muft be placed againft that number t and fo of the reft,
tion. The cards will then ftarld in the following order :
1 234567 89 jo 1112131415 x6 17 18 19
OOFSAMNTO I S RHAE O’E J O
20 21 22 23 24
R A U Y T
From whence it follows, that after thefe cards have
been twice fliuffled, they muft infallibly ftand in the
order of the letters in the anfwer.
Obferve 1. You Ihould have feveral queftions, with
their anfwers, confifting of 24 letters, wrote on
cards: thefe cards Ihould be put in cafes, and num¬
bered, that you may know to which queftion each an-
Ivver belongs. You then prefent the queftions ; and
when any one of them is chofe, you pull out the cafe
that contains the anfwer, and Ihewing that the letters
wrote on them make no fenfe, you then fliuffle them,
and the anfwer becomes obvious.
2. To make this experiment the more extraordi¬
nary, you may have three cards, on each of which an
anfwer is wrote ; one of which cards muft be a little
wider, and another a little longer, than the others.
You give thefe three cards to any one, and when he
has privately chofe one of them he gives you the
other other two, which you put in your pocket with¬
out looking at them, having difcovered by feeling
which he has chofe. You then pull out the cafe that
contains the cards that anfwer to his queftion, and
perform as before.
3. You may alfo contrive to have a long card at
the bottom, after the fecond Ihuffle. The cards may
be then cut feveral times, till you perceive by the
touch that the long card is at bottom, and then give
the anfwer; for the repeated cuttings, however of¬
ten, will make no alteration in the order of the cards.
The fecond of thefe obfervations is applicable to
fome of the fubfequent experiments, and the third
may be pra<5tifed in almoft all experiments with the
cards. You fhould take care to put up the cards as foon
as the anfwer has been fhewn: fo that if any one fhould
defire the experiment to be repeated, you may offer
another queftion, and pull out thofe cards than con¬
tain the anfwer.
Though this experiment cannot fail of , exciting at
all times pleafure and furprize, yet it muft be owned
that a great part of the applaufe it receives arifes
from the addre-fs with which it is performed.
II. “ The 24 letters of the alphabet being wrote
“ upon fo many cards, to fhuffle them, and pronounce
“ the letters fhall then be in their natural order; but
“ that not fucceeding, to fhuffle them a fecond time,
“ and then fhew them in proper order.” Write the
24 letters on the cards in the following order :
123456789101112
RSHQ^EFTPGUXC
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
NODYZIK&ABLM
The cards being difpofed in this manner, fhew them
upon the table, that it may appear they are promif-
cuoufly marked. Then fhuffle and lay them again on
the table, pronouncing that they will be then in alpha¬
betical order. Appear to be furprifed that you have
failed ; take them up again and give them a fecond
fhuffle, and then counting them down on the table they
n ] COM
will all be in their natural order. Combina-
III. “ Several letters being wrote promifcuoufly don.
“ upon 32 cards, after they have been once fhuffled,
“ to find in & part of them a queftion ; and then
“ fhuffling the remainder a fecond time, to fhew the
“ anfwer. Suppole the queftion to be, IVbat is each
11 Briton's boa]} ? and the anfwer. His liberty ; which
“ taken together contain 32 letters.”
After you have wrote thofe letters on 32 cards,
write on a paper the words his liberty} and annex to
the letters the firft ten numbers thus :
HIS LIBERTY
123 456789 10
Then have recourfe to the table of combinations
for ten numbers, and apply the refpedtive numbers to
them in the fame manner as in experiment I. taking
the firft column, as' thefe are to be fhuffled only once,
according to that order.
123 456 789 JO
I B S LERT HI Y
This is the order in which thefe cards muft ftand
after the whole number 32 has been once fhuffled, fo
that after a fecond fhuffle they may ftand in their pro¬
per order. Next difpofe the whole number of letters
according to the firft column for 32 letters: the laft ten
are to be here placed in the order above ; as follows,
WHAT IS EACH BRITON’S
1 234 567891011121314151617
BOAST?
18 19 20 21 22
IBSLERTHIY
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Therefore, by the firft column of the table, they
wi 1 next ftand thus:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ro 11 12 13 14 T5 16
ITBRONSCH B OA E A S' T long card.
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
I ISBS LI BERTWHHIY
You muft obferve that the card here placed the
16th in order, being the laft of the queftion, is a long
card ; that you may cut them, or have them cut, after
the firft fhuffle, at that part, and by that means fepa-
rate them from the other ten cards that contain the
anfwer.
Your cards being thus difpofed, you fhow that they
make no meaning ; then fhuffle them once, and cut¬
ting them at the long card, you give the firft part to
any one, who reads the queftion, but can find no an¬
fwer in the others, which you open before him; you
then fhuffle them a fecond time, and fhow the anfwer
as above.
IV. “To write 32 letters on fo many cards, then
u fhuffle and deal them by twos to two perfons, in
<( fuch manner, that the cards of one fhall contain a
“ queftion, and thofe of the other, an anfwer. Sup-
“ pofe the queftion to be, Is nothing certain ? and the
“ anfwer. Yes, difappointment."
Over the letters of this queftion and anfwer, write
the following numbers, which correfpond to the order
in which the cards are to be dealt by two and two.
IS NOTHING CERTAIN?
31 32 27 28 22 24 19 20 15 16 11 12 7 8 "3 4
YES, DISAPOINTMENT.
29 30 25 26 21 22 I? l8 13 14 9 10 5 6 I 2
Then
Combina-
C O M [ 2112 ] COM
Then have recourfe to the Hrft column of the table
for.3 2 numbers, and difpofe thefe 32 cards in the fol¬
lowing order, by that column.
x 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
OIERGCANTP I N T A I S
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2J 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
TMEHSD INNOYNTE I S
The cards being thus difpofed, Ihuffle them once,
and deal them two and two ; when one of the parties
will neceflarily have the queftion, and the other the
anfwer.
Inftead of letters you may write words upon the
32 cards, 16 of which may contain a queftion, and the
remainder the anfwer; or what other matter you
pleafe. If there be found difficulty in accommodating
the words to the number of cards, there may be two
or more letters or fyllables wrote upon one card.
V. “ The five beatitudes.” The five bleflings we
will fuppofe to be, I. Science, a. Courage, 3. Health,
4. Riches, and 5. Virtue. Thefe are to be found
upon cards that you deal, one by one, to five per-
fons. Firft write the letters of thefe words fuccef-
fively, in the order they (land, and then add the num¬
bers here annexed to them.
SCIENCE COURAGE
31262116116 1 3227221712 7 2
HEALTH RICHES
28231813 8 3 292419149 4
V I R T U E
30 25 20 ij 10 5
Then range them in order agreeable to the firft co¬
lumn of the table'for 32 numbers, as in the laft ex¬
periment. Thus,
1 2 3 4 y 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ly 16
LHNAT ERE UAC RGTI U
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 2y 26 27 28 29 3031 32
EEC I I CHSOHREEVSC
Next, take a pack of cards, and write on the four
firft the word Science ; on the four next the word
Courage and fo of the reft.
Matters being thus prepared, you fhow that the
cards on which the letters are wrote convey no mean¬
ing. Then take the pack on which the words are
wrote, and fpreading open the firft four cards, with
their backs upward, you defire the firft perfon to
choofe one. Then clofe thofe cards and fpread the
next four to the fecond perfon ; and fo to all the five ;
telling them to hold up their cards left you ffiould have
a confederate in the room.
You then ffiuffle the cards, and deal them one by
one, in the common order, beginning with the perfon
who chofe the firft card, and each one will find in his
hand the fame word as is wrote on his card. You will
obferve, that after the fixth round of dealing, there
will be two cards left, which you give to the firft and
fecond perfons, as their words contain a letter more
than the others.
VI. “ The cards of the game of piquet being mixed
“ together, after ffiuffling them, to bring, by cutting
“ them, all the cards of each fuit together.” The order
in which the cards muft be placed to produce the effedi
defired being eftabliffied on the fame principle as that
explained in the experiment II. except that the ffiuf-
* You muft. take particular notice whether they be cut at the
them again yourfelf.
fling is here to be repeated three times, we think it
will be fufficient to give the order in which they are
to be placed before the firft ffiuftle.
Order of the Cards.
1 Ace 7 1 i 17 King clubs
* Knave jclubs 18 Ten
19 Nine 3
20 Seven clubs
3 Eighty | d
^ Seven jdiamonds
wide card
y Ten clubs
7 Seven }fPa<les
wide card
8 Ten I
3 Nine
1> diamonds
jo Queen .
11 Knave J
12 Queen clubs
Eight ? hearts
14 Seven 3
wide card
11 n£ ^ fpades
16 Nine j
21 Ace diamonds
22 Knave fpades
23 Queen hearts
24 Knave hearts
25 Ace fpades
26 King diamonds
27 Nine clubs
zb Ace
29 King $
30 Eight clubs
31 King 7 fpa(jes
a 3 ^
f hearts
32 Queen j
You then ffiuffle the cards, and cutting at the wide
card, which will be the feven of hearts, you lay the eight
cards that are cut, which will be the fuit of hearts, down
on the table. Then ffiuffling the remaining cards a fe¬
cond time, you cut at the fecond wide card, which
will be the feven of fpades, and lay, in like manner,
the eight fpades down on the table. You ffiuffle the
cards a third time, and offering them to any one to
cut, he will naturally cut them at the wide card*,
which is the feven of diamonds, and confequently
divide the remaining cards into two equal parts, one of
which will be diamonds and the other clubs.
VII. “ The cards at piquet being all mixed together,
“ to divide the pack into two unequal parts, and name
u the number of points contained in each part.” You
are firft to agree that each king, queen, and knave flia'l
count, as ufual, 10, the ace 1, and the other cards ac¬
cording to the number of the points. Then difpole
the cards, by the table for 32 numbers, in the following
order, and obferve that the laft card of the firft divi-
fion muft be a wide card.
Order of the cards before ffiuffling.
x Seven hearts 17 Nine diamonds
clubs
2 Nine clubs
3 Eight hearts
4 Eight p
y Knave > fpades
6 Ten ^
7 Queen }
8 Ace j
9 Ace hearts
wide card
10 Nine hearts
11 Queen fpades
12 Knave clubs
13 Ten diamonds
14 Ten T
iy King > hearts
16 Queen j
18 Ace fpades
19 Ten clubs
20 Knave ~)
21 Eight > diamonds
22 King S
a fpac
23 Seven fpades
f diamonds
24 Seven 7 >•
- iidla'
2y Queen j
26 Knave hearts
2 7 King clubs
28 Nine 7 c j
3, King > Ppa^es
30 Ace diamonds
31 Seven 7 1 1
32 Eight icl"bs
wide card, and if they a
, you muft have them cut, or cut
Combina.
COM [ 2113
You then fhuffle them carefully, according to the
method before deferibed, and they will ftanU in the
following order.
Cards.
Numbers.
fpades
1 Nine
2 King
3 Seven _
4 Seven diamonds 7
5 Ace fpades . 1
carried up 34
e ^ fpades
1 r Eight hearts
12 Eight fpades
13 Seven hearts
14 Nine clubs
15 Knave ~
16 Ten
17 Queen clubs
18 Nine hearts
19 Queen fpades
20 Knave clubs
21 King hearts
carried up
When the cards
8
Cards.' Numbers.
brought up 34
6 Ten clubs to
7 Ten diamonds 10
8 Ten hearts 10
9 Ace clubs x
10 Ace hearts (wide card) 1
total 66
Brought up 101
22 Queen hearts 10
23 Nine 9
24 Knave | 10
25 Eight f diamonds 8
26 King | 10
27 Queen j 10
28 Knave hearts 10
29 King clubs 10
30 Ace diamonds I
3'Sfv“hlubS l
32 Eight 3 °
total 194
] COM
The cards being thus difpofed, you a Ik your adver- Combina-
fary in what fuit you (hall repique him. If he fay in tiou
clubs or diamonds, you muft deal the cards by threes, ' "
and the hands will be as follows.
Elder. Younger.
Clubs, ace
 king
  queen
 — knave
 nine
Diamonds, ace
king
Hearts, king
— queen
—■ knave
Spades, ten
Hearts, ten
of Rentree of the younger.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
 nine
——— eight
 feven
Spades, queen
  knave
 eight
Diamonds, eight
Clubs, eight
 feven
Rentree, or take ii
the elder.
Seven fpades
Seven diamonds
Nine p
King > fpades
Ace j
If he again(1: whom you play, who is fuppofed to be
elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has
taken in five cards, you muft then lay out the queen,
knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with
the three cards you take in, a fixiem major in clubs,
and quatorze tens. If he leave one or two cards, you
muft difeard all the diamonds.
If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then dif¬
eard the queen, knave, and nine of clubs ; or all the
clubs, if he leave two cards; and you will then have a
hand of the fame ftrength as before.
Note, If the adverfary fliould difeard five of his
by Ihuffling difpofed in this or¬
der, you cut them at the wide card,‘and pronounce
that the cards you have cut off contain 66 points, and
confequently the remaining part 194.
VIII. “ The Inconceivable Repique When you
would perform this experiment with the cards ufed in
the laft, you muft obferve not to diforder the firft 10
cards in laying them down on the table. Putting
thofe cards together, in their proper order, therefore,
you (huffle them a fecond time in the fame manner,  ^             
and offer them to any one to cut, obferying carefully if hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have
he cut them at the wide card, which will be the ace of
hearts, and will then be at top; if not, you muft make
him, under fome pretence or other, cut them till it is ;
and the cards will then be ranged in fuch order that
you will repique the perfon againft whom you play,
though you let him choofe (even after he has cut) in
what fuit you Ihall make the repique.
Order of the .cards after they have been fhuffled
and cut.
£- diamonds
17 Nine
18 Knave 5
19 Nine hearts
20 Queen fpades
21 Seven hearts
22 Nine clubs
23 Ten hearts
2 - Ace clubs
25 Seven fpades
26 Seven diamonds
27 Nine fpades
30 Ten clubs
31 Ten diamonds
32 Ace hearts (wide card)
a feptiem in fpades : or if he only take one card : but
neither of thefe any one can do, who has the lealt
knowledge of the game. If the perfon againft whom
you play would be repiqued in hearts or fpades, you
muft deal the cards by twos, and the game will ftand
thus :
Younger hand.
Ace
S5
diamonds
12 M
If
This manoeuvre of piquet was invented by the countefs of L——> (a French lady) and communicated by her to M. Guyot.
COM [ 2II4
If he require to be repiqued in hearts, you keep the
quint to a king in hearts, ami the ten of fpades, and
- lay out which of the reft you pleafe : then, even if he
fhould leave two cards, you will have a fixiem major
in hearts, and quatorze tens, which will make a re*
pique.
But if he demand to be repiqued in fpades ; -at the
end of the deal you muft dexteroufly pals the three
cards that are at the bottom of the Itock (that is, the
ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to
the top*, and by that means you referve the-nine,
king, and ace of fpades for yourlelf: fo that by keep¬
ing the quint in hearts, though you fhould be obliged
to lay out four cards,, you will have a fixiem to a king-
in fpades, with which and the quint in hearts, you
muft make a repique.
Green
Green
Green
Green
Yellow
Red
Red
Yellow
White
White
COM
Orange
Orange .
Bird
Bird
Flower
Bird
Bird ’
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
and fweetnefs
The
Of
Prefent
As
Changes
Bofbm
Me
Your
I iong
The cards thus coloured, figured, and tranfcribed,
are to be ppt in a cafe, in the order they here ftand.
When you would perform this experiment you take the
cards out of the cafe, and fhow, without changing the
order in which they were put, that the colours, objects.
Obferve here likewife, that if the adverfary lay out an^ wqrds are.all placed promifcuoufly. Youthen fhuflle
only three card;?, you will not make the repique : but t^em the ^ame manner as before, and Real them,
that he will never do, unlefs he be quite, ignorant of two anc* two> tQ four perfons, obferving tl^at they do
   1,.A -   •  ririt takf-* fin t-Vlpir till oil OVO It ra/'.r*
the game, or has fbme knowledge of your intention.
This laft ftroke of piquet has gained great applaufe,
When thofe that have publicly performed it have
known how to conduct it dexteroufly. Many perfons
who underftand the nature of combining the cards,
have gone as far as the pafiing the three cards from
the bottom of the ftock, and have then been forced to
confefs their ignorance of the manner in which it was
performed.
IX. “ The Metamorphofed Cards.” Provide 32
cards that are differently coloured ; on,which feveral
different words are wrote, and different objects pain-
hdt take up their cards till all are dealt, nor mix them
together: and the eight cards dealt to each perlbn
will be found all of one colour. You then take each
perfon’s cards, and put thofe of the fecarid perfon un¬
der thofe of the firft, and thofe of the fourth perfon
under thofe of the third. After which you fhuffle
them a fecond time, and having dealt them in the
fame manner, on the firft perfon’s cards will be paint¬
ed .ill the birds ; on the 1'econd perfon’s cards, all the
butterflies ; on thofe of the. third, the oranges ; and
on thofe of the fourth, the flowers. You take the
cards a f'ecoml time, and obferving the fame precau-
ted. Thefe cards are to be dealt two and two, to fkuffle and deal them as before, and then the
four perfons, and at three different times, fliuffling perfon, who had the laft time the birds in his
them each time. After the firft deal, every one’s cards hand, will
I, every one’s cards
are to be of the fame colour} after the fecond deal,
they are all to have objetfts that are fimilar; and after
the third, words that convey a fenttment.
Difpofe of the cards in the following order.
Order of
13
M
ij
16
J7
J 8
19
Colours.
Yellow
Yellow
Green
Green
White
White
Red
Red
Red
Red
Green
Green
White
White
Y ellow
Yellow
While
Yellow
Yellow
White
Red
Red
have the words that coropofe this fentence.
Sbig, dew birds ; 1 long to hear your enchanting notes.'-
The feeond perfon, who the laft deal had the but¬
terflies, will now have thefe words :
Of an incbnflant lover your changes prefent me the.
image.
The third, who had the oranges, will have this len¬
ience : ,
yfr in my Phyllis t Ifind in you beauty and fweetnefs.
The fourth, who had the flowers, will have thefe
words:
Charming flowers, adorn the bofo?n of my Jhepherdefs,
It feems quite unneceffary to give any further de¬
tail, as they who underftand the foregoing experi¬
ments will eafily perform this.
Among the different purpofes to which the dosftrine
of combinations may be applied, thofe of writing in
cipher, and deciphering, hold a principal place. See
the article Cipher. >
Combination, in che.miftry, figniffes the union of
two bodies of different natures, from which a new
compound body refills. For example, when an acid is
united with an alkali, we fay that a combination be¬
twixt thefe two faline fubftances takes place ; becaufe
from this union a neutral fait refults, which is compo-
fed of an acid and an alkali.
COMBER,or CuMBER(Thomas), an eminent divine
born at Weftram in Kent, in 1645, was educated at
Cambridge ;
The manner of doing this is explained in the article Legerdemain.
Obje<5ts.
Bird
Bird
Flojyer
Flower
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Butterfly
Butterfly
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Orange
Flower
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
Bird
Orange
Orange
Words,
I find
In you
Charmi n
Flowers
To hear
Beauty
My
Notes
In
Shepherdefs
Lover
Your
Of
an inconftant
Image
Enchanting
Ardour
My
Phyllis,
Birds
Sing
Dear
C^mbu.
• ftion
II
Comedy.
COM [4i
Cambridge ; created doctor of divinity ; and, after
ieveral preferments in the church, was made dean of
Durham. He was chaplain to Anne princefs of Den*
_ mark, and to king William and queen Mary. He
was author of feveral works, viz. i, A fcholaftical
hiftory of the primitive and general ufe of Liturgies.
2. A Companion to the Altar. 3. A brief difcourfe
upon the offices of hapttlin, catechifm, and confirma¬
tion. He died in 1699, aged 55.
COMBUSTION, is the diffipation of the inflam¬
mable principle of any body by means of fire, whe¬
ther this diffipation is attended with actual flame or
not. See Flame, and Ignition.
COMEDY, a fort of dramatic poetry, which gives
a view of common and private life, recommends vir¬
tue, and expofes the vices and follies of mankind in
an humorous and merry way. Scaliger defines co¬
medy a dramatic poem, reprefenting the bufii;efs of
life, whofe event is fortunate and Hill familiar. Vof-
fius defines it a dramatic poem, copying the adtions
of the principal citizens and common people in a fa¬
miliar Itile, and not without mirth and raillery.
Critics are much divided about the nature of co¬
medy. Ariftotle calls it an imitation of the worff, or
rather, of the loweft, clafs of perfons, by way of ri¬
dicule. Mr Corneille finds fault with this, and main¬
tains, that the actions of kings themfelves may enter
comedy, provided they be fuch as are not very mo¬
mentous, unattended with any confiderable danger.
Mr Congreve feems pretty much of the fame fenti-
ment: but Mr Dacier is of a contrary opinion : he
maintains, that comedy allows of nothing grave or fie-
rious, unlefs it be turned to ridicule ; and that raillery
and ridicule are its only proper and genuine marks.
Thus different are critics on the nature of comedy :
nor are they better agreed concerning the chararier-
iftic which diftinguilhes it from tragedy. Some-di-
ftinguilh it by the lownefs of the fubjedt; others by
the ridiculous light it is fet in. According to F. Bof-
fu, comedy differs from tragedy in this, that the co¬
mic writer invents both the names of his perfons, and
the adlion which he prefents ; whereas the tragic
writers invent only the latter ; the former they are
to take from hiflory.
Comedy has parts of quality and parts of quantity.
Of the firft kind there are four eflential, the fable, the
manners, the fentiments, and the didiion ; to which
two are added, which only relate to the reprefenia-
tion, viz. the mufic and decoration. See Fable,
Manners, ijc.
The parts of quantity are alfo four. 1. The en¬
trance. 2. The working up of the plot. 3. The
full growth of the plot, or the counter-turn. 4. The
difcovery, or unravelling of the plot. Thefe, in the
language of the ancients, are called the protafis, epi-
tafis, cataflafis, and cataftrophe. See the articles
Protasis, Epitasis, Act, izc.
With regard to'the various revolutions comedy has
undergone, it is commonly diftinguilhed into three
kinds, viz. the ancient, the middle, and the new.
The ancient comedy was Iftarp, fatirical, and ex¬
tremely abufive j even men of the firft rank, if they
were fufpedied of any criminal behaviour, whether
the fadts were true or falfe, were brought upon the
15 ] COM
ftage without any difguife, called by their own names. Comedy
and hied as feverely as poflible. Thus in the comedy D .
of the Clouds, Ariftophanes brings Socrates in by Comenius‘
name. Indeed this liberty of abufe was allowed
chiefly to the chorus, and was moft ufed during the
democracy of the Athenians, el'pecially in the time of
the Peloponnelian war. But when the thirty tyrants
had leized the government, the middle comedy com¬
menced ; for it being no longer fafe for the poets to
rail at people in authority, and openly to charge ma-
giftrates with crimes, they ftill continued to ridicule
the follies, and expofe the vices of particular perfons
under fidtitious names ; by which the perfons were
fo well pointed out, that it was no difficult matter to
know them. At length, however, they w^ere obliged,
in the reign of Alexander the Great, to reprefs even
this licenfe ; and this reformation gave occafion to the
new comedy, which only brought upon the ftage feign¬
ed adventures and imaginary names.
This laft kind alqne was received among the Ro¬
mans, who neverthelels made a new fubdivifion of it
into ancient, middle, and new, according to the vari¬
ous periods of the commonwealth. Among the anci¬
ent comedies were reckoned thofe of Ltvitis Androni-
cus; among the middle thofe of Pacuvius; and among
the new ones, thofe of Terence. They likewife di¬
ftinguilhed comedy according to the quality of the
peribns reprefented, and the drefs they W'ore, into
togatae, prcetexatae, trabeata, and tabernarise, which
laft agrees pretty nearly with our farces. Among us,
comedy is diftinguilhed from farce, as the former re-
prefents nature as Ihe is; the other diftorts and over¬
charges her. They both paint from the life, but with
different views: the one to make nature known, the
other to make her ridiculous.
COMEN1US (John Amos), a grammarian and Pro-
teftant divine, born in Moravia in 1592. He was e-
minent for his defign to introduce in a new method
of teaching languages; for which purpofe he publilh-
ed fome elfays in 1616, and had prepared fome others,
when the Spaniards pillaged his library, after having
taken the city of Fulnec, where he was minifter and
mafter of the fchool. Comenius fled to Lefna, a city
of Poland, and taught Latin there. The book he pu-
blilhed in 1631, under the title of Janua Lbiguarum
refcrata, gained him a prodigious reputation, infomuch
that he was offered a commiffion for regulating all the
fchools in Poland. The parliament of England defi¬
led his afliftance to regulate the fchools in that king¬
dom. He arrived at London in 1641 ; and would
have been received by a committee to hear his plan,
had not the parliament been taken up with other mat¬
ters. He therefore went to Sweden, being invited
by a generous patron, who fettled a ftipend upon him
that delivered him from the fatigues of teaching; and
now he employed himfelf wholly in difcovering ge¬
neral methods for thofe who inftnwfted youth. In
1657 he publiftied the different parts of his new me¬
thod of teaching. He was not only taken up with the
reformation of fchools, but he alfo filled his brain with
prophecies, the fall of antichrift, Millenium, &c. At
laft Comenius took it into his head to addrefs Lewis
XIV. of France, and to fend him a copy of the pro¬
phecies of Drabicius; infinuating that it was to this
12 M 2 monarch
COM [21
Comet monarch God promited the empire of the world. He
II became fenftble at lalt of the vanitr of his labours,
Comitia. and died in l6?I<
COMET, an opaque, fpherical, and folid body like
a planet,performing revolutions about the fun in ellip¬
tical orbits, which have the fun in one of their foci.
There is a popular divifion of comets into tailed,
bearded, and hairy comets: though this divilion rather
relates to the different circumftances of the fame co¬
met, than to the phenomena of feveral. Thus when
the light is wellward of the fun, and fets after it, the
comet is faid to be tailed, becaufe the train follows it
in the manner of a tail: when the comet is eailward
of the fun, and moves from it, the comet is faid to be
bearded, becaufe the light marches before it in the
manner of a beard. Laffly, when the comet and the
fun are diametrically oppofite, (the earth between
them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet,
except a little that appears round it in form of a bor¬
der of hair : and from this laft appearance the word
comet is derived; as covieta, comes, from
coma, hair. But there have been comets whole dilk
was as clear, as round, and as well defined, as that of
Jupiter, without either tail, beard, or coma. See A-
stronomy, n07. 46.—64. where the nature and phe-
normna of comets are fully explained.
COMETARIUM, a curious machine, exhibiting an
idea of the revolution of a comet about the fun. See
Astrono-my, n°3i8. and Plate L1I. fig. 2.
COMETEAN, a town of Bohemia in the circle of
Saltz, with a handfome town houfe. It was taken
by ftorm in 1421, and all the inhabitants, men, wo¬
men, and children, put to the fword. It is feated in
a fertile plain, in E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 50. 30.
COMINES (Philip de), an excellent' hiftorian,
born of a noble family in Flanders, in 1446. He
lived in a kind of intimacy with Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, for about eight years ; but being
feduced to the court of France by Lewis XL he was
highly promoted by him, and executed feveral fuc-
cefsful negociations. After this king’s death he ex¬
perienced many troubles on account of being a fo¬
reigner, by the envy of other courtiers, and lay long
in prifon before he was difeharged : he died in 1509.
Comines was a man of more natural abilities than
learning; he fpoke feveral living, but knew nothing
of the dead languages: he has left behind him fome
memoirs of his own times, that are admired by all
true Judges of hiflory. Catherine de Medicis ufed to
fay, that Comines made as many heretics in politics,
as Luther had in religion,
Comines, a town of French Flanders on the lines
which the French have made to defend their country
again!! the Auftrian Netherlands. It is fituated on
the river Lis, in E. Long. 3. r. N. Lat. 50. 30.
COMITIA, in Roman antiquity, were general af-
femblies of the people, lawfully called by fome ma-
giflrate for the enjoinment or prohibition of any thing
by their votes.
The proper comitia were of three forts; curiata,
cetituriata, and tributa ; with reference to the three
grand divifions of the city and people into curia, cen-
turia, and tribes : For, by comitia calata, which we
fometimes meet with in authors, in elder times were
16 ] COM
meant all the comitia in general; the word calata Comitia.
from or calo, being their common epithet; ~
though it was at lalt reftrained to two forts of alfem-
blics, thofe for the creation of priefts, and thole for
the regulation of laft-wills and teftaments.
The comitia curiata owe their origin to the divi¬
fion which Romulus made of the people into 30 cu¬
riae ; ten being contained in every tribe. They an-
fwered in molt refpefts to the parilhes in our cities,
being not only feparated by proper bounds and limits,
but diltinguilhed too by their different places let apart
for the celebration of divine fervice, which was per¬
formed by particular priells, (one to every curia),
with the name of cur tones.
Before the inllitution of the comitia centuriata, all
the grand concerns of the ftate were tranlabled in the
alfembly of the curias; as the eledlion of kings and
other chief officers, the making and abrogating of
laws, and the judging of capital caufes. After the
expulfion of the kings, when the commons had ob¬
tained the priviledge to have tribunes and xdiles,
they elected them for fome time at thefe affem-
blies; but that ceremony being at length transfer¬
red to the comitia tributa, the curia were never con¬
vened to give their votes, except now and then upon
account of making fome particular law relating to
adoptions, wills, and teftaments, or the creation of of¬
ficers for an expedition ; or for the electing fome of
the priefts, as the fiamines, and the curio maximus,
or fuperintendant of the curiones, who were them-
felves chofen by every particular curia.
The power of calling thefe alfemblies belonged at
firft only to the kings; but upon the eftabliffiment of
the democracy, the fame privilege was allowed to moft
of the chief magiftrates, and fometimes to the pon-
tifices.
The perfons who had the liberty of voting here
were fuch Roman citizens as belonged to the curiae;
or fuch as actually lived in the city, and conformed
to the cuftoms and rites of their proper curiae; all
thole being excluded who dwelt without the bounds
of the city, retaining the ceremonies of their own
country, though they had been honoured with the jus
chit at is, or admitted free citizens of Rome. The
place where the curiae met was the comitium, a part of
the forum : No fet time was appointed for the hold¬
ing thefe, or any other of the comitia, but only as
bulinefs required.
The people being met together, and confirmed by
the report of good omens from the augurs, (which
was necelfary in all the affemblies), the rogatio, or
bufmefs to be propofed to them, was publicly read.
After this, (if none of the magiftrates interpofed),
upon the order of him that prelided in the comitia,
the people divided into their proper curias, and con-
fulted of the matter ; and then the curias being called
out, as it happened by lot, gave their votes man by
man, in ancient times viva vote, and afterwards by
tablets; the moft votes in every curia going for the
voice of the whole curia, and the moft curiae for the
general confent of the people.
In the time of Cicero, the comitia curiata were fo
much out of falhion, that they were formed only by
30 Ihftors reprefenting the 30 curiae; whence, in his
fecond
COM [ 2i
0|; Comitia. fecond oration again ft Rullus, he -calls them comitia
H ' " adumbrata.
The comitia centuriata were inftituted by Servius
Tullius: who, obliging every one to give a true ac¬
count of what he was worth, according to tbofe ac¬
counts, divided the people into fix ranks or clafles,
which he fubdivided into 193 centuries. The firft
claffis, containing the equites and richeft citizens,
confifted of 98 centuries. The fecond, taking in the
tradefinen and mechanics, confifted of 22 centuries.
The third, 20. The fourth, 22. The fifth, 30.
The fixth, filled up with the poorer fort, but one
century : and this, though it had the fame name
with the reft, yet was feldom regarded, or allowed
any power in public matters. Hence it is a common
thing with the Roman authors, when they fpeak of
the clafles, to reckon no more than five, the fixth not
being worth their notice. This laft claflis or order
was divided into two parts, or orders; the proktarii,
and the capita ccnji. The former, as their name im¬
plies, were ddigned purely to ftock the republic with
men, lince they could fupply it with fo littld money ;
and the latter, who paid the loweft tax of all, were
rather counted and marlhalled by their heads, than
by their eftates.
Perfons of the firft rank, by reafon of their pre¬
eminence, had the name^of clajfici; whence came the
name of claflici authores, for the moft approved wri¬
ters. All others, of what claflis focver, were faid to
be infra cla[]'em. The aflembly of the people by cen¬
turies, was held for the electing of confuls, cenfors,
and prattors; as alfo for the judging of perfons accu-
fed of what they called crimen perduellionis, or actions
by which the party had Ihewed himfelf an enemy to
tljp ftate, and for the confirmation of all fuch laws as
were propofed by the chief magiftrates, who had the
privilege of calling thefe aflemblies.
The place appointed for their meeting was the
campus martins; bccaufe in the primitive times of
the commonwealth, when they were under continual
apprehenfions of enemies, the people, to prevent any
fudden aflaulr, went armed, in martial order, to hold
thefe aflemblies ; and were for that reafon forbid by
the laws to meet in the city, becaufe an army was
upon no account to be marlhalled within the walls:
yet, in latter ages, it was thought fufficient to place a
body of i’oldiers as a guard in the janiculum, where
an imperial ftandard was ereefted, the taking down
of which denoted the conclufion of the comitia.
Though the time of holding thefe comitia for other
matters was undetermined ; yet the magiftrates, af¬
ter the year of the city 601, when they began to en¬
ter on their place, on the kalends of January, were
conftantly defined about the end of July, and the be¬
ginning of Auguft.
All the time between their election and confirma¬
tion they continued as private perfons, that inquifi-
I tion might be made into the election, and the other
candidates might have time to enter objedlions, if
they met with any fufpicion of foul dealing. Yet, at
the election of the cenfors, this cuftom did not hold ;
but as foon as they were eledled, they were imme¬
diately inverted with the honour.
By the inftitution of thefe comitia, Servius Tullius
17 ] COM
fecretly conveyed the whole of the power from the Comftia.
commons: for the centuries of the firft and richeft
clafs being called out firft, who were three more in
number than all the reft put together, if they all a-
greed, as generally they did, the bufinefs was already
decided, and the other clafles were needlefs and in-
fignificant. However, the three laft fcarce ever
came to vote.
The commons, in the time of the free ftate, to re¬
medy this difadvantage, obtained, that before they
proceeded to voting any matter at thefe comitia, that
century fhould give their fufl’rages firft upon whom it
fell by lot, with the name of ceuturia prerogatiya;
the reft being to follow according to the order of
their clafles. After the conftitution of the 35 tribes in¬
to which the clafles and their centuries were divided,
in the firft place, the tribes cart lots, which fliojild be the
prerogative tribe; and then the centuries of the tribes
for the honour of being a prerogative century. All
the other tribes and centuries had the appellation of
jure vocatx, becaufe they were called out according
to their proper places.
The prerogative century being chofen by lot, the
chief magiftrate, fitting in a tent in the middle of the
campus martius, ordered that century to come out and
give their voices ; upon which they prefently fepara-
ted from the reft of the multitude, and came into ah in-
clofed apartment, which they termed fepta, or ovilia,
pafling over the pontes or narrow boards laid there
for the occafion ; on which account, de ponte dejici
fignifies to be denied the pi ivilege of voting, and ptr-
ions thus dealt with are called depositani.
At the hither end of the pontes ftood the diribitores,
(a fort of under officers fo called from their marfhal-
ling the people), and delivered to every man, in the
eledlion of magiftrates, as many tablets as there ap¬
peared candidates, one of whole names was written
upon every tablet. A proper number of great cherts
were fet ready in the fepta, and every body threw
in which tablet he pleafed.
By the cherts were placed fome of the public fer-
vants, who taking out the tablets of every centu¬
ry, for every tablet, made a prick or a point in ano¬
ther tablet which they kept by them. Thus, the bu¬
finefs being decided by moft points, gave occafion to
the phrafe omne tulit punttum, and the like.
The fame method was obferved in the judiciary
procefs at thefe comitia, and in the confirmation of
laws; except that, in both thefe cafes, only two tablets
were offered to every perfon, on one of which was
written U. R. and on the other A, in capital letters;
the two firft (landing for uti rogas', “ be it as you de¬
fire,” relating to the magiftrate who propofed the
queftion; and the laft for antique, or “ I forbid it.”
It is remarkable, that though in the eleftion of
magiftrates, and in the ratification of laws, the
votes of that century, whole tablets were equally di¬
vided, fignified nothing; yet in trials of life and
death, if the tablets pro and con were the fame in
number, the perfon was actually acquitted.
The divifion of people into tribes was an invention
of Romulus, after he had admitted the Sabines into
Rome; and though he conftituted at that time only
three, yet as the ftate encreafed in power, and the
city
COM [21
-Comitia city in number of inhabitants, they rofe by degrees to
II 35. For a long time after this inftitution, a tribe lig-
omma' nified no more than fuch a fpace of ground with its in¬
habitants. But at laft the matter was quite altered,
and a tribe was no longer pars urbis, but civitatis;
not a quarter of the city, but a company of citizens li¬
ving where they pleafed. This change was chiefly
occalioned by the orginal difference between the tribes
in point of honour. For Romulus having committed
all fordid and mechanic arts to the care of Itrangers,
flaves, and libertines; and referred the more honeft
labour of agriculture to the freemen and citizens, wjto
by this adtive courfe of life might be prepared for
martial fervice ; the tribus rujiicx were for this rea-
fon efleemed more honourable than the tribus urban*.
And now all perfons being defirous of getting into the
more creditable divifion; and there being feveral ways
of accomplifliing their wifhes, as by adoption, by the
power of cenfors, or the like ; that ruftic tribe which
had the moft worthy name's in its roll, had the prefe¬
rence to all others, though of the fame general de¬
nomination. Hence all of the fame great family,
bringing themfelves by degrees into the fame tribe,
gave the name of their family to the tribe they
honoured 5 whereas at flrft the generality of the
tribes did not borrow their names from perfons but
from places.
The firft alfembly of the tribes we meet with is
about the year of Rome 263, cortveened by Sp. Sici-
txius, tribune of the commons, upon account of the trial
of Coriolanus. Soon after, the tribunes of the com¬
mons were ordered to be elected here ; and at laft,
all the inferior magiftrates, and the collegiate priefts.
The fame comitia ferved for the enadting of laws re¬
lating to war and peace, and all others propofed by
the tribunes and plebeian officers, though they had not
properly the name of leges but plebifcita. They were
generally convened by the tribunes of the commons;
but the fame privilege was allowed to all the chief
magiftrates. They were confined to no place; and
therefore fometimes we find them held in the co-
mitium, fometimes in the campus martius, and now
and then in the capitol. The proceedings were
in moft refpedts anfwerable to thofe already de-
fcribed in the account of the other comitia, and
therefore need not be infifted on. Only we may
farther obferve of the comitia in general, that when
any candidate was found to have moft tables for a ma-
giftracy, he was declared to be dejigned or elected by
the prefident of the aftembly ; and this they termed
reniinciari conful, pratnr, or the like : and that the
laft fort of the com.*id only could be held without the
confent and approbation of the fenate, which was ne-
ceflary to the convening of the other two.
COMITIAL1S morbus, an appellation given to the
Epilepsy, by reafon the comitia of ancient Rome
were dillblved if any perfon in the aftembly hap¬
pened to be taken with this diftemper.
COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in
the forum, where the Comitia were ordinarily held.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point or charac¬
ter marked thus ( ,), ferving to denote a ffiort flop,
and to divide the members of a period. Different au¬
thors define and ufe it differently. According to F.
18 ] COM
Buflier, the comma (erves to diftinguilh the members Comm*
of a period, in each of which is a verb and the H
nominative cafe of the verb : thus, “ That fo Co||1™an’
many people are pleafed with trifles, is owing to    
a weaknefs of mind, which makes them love things
eafy to be comprehended.” Belidesthis, the comma
is tiled to diftittguifh in the fame member of a pe¬
riod, feveral nouns-fubftantive, or nouns-adjeiftive, or
verbs not united by a conjunction : thus, “ Vir¬
tue, wit, knowledge, are the chief advantages of
a man or, “ A man never becomes learned with¬
out ftudying conftantly, methodically, with a guft, ap¬
plication, ire.” If thofe words are uhited in the fame
phrafe with a conjutnftion, the comma is omitted ;
thus, “ The imagination and the judgment do not al¬
ways agree.”
The ingenious author of the traft Dc rations inter-
pungendi, printed with Voflius’s Element. Rhetor.
Lond. 1724, lays down the ufe of a comma to be, to
diftinguilh the fimple members of a period orfentence ;
i. e. fuch as only confift of one fubjedl, and one defi¬
nite verb. But this rule does not go throughout; the
fame author inftancing many particular caies not yet
included herein, where yet the comma is advifable.
See Punctuation.
It is a general rule that a comma ought not to come
between a nominative and a verb, or an adjedtive and
fubftantive, when thefe are not otherwife disjoined :
thus, in the fentence, Cod ruletb -with infinite lutfdom, a
comma between Cod and ruleth, or between infinite and
vsifdom, would be abfiird. But to this exceptions may
occur; as when not a Angle word, but a fentence,
happens to be the nominative : thus in the example
fifft above given, where the fentence that fo many
people are pleafed vsith trifles, forms the nominative -to
the verb is, a comma at trifles is proper, both for the
fake of perfpicuity, and as coinciding with a flight na¬
tural paufe.
Comma, in mufic. See Interval.
COMMANDINUS (Frederic), born at Urbino in
Italy, and defeended from a very noble family, in the
16th century. To a vaft fkill in the mathematics, he
had added a great knowledge in the Greek tongue,
by which he was well qualified to tranflate the Greek
mathematicians into Latin : accordingly he tranflated
and publilhed feveral, which no writer till then had
attempted ; as Archimedes, Apollonius, Euclid, <£rr.
COMMANDRY, a kincTof benefice or fixed reve¬
nue belonging to a military order, and conferred on
ancient knights who had done confiderable fervices to
the order.
There are ftrieft or regular commandries, obtained
in order, and by merit; there are others of grace and
favour, conferred at the pleafure of the grand mafter.
There are alfo commandries for the religious, in the
orders of St Bernard and St Anthony. The kings of
France have converted feveral of the hofpitals for le¬
pers into commandries of the order of St Lazarus.
The commandries of Malta are of different kinds;
for as the order confifts of knights, chaplains, and bro-
thers-fervitors, there are peculiar commandries or re¬
venues attached to each. The knight to whom one
of thefe benefices or commandries is given, is called'
coiftmander : which agrees pretty nearly with the
prapofitus
COM [ 21
Commelina prsepofitus fet over the monks in places at a diftance
r * from the monaftery, whofe admihiftration was called
dam611' obedientia ; becaufe depending entirely upon the abbot
1 who gave him his commiffion. Thus it is with the
Ample commanders of Malta, who are rather farmers
of the order than beneficiaries; paying a certain tri¬
bute or rent, called refpoiifio, to the common treafure
of the order.
COMMELINA, in botany, a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs pf plants.
There are 1 o fpecies, all of them natives of warm
climates. They are herbaceous plants, rifing from
two to four feet high, and adorned with blue or yel¬
low flowers. Their culture differs in nothing from
that of the common exotics.
COMMEMORATION, in a general fienfe, the re¬
membrance of any perfon or thing, or the doing any
thing to the honour of a perfon’s memory, or in re¬
membrance of any pafl event. Thus, the eucharift is
a commemoration of the fufferings of Jefus Chrift.
COMMENDAM, in the ecclehallical law, the truft
or adminiftration of the revenues of a benefice, given
either to a layman, to hold by way of depofitum for
fix months, in order to repairs, yc. or to an ecclefi-
aftic or beneficed perfon, to perform the paftoral du¬
ties thereof, till once the benefice is provided with a
regular incumbent.
Anciently] the adminiftration of vacant biflioprics
belonged to the neareft neighbouring bifliop ; which is
{till pra&ifed between the archbifhopric of Lyons^
and the bifhopric of Autun : on this account they
were called commendatory bijkops.
This cuftom appears to be very ancient. S. Atha-
nafius fays of himfelf, according to Nicephorus, that
there had been given him in commend am, i. e. in ad-
miniftration, another church befides that of Alexandria
whereof he was flated bifhop.
The care of churches, it feems, which had no pa¬
llor, was committed to a bifhop, till they were provi¬
ded of an ordinary : the regifter of pope Gregory I.
is full of thefe commiflions, or commendanis, granted
during the abfence or ficknefs of a bilhop, or the va¬
cancy of the fee.
Some fay, that pope Leo IV. firfl fist the modern
commsndams on foot, in favour of ecclefiaftics who had
been expelled their benefices by the Saracens ; to
whom the adminiflration of the vacant churches was
committed for a time, in expectation of their being
reftored : though S. Gregory is faid to have ufed the
fame, while the Lombards defolated Italy.
In a little time the practice of commendams was
exceedingly abufed ; and the revenues of monafleries
19 ] COM
given to laymen for their fubfiflence. The bifliops alfo Commen-
procured f'everal benefices, or even biflioprics, in co?n- datus
mendam, which ferved as a pretext for holding them t
all without direCily violating the canons. Part of the Comnien-
aoufe has been retrenched ; but the ufe of commendams tary-
is flill retained, as an expedient to take off the incom¬
patibility of the perfon by the nature of the benefice.
When a parfon is made bifhop, his parfonage be-*
comes vacant; but if Ihe king give him power, he
may ftill hold it in commendam.
COMMENDATUS, one who lives under the pro¬
tection of a great man. Commendati homines, were
perfons who, by voluntary homage, put themfelves
under the protection of any fuperior lord : for ancient
homage was either predial, due for foine tenure ; or
perfonal, which was by compulfion, as a fign of ne-
ceffary fnbjeCtion ; or voluntary, with a defire of pro¬
tection : and thole who, by voluntary homage, put
themfelves under the proteCtjon of any men of power,
were fometimes called homines cjtti commendati, as
often occurs in Dcomfday. Commendatidimidii, were
thofe who depended on two feveral lords, and paid
one-half of their homage to each ; and fub-commen-
dati were like under-tenants under the command of
perfons that were themfelves under the command of
fome fuperior lord : alfo there were dimidii fub-cam-
mendati, whb bore a double relation to fuch depend¬
ing lords. This phrafe feems to be ftill in ufe, in the
ufual compliment, “ Commend me to fuch a friend,”
ire. which is to let him know, “ I am his humble fer-
vant.”
COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an
appellation given to fuch quantities as are meafurecT
by one and the fame common meafure.
Commensurable Numbers, whether integers or
fractions, are fuch as can be meafured or divided by
fome other number without any remainder : fuch are-
12 and 18, as being meafured by 6 and 3.
Commensurable in Power, is faid of right lines,
when their fquares are meafured by one and. the fame
fpace or fuperficies.
Commensurable Surds, thofe that being reduced
to their leaft terms, become true figurative quantities
of their kind ; and are therefore as a rational quan¬
tity to a rational one.
COMMENTARY, or comment, in matters of li¬
terature, an illuflration of the difficult or obfeure paf-
fages of an author.
Commentary, or commentaries, likewife de¬
notes a kind of hiflory, or memoirs of certain tran-
faCtions, wherein the author had a confiderable hand :
fuch are the commentaries of Caefar.
COMMERCE,
IS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either Chap. I. Histo’y 0/Commerce,
of individuals or of focieties, may be exchanged , . r , U n
by a fet of men called merchants, for an equivalent, 5 u General Htjtory.
proper for fupplying every want, without any inter- It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to.
ruption to induftry, or any check upon confumption. what nation the invention and firft ufe of commerce
belonged;
2120
C O M M ‘E R C E .
belonged ; fome attribute it to one people, fome to
another, for reafous that are too long to be difcufled
here. But it feems moil probable that the inhabitants
of Arabia were thofe that firil made long voyages.
It muil be allowed, that no country was fo happily
feated for this purpofe as that which they inhabited,
being a peninfula waihed on three fides by three fa¬
mous feas, the Arabian, Indian, and Periian. It is
alfo certain, that it was very early inhabited ; and thp
liril notice we have of any coniiderable trade refers
it to the Hhmaelites, who were fettled in the hither
part of Arabia. To them Joi'eph was fold by his
brethren, when they were going down with their ca¬
mels to Egypt with fpicery, balm, and myrrh. ' It
may feem flrange to infer from hence, that commerce
was already prailifed by this nation, finee mention is
liere made of camels, or a caravan, which certainly
implies an inland trade ; and it muft be likewife al¬
lowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of
their country. But whence had they the fpicery ? Or
how came Arabia to be fo famous in ancient times for
fpices ? Or whence proceeded that miftake of many
great authors of antiquity, that fpices actually grew
there ? Moll certainly, becaufe thefe people dealt in
them ; and that they dealt in them the firft of any
nation that we know of, appears from this very in-
Itance. Strabo and many other good authors aifure
us, that in fucceeding times they were very great
traders; they tell us particularly what ports they had ;
what prodigious magazines they kept of the richeft
kinds of goods, what wonderful wealth they obtained;
in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into
what exceffes they fell in refpedl to their expences
for carving, building, and (latues. All this fliews that
they were very great traders : and it alfo fliews, that
they traded to the Eaft Indies ; for from thence only
they could /have their fpices, their rich gums, their
fweet-fcented woods, and their ivory, all which it is
exprefsly faid that they had in the greateft abundance.
This therefore proves, that they had an extenfive and
flotirifhing commerce ; and th&t they had it earlier
than any other nation, feems to me evident from their
dealing at that time in fpices. Befides, there is much
lets difficulty in fuppofing that they firft difcovered the
route to the Indies, than if we afcribe that difcovery
to any other nation : for in the firft place they lay
neareft, and in the next they lay moft convenient¬
ly ; to which we may add thirdly, that as the fitua-
tion of their country naturally inclined them to naviga¬
tion, fo by the help of the monfoons they might make
regular voyages to and from the Indies with great faci¬
lity ; nor is it at all unlikely that this difcovery might
be at firft owing to chance, and to fome of their vef-
fels being blown byaftrong gale to the.oppofite coaft,
from whence they might take the courage to return,
by obferving the regularity of the winds .at certain
feafons. All thefe reafons taken together feem to fa¬
vour this opinion, that commerce flourifhed firft among
them ; and as to its confequences in making them rich
and happy, there is no difpute about them.
We find in the records of antiquity no nation cele¬
brated more early for carrying all arts to perfection
than the inhabitants of Egypt ; and it is certain alfo,
that no art was there cultivated more early,- with
more affiduity, or with greater fuccefs, than trade.
It appears from the foregoing inftance, that the richeft
commodities were carried thither by land ; and it is
no lefs certain, that the moft valuable manufactures
were invented and brought to perfeftion there many
ages before they were thought of in other countries:
for, as the learned Dr Warburton very juftly obferves,
at the time that Jofeph came into Egypt; die people
were not only poflefled of all the conveniencies of
life, but were remarkable alfo for their magnificence,
their politenefs, and even for their luxury ; which ar¬
gues, that traffic had been of long Handing amongft
them. To lay the truth, the great advantages deri¬
ved from their country’s lying along the Red Sea, and
the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile,
which they very emphatically called the river, or the
river of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make
all the ufes that can be imagined, gave them an op¬
portunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a
greater height than in any country at that time, but
even higher than it has been carried any where, Chi¬
na only excepted ; and fome people have thought it
no trivial argument to prove the defcent of the Chi-
nefe from the Egyptians, that they have exadlly the
fame fort of genius, and with wonderful induftry and
care have drawn fo many cuts and canals, that their
country is almoft in every part of it navigable. It
was by fuch methods, by a wife and well-regulated
government, and by promoting a fpirit of induftry
amongft the people, that the ancient Egyptians be¬
came fo numerous, fo rich, fo powerful; and that
their country, for large cities, magnificent ftru£ture$,
and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won¬
der of the old world.
The Phoenicians, though they poflefted only a nar¬
row flip of the coaft of Afia, and were furrounded by
nations fo powerful a’fid fo warlike that they were
never able to extend themfelves on that fide, became
famous, by erecting the firft naval power that makes
any figure in hiftory, and for the raifing of which they
took the moft prudent and effectual meafures. In or¬
der to this, they not only availed themfelves of all the
creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had beftow-
ed very liberally on their narrow territory, but im¬
proved them in fuch a manner, that they were no lefs
remarkable for their ftrength, than confiderable for
their conveniency ; -and fo attentive they were to
whatever might contribute to the increafe of their
power, that they were not more admired for- the vaft
advantages they derived from their commerce, than
they were formidable by their fleets and armies.
They were likewife celebrated by antiquity as tire in¬
ventors of arithmetic and aftronomy ; and in the laft
mentioned fcience they muft have been very confider¬
able proficients, fince they had the courage to under¬
take long voyages at a time when no other nation
(the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durft venture
farther than their own coafts. By thefe arts Tyre
and Sidon became the moft famous marts in the uni-
verfe, and were reforted to by all their neighbours,
and even by people at a confiderable diftance, as the
great ftorehoufes of the world. We learn from the
Scriptures, how advantageous their friendffiip and al¬
liance became to the two great kings of Ifrael, David
and
2l2i
COMMERCE.
and Solamon 5 and vve fee, by the application of the
latter, for architects' and artifts to Hiram king of Tyre,
to what a prodigious height they had carried manu*
fadtures of every kind.
It is very certain that Solomon made ufe of their
affiltance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Ezionge-
ber ; and it is very probable that they put him upon
acquiring thofe ports, and gave him the firft hints of
the amazing advantages that might be derived from
the pofleflxon of them, and from the commerce he
might from thence be able to carry on. Thefe ports
were moll commodioufly fituated on the Arabian
gulph ; and from thence his velfels, manned chiefly by
Phoenicians, failed to Ophir and Tharfis, where-ever
thofe places were. Some writers will needs have
them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a
wild and extravagant fuppofition ; others believe that
we are to look for Ophir on the coaft of Africa,
and Tharfis in Spain ; but the moft probable opinion
is, that they were both feated in the Eaft Indies.
By this adventurous navigation he brought into his
country curiolities not only unfeen, but unheard of be¬
fore, and riches in fuch abundance, that, as the Scrip¬
ture finely expreffes it, He made fiber in Jerufalem as
Jiones, and cedar-trees as Jycamores that grew in the
plains. The metaphor is very bold and emphatical ;
but when we confider that it is recorded in this Hi-
ftory, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir
produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,328
pounds of our Troy weight, we cannot doubt of the
immenfe profit that accrued from this commerce. It
is alfo obfervable, that the queen of Sheba, or Saba,
which lies in that part of Arabia before-mentioned,
furprifed at the reports that were fpread of the mag¬
nificence of this prince, made a journey to his court
on purpofe to fatisfy herfelf, whether fame had not
exaggerated the fact; and from the pretents fhe made
him of 120 talents of gold, of fpices in great abun¬
dance, and precious ftones, we may difcern the true
reafon of her curiofity, which proceeded from an opi¬
nion that no country could 'be fo rich as her own.
And there is another circumftance very remarkable,
and which feems Itrongly to fortify what we have ad¬
vanced in the beginning of this feet ion ; it is added,
Jieither were there any fuch fpices as the queen of Sheba
gave to king Solomon ; which feems to intimate, that
the Arabians had penetrated farther into the Indies
than even the fleets of this famous prince, and brought
from thence other fpices (perhaps nutmegs and cloves)
than had ever been feen before. It was by his wif-
dom, and by his fteady application to the arts of
peace, all of which mutually fupport each other, as
they are all driven on by the wheel of commerce,
which fupplies every want, and converts every fuper-
fluity into merchandice, that this monarch raifed his
fubje&s to a condition much fuperior to that of any
of their neighbours, and rendered the land of Ifrael,
while he governed it, the glory and wonder of the
Eaft. He made great acquifitions without making
wars; and his fucceflbr, by making wars, loft thofe
acquifitions. It was his policy to keep all his people
employed ; and, by employing them, he provided
equally for the extenfion of their happinefs, and his
own power : but the following kings purfued other
Vot. III.
meafures, and other confequences attended tlrem.
The trade of Judea funk almoft as luddemy as it rofe,
and in procefs of time they loft thofe ports on the
Red Sea, upon which their Indian commerce depended.
The whole trade of the univerfe became then, as
it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the
Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the In¬
dies, and, together with her corn and manufactures,
brought fuch a prodigious balance of wealth continu¬
ally into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs
of Egypt to compafs all thofe memorable works that
in fpite of time and barbarous conquerors remain the
monuments of their wifdom and power, and are like
to remain fo as long as the world fubfifts. The Phoe¬
nicians drew from Egypt a great part of thofe rich
commodities and valuable manufactures which they
exported into all the countries between their own
and the Mediterranean fea ; they drew likewife a
vaft refort to their own cities, even from countries at
a great diftance ; and we need only look into the
prophets Ifaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced,
that thefe governments, founded on trade, were infi¬
nitely more glorious and more liable than thofe that
were eredted by force. All this we find likewife con¬
firmed by profane hiftories; and by comparing thefe,
it is evident, that the induftry of the inhabitants of
this finall country triumphed over all obftacles, procu¬
red the greateft plenty in a barren foil, and immenfe
riches, where, without induftry, there muft have been
the greateft indigence. It is true, that old Tyre was
deftroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till (he had
flourilhed for ages ; and even then Hie fell with dig¬
nity, and after a refiftance that ruined the army of
the Great Conqueror of Alia. Out of the allies of
this proud city the great fpirit of its inhabitants pro¬
duced a Phoenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to
its parent. New Tyre was fituated on an illand ; and
though her bounds were very narrow, yet Ihe became
quickly the miftrefs of the fea, and held that fupreme
dominion till fubdued by Alexander the Great, whom
no power could refill. The ftruggle Ihe made, how¬
ever, though unfuccefsful, was great, and very much
to the honour of her inhabitants : it muft be owned,
that the Greek hero found it more difficult to mafter
this fingle place, than to overcome the whole power
of Perlia.
The view's of the Macedonian prince were beyond
comparifon more extenfive than his conquefts ; and
whoever confiders Alexander’s plan of power, ahd
enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a poli¬
tician than he was a conqueror. He framed in his
own mind an idea of univerfal monarchy, which it
was indeed impoffible to accomplilh ; but the very no¬
tion of it does him far greater honour than all his vic¬
tories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia ;
and of difpofing things in fuch a manner, as to have
commanded the moft remote parts of the Indies, at
the fame time that he maintained a connexion-with
the moft diftant countries in Europe. He was for
making ufe of force to acquire, but he very well
knew, that commerce only could preferve, an empire,
that was to have no other limits than thofe which na¬
ture had alfigned the world. He defired to be ma¬
fter of all; but at the fame time he was willing to be
12 N a
2122
COMMERCE.
a wife and gracious matter, and to place his happinefs
in that of his people, or rather, in making all the na¬
tions, of the earth but one people. A vaft, an extrava¬
gant, an imprattticable fcheme it was, of which he lived
not long enough to draw the out-lines ; but the Pample
he left in his new city of Alexandria fufficiently fliews
how juft and how correct his notions were, and how
true a judgment he had formed of what might be effec¬
ted by thofe methods upon which he depended. That
city, which he might be faid todefign with his own hand,
and which was built, as it were, under his eye, became
in fucceeding times all that he expeifted, the glory of
Egypt, and the centre of commerce for feveral ages.
While Tyre was in the height of her glory, and had
no rival in the empire of the fea, Ihe founded her
noble colony of Carthage on the coaft of Africa. The
iituation of the city was every way admirable ; whe¬
ther confidered in the light of a capital, of a ftrong
fortrels, or of a commodious port. It was equally
diftant from all the extremities of the Mediterranean
fea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in
the neighbourhood of any power capable of reftraining
its commerce or its growth. It is almoft inexpreflible
how foon its inhabitants became not only numerous
and wealthy, but potent and formidable. By degrees
they extended themfelves on all fides, conquered the
belt part of Spain, and eredled there a new Carthage ;
the iflands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at leaft the belt
part of them, fubmitted likewife to their yoke. But
their conquetts, however, were inconfiderable in ex¬
tent, when compared with their navigation. On one
fide they ftretched as far weftward as Britain ; and
the Scilly illands, which are now fo inconfiderabie,
were to them an Indies, the route to which they ufed
the utmoft induttry to conceal. On the other hand,
they difcovered a great part of the coaft of Africa,
the Canary iflands ; and fome there are, who believe
they .firft found the way to America. While they
confined themfelves to trade, and the arts which be¬
longed thereto, their power was continually encrea-
fing ; but when induftry gave way to luxury, and a
fipirit of ambition banilhed their old maxims of fruga¬
lity and labour, their acquifitions remained at a ftand.
The Romans began to grow jealous of their naval
power, which it coft them two obftinate wars of 40
years continuance to humble. When Ihe was at length
deftroyed, her very ruins were majeftic ; for at the
beginning of the third fatal Punic war, this city con¬
tained 700,000 inhabitant's alone, and had 300 cities
in Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire
of Carthage, raifed entirely by commerce ; and to
which, if flie had been content to have applied her-
felf with the fame fteadinefs in her higheft profperity
as in her early beginnings, there is no doubt fhe had
prefer veil her freedom much longer than ffie did ; for
as thrift, and diligence, and good faith, are the pillars
of a commercial ftate, fo when thefe are once fliaken,
it is not only natural that flie fhould decline> but una¬
voidable alfo.
The Ptolemies, who were the fucceflbrs of Alex¬
ander in Egypt, entered deeply into that hero’s fcheme,
and reaped the benefit of his wife eftablifhment. Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his
fubjeifts immenfely rich, and himfelf inexpreflibly
powerful. We are told by an ancient author, that he
had 120 gallies of war of an enormous fize, and up¬
wards of 4000 other veffels, fmall and great. This
would appear incredible, if other wonders were not
related of him, which feem to explain and confirm
thefe. He raifed a new city on the coaft of the Red
Sea ; he was at an immenfe expence in opening har¬
bours, conftruifting quays, in raifing inns at proper
diftances on the road, and in cutting a canal from fea
to fea. A prince who comprehended the importance
of commerce to a degree that induced him to dare
fuch expences as thefe, might have what treafures,
what armies, what fleets he pleafed. In his time,
Alexandria appeared in pomp and fplendor. She
owed her birth to Alexander ; but it was Ptolemy,
who caught a double portion of his mafter’s fpirit,
which raifed her to that magnificence that ages could
not deface. We may guefs at what flie was in her
glory, by what we are told was the produce of her
cuftoms, which fell little fliort of two millions of our
money annually ; and yet we cannot liippofe that
Ptolemy, who underftood trade fo well, would cramp
it by high duties, or extravagant impofitions. When
the revenue of the prince from a fingle port was fo
great, what mutt have been the riches of his fubjefts I
But what fliews us Alexandria in the higheft point
of light, is the credit flie maintained after Egypt funk
from an empire into a province. The Romans them¬
felves were ttruck with the majefty of her appear¬
ance ; and though till then they had little regarded
traffic, yet they were not long before they compre¬
hended the advantages of fuch a port, and fuch a mart
as Alexandria; they confirmed her privileges, they
proteifted her inhabitants, they took every meafure
poflible to preferve her commerce, and this with fo
good an effeift, that flie aiftually preferved it longer
than Rome herfelf could prgferve her power. She
followed, indeed, the fortune of the empire, and be¬
came at laft dependent upon Conftantinople, when its
founder removed thither the capital of the empire;
and his fucceffor found means to transfer alfo a part
of the trade of Alexandria to the fame place. Yet
this city continued ftill to hold up her head, and tho’
flie funk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet
they grew poliflied by degrees; by degrees flie reco¬
vered fomewhat of her ancient pre-eminence; and
though flie never rofe to any thing like her former
luftre, yet flie remained the centre of what little
trade there was in the world ; which is more than
can be faid of almoft any place that has fallen under
the Mohammedan power.
When the Roman empire was over-run by barbari¬
ans, and arts and fciences funk with that power which
had cultivated and protected thepi, commerce alfo vi-
fibly declined; or, to fpeak with greater propriety, was
overwhelmed and loft. When that irruption of vari¬
ous nations had driven the Roman policy out of the
greateft part of Europe, fome ftraggling people, either
forced by neceffity, or led by inclination, took flicker
in a few ftraggling iflands that lay near the coaft of
Italy, and which would never have been thought
worth inhabiting in a time of peace. This was in the
6ti> century ; and at their firft fixing there they had
certainly nothing more in view than living in a tole¬
rable
2123
COMM
Table ftate of freedom, and acquiring a fubfiftence as
well as they could. Thefe illands being divided from
each other by narrow channels, and thole channels fo
incumbered by lhallows that it was impoflible for
Grangers to navigate them, thefe refugees found
themlelves tolerably fafe; and, uniting amongft them-
felves for the fake of improving their condition, and
augmenting their fecurity, they became in the 8th
century a well-fettled government, and affumed the
form of a republic.
Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it
is a plain and true account'of the rife, progrefs, and
eftablifhment of the famous and potent republic of Ve¬
nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and flow ;
but when the foundation was once well laid, her
growth was quick, and the increafe of her power a-
mazing. She extended her commerce on all fides ;
and raking advantage of the barbarous maxims of the
Mohammedan monarchies, fhe drew to herfelf the
profits of the Indian trade, and might, in fome fenfe,
be faid to make Egypt a proyince, and the Saracens
her fubje&s. By this means her traffic fwelled beyond
conception ; Ihe became the common mart of all na¬
tions ; her naval pourer arrived at a prodigious height;
and, making ufe of every favourable conjecture, fhe
ftretched her conqueft not only oVer the adjacent Ter¬
ra Firma of Italy, but though the iflands of the Archi¬
pelago, fo as to be at once rniftrefs of the fea, of
.many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the
great city of Conftantinople itfelf. But ambition, and
the defire of lording it over her neighbours, brought
upon her thofe evils which fir ft produced a decay of
trade, and then a declention of power. General hi-
flories indeed afcribe this to the league of Cambray,
when all the great powers in Europe combined againft
this republic ; and in truth, from that period, the
finking of her power is truly dated; but the Venetian
writers very juftly obferve, that though this effedt
followed the league, yet there was another more la¬
tent, but at the fame time a more effedtual caufe,
which was, the falling off of their commerce; and
they have ever fince been more indebted to their
wifdom than their power ; to the prudent concealing
of their own weaknefs, and taking advantage of the
errors of their enemies, than to any other caufe, for
their keeping up that part which they Hill bear, and
which had been loft long ago by any other nation but
themfelves.
At the fame time that Venice rofe, as it were, out
of the fea, another republic was eredied. on the coaft
of Italy. There could not well be a w or fie fituation
than the narrow, marlhy, unprofitable, and unwhole-
fome iflands in the Adriauc, except the rocky, barren,
and inhofpitable fliores of Liguria, and ye t as com¬
merce railed Venice^ the Rich on the one, fo Ihe eredi-
ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In fpite of ambi¬
tious and warlike neighbours, in fpite of a confined
and unproducing country, and, which were ftill great¬
er impediments, in fpite of perpetual fadtions and
fucceffive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her
rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries,
and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to
the other. Her fleets became formidable; and, be-
fides the adjacent illand of Corfica, Ihe made larger
E R C E.
and important conquefts. She fixed a colony at Caffa,
and was for fome time in pofleffion of the coafts on
both fides of the Black Sea. That emulation which
is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealoufy
which rifes from the purluitof the fame miftrefs, com¬
merce, begat continual wars between thefe rival re¬
publics ; which, after many obftinate and bloody bat¬
tles, were at laft terminated in favour of Venice,
by that famous vidtorv of Chiozza gained by her doge
Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never
pretended to be miftrefs of' the fea. Thefe quarrels
were fatal to both ; but what proved more immedi¬
ately deftrudtive to the Genoefe, was their avarice,
which induced them to abandon the fair profits of
trade for the fake of that vile method of acquiring
wealth by ufury.
But we muft now look to another part of the world.
In the middle age of the German empire, that is,
about the middle of the iTh century, there was
formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at
leaft of cities not far from the fea. This confederacy
fplely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured
to promote and extend, by interefting therein a great
number of perfons, and endeavouring to profit by
their different views and different lights. Though the
cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu¬
tonic Hanl’e, they did not however forbear aflbeiating
many other cities, as well in France as in England and
in the low countries; the whole, however, without
hurting the authority, without prejudice to the rights,
of the fovereign on whom'they depended. This confe¬
deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments,
which were obferved with the fame refpeeft as the ma¬
ritime code of the Rhodians, who, palling for the ab-
left feamen in all antiquity, their conftitutions were
obferved by,the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic
Hanfe grew in a Ihort time to fo high a rank in power
and authority by the immenfe riches it acquired, that
princes themfelves rendered it a fincere homage from
principles of efteem and admiration. Thofe of the
north principally had frequent occafion for their cre¬
dit, and borrowed of them confiderable fums. The
grand mafters of the Teutonic order, who were at
that time fovereigns of Livonia, declared themfelves
confervators of the rights and privileges of the Hanfe:
all fucceeded, not only to, but beyond their wiffies;
and Germany, charmed with their pfogrefs, looked
on them with the fame eyes as a curious gardener
does on certain rare plants, though not of his own
raifing and culture. The kings of France and Eng¬
land granted alfo various privileges to the Teutonic
confederacy ; they exempted their veffels in cafe of
Ihipwreck from all demands whatfoever from the ad¬
miralty, or from private perfons; they forbade any
difturbance to their navigation at all times; and even
when France was at war with the emperor, or the
princes of the north. In fine, during the courfe of
thofe unhappy wars which were ftiled Croifades, the
Hanfe was fignally confulted, and gave always puif-
fant fuccours in money and in Ihips to the Chriftians
opprefled by infidels. It is aftonilhing, that cities at fo
great a diftance from each other, fubjeift to different
kings, fometimes in open war, but always jealous of
their rights, fhould be able to confederate and live to-
12 N 2 gether
24
COMM
gether in lb ftri& a union. But when this union had
rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot feem
at all ftrange, that on the one hand they grew arro¬
gant and overbearing, took upon them not only to
treat with ibvereigns on the foot of equality, but e-
ven to make war with them, and more than once with
fuccefs. It will, on the other hand, appear ftill lefs
ftrange, that fuch behaviour as this awakened various
princes to a more particular view of the dangers that
fuch a league might produce, and the advantages that
would naturally flow to their refpective ftates, by re¬
covering their trade thus made over, at leaft in fome
part to others, entirely to themfelves; and thefe,
in few words, were the cauies of the gradual declenfion
of the Hanfxatic alliance : which, however, is not to¬
tally diflblved at this day ; the cities of Lubeck, Ham¬
burgh, and Bremen, maintaining fuflicient marks of
that fplendor and dignity with which this confederacy
was once adorned.
We muft now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain,
where in the fpace of about 50 years there happen¬
ed a train of events which gradually led on to fuch
difcoveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the
commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of later
ages what for fome thoufand years had been kept fe-
cret from all mankind, we mean a perfect and diftinbt
notion of that terraqueous globe which they inhabit.
The kingdom of Portugal was fmall, but well cultiva¬
ted, very populous, and blefled with a variety of good
ports; all which, however, had flood them in little
Head, if they had not had a fitcceflion of wife princes,
who, inftead of involving themfelves in war with
their neighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavour¬
ed to extend the happinef s and wealth of their fubjedts,
and by fo doing their own power, in the fofter and
more luccefsful method of protecting arts and fciences,
encouraging induflry, and favouring trade. This, with
the convenient fituation of their country, in the begin¬
ning of the 15 th century, prompted fome lively fpirits
to attempt difcoveries; andthefe, countenanced by an
heroic young prince, pulhed on their endeavours with
fuch fuccefs, that ftep by ftep the coaft of Africa was fur-
veyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to which they
gave that name. The point they had in view was a
new route to the Eaft Indies, which Vafqueze de Ga¬
ma happily difcovercd; and in a fhort fpace of time
Portugal, from one of the leaft confiderable, grew to
be one of the richeft powers in Europe, gained pro¬
digious dominions in Afia and Africa, and raifed a na¬
val power fuperior to any thing that had been feen
for many ages before.
But while this was doing, Chriftopher Columbus, a
Genoefe of great capacity, though of almoft unknown
priginal, who had been bred to the fea from his youth,
and who had carefully ftudied what others made a
trade, formed in his mind the amazing projedt of
counteracting experience, and failing to the Indies by
a weft courfe. He offered this projeCt to the Portu-
guefe, by whom it was confidered and rejeCled as a
chimera. He propofed it afterwards to other ftates,
but with no better fortune; and at laft owed the dif-
covery of the New World to the high fpirit of a he-
roijne, the famous Ifabella queen of Caftile, who al¬
moft at her own expence, and with very little coun-
E R C E.
tenance from her htdband, who yet was ftiled Ferdi¬
nand the Wife, furniihed the adventurous Columbus
with that poor fquadron, with which at once, in ipite
of all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and
the obftinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way,
perfected his delign, and laid open a new Indies,
though in reality he aimed at the difeovery of the old.
Neither was this noble effort of his matchlefs under-
ftanding defeated ; for after his deceafe, Ferdinand
Magellan, a Portuguefe, propofed to the emperor
Charles V. the difeovery of a palfage to the fpice Blands
by the South Seas, which was what Columbus aimed
at ; and though Magellan lived not to return, yet in
one voyage the difeovery was perfected. It is incon¬
ceivable almoft how many and how great benefits
accrued to Europe from thefe difcoveries; of which,
however, it is certain, that the Portuguefe made a
very indifferent, and the Spaniards much worfe, ufe ;
the former making flaves of, and the latter rooting
out, the natives. This, as it was a moft ungrateful
return to divine Providence' for fo high a bleflnig ; lb
it might have been eafily forei’een it would prove, as
experience has flrewn it did prove, highly prejudicial
to their own interefts, by depopulating very fine coun¬
tries, which have been thereby turned into defarts :
and though on their firrt difeovery infinite treafures
were returned from them, which were coined in the
mints of Spain ; yet, by an obftinate purfuit of this
fajfe policy, the Spanilh iflands in the Weft Indies are
now brought lb low as to be fcarce worth keeping.
The confequences that naturally followed on the dif¬
eovery of a palfage by the Cape of Good Hope, and
of a fourth part of the globe in the weftern hemi-
fphere, were, as it has been already hinted, the caufe
of an entire change in the ftate of Europe, and produ¬
ced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in moft other
nations, a d'efire of vifrting thefe remote parts, of
eftablifhing colonies, of letting manufactures on foot,
of exporting and importing commodities; and of rai¬
ling, fettling, and protecting new manufactures. ' By
this means, as the reader cannot but perceive not only
particular nations brought about fignal advantages to
themfelves, but Europe in general received a lafting
and invaluable benefit: for its potentates made them¬
felves formidable, and even terrible in thofe diftant
parts of the earth, and where their fame had hardly
reached before. It is how’ever true, that this has not
been carried on as high as it might have been ; for
though there was room enough for every nation to
have had its fliare, and though it might be demonftra-
ted that the good of the whole would have contribu¬
ted fuffidently to the profit of every ftate, the fubjeCts
of which had engaged in this traffic ; yet, inftead of
profecuting fo natural and fo equitable a meafure,.
they have taken a quite contrary courfe; and by de¬
crying, attacking, and deftroying each other, have
very much leflened that prodigious reverence which
the Afiatics, Africans, and Americans, at firft had for
the inhabitants'of Europe.
The naval power of the Portuguefe received an in¬
curable wound by falling under the power of the Spa¬
niards : and though human policy would have fug-
gefted, that this alone muft have raifed the latter to
tlie monopoly of commerce, and the univerfal domi¬
nion
212
COMM
jiion of the fea ; yet the very purl'uit of a defign fb
vUibly detrimental to the interdt of mankind, proved
very quickly their ruin alfo. For the Spaniards, from
the natural haughtinel’s of their temper, mifled by the
boundlels ambition of their princes, and endeavouring
to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in
their own defence to make a much quicker progrel's
in navigation than otherways they couid have done.
For the Englilh and Dutch, who till this time feemed
blind to the advantages of their lituation, had their
eyes opened by the injuries they received ; and by
degrees the palfion of revenge inipired them with de-
ligns that poflibly public fpirit had never excited. In
Ihort, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches
that flowed from thefe difcoveries to herfelf, and the
dangerous, detelfable, and deitrublive purpofes to
which Ihe applied the immenle wealth that flowed in
upon her from them, produced efletits directly oppo-
lite to thole wbich ftie propoled, and made her ene¬
mies rich, great, powerful, and happy, in proportion
as her commerce dwindled away, and as her naval
power funk and crumbled to pieces merely by an im¬
proper difplay, an ill-managed exertion, and a wrong
application of it.
It was from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven
Provinces, whom her oppreflion had made poor, and
her feverities driven mad, became firlt free, then po¬
tent, and by degrees rich. Their diltrefles taught
them the neceflity of ellablilhing a moderate and equal
government; the mildnefs of that government, and
the bleflings which it procured to its fubjecfs, railed
their number, and elevated their hopes. The confe-
quences became quickly vilible, and in a Ihort fpace of
time amazing both to friends and enemies; every fiih-
ing village improved into a trading town ; their little
towns grew up into large and magnificent cities;
their inland boroughs were filled with manufaiitures;
and in lei's than half a century the diitrefled States of
Holland became high and mighty ; nay, in fpite of
the danger and expences which attended a war, made
all that time againit a fuperior force, thefe people,
furrounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, expol’ed
to peribnal fervice, and to a thoufand other difadvan-
tages, grew up to fuch a ftrength as not only made
the Spaniards defpair of reducing them any more un¬
der their dominion, but inclined them to wilh, and at
lait forced them to feek, their friendlhip.
This, at lealt as far as either ancient or modern hi-
ftories inform us, was the quickeit and Ifrongelt of all
the productions of commerce that the world has ever
feen. For it is out of difpute, that the republic of the
United Provinces owes her freedom, her power, and
her wealth, to induftry and trade intirely. The
greateft part of the country is nothing lefs than fer¬
tile ; and what is lb, produces not enough to fuffice
the tenth part of its inhabitants for the tenth part of
the year : the climate is rather tolerable than whole-
fome ; and its havens are rather advantageous from
the difficulty of entering them, than from their com-
modioufnefs in any other refpecf. Native commo¬
dities they have few or none ; timber and maritime
ftores are entirely wanting ; their country cannot
boaft fo much as of a coal-mine ; and yet thefe pro¬
vinces, upon which nature has beftqwed fo little, in
E R C E.
confequence of an extenfive trade, are enriched with
all things. Their llorehoufes are full of corn, even
when the harveft in corn-countries fails; there is no
commodity, how bulky foever, or however fcaree and
hard to come at, which may not be had from their
magazines. The flapping of Holland is prodigious;
and to fee the quantities of naval ftores with which
their yards and ports abound, allonilhes thole who are
unacquainted with the vigour of that caufe which pro¬
duces this abundance. But above all, the populouf-
nefs of this country is the greateft miracle. That men
Ihould refort to a Canaan, and defire to live in a land
flowing with milk and honey, is nothing ftrange ; but
that they fhouid make it their choice to force nature
to raii'e palaces, lay out gardens, dig canals, plant
woods, and ranfack all the quarters of the earth for
fruit and flowers, to produce an artificial paradife in a
dead plain, or upon an ingrateful heath in the midft of
'fogs and Handing lakes, would, in fo critical an age as-
this, pafs for a fable, if the country did not Ije fo near
us, as to put the truth of it out of queftion.
§ 2. Britijh Hiflory.
We may eafily conceive, that foreign commerce
by the natives of this ifland mull have been a work
of time; for men think firlt of necelfai ies, then of
conveniencies, and laft of fuperfluities. .Thole who
came originally from the continent might have better
notions of things; but as it muft be prefumed that
either fear or indigence drove them hither, fo it is
eafy to apprehend that fucceeding generations muft
for fome time fink much below their anceftors, in their
notions of the commodities of life; and, deriving their
manners from their circumftances, become quite ano¬
ther fort of people. But thofe on the oppolite conti¬
nent, knowing that this ifland was inhabited, and ha¬
ving the ufe, though in ever fo imperfedl a degree,
of veflels, and of foreign traffic, came over hither,
and bartered their goods for the raw commodities of
the Britons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the
latter to make fome improvement in thofe flight lea¬
ther and wicker boats, which they ul'ed for paffing
their own rivers, and creeping along,their coafts, till
at iaft they ventured themfelves over to Gaul, and en¬
tered upon fome kind of correfpondence with their
neighbours. Ail this is fo deducible from the laws of:
nature, that we might have divined thus much by the
light of reafon, if we had not the commentaries of
C as far to guide us, and to ftrengthen by the authority
of hilt or y the faefts that might have been found out by-
the force of rational conjecture.
Things were precifely in this fituation when the
Romans invaded Britain ; and there is no doubt that
our anceftors falling under the power of that empire,
and under its power at a time when with refpeCt to
arts and fciences it was in a moft flourilhing condition,
was a great advantage to them ; and though from
their love of civil liberty, which, when under the di-
re&ion of reafon, is the moft natural and laudable of
all paffions, they made a long and vigorous, and in
fome fenfe a noble and glorious refiftance ; yet by
degrees they caught the manners and cuftonts of their
conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than
free. With learning and politenefs the Romans in¬
troduced,.
2126
COMM
Produced foreign commerce ; and according to the
mature of their policy, as they made high roads through
the illand, eftablilhed colonies in proper places, and
fixed (landing camps, which were a kind of for-
trefles, where they thought proper ; fo they were no
lefs careful with regard to marts or emporiums for
the conveniency of traders, and of which what they
found is uncertain : but that they left many, is with¬
out queftion ; and amongfi: the reft London, which is
not more famous for her prefent extenfive trade, than
venerable for her unrecorded antiquity.
When the Romans unwillingly left Britain, and the
Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a
new deluge of barbarity overflowed this ifland : al-
moft all the improvements of our civilized conquerors
were defaced ; and, upon the eftablifliment as it were
of a new people, things were all to begin again.
This neceflarily took up a great deal of time ; and
before they were in any tolerable pofture, the Saxons
found themfelves diftrelfed by frefli fwarms of barba¬
rians. Yet there (till remains fome evidences of their
having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, if their
circumftances would have permitted, moft certainly
would have entered upon and carried foreign com¬
merce to a great height. We have authentic tefti-
monies, that Alfred the Great formed projetfts of vaft
difcoveries to the North, as he actually fent perfons
of great prudence and abilities into the Eaft ; and the
curiofities which they brought home were for many
agespreferved in the treafury of the church of Sail (bury.
As for the Danes, they were not long our mailers:
but as they became fo by a maritime force, and as
their countrymen had eftabliflied themfelves not only
on the oppofite (here of France, but in other parts of
Europe ; fo it is reafonable to believe that they held
fome correfpondence with them from hence; and
that, if their dominion had laded longer, this might
have been better regulated, and prodtuftive of many
advantages. But they had foon to do with their bre¬
thren in another way : for the Normans, men of the •
fame race, but better eflabliflted in another country,
difpofleffed them here ; and partly under colour of
right, partly by force, eredltd that monarchy, which,
not without various alterations and changes, fubflfts
even to our times, and to the fubfiftence of which,
with the help of thole changes and alterations, we
owe that happy conftitution under which we live ;
that univerfal improvement which adora the face of
our country ; that domeftic trade which nourilhes fo
numerous a people, by plentifully rewarding theif in*
duftry; and that extenfive commerce which is at
once the fource of our wealth and the fupport of our
liberty.
It cannot be expeifted, that in a work like this, we
fliould attempt to trace the progrefs of trade through
evdry reign, (hew how it was encouraged and pro-
tedled, or difcountenanced and checked; what occa-
fions were luckily feized, or what opportunities un¬
fortunately loft. It may be fuflkient for us, after
what has been already faid, to obferve, that the opi¬
nion commonly Entertained, of our having little or no
trade before the reign of queen Elizabeth, is very far
from being well founded.
In fatft, the reign of that princefs was great and
E R C E.
glorious, in whatever light we confider it; but It was
moft fo in this, that, under Providence, it became
great and glorious by the wifdom and prudence of the
queen and her minifters. The Englifti nation never
was in fo difperate a condition as at her acceffion.
The crown was in debt, the treafury empty, the na¬
tion involved in a foreign war diredlly againll her
own interefts, her coafts naked ; in a word, without
credit abroad, and without concord at home, no fet¬
tled religion, the great men fplit into fadlions, and
the common people diftrafled and dejedled. Sad
circumftances thefe ! and yet from hence arofe the
grandeur of that reign, and the eftablifhment of our
commerce. The queen found herfelf obliged to ac?l
with great caution, to derive affiftance from every
quarter, to employ it faithfully, and to promote to
the utmoft of her power the welfare of her fubjedls,
whom nothing but the public-fpiritednefs of her go¬
vernment could enable to grow rich enough to fupport
the neceflary expences of the crown. It was this
gave a popular turn to her councils. She encouraged
her fubjedls to arm againft the Spaniards, that they
might be accuftomed to the fea, and acquire that
knowledge in navigation, with which, till then, they
had been unacquainted. She palled many laws for
the public good, eredted feveral companies, and faw
that thole companies purfued the ends for which they
were eredled; in Ihort, (he did every thing that could
be expedled, during the whole courfe of her reign,
to excite and encourage indnftry at home, and to
enable us to make a proper figure abroad. In a word,
(he furnilhed us with (lock and credit, put us upon
improving our commodities and manufadlures, brought
the art of (hip-building amongft us, filled our ports
with able feamen, (hewed a juft refpe<ft to Engliflt
merchants, reduced Ireland fo as to render it bene¬
ficial to Britain, and approved our fending colonies
into America; and thus the feeds of Britilh wealth
were fown in her time, though the harveft was reap¬
ed in the days of her fucceffors. See the articles
Coalery, Colony, Fisheries, ManufactVres,
Shipping, and Trade.
Chap. II. Principles 0/Commerce.
§ i. Origin of Trade.
The moft fimple of all trade, is that which is car¬
ried on by bartering the neceflary articles of fublift-
ence. if we fuppofe the earth free to the firft pof-
felfor, this perfon who cultivates it will firft draw
from it his food, and the furplus will be the objedl of
barter: he will give this in exchange to any one who
will fupply his other wants. This naturally fuppofes
both a furplus quantity of food produced by labour,
and alfo free hands; for he who makes a trade of
agriculture cannot fupply himfelf with all other
neceflaries, as well as food; and lie who makes a
trade of fupplying the farmers with fuch neceftaries,
in exchange for his furplus of food, cannot be employ¬
ed in producing that food. The more the neceflities
of man increafe, the more free hands are required to
fupply them; and the more free hands are required,
the more furplus food muft be produced by additional
labour, to fupply their demand.
This
COMM
This is the leaft complex kind of trade, and may be
carried on to a greater or lefs extent, in different
countries, according to the different degrees of the
wants to be fupplied. In a country where there is no
money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of
mankind will be confined to few obje&s; to wit, the
removing the inconveniencies of hunger, thirft, cold,
heat, danger, and the like. A free man, who, by his
induftry, can procure all the comforts of a fimple life,
will enjoy his reft, and work no more : and, in ge¬
neral, all increafe of work will ceafe, fo foon as the
demand for the purpofes mentioned comes to be fatis-
fied. There is a plain reafon for this. When the
free hands have procured, by their labour, where¬
withal to fupply their wants, their ambition is fatis-
fied: fo foon as the hufbandmen have produced the
neceffary furplus for relieving theirs, they work no
more. Here then is a natural flop put to induftry,
confequently to bartering.
The next thing to be examined is, how bartering
grows into trade, properly fo called and underflood,
according to the definition given of it above; how
trade comes to be extended among men ; how ma¬
nufactures, more ornamental than ufeful, come to be
eftablifhed ; and how men come to fubmit to labour,
in order to acquire what is not abfolutely neceffary
for them.
This, in a free fociety, is chiefly owing to the in¬
troduction of money, and a talle for fuperfluities in
thofe who poffefs it.
In ancient times, money was not wanting; but the
tafle for fuperfluities not being in proportion to it,
the fpecie was locked up. This was the cafe in Eu¬
rope four hundred years ago. A new tafte for fuper-
fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circula¬
tion, from our own treafures, than from the mines of
the new world. The poor opinion we entertain of
the riches of our fore-fathers, is founded upon the
modern way of eftimating wealth, by the quantity of
coin in circulation, from which we conclude, that the
greateft part of the fpecie now in our hands muft have
come from America.
It is more, therefore, through the tafte of fuper-
fluity, than in confequence of the quantity of coin,
that trade comes to be eftablifhed ; and it is only
in confequence of trade that we fee induftry carry
things in our days to fo high a pitch of refinement and
delicacy. Let us illuftrate this, by comparing toge¬
ther the different operations of barter, fale, and com¬
merce.
When reciprocal wants are fupplied by barter,
there is not the fmalleft occafion for money: this is
the moft fimple of all combinations.
When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more
difficult, upon this money is introduced. This is the
common price of all things : it is a proper equivalent
in the hands of thofe who want, perfectly calculated
to fupply the occafions of thofe who, by induftry, can
relieve them. This operation of buying and felling is
a little more complex than the former ; but ftill we
have here no idea of trade, becaufe we have not in¬
troduced the merchant, by whole induftry it is car¬
ried on.
Let this third perfon be brought into play, and the
E R C E.
whole operation becomes clear. What before we
called ww/tr, is here reprefented by the confumer;
what we called inditjiry, by the manufacturer; what
we called money, by the merchant. The merchant
here reprefents the money, by fubftituting credit in
its place; and as the money was invented to facili¬
tate barter, fo the merchant, with his credit, is a new
refinement upon the ufe of money. This renders it
ftill more effectual in performing the operations of
buying and felling. This operation is trade: it re¬
relieves both parties of the whole trouble of tranfpor-
tation, and adjufting wants to wants, or wants to
money; the merchant reprefents by turns both the
confumer, the manufacturer, and the money. To
the confumer he appears as the whole body of manu¬
facturers ; to the manufacturers as the whole body of
confumers; and to the one and the other clafs his credit
fupplies the ufe of money. This is fufficient at pre-
fent for an illuftration. We now return to the fimple
operations of money in the hands of the two contrac¬
ting parties, the buyer and the feller, in order to .
fhow how men come to fubmit to labour in order to
acquire fuperfluities.
So foon as money is introduced into a country, it
becomes an univerfal objeCt of want to all the inha<-
bitants.
The confequence is, that the free hands of the ftate,
who before ftopt working, becaufe all their wants
were provided for, having this new objeCt of ambi¬
tion before their eyes, endeavour, by refinements
upon their labour, to remove the fmaller inconve¬
niencies which refult from a fimplicity of manners.
People, who formerly knew but one fort of clothing
fot all feafons, willingly part with a little money to
procure for themfelves different forts of apparel pro¬
perly adapted to fummer and winter, which the inge¬
nuity of manufacturers, and their defire of getting
money, may have fuggefted to their invention.
Indeed thefe refinements feem more generally ow¬
ing to the induftry and invention of the manufactu¬
rers, (who by their ingenuity daily contrive means
of foftening or relieving inconveniencies, which man¬
kind feldom perceive to be filch, till the way of re¬
moving them is contrived), than to the tafte of luxu¬
ry in the rich, who, to indulge their eafe, engage
the poor to become induftrious.
Let any man make an experiment of this nature
upon himfelf, by entering into the firft Ihop. He will
no where fo quickly difeover his wants as there. Every
thing he fees appears either neceffary, or at leaft
highly convenient; and he begins to wonder how he
could have been fo long without that which the inge¬
nuity of the workman alone had invented, in order
that from the novelty it might excite his defire ; for
perhaps when it is bought, he will never once think
of it more, nor ever apply it to the ufe for which it
at firft appeared fo neceffiry.
Here then is a reafon why mankind labour though:
not in want. They become defirous of poffefling the
very inftruments of luxury, which their avarice or
ambition prompted them to invent for the ufeof others.
What has been faid reprdents trade in its infancy,,
or rather the materials with which that great fabrick
is built.
We
2 ! 27
2128
COMM
We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind
multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly fupplied by
the employment of all the free hands let apart for that
purpofe. But if we fuppofe the workman himfelf dif-
pofing of his work, and purchafing with it food from
the farmer, cloaths from the clothier; and, in general,
feeking for the fupply of every want from the hands
of the perfon direftly employed for the purpofe of re¬
lieving it ; this will not convey an idea of trade ac¬
cording to our definition.
Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this
long procefs; a Icheme invented and fet on foot by
merchants, from a principle of gain, fupported and ex¬
tended among men, from a principle of general utility
to every individual, rich or poor, to every fociety,
great or fmalL
Inftead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with jo
different gprfons, for whofe labour he has occafion, he
fells all to the merchant for money or for credit; and,
as occafion offers, he purchafes all his wants, either
diredily from thofe who fupply them, or from other
merchants who deal with manufadturers in the fame
way his merchant dealt with him.
Another advantage of trade is, that induftrious peo¬
ple in one part of the country, may fnpply cuftomers
in another, though diftant. They may eltablifh them-
felves in the moll commodious places for their refpec-
tive bufinefs, and help one another reciprocally, with¬
out making the diftant parts of the country fuffer for
want of their labour. They are likewife expofed
to no avocation from their work, by feeking for cuf¬
tomers.
Trade produces many excellent advantages ; it
marks out to the manufacturers when their branch is
undef or over-ftocked with hands. If it is underftocked,
they will find more demand than they can anfwer: if
it is overftocked, the fale will be flow.
Intelligent men, in every profefiion, will eafily dif-
cover when thefe appearances are accidental, and when
they proceed from the real principles of trade.
Polls, and correfpondence by letters, are a confe-
quence of trade; by the means of which merchants
are regularly informed of every augmentation or di¬
minution of induftry in every branch, in every part of
the country. From this knowledge they regulate the
prices they offer ; and as they are many, they ferve as
a check upon one another, from the principles of com¬
petition.
From the current prices, the manufadlurers are as
well informed, as if they kept the correfpondence
themfelves: the ftatefman feels perfectly were hands
are wanting, and young people deftirted to induftry,
obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall na¬
turally in to fupply the demand.
Two great affiftances to merchants, efpecially in the
infancy of trade, are public markets for collecting the
work of fmall dealers, and large undertakings in the
manufacturing way by private hands. By thele means
the merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity
of work in the market, as on the other hand the ma¬
nufacturers learn, by the fale of the goods, the extent
of the demand for them. Thefe two things being
juftly known, the price of goods is eafily fixed.
Public fales ferve to correct the fmall inconveni-
E R C E.
encies which proceed from the operations of trade, A
let of manufacturers got all together into one town,
and entirely taken up with their induftry, are thereby
as well informed of the rate of the market as if every¬
one of them carried thither his work, and upon the
arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off their
hands, he has not the leaft advantage over them from
his knowledge of the flate of demand. This man
both buys and fells in what is called •wholefale ; and
from him retailers purchafe, who diftribute the goods
to every confumer vluoughout the country. Thefe laft
buy from wholefale merchants in every branch, that
proportion of every kind of merchandize which is
fuitable to tire demand of their borough, city, or pro¬
vince.
Thus all inconveniencies are prevented, at fome ad¬
ditional coll to the confumer, who muft naturally re-
imburfe the whole expence. The diftance of the
manufacturer, the obfeurity of his dwelling, the ca¬
price in felling his work, are quite removed ; the re¬
tailer has all in his fhop, and the public buys at a cur¬
rent price.
§ ii. How the prices of Goods are determined by Trade.
In the price of goods, two things muft be confider-
ed as really exifting, and quite different from one an¬
other ; to wit, the real value of the commodity, and
the profit upon alienation.
I. The firft thing to be known of any manufacture,
when it comes to be fold, is, how much of it a perl’on
can perform in a day, a week, a month, according to
the nature of the work, which may require more or
lefs time to bring it to perfection. In making fuch
eftimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an
average, a workman of the country in general may
perform, without fuppofing him the beft or the worft
in his profefiion, or having any peculiar advantage or
difadvantage as to the place where he works.
Hence the reafon why fome people thrive by their
induftry, and others not; why fome manufactures .
flourifli in one place, and not in another.
II. The fecond thing to be known, is the value of
the workman’s fubfiftence, and ueceffary expence,
both for fupplying his perfonal wants, and providing
the inftruments belonging to his profeffion, which
muft be taken upon an average as above; except
when the nature of the work requires the prefence of
the workman in tlie place of confumption : for al¬
though fome trades, and almoft every manufacture,
may be darried on in places at a diftance, and there¬
fore may fall under one general regulation as to prices j
yet others there are,, which, by their nature, require
the prefence of the workman in the place of confump¬
tion ; and in that cafe the prices muft be regulated by
circumftances relative to every particular place. _
III. The third and laft thing to be known, is the
value of the materials, that is, the firft matter employ¬
ed by the workman ; and if the objedl of his induftry
be the manufacture of another, the fame procefs of in¬
quiry muft be gone through with regard to the firft, as
with regard to the fecond : and thus the moft complex
manufaftures may be at laft reduced to the greateft
fimplicity.
Thefe three articles being known, the price of manu¬
facture
2
COMM
'fa&ure is determined. It cannot be lower than the
amount of all the three, that is, than the real value ;
whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit.
This will ever be in proportion to demand, and there¬
fore will fluctuate according to circumftances.
Hence appears the necemty of a great demand, in
order to promote flourilhing manufactures.
By the extenfive dealings of merchants, and their
conftant application to the ftudy of the balance of
, work and demand, all the above circumftances are
known to them, and are made known to the induftri-
ous, who regulate their living and expence according
to their certain profit.
Employ a workman in a country where there is
little trade or induftry, he proportions his price always
to the urgency of your want, or your capacity to pay;
but feldom to his own labour. Employ another in a
country of trade, he will not impofe upon you, unlefs
perhaps you be a ftranger, which fuppofes your being
ignorant of the value ; but employ the fame workman
in a work not ufual in the country, confequently not
demanded, confequently not regulated as to the value,
he will proportion his price as in the firft fuppofition.
We may therefore conclude, from what has been
faid, that in a country where trade has been eflablifh-
ed, manufactures mult flourilh, from the ready fale, the
regulated price of work, and the certain profit refult-
ing from induftry. Let us next inquire into the con-
fequences of fuch a fit nation.
§ iii. Row foreign Trade opens to an iiuluflrifjtts People
and the CoJifequences of it to the Merchants mho fet it
on foot.
The firfl confequence of the fituation defcribed in
the preceding feCtion is, that wants are eafily fup-
plied, for the adequate value of the thing wanted.
The next confequence is, the opening of foreign
trade, under its two denominations of pafiive and
aCHve. Strangers and people of diftant countries,
finding the. difficulty of having their wants fupplied at
home, and the eafe of having them fupplied from this
country, immediately have recourfe to it. This is paf-
five trade. The aCtive is when merchants, who have
executed this plan at home with fuccefs, begin to tran-
fport the labour of their countrymen into other re¬
gions, which either produce, or are capable of produ¬
cing fuch articles of confumption, proper to be manu¬
factured, as are moil demanded at home ; and con¬
fequently will meet with the readieft fale, and fetch
the largeft profits.
Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its
two denominations of aCtive and paffive.
What then are the confequences of this new com¬
merce to our merchants, who have left their homes in
queft of gain abroad ?
The firft is, that, arriving in any new country, yhey
find themfelves in the fame fituation, with regard to
the inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no
trade, with regard to thole who employs him ; that
is, they proportion the price of their goods to the
eagernefs of acquiring, or the capacity of paying, in
the inhabitants, but never to their real value.
The firft profits then, upon this trade, muff be very
confiderable ; and the demand from fuch a country
VOL. III.
E R C E.
will be high or low, great or finally according to the
fpirit, not the real wants of the people : for thefe in
all countries muft firft be fupplied by the inhabitants
themfelves, before they ceafe to labour.
If the people of this not-'trading country be abun¬
dantly furniflied with commodities ufeful to the traders,
they will eafily part with them, at firft, for the inftru-
ments of luxury and eafe ; but the great profit of the
traders will infenfibly increafe the demand for the
productions of their new correfpondents ; this will
have the effeCt of producing a competition between
themfelves, and thereby of throwing the demand on
their fide. This is perpetually a difadvantage in
traffic : the moft unpolifhed nations in the world
quickly perceive the elFeCts of it; and are taught to
profit by the difcovery, in fpite of the addrefs of tliofe
who are the moft expert in commerce.
The traders will therefore be very fond of falling
upon every method and contrivance to infpire this
people with a tafte of refinement and delicacy. Abun¬
dance of fine prefents, confifting of every inftrument
of luxury and fuperfluity, the beft adapted to the ge¬
nius of the people, will be given to the prince and
leading men among them. Workmen will even be
employed at home, to ftudy the tafte of the ftrangers,
and to captivate their delires by every poffible means.
The more eager they are of prefents, the more lavifh
the traders will be in beftowiilg and diverfifying them.
It is an animal put up to fatten, the more he eats the
fooner he is fit for flaughter. When their tafte for
fuperfluity is fully formed, when the relifh for their
former fimplicity is fophifticated, poifoned, and obli¬
terated, then they are furely in the fetters of the
traders, and the deeper they go, the lefs poffibility
there is of their getting out. The prefents then will
die away, having ferved their purpofe ; and if after¬
wards they are found to be continued, it will proba¬
bly be to fupport the competition againft other na¬
tions, who will incline to lhare of the profits.
If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not
abound with commodities nfeful to the traders, thefe
will make little account of trading with them, whatever
their turn may be ; but, if we fuppofe this country in¬
habited by a laborious people, who, having taken a
tafte for refinement from the traders, apply themfelves
to agriculture, in order to produce articles of fub-
fiftence, they will folicit the merchants to give them
part of their manufactures in exchange for thofe; and
this trade will undoubtedly have the efleCtof multiplying
numbers in the trading nation. But if food cannot be
furniflied, nor any other branch of production found
out to fupport the correfpondence, the tafte for re¬
finement will foon die away, and trade will ftop jn
this quarter.
Had it not been for the furs in thofe countries ad¬
jacent to Hudfon’s Bay, and in Canada, the Europeans
never would have thought of fupplying inftruments of
luxury to thofe nations; and if the inhabitants of thofe
regions had not taken a tafte for the inftruments of
luxury, furnilhed to them by the Europeans, they ne¬
ver would have become fo indefatigable nor fo dex¬
trous hunters. At the fame time we are not to fuppofe,
that ever thefe Americans would have come to Europe
in quell of our manufactures. It is, therefore, owing ,
12 O to -
2130
COMMERCE.
to our merchants, that thefe nations are become in determine the object of their demand, giving the leali
any degree fond of refinement ; and this tafte, in all quantity poflible in return for this fuperfiuity, in order
probability, will not foon exceed the proportion of the to imprefs the inhabitants with a high notion of the
productions of their country. From thefe beginnings value of their own commodities; but as this parfimony
of foreign trade it is eafy to trace its increafe. may do more hurt than good to their interefl-, they
' One ftep towards this, is the ellablidiing correfpon- are very generous in making prefents, from the prin-
dences in foreign countries; and thefe are more or lefs ciples mentioned above.
heceflary in proportion as the country where they are When the exchange is compleated, and the traders
eltablilhed is more or lefs polilhed or acquainted with depart, regret is commonly mutual; the one and the
trade. They fupply the want of polls, and point out other are lorry that the luperfluities of the country
to the merchants what proportion the productions of fall Ihort. A return is promifed by the traders, and
the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for alfurances are given by the natives of a better provi-
fnanufaCtures. This communicates an idea of com- lion another time.
merce to the not-trading nation, and they infenfibly What are the firll confequences of this revolution ?
begin to fix a determined value upon their own pro- It is evident, that, in order to fupply an equivalent
duClions, which perhaps bore no determined value at for this new want, more hands mull be fet to work
all before. than formerly. And it is evident alio, that this aug-
Let us trace a little the progrefs of this refinement mentation of induliry will not elientially increafe num-
ln the favages, in order to ihew how it has the effect bers : Why ? Becaufe the produce of the indullry is,
of throwing the demand upon the traders, and of crea- in this cafe, intended to be exported. But, if we
Ting a competition among them, for the productions of can find out any additional confumption at home, even
the new country. implied by this new trade, it will have the effeCt of
Experience Ihews, that, in a new difeovered coun- augmenting numbers. An example will make this plain,
try, merchants conflantly find fome article or other of Let us luppofe the fuperfiuity of this country to be
its productions, which turns out to a great account in, the fkins of wild bealts, not proper for food; the ma-
commerce ; and we fee that the longer fuch a trade nufaCture fought for, brandy. The brandy is fold for
fubfilts, and the more the inhabitants take a talle for furs. He who has furs, or he Who can fpare time to
European manufactures, the more their own produc- hunt for them, will drink brandy in proportion : but
lions rife in their value, and the lefs profit is made by there is no reafon to conclude from this fimple opera-
trading with them, even in cafes where the trade is car- tion, that one man more in the country mufl necef-
ried on by companies; which is a very wife inflitution farily be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture
for one reafon, that it cuts off a competition between muff of confequence enfue from this new traffic,
our merchants. But let us throw in a circumflance which may ap-
This is the beft means of keeping prices low in fa- ply an additional confumption at home, and then ex-
vour of the nation ; however it may work a contrary amine the confequences.
effeCl with refpeCt to individuals who muft buy from A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for
thefe monopolies. food, who is miferable, and ready to perifli for want
When companies are not ellablilhed, and when trade of fubfiftence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf; he
is open, our merchants, by their eagernefs to profit by comes to a farmer with the (kin, and fays. You are
the new trade, betray the fecrets of it, they enter into well fed, but you have no brandy ; if you will give
competition for the purchate of the foreign produce, me a loaf, I will give you this fkin, which the flran-
and this raifes prices, and favours the commerce of the gers are fo fond of, and they will give you brandy,
moft ignorant favages. But, fays the farmer, I have no more bread than what
. is fufficient for my own family. As for that, replies
§ iv. Confequcnces of the Introduction of a paflive fo- the other, I will come and dig in your ground, and
reign Trade among a People who live in fmpUcity you and I will fettle our account as to the fmall quan-
evid Jdlenefs. tjty I defire of you. The bargain is made ; the poor
We now fuppofe the arrival of traders, all in one fellow gets his loaf, and lives at leaft; perhaps he
interefl, with inllruments of luxury and refinement, marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But bad it not
at a port in a country of great fimplicity of manners, been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was
abundantly provided by nature with great advantages purchafed by the induflry of this poor fellow, by what
for commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of a- argument could he have induced the farmer to part
dopting a talle for fuperfluities. with a loaf ?
The firfl thing the merchants do is, to expofe their Here the fentiment of charity is excluded. This
goods, and point out the advantages of many things, alone is a principle of multiplication ; but as true it is,
either agreeable or ufcful to mankind in general, fuch on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got.
as wines, fpirits, inllruments of agriculture, arms, and bread by begging, he would not probably have gone
ammunition for hunting,nets for filhing-, manufactures a hunting;
for cloathing, and the like. The advantages of thefe Here then it appears, that the very dawning of
are prefently perceived, and fuch commodities are trade, in the moll uripolilhed countries, implies a mul-
eagerly lought after. tiplication. This is enough to point out the firfl flep,
The natives on their fide, produce what they mofl and to conned the fubjedt of our prefent inquiries,with
efteem, generally fotnething fuperfluous or ornamen- what has been already difeufled in relation to other
tab The traders after examining all circumftances, circumltanccs.
COMM
So foon as all the furs are difpofed of, and a tafle
for lltperfluity is introduced, both the traders and the
natives, will be equally interelted in the advancement
of induftry in this country. Many new objects of
profit for the firft will be dilcovered, which the proper
employment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural
advantages of their foil and climate, will make effec¬
tual. The traders will therefore endeavour to fet on
foot many branches of induftry among the favages,
and the allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing,
will animate thef'e in the purfuit of them.
When once this revolution is brought about; when
thofe who formerly lived in fimplicity become induf-
trious; manners put on a new face.
That is to fay, we now find two trading nations
inftead of one, with this difference, however, that as
hitherto we have fuppofed the merchants all in one
intereft, the compound demand, that is, the competi¬
tion of the buyers, has been, and muff ftill continue on
the fide of the natives. This is a great prejudice to
their interefl: but as it is not fuppofed fufficient tp
check their induftry, nor to reftrain their confumption
of the manufa&ures, let us here examine a little more
particularly the confequences of the principle of de¬
mand in fuch a fituation ; for although we allow, that
it can never change fides, yet it may admit of differ¬
ent modifications, and produce different effetfts, as we
fhall prefently perceive.
The merchants wefuppofe all in one intereft, confe-
quently there can be no competition among them ; con-
feqnently no check can be put upon their railing their
prices, as long as the prices they demand are complied
with. So foon as they are raifed to the full extent of
the abilities of the natives, or of their inclination to
buy, the merchants have the choice of three things,
which are all perfectly in their option ; and the pre¬
ference to be given to the one or the other, depends
entirely upon themfelves, and upon the circumftances
we are going to point out,
Firft, they may fupport their high demand ; that is,
not lower their price ; which will preferve a high efti-
mation of the manufadiures in the opinion of the in¬
habitants, and render the profits upon their trade the
greateft poffible. This part they may poflibly take,
if they perceive the natives doubling their diligence, in
order to become able, in time, to pur chafe confider-
able cargoes at a high value ; from which fuppofition
is implied a ftrong difpofition in the people to become
luxurious, fince nothing but want of ability prevents
them from complying with the higheft demand.: but
ftill another circumftance muft concur, to engage the
merchants not to lower their price. The great
proportion of the goods they feek for in return,
muft be found in the hands of a few. This will be the
cafe if flavery be eftabliflied ; for then there muft be
many poor and few rich: and they are commonly the
rich confumers who proportion the price they offer,
rather to their defires, than to the value of the thing.
The fecond thing which may be done is, to open
the door to a great demand ; that is, to lower their
prices. This will fink the value of the manufadiures
in the opinion of the inhabitants, and render profits
lefs in proportion, although indeed, upon the voyage,
the profits may be greater.
E II C E.
This part they will take, if they perceive the in.
habitants do not incline to confume great quantities of
the merchandize at a high value, either for want of
abilities or inclination ; and alfo, if the profits upon
the trade depend upon a large confumption, as is the
cafe in merchandize of a low value, and liiited chiefly
to the occafions of the lower fort. Such motives of
expediency will be fufficient to make them negledt a
high demand, and prefer a great one ; and the more,
when there is a likelihood that the confumption of low-
priced goods in the beginning may beget a tafte for
others of a higher value, and thus extend in genera!
the tafte of fuperfluity.
A third part to be taken, is the leaft politic, and
perhaps the moft familiar. It is to profit by the com¬
petition between the buyers, and encourage the ri¬
ling of demand as long as poffible ; when this comes
to a flop, to make a kind of auction, by firft bringing
down the prices to the level of the higheft bidders,
and fo to defeend by degrees, in proportion as de¬
mand finks. Thus we may fay with propriety, that
demand Commonly becomes great, in proportion as
prices fink. By this operation, the traders will pro¬
fit as much as poffible, and fell off as much of their
goods as the profits will permit.
But this plan, in a new difeovered country, is not
politic, as it both difeovers a covetoufnefs and a want
of faith in the merchants, and alfo throws open the
fecrets of their trade to thofe who ought to be kept
ignorant of them.
Let us next fuppofe, that the large profits of our
merchants fliall be dilcovered by others, who arrive
at the fame ports in a feparate intereft, and who en¬
ter into no combination which might prevent the na¬
tural effects of competition.
Let the ftate of demand among the natives be fup¬
pofed the fame as formerly, both as to height and
greatnels, in confequence of the operation of the dif¬
ferent principles, which might have induced our mer¬
chants to follow one or other of the plans we have
been deferibing ; we muft however ftill fuppofe, that
they have been careful to preferve confiderable pro¬
fits upon every branch.
If we fuppofe the inhabitants to have increafed in
numbers, wealth, and tafte for fuperfluity, fmee the
laft voyage, demand will be found rather on the ri¬
ling hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in com¬
petition with the former, both will offer to fale : but
if both Hand to the fame prices, it is very natural to
fuppole, that the former dealers will obtain a prefer¬
ence ; ;is, c te ter is paribus, it is always an advantage
to know and to be known. The laft comers, there¬
fore, have no other way left to counter-balance this
advantage, but to lower their prices.
This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of prices
is not voluntary as formerly; nor confented to from
expediency ; not owing to a failure of demand, but
to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to
wit, a double competition, which we ffiall now exa¬
mine.
§ v. Of double Competition.
When competition is much ftronger on one fide
of the contraift. than on the other, it is called fimple.
13 O 2 This
2132
COMM
This is the fpecies of competition which is implied in
the term high demand, or when it is faid that demand
raifes prices.
Double competition is, when, in a certain degree,
it takes place on both fides of the contract at once, or
vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is
what reftrains prices to the adequate value of mer¬
chandize.
The great difficulty is to diftinguifh clearly between
the principles of demand, and thofe of competition :
here then follows the principal differences between
the two, relatively to the effe(5ts they produce feve-
rally in the mercantile contract of buying and felling,
which we here exprefs fhortly by the word contrail.
Simple demand is what brings the quantity of a
commodity to market. Many demand, who do not
buy ; many offer, who do not fell. This demand is
calledorfinall; it is faid to increafe, to augment,
to fwell; and is expreffed by thefe and other fynoni-
mous terms, which mark an augmentation or diminu¬
tion of quantity. In this fpecies, two people never
demand the fame thing, but a part of the fame thing,
or things quite alike.
Compound demand is the principle which raifes
prices, and can never make them fink ; becanfe in
this cafe more than one demands the very fame thing.
It is folely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the
price they offer. This demand is called high or low,
and is faid to rife, to fall, to mount, to fink, and is ex¬
preffed by thefe and other fynonimous terms.
Simple competition, when between buyers, is the
fame as compound or high demand; but differs from
it in fo far, as this may equally take place among fel¬
lers, which compound demand cannot ; and then it
works a contrary effecl : it makes price's fink, and is
fynonimous with low demand : it is this competition
which overturns the balance of work and demand.
Double competition is what is underflood to take
place in almoft every operation of trade ; it is this which
prevents their exceffive rife of prices; it is this which
prevents their exceffive fall. While double competi¬
tion prevails, the balance is perfect, trade and induftry
flouiifh.
The capitaldiftindlion, therefore, between the terms
demand and competition is, that demand is conflantly
relative to the buyers ; and when money is not the
price, as in barter, then it is relative to that fide upon
which the greatefl competition is found.
We therefore fay, with regard to prices, demand is
high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchan¬
dize, demand is great or fmall. With regard to compe¬
tition, it is always called great or fmall, Jlrong or weak.
Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to
both parties in the contract. A competition among
buyers is a proper expreffion ; a. competition among
fellers, who have the merchandize, is fully as eafil'y
underftood, though it be not quite fo finking, for rea-
fons which an example will make plain.
You come to a fair, where you find a great variety
of every kind of merchandize, in the poffeffion of dif¬
ferent merchants. Thefe, by offering their goods to
fale, conflitute a tacit competition; every one of them
wifhes to fell in preference to another, and at the
fame time with the belt advantage to himfelf.
E R C E.
The buyer begins, by cheapning at every fhop. The-
firft price afked marks the covetoufnefs of the feller ;
the firft price offered, the avarice of the buyer. From
this operation competition begins to work its effects
on both fides, and fo becomes double. The principles
which influence this operation are now to be deduced.
It is impoffible to fuppofe the fame degree of eager-
nefs, either to buy or to fell, among feveral merchants ;
becaufe the degree of eagernefs is*.exactly in pro¬
portion to their view of profit ; and as thefe muft
neceffarily be influenced and regulated by different
cireumftances, that buyer, who has the bell profpedt
of felling again with profit, obliges him, whofe pro-
fpecft is not fo good, to content himfelf with lefs; and,
that feller, who has bought to the beft advantage,
obliges him, who has paid dearer for the merchandize,
to moderate his defire of gain.
It is from thefe principles, that competition among
buyers and fellers muft take place. This is what con¬
fines the fluftuation of prices within limits which are
compatible with the reafonable profits of both buyers
and fellers ; for we muft conftantly fuppofe the whole
operation of buying and felling to be performed by
merchants ; the buyer cannot be fuppofed to give fo
high a price as that which he experts to receive,
when he diftributes to the confumers, nor can the
feller be fuppofed to accept of a lower than that which
he paid to the manufacturer. This competition is
properly called double, becaufe of the difficulty to de¬
termine upon which fide it Hands; the fame merchant
may have it in his favour upon certain articles, and
againft him upon others; it is continually in vibration,
and the arrival of every port may lefs or more pull
down the heavy fcale.
In every tranfaction between merchants, the profit
refulting from the fale muft be exa&ly. diftinguilhed
from the value of the merchandize. The firft may
vary, the laft never can. It is this profit alone which
can be influenced by competition ; and it is for that
reafon we find fuch uniformity every where in the
prices of goods of the fame quality.
The competition between fellers does not appear
fo ftrikihg as that between buyers ; becaufe he who
offers to fale, appears only paffive in the firft opera¬
tion ; w hereas the buyers prefent themfelves one af¬
ter another ; they make a demand when the mer¬
chandize is refilled to one at a certain price, a fecond
either offers more,, or does not offer all: but fo foon
as another feller finds his account in accepting the price
the firft had refufed, then the firft enters into com¬
petition, providing his profits will admit his lowering
the firft price, and thus competition takes place among
the fellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent
prices from falling lower.
In all markets this competition is varying^ though
infenfibly, on many occafions; but in others the vi¬
brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found
ftrongeft on the fide of the buyers; and in proportion
as this grows, the competition between the fellers di-
miniflies. When the competition between the former
has raifed prices to a certain ftandard, it comes to a
flop; then the competition changes fides, and takes
place among the fellers, eager to profit of the higheft
price. This makes prices-fall, and according as they
fall.
COMM
fall, the competition among the buyers diminifties.
They ftill wait for the loweit period. At laft it comes;
and then perhaps fome new circumftance, by giving
the balance a kick, difappoints their hopes. If there¬
fore it ever happens, that there is but one intereft up¬
on one fide of the contradl, as in the example in the
former fedtion, where we iiippofed the fellers united,
you perceive, that the rife of the price, occafioned by
the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to
a ftop, could not poflibly have the effect of producing
any competition on the other fide ; and therefore, if
prices come afterwards to fink, the fall muft have pro¬
ceeded from the prudential confiderations of adapting
the price to the faculties of thofe who, from the height
of it, had withdrawn their demand.
From thefe principles of competition, the foreftalling
of markets is made a crime, becaufe it diminifhes the
competition which ought to take place between dif¬
ferent people, who have the fame merchandize to of¬
fer to fale. The foreftaller buys all up, with an in¬
tention to fell with more profit, as he has by that
means taken other competitors out of the way, and
appears with a fingle interefl on one fide of the con¬
tract, in the face of many competitors on the other.
This perfon is puniftied by the ftate, becaufe he has
prevented the price of the merchandize from becoming
juftly proportioned to the" real value ; he has robbed
the public, and enriched himfelf; and’in the punifli-
ment he makes rellitution. Here occur two queflions
to be refolved, for the fake of illuftration.
Can competition among buyers poffibly take place,
when the provifion made is more than fufficient to
fupply the quantity demanded ? On the other hand,
can competition take place among the fellers, when
the quantity demanded exceeds the total provifion
made for it ?
We think it may in both cafes ; becaufe in the one
and the other, there is a competition implied on one
fide of the contract, and the very nature of this com¬
petition implies a poflibility of its coming on the other,
provided feparate interefts be found upon both fides.
But to be more particular :
1. Experience fhews, that however juftly the pro¬
portion between the demand and the fupply may be
determined in fa&, it is ftill next to impoffible to "dif-
cover it exactly, and therefore the buyers can only re¬
gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reafon-
ably expert to fell for again. The fellers, on the
other hand, can only regulate the prices they expedt,
by what the merchandize has coft them when brought
to market. We have already fhewn, how, under
fuch circumftances, the feveral inferefts of individuals
affedt each other, and make the balance vibrate.
2. The proportion between the fupply and the de¬
mand is feldom other than relative among merchants,
who are fuppofed to buy and fell, not from neceffity,
but from a view to profit. What we mean by rela¬
tive is, that their demand is great or [mail, according
to prices; there may be a great demand for grain at
3 5 s. per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40 s.;
that is, among merchants.
It is effential to attend to the fmalleft circumftance
in matters of this kind. The circumftance W’e mean,
is the difference we find in the effedt of competition,
E R C E* 2^3
when it takes place purely among merchants on both
fides of the contradt, and when it happens, that either
the confumers mingle themfelves with the merchant-
buyers or the manufadiurers, that is, the furnifliers,
mingle themfelves with the merchant-fellers. This
combination we fhall illuftrate by the folution of ano¬
ther queftion, and then conclude with a few reflec¬
tions upon the whole.
Can there be no cafe fofmed, where the competi¬
tion upon one fide may fubfift, without a poffibility of
its taking place on the other, although there fhould be
feparate interefts upon both ?
The cafe is hardly fuppofable among merchants,,
who buy .and fell with a view to profit; but it is ab-
folutely fuppofable, and that is all, when the diredt
confumers are the buyers; when the circumftances of
one of the parties is perfedlly known ; and when the
competition is fo ftrong upon one fide, as to prevent
a poffibility of its becoming double, before the whole
provifion is fold off, or the demand fati.fied. Let us
have recourfe to examples.
Grain arriving in a fmall quantity, at a port where
the inhabitants are ftarving, produces fo great a com¬
petition among the confumers, who are the buyers,
that their neceffity becomes evident; all the grain is
generally bought up before prices can rife fo high as
to come to a ftop ; becaufe nothing but want of mo¬
ney, that is, an impoffibility of complying with the
prices demanded by the merchants, can refjrain them:
but if you fuppofe, even here, that prices come natu¬
rally to a ftop ; or that, after fome time, they fall
lower, from prudential confiderations; then there is
a poffibility of a competition taking place among the
fellers, from the principles above deduced. If, on the
contrary, the ftop is not natural, but occafioned by the
interpofition of the magiftrate, from humanity, or the
like, there will be no competition, becaufe then the
principles of commerce are fufpended ; the fellers are
reftrained on one fide, and they reftrain the buyers
on the other. Or rather indeed, it is the magiftrate,
or compaffion, who in a manner fixes the price, and
perforins the office of both buyer and feller.
A better example ftill may be found, in a competi¬
tion among fellers; where it may be fo ftrong as to
render a'commodity in a manner of no value at all, as
in the cafe of an uncommon and unexpected draught
of fiflt, in a place of fmall confumption, when no pre-
parations*have been made for faking them. There
can be then no competition among the buyers; be¬
caufe the market cannot laft, and they find themfelves
entirely mafters, to give what price they pleafe, be¬
ing fure the fellers muft accept of it, or lofe their mer¬
chandize. In the firft example, humanity commonly
flops the activity of the principle of competition ; in
the other, it is ftopt by a certain degree of fair deal¬
ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandize for
nothing.
In proportion therefore as the rifing of prices can
ftop demand, or the finking of prices can increafe it,
in the fame proportion will competition prevent either
the rife or the fall from being carried beyond a certain
length : and if fuch a cafe can be put, where the rifing
of prices cannot ftop demand, nor the lowering of
prices augment it, in fuch cafes double competition has
no
2134
COMMERCE.
no effeiH;; becatife thefe circumftances unite the moft
feparate interefts of buyers and fellers in the mer¬
cantile contrail ; and when upon one fide there is
no feparate intereft, there can then be no competi¬
tion.
From what has been faid, we may form a judgment
of the various degrees of competition. A book not
worth a Ihilling, a filh of a few pounds weight, are
often fold for confuiepable fums. The buyers here are
not merchants. When an ambaffador leaves a court in
a hurry, things are fold for lei's than the half of their
value : he is no merchant, and his fituation is known.
When, at a public market, there are found confumers,
who make- their provifion ; or manufacturers, who
difpofe of their goods for prefent fubiiftence ; the
merchants, who'are refpeftively upon the oppofite
fide of the contract to thefe, profit of their competi¬
tion ; and thofe who are refpe£live)y upon the fame
fide with them, itand by with patience until they have
finiihed their bufinefs. Then matters come to be car¬
ried on between merchant and merchant, and then
profits may rife and fall, in the proportion of quantity
to demand ; that is to fay, if the provifion is lefs than
the demand, the competition among the demanders,
or the rife of the price, will be in the compound pro¬
portion of the falling Ihort of the commodity, and of
the profpedl of felling again with profit. It is this
combination which regulates the competition, and
keeps it within bounds. It can affedt but the profits
upon the tranfadlion : the intrinfio value of the com¬
modity Hands immoveable : nothing is ever fold be¬
low the real value ; nothing is ever bought for more
than it may probably bring. We mean in general.
Whereas, fo ibon as confumers and needy manufac¬
turers mingle in the operation, all proportion is loft.
The competition between them is too ftrong for the
merchants; the balance vibrates by jerks. In fuch
markets merchants feldom appear : the principal ob¬
jects there, are the fruits and produdtions of the earth,
and articles of the firft neceflity for life, not manufac¬
tures ftriCtly fo called. A poor fellow often fells to
purchafe bread to eat; not to pay what he did eat
while he was employed in the work he difpofes of.
The eonfumer often meafures the value of what he is
about to purchafe, by the weight of his purfe, and his
defire to confume.
§ vi. Of what is called Expence, Profit, and Lofs.
The term expence, when Amply exprefled, without
any particular relation, is always underftood to be re¬
lative to money. This kind is diftinguifhed under the
the three heads of private, public, and national.
i. Private expence is, what a private perfon, or pri¬
vate fociety, lays out, either to provide articles of con-
fumption, or fomething more permanent, which may
be conducive to their eafe, convenience, or advantage.
Thus we fay, a large domeflic expence, relative to one
who fpends a great income. We fay, a merchant has
been at great expence for magazines, for living, for
clerks, &c. but never that he has been at any in buy-
ing goods. In the fame way a manufacturer may ex¬
pend for building, machines, horfes, and carriages, but
never for the matter he manufactures. When a thing
is bought, in order to be fold again, the fum employ¬
ed is called money advanced; when it is bought not
to be fold, it may be laid to be expended.
2. Public expence is, the employment of that money,
which has been contributed by individuals, tor the cur¬
rent fervice of the ftate. The contribution, or ga¬
thering it together, reprefents the efteCts of many ar¬
ticles of private expence ; the laying it out when col¬
lected, is public expence.
3. National expence, is what is expended out of the
country; this is what diminifixes national wealth. The
principal diftinCtion to be here attended to, is between
public expence, or the laying out of public money, and
national expence, which is the alienating the nation’s
wealth in favour of ftrangers. Thus the great eft pu¬
blic expence imaginable, may be no national expence;
becaufe the money may remain at home. On the o-
ther hand, the fmalleft public, or even private expence,
may be a national expence ; becaufe the money may
go abroad.
Profit and lofs, is divided into pofitive, relative, and
compound. Pojitive profit implies no lofs to any body;
it refults from an augmentation of labour, induftry, or
ingenuity, and has the efi’eCt of fwelling or augment¬
ing the public good.
Pofitive lofs, implies no profit to any body ; it is
what refults from the ceflation of the lormer, or of,
the effeCIs refulting from it, and may be faid to dimi-
nifit the public good.
Relative profit, is what implies a loft to fome body ;
it marks a vibration of the balance of wealth between
parties, but implies no-addition to the general ftock.
Relative lofs, is what, on the contrary, implies a
profit to fome body ; it alfo marks a vibration of the
balance, but takes nothing from the general ftock.
The compound is eafily underftood ; it is that fpe-
cies of profit and loft which is partly relative, and
partly politive.
§ Yii. The general confeqsiences refulting to a trading
Nation, upon the opening of an, aplive foreign Com~
vierce.
A nation which remains paffive in her commerce,
is at the mercy of thofe who are aCtive, and muft be
greatly favoured, indeed, by natural advantages, or
by a conrtant flux of gold and filver from her mines,
to be able to fupport a correfpondence, not entirely
hurtful to the augmentation of her wealth.
When we look upon the wide field which here o-
pens to our view, we are perplexed with too,great a
variety of objeifts. In one part, we fee a decent and
comely beginning of induftry ; wealth flowing gently
in, to recompence ingenuity ; numbers both augment¬
ing, and every one becoming daily more ufeful to an¬
other ; agriculture proportionally extending itfelf; no
violent revolutions; no exorbitant profits; no infb-
lence among the rich ; no exceffive mifery among the
poor ; multitudes employed in producing ; great osco-
nomy upon confumption ; and all the inftruments of
luxury, daily produced by the hands of the diligent,
going out of the country for the fervice of ftrangers ;
not remaining at home for the gratification of fenfua-
lity. At laft the augmentations come infenfibly to a
flop. Then thefe rivers of wealth, which were in
brilk circulation through the whole world, and which
returned
2*35
COMM
returned to this trading nation as blood returns to the
heart, only to be thrown out again by new pulfations,
begin to "be obftrudled in their courfe ; and flowing
abroad more fldwly than before, come to form Hag-
nations at home. Thef'e, impatient of reftraint, loon
burft out into domeliic circulation. Upon this cities
fwell in magnificence of buildings; the face of the
country is adorned with palaces, and becomes covered
with groves ; luxury fltines triumphant in every part;
- inequality becomes more linking to the eye ; and
want and mifery appear more deformed, from the
contrail : even fortune grows more whimfical in her
inconllancy ; the beggar of the other day, now rides
in his coach ; and he who was born in a bed of Hate,
is leen to die in a goal, or in an alms-houfe. Such
are the effefts of great domeliic circulation.
The Hate (man looks about with amazement ; he
who was wont to confider himfelf as the firft man in
the fociety in every refpecl, perceives himfelf, per¬
haps, eclipfed by the lultre of private wealth, which
avoids his grafp when he attempts to feize it. This
makes his government more complex and more diffi¬
cult to be carried on; he mull now avail himfelf of
art and addrefs, as well as of power and force. By
the help of cajoling and intrigues, he gets a little into
debt ; this lays a foundation for public credit, which,
growing by degrees, and in its progrefs alfumingmany
new forms, becomes, from the mod tender begin¬
nings, a moft formidable mouder, driking terror into
thofe who cherilhed it in its infancy. Upon this, as
upon a triumphant war-horfe, the datefman gets a-
dride ; he then appears formidable a-new ; his head
turns giddy ; he is choaked with the dud he has rai-
fed; and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his ut¬
ter adonilhment and furprife, he finds a drong mo¬
nied intered, of his own creating, which, indead of
fwallowing him up as he apprehended, flies to his
fupport. Through this he gets the better of all oppo-
.fition, he edablilhes taxes, multiplies them, mortgages
his fund of fubfidence ; either becomes a bankrupt,
and rjfes again from his alhes; or if he be lefs auda¬
cious, he Hands trembling and tottering for a while on
the brink of the political precipice. From one or the
other of thefe perilous lituations, he begins to difcover
an endlefs path, which, after a multitude of windings,
dill returns into itfelf, and continues an equal, courfe
through this vad labyrinth.
It is now full time ro leave off rhapfody, and re¬
turn to reafoning and cool enquiry, concerning the
more immediate and more general effedts and revolu¬
tions produced by the opening of a foreign trade in a
nation of indudry.
The fird and mod fenfible alteration will be an in-
creafe of demand for manufadlurers, becaufe by fup-
plying the wants of drangers, the number of confir¬
mers will now be conliderably augmented. What a-
gain will follow upon this, mud depend upon circum-
dances.
If this revolution in the date of demand fhould
prove too violent, the confequence of it will be to
raife demand ; if it ihould prove gradual, it will in-
creafe ir. This didinclion is well naderfiood, and the
confequence appears jud : for, if the fupply do not
increafe in proportion to the demand,, a competition
E R C E.
will enfue among the demanders; which is the com¬
mon effect of fuch fudden revolutions. If, on the o-
ther hand, a gentle encreafe of demand Ihould be ac¬
companied with a proportional fupply, the whole in-
dudrious fociety will grow in vigour, and in whole-
fome dature, without being fenfible of any great
advantage or inconveniency ; the change of their cir-
cumdances will even be imperceptible.
The immediate effedts of tire violent revolution
will, in this example, be flattering to fome, and difa-
greeable to others. Wealth will be found daily to
augment, from the riling of prices, in many branches
of indudry. This will encourage the irduiirious
ciaffes, and the idle confirmers at home will complain.
We have already dwelt abundantly long upon the ef¬
fect rebuking from this to the lower clafl’es of the
jreople, in providing them with a certain means of
fubfidence. Let us now examine in what refpedt e-
ven the higher claffes will be made likewife to feel
the good effedts of this general change, although at
fird they may fufl’er a temporary inconveniency from
it.
Farmers, as has been oblerved, will have a great¬
er difficulty in finding fervants, who, indead of la¬
bouring the ground, will chufe to turn themfelves to
manufactures. This we have con.fickred in the light
of purging the lands of fuperfluous mouths ; but every
confequence in this great chain of polities draws other
confequences after it, and as they follow one another,
things put on different faces, which affedt clades dif¬
ferently. The purging of the land is but one of the
fird ; here follows another.
The defertion of the lands employed in a trifling
agriculture will at fird, no doubt, embarrafs the far¬
mers; but in a little time every thing becomes balan¬
ced in a trading nation, becaufe here every indufiri-
ous man mud advance in profperity, in fpite of all ge¬
neral combinations of circumdances.
In the cafe before us, the relative profits upon farm¬
ing mud loon become greater than formerly, becaufe
of this additional expence which mud affedl the whole
tiafs of farmers; Gonfequently,this additional expCnce,
inflead of turning out to be a lofs to either landlord or
farmer, will, after fome little time, turn out to the
advantage of both: becaufe the produce of the ground,
being indifpenfably neceffary to every body, mud in
every article increafe in its value. Thus in a fliort
time accounts will be nearly balanced on all hands t
that is to fay, the fame proportion of wealth will,
cateris paribus, continue the fame among the induf-
trious. We fay among the indudrious; for thofe,
who are either idle, or even negligent, will be great
lofers.
A proprietor of land, inattentive to the caufesof his
farmer’s additional expence, may very imprudently
furfer his rents to fall, indead of affiding him on a pro¬
per occafion, in order to make them afterwards rile
the higher.
Thofe who live upon a determined income in mo¬
ney, and who are nowife employed in traffic, nor in
any fcheme of indudry, will, by the augmentation
of prices, be found, in worfe circumdantes than be¬
fore.
In a trading nation every man mud turn his talents
to
2136
COMM
•to account, or he will undoubtedly be left behind in
this univerfal emulation, in which the molt indulh ious,
the molt ingenious, and the molt frugal will conltantly
carry off the prize.
This confuleration ought to be a fpur to every
body. The richell men in a trading nation have no
fecurity againll poverty; we mean proportional po¬
verty ; for though they diminilh nothing of their in¬
come, yet, by not increafinglt in proportion to others,
they loi'e their rank in wealth, and from the firlt clafs
in which they flood they will Hide infenfibly down to
a lower.
There is one confequence of an additional benefi¬
cial trade, which raifes demand and increafes,wealth;
but if we fuppofe no proportional augmentation of
fupply, it will prove at belt but an airy dream which
hits for a moment, and when the gilded fcene is
palPed away,numberlefs? are the inconveniencies which
are feen to follow.
We lhall now point out the natural confequences of
this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign na¬
tions, when the ftatefman remains inattentive to in-
creafe the fupply both of food and manufactures, in
proportion to the augmentation of mouths, and of the
demand for the produce of induflry.
In fuch a fituation profits will daily fwell, and every
fcheme for reducing them within the bounds of mo¬
deration, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpo¬
pular meafure : be it fo; but let us examine the con¬
fequences.
We have faid, that the rife of demand for manu¬
factures naturally increafes the value of work: now
we tnuft add, that under fuch circumftances, the aug¬
mentation of riches, in a country, either not capable
of improvement as to the foil, or where precautions
have not been taken for facilitating a multiplica¬
tion of inhabitants, by the importation of fublift-
ence, will be productive of the molt calamitous confe¬
quences.
On one fide, this wealth will effectually dimi¬
nilh the mafs of the food before produced ; and on
the other, will increafe the number of ufelefs confu-
mers. The firft of thefe circumflances will raife the
demand for food ; and the lecond will diminilh the
number of ufeful free hands, and confequently raife the
price of manufactures: here are Ihortly the outlines
of this progrefs.
The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more
delicate they become in their manner of living ; if
they fed on bread formerly, they will now feed on
meat; if they fed on meat, they will now feed on
fowl. The lame ground which feeds a hundred with
bread, and a proportional quantity of animal food,
will not maintain an equal number of delicate livers.
Food mull: tlien become more fcarce ; demand for it
rifes; the rich are always the flrongefl in the mar¬
ket ; they confume tlie food, and the poor are forced
to ftarve. Here the wide door to modern diftrefs
opens ; to wit, a hurtful competition for fubliflence.
Farther, when a people become rich, they think lefs
of oeconomy ; a number of ufelefs fervants are hired,
to become an^additional dead weight on confumption;
and when their ftarving countrymen cannot fupply the
extravagance of the rich fo cheaply as other nations,
E R C E.
they either import inflruments of foreign luxury, or
feek to enjoy them out of their own country, and
thereby make rertitution of their gains.
Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things
come to this pal’s, additional fubfiftence be not provi¬
ded by one method or other, the number of inhabi¬
tants muft diminilh; although riches may daily in¬
creafe by a balance of additional matter, fuppofed to
be brought into the country in confequence of the hi¬
therto beneficial foreign trade ? This is not all. We
fay farther, that the beneficial trade will kill for a
time only. For the infallible confequence of the rife
of prices at home will be, that thofe nations which at
fir 11 confumed your manufactures, perceiving the gra¬
dual increafe of their price, will begin to work for
themfelves ; or finding out your rivals who can fup>-
ply them cheaper, will open their doors to them.
Thefe again, perceiving the great advantages gained
by your traders, will begin to fupply the market; and
fince every thing mull be cheaper in countries where
we do not fuppofe the concurrence of all the circum¬
ftances mentioned above, thefe nations will fupplant
you, and be enriched in their turn.
Here comes a new revolution. Trade is come to
a flop: what then becomes of all the hands which
were formerly employed in fupplying the foreign de¬
mands ?
Were revolutions fo fudden as we are obliged to
reprefent them, all would go to wreck ; in proportion
as they happen by quicker or flower degrees, the in¬
conveniencies are greater or fmaller.
Prices, we have faid, are made to rife by compe¬
tition. If the competition of the ftfangers was what
raifed them, the diftrefs upon the ihanufatfturers will
be in proportion to the fuddenefs of their deferting
the market. If thq competition was divided between
the ftrangers and the home-confumers, the inconve¬
niencies which enfue will be lefs; becaufe the defer-
tion of the ftrangers will be in feme meafure made up
by an increafe of home-confumption which will follow
upon the fall of prices. And if, in the third cafe, the
natives have been fo imprudent, as not only to fup-
port a competition with the ftrangers, and thereby
difguft them from coming any more to market, but
even to continue the competition between them¬
felves, the whole lofs fuftained by the revolution will
be national. Wealth will ceafe to augment; but the
inconveniencies, in place of being felt by the manu¬
facturers, will only affeCt the flare; 'thofe will conti¬
nue in affluence, extolling the generofity of their
countrymen, and defpifing the poverty of the ftran¬
gers who had enriched them.
Domeftic luxury will here prove an expedient for
preferving from ruin the induftrious part of a people,
who in fnbfifting themfelves had enriched their coun¬
try. No change will follow in their condition ; they
will go on with a painful afliduity to labour, and if
the confequences of it become now hurtful to one part
of the ftate, they muft at leaft be allowed to be ef-
fentially neceffary for the fupport of the other.
But that luxury is no neceflary concomitant of fo¬
reign trade, in a nation where the true principles of
it are underftood, ^ill appear very plain, from a con-
traft we are now going to point out, in the example
of
2137
E 11 C E.
conftantly proportional to the demand that may be
made for it. This is a precaution indifpenfably ne-
celfary for preventing hurtful competition. This is
the particular care of the .Dutch: fo long as it can be
effectual, their ftate can fear no decline; but when¬
ever they come to be diilrefled in the markets, upon
which they depend for fubfiltence, they will link into
ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality, cheap and par-
fimonious living, that the navigation of this indultri-
ous people is fupported. Conltant employment, and
an accumulation of almofl: imperceptable gains, fills
their coffers with wealth, in fpite of the large outgo¬
ings to which their own proper nourilhment yearly
forces them. The large profits upon induflry in other
countries, which are no proof of generofity, but a fa¬
tal effect of a fcanty fubfiftence, is far from dazzling
their eyes. They feldom are found in the lilf of
competitors at any foreign port; if they have their
cargo to difpofe of, they wait with pleafure in their
own veflels, confumirig their own provilions, and at
laft accept of what others have left. It may be faid,
that many other circumftances concur in favour of the
Dutch, befides the article of fubfiflence. Without dif-
puting this matter, it may be obferved, that if a com¬
putation be made of the hands employed in providing
fubfiftence, and of thofe who are feverally taken up
in fupplying every other want, their numbers will be
found nearly to balance one another in the moft luxu¬
rious countries. From this we may conclude, that
the article of food, among the lower claffes, mult bear
a very high proportion to all the other articles of their
confumption; and therefore a diminution upon the
price of fubfiftence, mult be of infinite confequence to
manufacturers, who are obliged to buy it. From this
confideration, let us judge of the coniequence of fuch
augmentations upon the price of grain as are familiar
to us; 30 or 40 per cent, feems nothing. Now this
augmentation operates upon two-thirds, at leaft, of the
whole expence of a labouring man: let any one who
lives in tolerable affluence make the application of this
to himfelf, and examine how he would manage his
affairs if, by accidents of rains or winds, his expences
were to rife 30 per cent, without a poffibility of re-
ftraining them ; for this is unfortunately the cafe with
all the Tower claffes. From whence it may be con¬
cluded, that the keeping food’cheap, and ftili more the
preferring it at all times at an equal ftandard, is the
fountain of the wealth of Holland ; and that any hurt¬
ful competition in this article muft beget a diforder
which will affect the Whole of the manufacturers of a
ftate.
COMM
<ff a modern ftate, renowned for its commerce and
■frugality. The country is Holland.
A fet of iuduftrious and frugal people were affem-
bled in a country by nature fubjeCt to many inconve-
niencies, the moving of whicli neceffarily employed
abundance of hands. Their fituation upon the conti¬
nent, the power of their former mailers, and the
ambition of their neighbours, obliged them to keep
great bodies of troops. Thefe two articles added to
the numbers of the community, without either enrich¬
ing the ftate by their labour exported, or producing
food for themfelvesor countrymen.
The fcheme of a commonwealth was calculated to
draw together the induftrious; but it has been itill
more ufeful in fubfifting them : the republican form
of government being there greatly fubdivided, veils
authority fufficient in every part of it, to make fui-
table provifion for their own fubfiftence; and the
tie which unites them, regards only matters of public
concern. Had the whole been governed by one fo-
vereign, or by one council, this important matter ne¬
ver could have been effeCiuated.
It would be impoffible for the moft able minifter
that ever lived, to provide nourilhment for a country
lb extended as France, or even as England, fuppof-
ing thefe as fully peopled as Holland is: even although
it Ihould be admitted that a fufficient quantity of food
might be found in other countries for their fubliftence.
The enterprife would be too great, abufes would mul¬
tiply; the confequence would be, that the inhabitants
would die for want. But in Holland the cafe is dif¬
ferent, every little town takes care of its own inha¬
bitants ; and this care being the obje<5t of application
and profit to fo many perfons, is accomplilhed with
fuccefs.
When once it is laid down as a maxim in a coun¬
try, that food muft of necelfity be got from abroad in
order to feed the inhabitants at home, the corn-trade
becomes confiderable, and at the fame time certain, re¬
gular, and permanent. This was the cafe in Holland:
as the inhabitants were induftrious, the neceffary con¬
fequence has been, a very extraordinary multiplica¬
tion ; and at the fame time fuch an abundance of grain,
that, inftead of being in want themfelves, they often
fupply their neighbours. There are many examples
of England’s being fupplied with grain from thence,
and, which is ftili more extraordinary, from the re¬
exportation of the very produce of its own fruitful
foil.
It is therefore evident, that the only way to fup-
port induftry, is to provide a fupply of fubfiftence.
COM
COMMERCY, a handfome town of France in the
duchy of Bar, with the title of a principality, and a
magnificent caftle. It is feated on the river Menfe,
in E. Long. 5. 24. N. Lat. 48. 20.
COMMINATION, an office in the liturgy of the
church of England, appointed to be read on Aih-
Wednefday, or the firft day of Lent. It is fubftitu-
ted in the room of that godly difeipline in the primi¬
tive church, by which, (as the introduction to the of¬
fice expreffes it), “ fuch perfons, as flood convidled
Vol. III.
COM
of notorious fins, were put to open penance, and pu-
niihed in this world, that their fouls might be faved in
the day of the Lord; and that others, admoniflied by
their example, might be the more afraid to offend.”
This difeipline, in after ages, degenerated, in the
church of Rome, into a formal confeffion of fins upon
Aih-Wednefday, and the empty ceremony of fprink-
ling a flies upon the heads of the people. Our refor¬
mers wifely rejefled this ceremony, as mere fliadow
and Alow; and fubftituted this office in its room, which
Commina-
tory
II
C«tnmif*
COM [ 2138 ] COM
Is sl denunciation of Cod’s anger and judgment againfl
finners; that the people, being apprized of God’s
wrath and indignation againft iin, may not, through
want of difeipline in the church, be encouraged to
follow and purfue them ; but rather be moved to
fupply that difeipline to themfelves, and fo to a-
void being judged and condemned at the tribunal of
God.
COMMINATORY, an appellation given to what¬
ever threatens punilhment, or fome penalty. Thus,
in France, when an exile is enjoined not to return un¬
der pain of death, it is deemed a covminatory penal¬
ty ; fince if he do return, it is not ftridtly executed ;
but a fecond injunction is laid on him, which is more
than comminatory, and, from the day of the date
thereof, imports death without remedy.
COMMINGES, a province of France, 45 miles in
length, and 15 in breadth; bounded on the north by
Gafcony, on the fouth by Catalonia, on the eaft by
Coufferans, and on the weft by Bigorra. Its princi¬
pal trade confifts in cattle, mules and corn. St Ber¬
trand is the capital town.
COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather
grinding, a body to very fmall particles.
COMM1RE (John), a celebrated Latin poet, born
at AmbOile in 1625, entered into the fociety of the
Jefuits, and taught polite literature and divinity.
He died at Paris, in 1702. We have a volume of
his Latin poems, and a collection of his pofthumous
works. His odes and fables are more particularly ad¬
mired.
COMMISSARY, in the ecclefiaftical law, an offi¬
cer of the biffiop, whoexercifes fpiritual jurifdiClion in
places of a diocefe fo far from the Epifcopal fee, that
the chancellor cannot call the people to the bifliop’s
principal confiftory court, without giving them too
much inconveniency.
CoMMissARY-Co«r/, in Scots law, a court original¬
ly conftituted by the bifltops for excuting in their
name an ufurped jurifdiCtion ; and was anciently cal¬
led the bifliop's-ccurt, curia Chriflianitatis, or confif
torial court. This court was modelled by queen Ma¬
ry at' the Reformation, and continues till this day.
See Law, Part III. N°clix. 22—26.
Commissary, in a military fenfe, is of three forts.
Commissary -General of the Mufters, an officer ap¬
pointed to mufter the army, as often as the general
thinks proper, in order to know the ftrength of each
regiment and company, to receive and infpeCt the
mufter-rolls, and to keep an exaCI ftate of the ftrength
of the army.
Commissar y-G<?»«W of the Stores, an officer in the
artillery, who has the charge of all the ftores, for which
he is accountable to the office of ordnance.
CoMMissARY-CtfK^rrf/ of Provifions, an officer who
has the charge of furnifhing the army with provifions.
COMMISSION, in common law, the warrant or
letters patent, which all perfons exercifing jurifdi&ion
have to empower them to hear or determine any
caufe or fuit, as the commiffion of the judges, ire.
Commission of Bankruptcy, is the commiffion that
iflues from the lord chancellor, on a perfon’s becom¬
ing a bankrupt within any of the ftatutes, directed to
certain commiffioners appointed to examine info it,
and to fecure the bankrupt’s lands and effect-s for the Commif- '
fatisfadlion of his creditors. See the article Bank- f|0n'
RUPT.
The proceedings on a commiffion of bankrupt
may be divided, 1. Into thofe which affedt the bank¬
rupt himfelf. 2. Into thofe which affect his pro¬
perty.
1. As to thofe of the former kind, there muft in Blackjione’s
the firft place be a petition to the lord chancellor by Comment.
one creditor to the amount of L. 100, or by two to
the amount of L. 150, or by three or more to the
amount of L. 200 ; upon which he grants a commijfion to
fuch difereet perfons as to him ffiall feem good, who are
then ftyled commiffioners of bankrupt. The petition¬
ers, to prevent malicious applications, muft be bound in
a fecurity of L. 200, to make the party amends, in
cafe they do not prove him a bankrupt. And if, on
the other hand, they receive any money or eff eels from
the bankrupt, as a recompenfe for filing out the com¬
miffion, lb as to receive more than their rateable divi¬
dends of the bankrupt’s eftate, they forfeit not only
what they fliall have fo received, but their whole debt.
When the commiffion is awarded and ilfued, the com¬
miffioners are to meet at their own expence, and to
take an oath for the due execution of their commif¬
fion, and to be allowed a fum not exceeding 20s. per
diem each, at every fitting. And no commiffion of
bankruptcy fhall abate or be void on any demife of the
crown.
When the commiffioners have received' their com¬
miffion, they are firft to receive proof of the perfon’s
being a trader, and having committed fome abt of
bankruptcy ; and then to declare him bankrupt if pro¬
ved fa; and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and
at the fame time to appoint three meetings. At one
of thefe meetings an eleclion muft be made of af-
fignees, or perfons to whom the bankrupt’s eftate ffiall
be affigned, and in whom it ffiall be veiled for the be¬
nefit of the creditors ; which affignees are chofen by
the major part, in value, of the creditors who ffiall
then have proved their debts ; but may be originally
appointed by the commiffioners, and afterwards ap¬
proved or rejebled by the creditors : but no creditor
ffiall be admitted to vote in the choice of affignees,
whofe debt, on the balance of accounts, does not
amount to L. 10. And at the third meeting at far-
theft, which muft be on the 42* day after the adver-
tifement in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice al-
fo perfonally ferved upon him, or left at his ufual
'place of abode, muft furrender himfelf perfonally to
the commiffioners, and muft thenceforth in allrefpetfts
conform to the directions of the ftatutes of bankrupt¬
cy ; or, in default thereof, lhall be guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy, and fliall fuffer death, and
his goods and eftate ffiall be divided among his credi¬
tors.
In cafe the bankrupt abfeonds, or is likely to run
away between the time of the commiffion iffiied, and
the laft day of furrender, he may, by warrant from
any judge or juftice of the peace, be apprehended and
committed to the county goal, in order to be forth¬
coming to the commiffioners, who are alfo empower¬
ed immediately to grant a warrant for feizing his
goods and papers.
When
Commit
fion.
COM [ 2139 ] COM
When the bankrupt appears, the commiflioners are
to examine him touching all matters relating to his
trade and effects. They may alfo fummon before them,
and examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other per-
fon whatfoever, as to all matters relating to the bank¬
rupt's affairs: And in cafe any of them fhall refute to
anfwer, or fhall not anfwer fully, to any lawful quef-
tion, or fhall refufe to fubfcribe fuch their examina¬
tion, the commiflioners may commit them to prifon
without bail, till they make and fign a full anfwer ;
the commiflioners fpecifying in their warrant of
commitment the queftion fo refufed to be anfwered.
And any gaoler, permitting fuch perfon to efcape
or go out of prifon, fhall forfeit L. 500 to the credi¬
tors.
The bankrupt upon this examination, is bound, up¬
on pain of death, to make a full difcovery of all his
eftate and effects as well in expectancy as pofleflion,
and how he has difpofed of the fame; together with
all books and writings relating thereto : and is to de¬
liver up all in his power to the commilfioner; (ex¬
cept the neceflary apparel of himfelf, his wife, and
his children); or, in cafe he conceals or embezzles
any effeCts to the amount of L. 20, or with-holds any
books or writings, with intent to defraud his credi¬
tors, he fhall be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy.
After the time allowed the bankrupt for fuch difco-
yery is expired, any other perfon voluntarily difco-
vering any part of his eftate before unknown to the
aflignees, fhall be entitled to five pc-r cent, out of the
effeCls fo difcovered, and fuch farther reward as the
aflignees and commiflioners fliall think proper. And
any truftee wilfully concealing the eftate of any bank¬
rupt, after the expiration of 42 days, fhall forfeit
L. too, and double the value of the eftate concealed,
to the creditors.
Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors;
and the law feems to be pretty rigid and fevere againft
the bankrupt; but, in cafe he proves honeft, it makes
him full amends for all this rigour and feverity. For,
if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous difcovery,
hath conformed to the direClions of the law, and hath
aCled in all points to the fatisfaClion of his creditors;
and if they, or four parts in five of them in number
and value, (but none of them creditors for lefs than
L. 20), will lign a certificate to that purport; the
commiflioners are then to authenticate fuch certificate
under their hands and feals, and to tranfmit it to the
lord chancellor : and he, or two judges whom he fhall
appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that fuch cer¬
tificate was obtained without fraud, may allow the
fame ; or difallow it, upon caufe fhewn by any of the
creditors of the bankrupt.
If no caufe be fhewn to the contrary, the certifi¬
cate is allowed of courfe; and then the bankrupt is
entitled to a decent and reafonable allowance out of
his effecls, for his future fupport and maintenance,
and to put him in a way of honeft induftry. This al¬
lowance is alfo in proportion to his former good be¬
haviour, in the early difcovery of the decline of his
affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a larger di¬
vidend. For if his effects will not pay one half of his
debts, or 1 os. in the pound,"he is left to the diferetion
of the commiffioners and affignees, to have a compe¬
tent fum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent.; but
if they pay 10s. in the pound, he is to be allowed
5 per cent.; if 12 s. and 6d. then 7} per cent.; and
if ijs. in the pound, then the bankrupt fhall be allow¬
ed to per cent.; provided that fuch allowance do not
in the firft cafe exceed L. 200, in the fecond L. 250,
and in the third L. 300.
Befides this allowance he has alfo an indemnity
granted him, of being free and difeharged forever
from all debts owing by him at the time he became a
bankrupt; even though judgment (hall have been ob¬
tained againft him, and he lies in prifon upon execution
for fuch debts; and, for that among other purpofes,
all proceedings on commiffion of bankrupt, are on pe¬
tition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar
againft actions to be commenced upon this account:
though, in general, the production of the certificate
properly allowed (hall be fufficient evidence of all pre¬
vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a
clear mau again ; and, by the afliftance of his allow¬
ance and his own induftry, may become a ufeful mem¬
ber of the commonwealth : which is the rather to be
expeCted, as he cannot be entitled to thefe benefits,
but by the teftimony of his creditors themfelves of
his honeft and ingenuous difpofition ; and unlefs his
failures have been owing to misfortunes, rather than
to mifconduCt and extravagance.
2. As to the proceedings which afteCl the bank¬
rupt’s property.
By virtue of the ftatutes before-mentioned, all the
perfonal eftate and effedts of the bankrupt, are con-
fidered as vefted, by the aCt of bankruptcy, in the
future aflignees of his commiflioners, whether they be
goods in aCtual pofleflion, or debts, contracts, and o-
ther chofes in aCtion ; and the commiflioners by their
warrant may caufe any houfe or tenement of the
bankrupt to be broke open, in order to enter upon
and feize the fame. And when the aflignees are cho-
fen or approved by the creditors, the commiflioners
are to aflign every thing over to them ; and the
property of every part of the eftate is thereby as
fully vefted in them as it was in the bankrupt him¬
felf, and they have the fame remedies to recover
it.
The property vefted in the aflignees is the whole
that the bankrupt had in himfelf, at the time he com¬
mitted the firft aCt of bankruptcy, or that has been
vefted in him fince, before his debts are fatisfied or
agreed for. Therefore it is ufually faid, that once a
bankrupt, and always a bankrupt: by which is meant,
that a plain direCt aCt of bankruptcy once committed,
cannot be purged, or explained away,by any fubfequent
conduCI, as a dubious equivocal atft may be; but that, if
a commiflion is afterwards awarded, the commiflion
and the property of the aflignees fliall have a relation,
or reference, back to the firft and original aCi of
bankruptcy. Infomuch that all tranfaCiions of the
bankrupt are from that time abfolutely null and void,
either with regard to the alienation of his property, or
the receipt of his debts from fuch as are privy to his
bankruptcy ; for they are no longer his property, or
his debts, but thofe of the future aflignees. And if an
execution.be (bed out, but not ferved and executed
12 P 2 on
Commif-
COM [ 2140 ] COM
Comm If- on the bankrupt’s effects till after the aft of bank-
fion. ruptcy, it is void, as againft the affignees. But the
king is not bound by this fiftitious relation, nor is
within the ftatutes of bankrupts ; for if, after the aft
of bankruptcy committed, and before the aflignment
of his effefts, an extent iffiies for the debt of the
crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France
this doftrine of relation is carried to a very great
length ; for there, every aft of a merchant, for 10
days precedent to the aft of bankruptcy, is prefumed
to be fraudulent, and is therefore void. But with us
the law Hands upon a more reafonable footing : for
as thefe afts of bankruptcy may fometimes be fecret
to all but a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade
to carry this notion to its utmoit length, it is pro¬
vided by flat. 19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money
paid by a bankrupt to a bona fide, or real, creditor,
in a courfe of trade, even after an aft of bank¬
ruptcy done, ftiall be liable to be refunded. Nor
by Hat. 1 Ja'c. I. c. 15. lhall any debtor of a bank¬
rupt that pays him his debt without knowing of his
bankruptcy, be liable to account for it again. The
intention of this relative power being only to reach
fraudulent tranfaftions, and not to diitrefs the fair
trader.
The affignees may purfue any legal method of re¬
covering this property fo veHed in them, by their own
authority ; but cannot commence a fuit in equity, nor
compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer
any matters to arbitration without the confent of the
creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a
meeting to be held in purfuance of notice in the ga¬
zette.
When they have got in all the effefts they can rea-
fonably hope for, and reduced them to ready money,
the affignees muH, within 12 months after the com-
miffion iffued, give 21 days notice to the creditors of
a meeting for a dividend or diHribution ; at which
time they mnfl produce their accounts, and verify
them upon oath, if required. And then the commif-
fioners lhall direft a dividend to be made, at fo much
in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved,
or lhall then prove, their debts. This dividend muH
be made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all the
creditors, according to the quantity of their debts; no
regard being had to the quality of them. Mort¬
gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real fecu-
rity in his own hands, are entirely fafe ; for the com-
miffion of bankrupt reaches only the equity of re¬
demption. So are alfo perfonal debts, where the cre¬
ditor has a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn,
for the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or
goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the
Hat. 8 An. c. 14. (which direfts, that upon all execu¬
tions of goods being on any premiffes demifed to a te¬
nant, one year’s rent and no more lhall, if due, be
paid to the landlord) it hath alfo been held, that under
a commiffion of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a
flatute execution, the landlord lhall be allowed his ar¬
rears of rent to the fame amount, in preference to o-
ther creditors, even though he hath neglefted to dif-
trein while the goods remained on the premiffes :
which he is otherwife entitled to do for his entire
rent be the quantum what it may. But otherwife
judgments and recognizances, (both which are debts ComnuP ’
of record, and therefore at other times have a pri- f‘on*
ority), and alfo bonds and obligations by deed or fpe-
cial inflrument, (which are called debts by fpecialty,
and are ufually the next in order) thefe are all put
on a level with debts by mere fjmple contraft, and all
paid pari pajftt. Nay, fo far is this matter carried,
that, by the exprefs provifion of the Hatutes, debts
not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds
or notes of hand, payable at a future day, lhall be
paid equally with the. refl, allowing a dilcount or
drawback in proportion. And infurances, and obli¬
gations upon bottomry or refpondentia, bona fide,
made by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the
commiffion is awarded, lhall be looked upon in the
fame light as debts contrafted before any aft of bank¬
ruptcy.
Within 18 months after the commiffion ilfued, a
fecond and final dividend lhall be made, unlefs all the
effefts were exhaulted by the firff. And if any Turpins
remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it
lhall be reltored to the bankrupt. This is a cafe
which fometimes happens to men in trade, who invo¬
luntarily, or at lealt unwarily, commit afts of bank¬
ruptcy, by abfconding and the like, while their effefts
are more than fufficient to pay their creditors. And
if any fufpicious or malevolent creditor will take the
advantage of fuch afts, and fue out a commiffion, the
bankrupt has no remedy, but mull quietly fubmit to
the effefts of his own imprudence : except that, upon
fatisfaftion made to all the creditors, the commiffion
may be fuperfeded. This cafe may alfo happen when
a knave is defirous of defrauding his creditors, and is
compelled, by a commiffion, to do them that juffice
which otherwife he wanted to evade. And there¬
fore, though the ufual rule is, that all intereff on debts
carrying interefl lhall ceafe from the time of iffiting
the commiffion, yet in cafe of a furplus left after pay¬
ment of every debt, fuch interell lhall again revive,
and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his reprefenta-
tives.
Commission of Lunacy, iffues out of the court of
chancery, whether a perfon reprefented to be a luna¬
tic, be fo or not. See Lunacy.
CoMMissiON-C^rrrt. See Officers.
Commission, in commerce. See Factorage.
COMMISSIONER, a perfon authorifed by com¬
miffion, letters patent, or other lawful warrant, to
examine any matters, or execute any lawful commif¬
fion.
Commissioner in the General dfembly of the
church of Scotland. See General Jffetnbly.
Commissioners of the Cuftotns. See Customs.
Commissioners of Excife. See Excise.
Commissioners of the Navy. See Navy.
Loh/jCommissioners of theTreafury. SeeTREA-
sury and Exchequer.
COMMISSURE, Com^iissura, a term ufed by fome
authors, for the fmall meatus’s or interHices of bodies j
or the little clefts between the particles; efpecially
when thofe particles are broadilh and flat, and lie con¬
tiguous to one another, like thin plates or lamellae.
See Pore. The word literally fignifies a joining, or
connefting of one thing to another.
Commissure
COM [ 2141 ] COM
Commif* Commissure, in architecture, ire. denotes the
fure joint of two ftones ; or, the application of the furface
Commo' t*ie one to that of the other. See Masonry.
d01.e< Among anatomifts, commijj'ure is fometimes alfo ufed
  — for a future of the cranium, or ikuli. See Suture.
COMMITMENT, in criminal law, is the fending
to prifon a perfon who hath been guilty of any crime.
This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or
the party cannot find bail ; mult be by proper war¬
rant, containing the caufe of the commitment; and
continues till put an end to by the courfe of law,
(fee Trial) ; imprifonment being intended only for
fafe cuftody, and not for punifhment, (fee Arrest¬
ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between
the commitment and trial, a prifoner ought to be uled
with the utmoft humanity ; and neither be loaded
with needlefs fetters or fubjeCled to other hardfhips
than fuch as are abfolutely requifite for the purpol'e of
confinement only : though, what are fo requifite, muft
too often be left to the diferetion of the gaolers ;
who are frequently a mercilefs race of men, and, by
being converfant in feenes of mifery, fteeled againft
any tender fenfation.
Commitment o/- Bankruptcy. See Commission
of Bankruptcy.
COMMITTEE, one or more perfons to whom the
confideration or ordering of a matter is referred,
either by fome court, or by the confent of parties to
whom it belongs.
Committee of Parliammt, a certain number of
members appointed by the houfe, for the examination
of a bill, making a report of an inquiry, procefs of
the houfe, ire. See Parliament.
COMMIXTION, in Scots law, is a method of ac¬
quiring property, by mixing or blending together dif¬
ferent fubftances belonging to different proprietors.
See Law, Part III. N° clxii. 8.
COMMODATE, Commodatum, in the civil jurif-
prudence, the loan, or free conceffion of any thing
moveable or immoveable, for a certain time, on con¬
dition of reftoring again the fame individual after a
certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan :
there is this difference, however, between a loan and
a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not
transfer the property : the thing muft be returned in
effence, and without impairment: fo that things which
confume by ufe, or time, cannot be objedts of a com¬
modate, but of a loan ; in regard they may be return¬
ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law, Part
III. N° clxxiii. 8.
COMMODIANUS (Gazseus), a Chriftian author in
the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin verfe,
intitled Inftrudlions ; the moral of which is excellent,
but the verfe extremely heavy. M. Davies publifhed
a fine edition of it, in 1711, at the end of Minucius
Felix.
COMMODITY, in a general fenfe, denotes all
forts of wares and merchandizes whatfoever, that a
perfon deals or trades in.
Staple Commodities, fuch wares and merchan¬
dizes as are commonly and readily fold in a market,
or exported abroad ; being, for the moft part, the
proper produce, or manufadlure of the country.
COMMODORE, a general officer in the Britifli ma¬
rine, invefted with the command of a detachment of Commo-
fhips of war deftined on any particular enterprife, dore.
during which time he bears the rank of brigadier-ge- ConJmon
neral in the army, and is diifinguilhed from the infe-
rior fhips of bis Iquadron by a broad red pendant ta-   
pering towards the outer-end, and fometimes fork¬
ed. The word is corrupted from the Spanifh, coman-
dador.
Commodore, is alfo a name given to fome felect
fhip in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in
time of war, and carries a light in his top to conduct
the reft, and keep them together.
COMMON, Communis, fomething that belongs to
all alike ; is owned or allowed by all; and not confin¬
ed to this more than that. In which fenfe, common
ftands oppofed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth
is faid to be our common mother ; in the firft, or gold¬
en age, all things were in common, as well as the fun
and elements: the name animal is common to man
and beaft; that of fubftance to body and fpirit.
Common Coa«r/7. See Council.
Common Laiu, that body of law received as rules
in thefe kingdoms, before any ftatute was enafted
in parliament to alter the fame. See Law, Part II.
n° 36.
Common-place Book, is a regifter of what things
occur, worthy to be noted, in the courfe of a man’s
thinking or ftudy, fo difpofed, as that, among a num¬
ber of fubjetfts any one may be eafily found. The ad¬
vantages of making a common-place book are many :
it not only makes a man read with accuracy and at¬
tention, but induces him infenfibly to think for him-
felf, provided he confiders it not fo much as a regifter
of fentiments that flrike him in the courfe of reading,
but as a regifter of his own thoughts upon various fub-
jeefts. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of
no extraordinary genius. Thefe, without the affift-
ance of a common place-book, are generally loft
both to himfelf and others. There are various me¬
thods of arranging common-place books ; that of Mr
Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been con¬
trived.
The firft page of the book you intend to take down
their common-place in, is to ferve as a kind of index
to the whole ; and to contain references to every place
or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of
which index, fo as it may admit of a fufficient copia or
variety, of materials, without any eonfufion, all the fe-
cret of the method confifts.
In order to this, the firft page, as already mention¬
ed, or, for more Voom, the two firft pages that front
each other, are to be divided, by parallel lines, into
25 equal parts; whereof, every 5th line to be diftin-
guilhed, by its colour or other circumftance. Thefe
lines are to be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn
from top to bottom ; and in the feveral fpaces thereof,
the feveral letters of the alphabet, both capital and mi-
nufcule, are to be duly wrote.
The form of the lines and divifions, both horizontal
and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the let¬
ters therein, will be conceived from the following fpe-
cimen; wherein, what is to be done in the book for
all the letters of the alphabet, is here fhewn in the
firft four, A, B, C, and D.
A
COM [ 2142 ] COM
Comma* ;
nalty. |
The index of the common-place book thus formed,
matters are ready for the taking down any thing
therein.
In order to this, confider to what head the thing
you would enter is moft naturally referred; and un¬
der which one would be led to look for fuch a thing!:
in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial let¬
ter, and the firft vowel that follows it; which are the
characteriftic letters whereon all the ufe of the index
depends.
Suppofe (e.gr.J I would enter down a paflage that
refers to the head beauty ; B, I confider, is the initial
letter, and e the firft vowel: then, looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein the line e,
(which is the place for all words whofe firft letter is b,
and firft vowel e ; as beauty, beneficence, bread, breed¬
ing, bleniijhes), and finding no numbers already down
to direct me to any page of the book where words of
this characteriftic have been entered, I turn foreward
to the firft blank page I find, (which, in a frefli book,
as this is fuppofed to be, will be page 2d), and here
write what I have occafion for on the head beauty ;
beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all
the other fubfervient lines, that the head may ftand
out and Ihew itfelf: this done, I enter the page where
it is wrote, viz. 2, in the index in the (pace B e;
from which time, the clafs b e becomes wholly in pof-
feflion of the 2d and 3d pages, which are configned
to letters of this charafteriftic.
Had I found any page or number already entered
in the fpace B e, I mult have turned to the page, and
have wrote my matter in what room was left therein :
fo, if after entering the paffage on beauty, I Ihould
have occafion for benevolence, or the like, finding the
number 2 already poflefled of the fpace of this cha-
racteriftic, I begin the paffage on benevolence in the
remainder of the page, which not containing the
whole, I carry it on to page 3d, which is alfo for be;
and add the number 3 in the index.
Common Pleas, is one of the king’s courts now held
conftantly in Weftminfter-hall, but in former times
was moveable.
All civil caufes, as well real as perfonal, are, or
were formerly, tried in this court, according to the
ftrift law of the land. In perfonal and mixed actions
it has a concurrent jurifdiolion with the king’s bench,
but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The
actions belonging to the court of common pleas come
thither by original, as arrefts and outlawries; or by
privilege, or attachment for or againft privileged per-
fbns; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by pone,
recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of falfe judgment,
ire. The chief judge of this court is called lord Chief
Juftice of the common pleas, who is afllfted by three
other judges : the other officers of the court are the
cufios brevium, who is the chief clerk; three protho-
notaries, and their fecondaries ; the clerk of the war¬
rants, clerk of the eflbins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors,
a clerk of the juries, the chirographer, the clerk of
the king’s filver, clerk of the treafury, clerk of the
feal, clerk of the outlawries, clerk of the inrolment
of fines and recoveries, and clerk of the errors.
Common, in law, that foil, the ufe of which is
common to this or that town or lordfhip. There is
common of pafture for cattle ; and alfo common of
filhing; common of eftovers; common of turbary, ire.
Coupon-Prayer is the liturgy in the church of
England: fee Liturgy. Clergymen are to ufe the
public form of prayers preferibed by the Book of Com¬
mon Prayer; and refufing to do fo, or ufing any o-
ther public prayers, are punifhable by flat. 1 Eliz. c. ii.
Common, in grammar, denotes the gender of
nouns, which are equally applicable to both fexes:
thus, parens, u a parent,” is of the common gender.
Common, in geometry, is applied to an angle, line,
or the like, which belongs equally to two fio-ures.
Common Divifior, a quantity or number which ex¬
actly divides two or more other quantities or num¬
bers, without leaving any remainder.
COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divifions
of the civil ftate. See Civil State.
The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into
feveral degrees: and as the lords, though different in
rank, yet all of them are peers in refpeift of their no¬
bility ; fo the commoners, though fome are greatly
fuperior to others, yet all are in law commonalty, in
refpedl of their want of nobility.
1. The firft name of dignity, next beneath a peer,
was anciently that of vidames, vice-domini, or valvu-
fiors ; who are mentioned by our ancient lawyers, as
viri magnae dignitatis ; and Sir Edward Coke fpeaks
highly of them. Yet they are now quite out of ufe ;
and our legal antiquarians' are not agreed upon even
their original or ancient office.
2. Now, therefore, the firft perfonal dignity, after
the nobility, is a knight of the order of St George, or
of the garter ; firft inftituted by Edw. III. J. D.i 344.
3. Next, (but not till after certain official dignities,
as privy-counfeilors, the. chancellors of the exchequer
and duchy of Lancafter, the chief juftice of the king’s
bench, the mafter of the rolls, and the other Engli/h
judges), follows a knight banneret; who indeed/by
ftatutes
COM [ 2X43 ] COM
ICommo- ftatutes y Richard II. flat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II.
4 nalty. c. 11. is ranked next after barons; and his precedence
before the younger fons of vifcounts, was confirmed
to him by order of king James I. in the 10th year of
his reign. But in order to entitle him to this rank, he
muft have been created by the king in perfon, in the
field, under the royal banners, in time of open war ;
elfe he ranks after
4. Baronets; who are the next in order: which
title is a dignity of inheritance, created by letters pa¬
tent, and ufually defcendible to the iflue-male. It
was firft inftituted by king James I. D. 1611, in
order to raife a competent fum for the reduction of
the province of Ulfter in Ireland ; for which reafon
all baronets have the arms of Ulfter fuperadded to
their family-coat.
y. Next follow knights of the Bath; an order infti¬
tuted by king Henry IV. and revived by king Geo. I.
They are fo called from the ceremony of bathing the
night before their creation.
6. The laft of thefe inferior nobility are blights
bachelors ; the moft ancient, though the loweft, order
of knighthood amongft us: for we have an inftance
of king Alfred’s conferring this order on his fon Athel-
ftan. •
7. The above, with thofe enumerated under the ar¬
ticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke fays, are all the
names of dignity in this kingdom; efqitires and gentle¬
men being only names of worjhip. But before thefe
laft the heralds rank all colonels, ferjeants at law, and
doctors in the three learned proftffions.
8. Efquires and gentlemen are confounded together
by Sir Edward Coke; who obferves, that every ef-
quire is a gentleman, and a gentleman is defined to
be one qui arma gerit, “ who bears coat-armour,” the
grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in
like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was
founded in the jus imaginism, or having the image of
one anceftor at leaft who had borne fome curule of¬
fice. It is indeed a matter fomewhat unfettled what
conftitutes the diftintftion, or who is a real efquire ;
for it is not an eftate, however large, that Confers this
rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himfelf a
herald, diftinguifhes them the moft accurately ; and he
reckons up four forts of them: Ist, The eldeft fons of
knights, and their eldeft fons, in perpetual fuccelfion.
2dl'', The eldeft fons of younger fons of peers, and
their eldeft fons, in like perpetual fucceffion : both
which fpecies of efquires, Sir Henry Spelman intitles
armigeri natalitii. 3dlr, Efquires created by the king’s
letters patent, or other inveftiture ; and their eldeft
fons. 4tht)r, Efquires by virtue of their office ; as
juftices of the peace and others who bear any office
of truft under the crown. To thefe may be added
the efquires of the knights of the bath, each of whom
conftitutes three at his inftallation ; and all foreign,
nay, Irifh peers ; for not only thefe, but the eldeft
fons of peers of Great Britain, though frequently ti¬
tular lords, are only efquires in the law, and muft be
fo named in all legal proceedings.
9. As for gentlemen, fays Sir Thomas Smith, they
be made good cheap in this kingdom : for whofoever
ftudieth the laws of the realm, who ftudieth in the u-
niverfities, who profeffeth literal fciences, and (to be
fhort) who can live idly and without manual labour, Commoner
and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a II
gentleman, he fhall be called mafter, and ftiall be ta- Commons-
ken for a gentleman.
10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40 s. by
the year ; who is thereby qualified to ferve on juries,
vote for knights of the fliire, and do any other aift
where the law requires one that is probus et legalis
homo.
xi. The reft of the commonalty are tradefmen, ar¬
tificers, and labourers; who (as well as all others) muft,
in purfuance of the ftatute 1 Henry V. c. J. be fly led
by the name and addition of their eftate, degree or
myftery, in all adtions and other legal proceedings.
COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in
the univerfities, a {Indent entered in a certain rank.
COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denomi¬
nation given to the lower houfe of parliament. See
Parliament.
The commons confift of all fuch men of any pro¬
perty in the kingdom, as have not feats in the houfe
of lords, every one of which has a voice in parlia¬
ment, either perfonally, or by his reprefentatives.
In a free ftate every man, who is fuppofed a free a-
gent, ought to be, in fome meafilre, his own gover¬
nor ; and therefore a branch at leaft of the legifla-
tive power fliould refute in the whole body of the
people. And this power, when the territories of the
ftate are fmall, and its citizens eafily known, Ihould be
exercifed by the people in their aggregate or collec¬
tive capacity, as was wifely ordained in the petty re¬
publics of Greece, and the firft rudiments of the Ro¬
man ftate. But this will be highly inconvenient when
the public territory is extended to any confiderable
degree, and the number of citizens is increafed. Thus
when, after the focial war, all the burghers of Italy
were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each bad a
vote in the public alfemblies, it became impoffible to
diftinguifli the fpurious from the real voter, and from
that time all elections and popular deliberations grew
tumultuous and diforderly; which paved the way for
Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Caefar, to trample on
the liberties of their Country, and at laft: to diflolva
the commonwealth. In fo large a ftate as ours, there¬
fore, it is very wifely contrived, that the people fhould
do that by their reprefentatives, which it is imprac¬
ticable to perform in perfon ; reprefentatives chofen
by a number of minute and feparate diftrufts, where¬
in all the voters are or may be eafily diftinguilhed.
The counties are therefore reprefented by knights,
eledted by the proprietors of lands; the cities and bo¬
roughs are reprefented by citizens and burgefles, cho¬
fen by the mercantile or fuppofed trading intereft of
the nation ; much in the fame manner as the burghers
in the diet of Sweden are chofen by the corporate
towns, Stockholm fending four, as London does with
us, other cities two, and fome only one. The num¬
ber of Englifti reprefentatives is 513, of Scots 45 ; in
all 558. And every member, though cho.en by one
particular diftridt, when eledled and returned, ferves
for the whole realm. For the end of his coming thi¬
ther is not particular but general; not barely to ad¬
vantage his conftituents, but the commonwealth; to
advife his majefty, as appears from the writ of fum-
mons.
COM [ 2144 ] COM
Commons mons, “ de communi confilio fuper negotiis quibuf-
U dam arduis et urgentibus, regem, ftatum et defenfio-
Commum- nem regni Anglise et ecclefiae Anglicanae concer-
cat1011' nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a de¬
puty in the united provinces, to confult with, or take
the advice of, his conftituents upon any particular
point, unlefs he himfelf thinks it proper or prudent ib
to do.
The peculiar laws and cuftoms of the houfe of com¬
mons relate principally to the raifing of taxes, and the
elections of members to ferve in parliament. See
Taxes and Elections.
Doctors Commons. See College of civilians.
Proitor Commons. See Proctor.
COMMONTY, in Scots law, fometimes fignifies
lands belonging to two or more common proprie¬
tors; fometimes a heath or muir though it Ihould be¬
long in property to one, if there has been a promifcu-
ous poffeflion upon it by pafturage ; and the aft 1695
mentions commonties belonging in property to the
king and to royal boroughs. See Law, Part III.
N0 clxxv. 16.
COMMONWEALTH. See Republic.
COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting
half a cantred, or hundred ; containing 50 villages.
See Hundred. Wales was anciently divided into
three provinces; each of thefe fubdivided into can-
treds; and every cantred into two commotes or hun¬
dreds. Silvefter Girald, however, tells us in his
itinerary, that a commote is but a quarter of a hun¬
dred.
COMMUNES, in botany, the name of a clafs in
Linnaeus’s methodus Calyciua, confifting of plants
which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calix or flow¬
er-cup common to many flowers or florets. Thefe
are the aggregate or compound flowers of other fy-
flems.
COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term, in frequent
ufe among philofophical, ire. writers; implying fome
medium, or mean relation, between feveral places.
Dr Keil fuppofes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile
deep, communibus locis, q. d. at a medium, or taking
one place with another.
Communibus Aunts, has the fame import with re¬
gard to years, that communibus locis has with regard
to places. Mr Derham obferves that the depth of
rain, communibus annis, or one year with another,
were it to ftagnate on the earth, would amount in
Townley in Lancafliire, to 42! inches; at Upminfter
in Eflex, to 19^; at Zurich, 32j ; at Pifa, 43! ; and
at Paris to 19 inches.
COMMUNICATION, in a general fenfe, the aft
of imparting fomething to another.
Communication is alfo ufed for the conneftion of
one thing with another, or the paflage from one place
to another : thus a gallery is a communication be¬
tween two apartments.
Communication of motion, the aft whereby a
body at reft is put into motion by a moving body ; or,
it is the acceleration of motion in a body already mo¬
ving.
Lities of Communication, in military matters,
trenches made to continue and preferve a fafe corre-
fpoudence between two forts or polls; or at a fiege.
between two approaches, that they may relieve one Commu*
another.
Canal of Communication. See Canal. Common
COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being   —
united in doftrine and difcipline ; in which fenfe of
the word, difterent churches are faid to hold commu¬
nion with each other.
In the primitive Chriftian church, every bilhop was
obliged, after his ordination, to fend circular letters
to foreign churches, to fignify that he was in commu¬
nion with them. The three grand communions into
which the Chriftian church is a* prefent divided, is
that of the church of Rome, the Greek church, and
the Proteftant church : but originally all Chriftians
were in communion with each other, having ofie com¬
mon faith and difcipline.
Communion is alfo ufed for the aft of communi¬
cating in the faerament of the eucharift, or the Lord’s
fupper. See Religion.
Communion Service, in the liturgy of the church
of England, the office for jhe adminillration of the ho¬
ly facrament, extrafted from feveral ancient liturgies,
as thole of St Bafil, St Ambrofe, &c.
By the laft rubric, part of this fervice is appointed
to be read every Sunday and holyday, after the mor¬
ning prayer, even though there be no communicants.
COMMUNITY, a fociety of men living in the fame
place, under the fame laws, the fame regulations, and
the fame cuftoms.
COMMUTATION in law, the change of a penalty
or punilhment from a greater to a lefs; as when death
is commuted for banilhment, ire.
COMNENA (Ann) daughter of Alexis Comnenes
emperor of the Eaft; memorable for her great learn¬
ing and virtue, and for her hiftory of the life and ac¬
tions of her father, which is highly efteemed. She
flouriflied about the year 1117.
COMO, a ftrong and populous town of Italy, in the
duchy of Milan, and in the Comafco, with a bilhop’s
fee. It was taken by the Imperialifts in 1706, and is
feated on a lake of the fame name in E. Long. 8. J7.
N. Lat. 45, 45.
Como, the lake fo called, is the largeft in Italy. It
is fituated in the duchy of Milan in the Comafco, on
the confines of Swiflerland and the Grifons. It is 88
miles in circumference, yet is not above 6 miles over
in any part.
COMORA iflands, lie between the north end of the
ifland of Madagafcar, and the coaft of Zanguebar,
from 10 to 15 degrees louth latitude. Authors differ
greatly with regard to their number, fome fpeaking
of three, others of five, and .fome of eight of tbefe
iflands. They all abound in horned cattle, ftieep, hogs,
and a variety of fruits common in warm countries.
They are faid alfo to produce a kind of rice which
turns of a violet colour when boiled. The moll re- ;
markable of them, and which the Europeans are beft
acquainted with, is the ifland of Johanna. See that
article.
COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the moft foutherly
promontory of the hither India, lying north-weft of
the ifland of Ceylon.
COMORRA, a handfome and large town of lower
Hungary, and capital of a territory of the fame
name.
Comofas
II
Company.
COM [ 2145 ] COM
name. It is fowell fortilied, that the Turks could ne¬
ver take it. The greateit part of the inhabitants are
Hungarians or Ruffians, who are very rich, and are of
the Greek religion. It is feated on the river Danube,
in the ifland of Sihut, E. Lon. 18. 25. N. Lat. 47. 50.
COMGSiE, in botany, from Coma. An order of
plants in the former editions of Linnseus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method, conffifing of the fpiked willow
or fpiraea frutex, dropwort, and greater meadow-
fweet. Thefe, though formerly diltindt genera, are
by Linnaeus colle<5led into one, under the name of fpi-
raa. The flowers, growing in a head, referable a
buih, or tuft of hair, which probably gave rife to the
epithet Cowofai,
COMPACT, in philofophy, is faid of bodies which
are of a clofe, denfe, and heavy texture, with few
-pores, and thoi'e very fmall.
Compact, in a legal fenfe, fignifies an agreement,
or contra^ iiipulated between feveral parties.
COMPANY, in a commercial fenfe, is a fociety of
merchants, mechanics, or other traders, joined toge¬
ther in one common intereft. The word is formed of
the French compagnie, and that of comp ante, or com¬
panies, which Chifflet obferves, are found in the Sa-
lique law, tit. 66. and are properly military words,
underftood of foldiers, who, according to the modern
phrafe, are -comrades or mefs-mates, i. e. lodge toge¬
ther, eat together, &c. of the Latin cum “with,” and
pants “ bread.” It may be added, that in fome Greek
authors, under the weflern empire, the word K»p,7ravta
occurs in the fenfe of fociety ; but it is more probable
that the Greeks borrowed it from the French or Ita¬
lians.
When there are only two or three joined in this
manner, it is called a partnerfhip ; the term company
being reftrained to focieties confuting of a confiderable
number of members, aflbciated together by a charter
obtained from the prince.
The mechanics of all corporations, or towns incor¬
porated, are thus erected into companies, which have
charters of privileges and large immunities.
We ffiall here give fome account of the principal
companies of merchants, fome of which trade with
joint flocks, and all of them enjoy by charter many
exclufive privileges. For,however injurious thefe com¬
panies may, at this rime of day, be reckoned to the
nation in general, yet it is certain, that they were the
original parents of all our foreign commerce ; private
traders upon their own bottom being difcouraged from
hazarding their fortunes in foreign countries, till the
methods of traffic had been fettled by joint-flock com¬
panies : and from this very principle it is, that we
find feveral nations at prefent endeavouring to extend
their trade by the fame means. The mofl ancient
trading company, in Britain, is the Hamburgh com¬
pany, originally called merchants of the ftaple, and af¬
terwards merchant adventures: they were incorpo¬
rated by king Edward IV. from which time they tra¬
ded with fuccefs till the reign of queen Elifabeth, who,
for a farther encouragement of their induflry, not on¬
ly confirmed, but enlarged their privileges. How¬
ever, it ought to be obferved, that this trade is now
open to private merchants, upon paying a very fmall
fum to the company. The company of this kind, next
Vox.. III.
incorporated, was that of the Ruffia-merchants ; who O
having improved their trade and commerce in thofe
remote parts, were incorporated by Edward VI.
greatly encouraged by queen Mary, and had their con¬
firmation, with an enlargement of their privileges,
from Elifabeth. This company is not very confider-
able at prefent; the trade of thofe parts being moltiy
carried on by private merchants, on paying the fum
of 5 1. to the company.
The Eaftland company, formerly called merchants
of Elbin, were encorporated by queen Elifabeth, and
by her greatly encouraged ; but, like the former com¬
pany, it is now become inconliderable, the trade of
Norway and Sweden being laid open by adl of parlia¬
ment. .
The Turky, or Levant company, was likewife in¬
corporated by the fame princefs, and its charter con¬
firmed and enlarged by king James I. who impower-
ed them to trade to the Levant, or eaftern parts of
the Mediterranean ; particularly to Smyrna, Aleppo,
Alexandria, Grand-Cairo, and the other parts of the
Turkilh dominions. But this trade is now alfo laid
open to private merchants, upon paying a fmall cen-
fideration.
The next in order is the Eaft-India company, firlh
incorporated in the year 1600, and impowered to trade
to all countries lying ealtward of the cape of Good
Hope. Towards the end of king William’s reign, an
act of parliament palled, granting all private mer¬
chants, who Ihould raife a certain lum for the fupply
of the government, the privilege of trading to thefe
parts. Accordingly, a great many fubfcribed, and
were called the New Eaft-India company; which foon
found it necelfary to unite with the old one, and trade
with one joint ftock: fince which time, they have been
ftyled the united Ealt-India company ; and are at
prefent in a flourilhing condition, and in polleffion
of many confiderable forts and factories on the eoaft of
Malabar, the Coromandel-coaft, the bay of Bengal, life.
The royal African company was firft erected in the
year 1661, with an exclufive privilege to trade from
cape Blanc, on the coaft of Africa, in 20? N. Lat. as
far as the cape of Good Hope. But this trade is now
laid open by adt of parliament.
The Eaftland company, the Greenland company, the
Hudfon’s-bay company, the South-fea company, have
likewife their feveral charters and privileges for tra¬
ding to the places from which they take their deno¬
minations.
Thefe are the principal trading companies belong¬
ing to the crown of Great Britain ; and of a fimilar
nature are the Dutch Eaft and Weft India companies,
the French Eaft and Weft India companies, ire.
Concerning thefe companies, it may be proper to
remark, that however neceffary they might be in the
infancy of trade, they are now looked upon by moft
men in the light of monopolies : hence it is, that their
privileges have from time to time been lelfened, in
order to eftablifh an abfolutely free and general trade ;
and experience hath fliewn, that the trade of the na¬
tion has advanced in proportion as monopolies have
been laid afide. Indeed, to carry on trade with di-
ftant countries, where forces and forts are to be main¬
tained, a company with a joint ftock feems neceflary;
12 O or,
COM [2
, cr, at lead, certain duties ouglit to be paid by all who
trade thither, towards defraying the {'aid expences:
for not to (peak of the Eaft-India, Hudlbn’s-bay, &c.
companies, the expence of maintaining whole forts
muft be very confiderable, even the J tirky, Ham¬
burgh, Mofcovy, and Eaftland companies, which do
not trade with a joint Hock, are neverthelefs obliged
to be at confiderable charges, in making prefents to
the grand fignior and his minifters, maintaining con-
fids, ire. It would therefore be injuftice that any
Ihould trade to the places within their charters, with¬
out paying the fame duties toward’s the company’s
charge, as the prefent adventurers pay; but then there
appears to be no reafon why any of the king’s fubje&s
Ihould be barred from trading to thofe places, or for¬
ced to pay a great fine for admiffion, that are willing
to pay the company’s duties, and fubmit to their regu¬
lations and orders in other refpe&s.
On the whole, as all reftriiftions of trade are found
to be hurtful, nothing can be more evident than that
no company whatfoever, whether they trade in a joint
ftock, or only under regulation, can be for the public
good, except it may be eafy for all of any of his ma-
icity’s fubjeefs to be admitted into all or any of the
COMPARAT
IS that branch of anatomy which confiders the fe-
condary objefts, or the bodies of other animals;
ferving for the more accurate diftincHions of feveral
parts, and fupplying the defe<5t of human fubjecHs.
It is otherwile called the anatomy of beads, and
fometimes zootomy; and Hands in contradidindtion to
human anatomy, or that branch of the art which con¬
fiders the human body, the primary obje<3; of ana¬
tomy. See Anatomy.
Introduction.
The ufes of The principal advantages of comparative anatomy
Compara- are the following: .firH, it furnilhes us with a fufficient
five Ana- knowledge of the different parts of anitpals, to pre-
tomy. vent our being impofed upon by thofe authors who
have delineated and deferibed feveral parts from brutes
as belqpging to the human body. Secondly, it helps
us to underfiand feveral paffages in the ancient writers
in medicine, who have taken many of their deferip-
tions from brutes and reafoned from them. The third
and great ufe we reap from this fcience, is the light it
cads on feveral fumdions in the human oeconomy,
about which there have been fo many difputes among
anatomids.
How the k1 tfi's view it is altogether needlefs to infid on thofe
aftion of parts whofe ufe is eafily uuderdood when once their
mufcles is drufture is unravelled ; thus for indance, if we be
determined., acquainted with the aidion of the mufcles in general,
it will not be difficult to determine the ufe of any par¬
ticular mufcle, whofe origin and infertion is known,
if we at the fame time confider the various connec¬
tions of the bones to which it is fixed, and the diffe¬
rent degree of mobility they have with refpedt to
each other : in the fame manner if we know the ufe
of the nerves in general, we can eafily affign the ufe
146 ] COM
laid companies, at any time, and for a very inconfi.
derable fine.
Company, in military affairs, a fmall body of foot,
commanded by a captain, who has under him a lieute¬
nant and enfign.
The number of centinels or private foldiers in a
company, may be from 50 to 80; and a battalion con-
fids of 13 fuch companies, one of which is always
grenadiers, and poded on the right; next them Hand
the elded company, and on the left the fecond com¬
pany ; the younged one being always poded in the
centre. Companies not incorporated into regiments
are called irregulars, or independent companies.
ArtiUery Company. See Artitlery.
Company 0} Ships, a fleet of merchantmen, who
make a charter party among themfelves; the principal
conditions whereof ufually are, that certain vefl’els
fhall be acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-
admiral ; that fuch and fuch fignals Ihall be obferved ;
that thofe which bear no guns, Ihall pay fo much per
cent, of their cargo ; and in cafe they be attacked,,
that what damages are fudained, Ihall be reimburfed
by the company in general. In the Mediterranean^
fuch companies arc called conferves.
I V E Anatomy
of thofe nerves which are didributed to any particular
part. There is then no occafion for a complete ode-
ology, myology, ire. of the feveral animals we Ihall
treat of, nor need we trouble ourfelves about the
drudlure of any of the parts, unlefs when it ferves ta
illudrate fome of the fore-mentioned purpofes.
That the fird ufe we propofed frpm examining the
drutdure of the parts in brutes is real and of confe-
quence, is evident from looking iqto the works of
fome of the earhed and greated maders of anatomy,
who for want of human fubjetds have often borrowed
their deferiptions from other animals. The great Ve-
falius, although he judly reproves Galen for this fault,
is guilty of the fame himfelf, as is plain from his deli¬
neations of the kidneys, uterus, the mufefes of the
eye and fome other parts. Nor is antiquity only to
be charged with this, fince in Willis’s Anatomia Cere¬
bri (the plates of which were reviled by that accurate
anatomid Dr Lower) there are feveral of the pic¬
tures taken from different brutes, efpedally the dog,
befides thofe he o,wns to be fuch. We Ihall giye feve¬
ral exa mples of the fecond ufe in the lequel of the work.
The animal kingdom, as well as the vegetable, con- The 3 .
tains the mod furprifing variety, and the defeent in t and uifi-
each is fo gradual, that the little tranfitions and devia- formityoh-
tions are almod imperceptible. The bat and flying- fervable in
fquirrel, though quadrupeds, have wings to buoy them- nature.
felves up in the air. Some birds inhabit the waters,
and there are fiflies that have wings, and are not
drangers to the airy regions ; the amphibious animals
blend the terredrial and aquatic together.
As there is then fuch a vad variety, it is not only
needlefs but impoflible to confider all of them particu¬
larly. We Ihall take only fome of the mod remark¬
able genera,, and hope from what will be laid of
them,
Chap. I. II. COMPARATIVE Anatomy. 2147
them, any of the intermediate degrees may be under-
4 flood.
Divifion of In treating of quadrupeds, we fhall divide them into
animals in- the carnivorous, i. e. thole that feed indifferently on
to quadru- animal and vegetable fubflances, and granivorous: as
tiles5’ filhes an inftance °I thefe lafl we lhall take the ruminant
and infers.’ Wnd. The fowls we lhall alio divide into thofe that feed
on grain, and thofe that feed on fleflt. The diflintffion
we fliall make in treating of fillies, lhall be of thofe that
have lungs, and thofe that have them not. The firfl
indeed are with difficulty procured, and at the fame time
differ very little from quadrupeds. As the ftrutflure of
infedts is fo very minute, and lends us but little alfift-
ance for the ends propofed, we purpofely omit them.
In inquiring into the flrudlure of different animals,
we ought to be previoully acquainted with the form of
their body, manner of life, kind of food; or in ffiort,
with their natural hiffory, which will lead us to ac¬
count for the reafon of their different ftrudture, and
thence explain the adtions of the human body.
Chap. I. Of Quadrupeds in general.
All quadrupeds have a covering of hair, wool, ire.
to defend them from the injuries of the weather, which
varies in thicknefs according to the feafon of the year,
and difference of the climate : thus in Ruffia and the
northern countries, the furs are very thick and warm,
while the little Spanilh lap-dogs, and Barbary cows,
5 have little or no hair at all.
Cuticula, The cutis and cuticula in quadrupeds, are difpofed
cutis, pan- much in the fame way as the human, only more elaf-
mculus car- tjc . immediately under this, there is a very thin cu-
«o us. taneous mufcular fubftance called panniculus carnofus,
which is common to all quadrupeds, the porcine kind
excepted ; this principally covers the trunk, ferving
to ffirivel the'fkin, in order to drive off infedts, their
tails and heads not being fufficient for this purpofe,
while their extremities are employed in their fupport
5 and progreffion.
"Whence It has probably been from obferving fome mufcles
the notion 0f the human body, fuch as the platyfma myoides, cre-
niculus^car* ma^er> an^ frontales, and the collapfed tunica cellulofa
nofus irc~ emac*ate<l fubjedts, to refemble this thin muffle,
’ that fome of the older anatomifts reckoned fuch a pan¬
niculus among the common teguments of the human
7 body. This Carolus Stephanus has well obferved.
Why mod Moft part of quadrupeds want clavicles, whereby
quadrupeds their anterior extremities fall upon their cheft, fo as
-want cla- to make’their thorax proportionally narrower than the
v,c es’ human. This fmall diftance of their anterior extre¬
mities is very neceffary for their uniform progreffion :
apes indeed apd fquirrels have clavicles to allow them
a more full ufe of their extremities in climbing, but
when they fit down on all-four they walk but indif¬
ferently.
Chap. II. The Anatomy of a Dog.
We may firftobferve of thisanimal, as indeed of moft
quadrupeds, that its legs are much Ihorter in propor¬
tion to its trunk than in man, the length of whofe fteps
depends entirely on the length of his inferior extremi¬
ties ; however, to balance this, the trunk of the animal is
proportionally longer and fmaller, his fpine more flex¬
ible, by-which he is able at each ftep to bring his po-
flerior extremities nearer to his anterior. His com-
mon teguments are much a-kin to thofe of other qua¬
drupeds, only they allow little or no paffage for
fweat, but when he is over-heated the fiiperfluous
matter finds an exit by the i'alivary glands, for he
lolls out his tongue and flavers plentifully. [8]
The pyramidal muffles are wanting, to fupply AMomcn,
which the reiftus is inferted flefliy into the os pubis, rnufeulipj-
The omentum reaches down to the os pubis, which Q„fc„tuft>.
confidering the pofture of the animal we will find to
be a wife provifion, fince its ufe is to feparate an oily
liquor for lubricating the guts and facilitating their
periftaltic motion ; fo in our ereift pollut e the natu¬
ral gravity of the oil will determine it downward, but
in the horizontal polition of thele creatures, if all the
inteftines were not covered, there would be no fa¬
vourable derivation of the fluid to the guts lying in
the pofterior part of the abdomen, which is the high-
eft ; and befides, had the omentum reached much far¬
ther down in us, we had been in continual hazard of
an epiplocele, which the dog is not fubjedl to as his
vifeera do not prefs fo much on the rings of the abdo¬
minal mufcles. The inferior and anterior lamella of
the omentum is fixed to the fpleen, fundus of the fto-
mach, pylorus, liver, ire. in the fame way as the hu¬
man, but the fuperior having no colon to pafs over,
goes directly to the back-bone. This ferves to explain
the formation of the fmall omentum in the human bo¬
dy, which is nothing but the large omentum, having
loft its fat, palling over the llomach and colon,
where it reaffumes its pinguedo, fo proceeds and is
firmly attached to the liver, fpine, ire. The ftrix of
fat are pretty regularly difpofed through it, accom¬
panying the diftribution of the blood-veffels to guard
them from the preffure of the fuper-incumbent vilcera.
This animal’s ftomach, though pretty much-refem-
bling the human in its fltape, is fomewhat differently 8
fituated. It lies more longitudinal, as indeed all the. Ventricu-
other vifeera do to accommodate themfelves to the lus*
fhape of the cavity in which they are contained, that
is, its inferior orifice is much farther down with re-
fpedt to the fuperior than the human: by this means
the grofs food has an eafier paflage into the duode¬
num. Again, the fundus of the human ftomach, when
diftended, Hands almoft diretftly forwards, which is
occafioned by the little omentum tying itfoclofe down
to the back-bone, ire. at its two orifices, but it not
being fixed in that manner in the dog, the fundus re¬
mains always pofterior: this alfo anfwers very well
the lhape of the different cavities, the diftance betwixt
the cardia and fundus being greater than that betwixt
the two fides. It feems to be much larger in propor¬
tion to the bulk of the animal than the human, that it
might contain a greater quantity of food at once,
which was very neceffary, fince this animal cannot at
any time get its fultenance as men do. The turbil-
lion is not fo large, nor is there any coanftion forming
the antrum Willifii as in the ftomach of roan. It is
confiderably thicker and more mufcular than ours for
breaking the cohefion of their food, which they fwal-
low without fufficient chewing. Hence it is evident
the force of the ftomach is not fo great as fome have
fuppofed, nor its contraftion fo violent; otherwife
that of dogs would be undoubtedly wounded by the
12 Q,2 fliarp
2I4$ COMPARATI
fliarp bones, <rc. they always take down; for the
contraction here is ftill greater than in the human (to-
mach, which is much thinner. The rugae of the tu¬
nica villofa are neither fo large nor fituated tranf-
verlely as in the human, but go from one orifice to
the other ; the reafon of which difference is, perhaps,
that they might be in lei's danger of being hurt by the
hard fublfantes this creature frequently feeds upon;
and for the fame reafon there is not the like coar&ion
9 at their pylorus.
Inteffines. The inteftines of this animal are proportionally
much Ihorter than ours ; for the food which thefe crea¬
tures moftly ufe, foon diffolves and then putrifies;
on which account there was no occafiorts for a long
traft of intellines, but on the contrary that it fliould
be quickly thrown out of the body : the fame is to be
obferved of all the carnivorous animals. The mufcu-
lar coat of the intelHnes is alfo flronger than the hu¬
man, to protrude the hard bones, left they Ihould ftop
fomewhere in the canal.
The valvulx conniventes are lefs numerous, and in
10 a longitudinal diretftion.
Duodenum. The duodenum differs confiderably in its fituation
from the human ; for in man it firft mounts from the
pylorus upwards, backwards, and to the right-fide,
then paffes down by the gall-bladder, and marching
over the right-kidney and fuperior part of the pfoas
mnfcles, makes a curvature upwards, and paffes over
the batk-bone and vena cava inferior, to the left hy-
j, pochondrium, where it gets through the omentum,
Jejunum, mefentery and mefocolon to commence jejunum, be¬
ing firmly tied down all the way, the biliary and pan¬
creatic du&s entering at its molt depending part:
whereas in the dog the duodenum is fixed at the py¬
lorus to the concave furface of the liver, and hangs
loofe and pendulous with the mefentery backwards in¬
to the cavity of the abdomen, then turning up again
is fixed to the back-bone, where it ends in the jeju¬
num ; the bile and pancreatic juice are poured into it
at the moft depending part; therefore the fame in¬
tention feems to have been had in view in the forma¬
tion of this part in both, viz. the giving the chyle,
after the liquors of the liver and pancreas are poured
into it, a difadvantageous courfe, that fo it might be
the more intimately blended with the humours before
its entry into the jejunum, where the la&eals are ve¬
ry numerous: and this by reafon of their different
pofture, the fame defign (though by a very different
72 order of the parts), is brought about in both.
Inteftina The other fmall guts are much the fame with ours,
ttnma. onjy {hotter. The great guts are alfo fhorter and left
capacious than in the human body ; and we take it
for a general rule, that all animals that live on vege¬
table food, have not only their fmall guts confiderably
longer, but alfo their great guts more capacious than
fuch creatures as feed on other animals. Hence man
from this form of his inteftines and that of the teeth,
feems to have been originally defigned for feeding on
vegetables, and ftill the moft of his food is of that clafs.
The reafon of this difference feems to be, that as
animal food is not only much more eafily reduced in¬
to chyle, but alfo more prone to putrefaction, too
long a remora of the juices might occafion the worft
coniequences. So it was neceffary that their recep-
VE Anatomy. Chap. IT.
tacles Ihould not be too capacious, but on the contra¬
ry, being Ihort and narrow, might conduce to the
feafpnable difcharge of their contents. Whereas ve¬
getable food being more difficulty diffdlved and con¬
verted into an animal nature, there was a neceffity
for fuch creatures as fed on it to be provided with a
long internal canal, that this food in its paffage might
be confiderably retarded, and have time to change its
indoles into one more agreeable to our nature. Be-
fides which, there is another advantage which accrues
to man in particular, from having his great guts
very capacious; for as he is a rational being, and
moftly employed in the functions of focial life, it would
have been very inconvenient, as well as unbecoming
for him to be too frequently employed in fuch ignoble
exercifes, fo that having this large refervoir for his
fasces alvinas, he can retain them for a confiderable
time without any trouble. 13 i
The appendix vermiformis juftly enough deferves Appendix ;
the name of an inteftinum cecum in this fubjedl, vermifor- '
though in the human body it does not, and it has pro- nils’
bably been from the largeneft of this part in other ani¬
mals, that the oideft anatomifts came to reckon that
fmall apendicule in man as one of the great guts: on
its internal furface we obferve a great number of mu¬
cous glands.
The colon has no longitudinal ligaments, and con- Colom \
fequently this gut is not purfed up into different bags
or cells as the human; nor does this inteftine make
any circular turn round the abdomen, but paffes di¬
rectly acroft it to the top of the os facrum, where it
gets the name of redtum. 15
At the extremity of the inteftinum rectum or verge Reftnm.
of the anus, there are found two bags or paunches
which contain a moft abominable fetid mucus for
which the ufe is not known, unlefs it ferves to lubri¬
cate the (trained extremity of the reftum, and de¬
fend it againft the afperity of the fasces, or to fepa-
rate fome liquor that might otherwife prove hurtful
to thetr bodies. There is nothing analogous to thofe
facs in the human fubjedt, unlefs we reckon on the
mucilaginous glands that are found mcft frequent and
largeft about the lower part of the redium. jg
The melentery is confiderably longer than in the Mefentery.
human body ; for in man had the mefentery been ve¬
ry long, the guts would have fallen down on the
ftomach, ire. by reafon of his ereft pofition. The
fat is here difpofed in the fame way, and for the
fame reafon, as in the omentum. The interftices be¬
twixt the fat are filled with a fine membrane. In-
ftead of a great number of glandulae vagse to be found Pancreas a-
in the human mefentery, there is only one large
gland to be obferved in t he middle of the mefentery
of a dog, which from its imagined refemblance to the
pancreas and the name of its difeoverers, is called
pancreas afellii. The reafon why this in man is as it
were fubdivided into many fmaller ones, may poffibly
be, that as the guts of a human body are proportion¬
ally much longer than thofe of this creature, it would
have been inconvenient to have gathered all the lac-
tea primi generis into one place, whereas by colledt-
ing a few of thefe veffds into a neighbouring gland,
the fame effedi is procured much more eafily.
The pancreas in man lies croft the abdomen, tied
down
ijCliap. II. COMPARAT
: 18 down by the peritoneum ; but the capacity of this
I Pancreas, creature’s abdomen not allowing of that lituation, it is
difpofed more longitudinally, being tied to the duode¬
num which it accompanies for feme way. Its du£t
enters the duodenum about half an inch below the
; 19 others.
j Spleen. The fpleen of this animal differs from ours very
much, both in figure and fituation. It is much more
oblong and thin, and lies more according to the length
of the abdomen, like the pancreas. Though the fpleen
of this creature is not firmly tied to the diaphragm,
(which was necelfary in our erec‘t pofhire to hinder it
from failing downwards), yet by the animal’s prone
pofttion, its pofterior parts being rather higher than
the anterior, it comes to be always contiguous to this
mufcle, and is as effectually fubjedted to an alternate
' 20 preffure from its act.ion as the human fpleen is.
I Liver. The human liver has no fiffures or diviftons, nnlefs
we reckon that fmall one betwixt the two pylae, where
the large veflels enter : whereas in a dog and all other
creatures that have a large flexion in their fpine, as
lions, leopards, cats, ire., the liver and lungs are divi¬
ded into a great many lobes by deep fedtions, reach¬
ing the large blood-veffels, which in great motions of
the back-bone may eafily fhuffle over one another, and
fo are in much lefs danger of being torn or bruifed
than if they were formed of one entire piece, as we
really fee it is in horfes, cows, and fuch creatures as
have their back-bone ftilf and immoveable. There is
here no ligamentum latum connedting the liver to the
diaphragm, which in our fituation was neceffary to
keep the vifeus in its place ; whereas in this creature
it naturally gravitates forwards, and by the horizontal
pofition of the animal is in no danger of prefling againft
the vena cava : the preventing of which is one ufe ge¬
nerally affigned to this ligament in man. Had the
liver of the dog been thus eonnedled to the diaphragm,
the refpiration muft neceflarily have fuffered; for as
we fhall fee afterwards, this mufcle is here moveable
at the centre, as well as at the fides: but in man the
liver is fixed to the diaphragm, moftly at its tendinous
part; that is, where the pericardium is fixed to it on
the other fide : fo that it is in no danger of impeding
the refpiration, being fufpended by the mediaftinum
and bones of the thorax. In confequence of this vif¬
eus being divided into fo many lobes, it follows that
the hepatic dudis cannot poflibly join into one common
trunk till they are quite out of the fubftance of the
liver.
We come next, after having examined the chylo-
poietic vifeera, to difeourfe of thofe organs that ferve
21 for the fecretion and excretion of urine, and firft of
Kidneys the kidneys, which in this animal are fituated much in
the fame way as in the human fubject, but have no
fat on their inferior furface, where they face the ab¬
domen, and are of a more globular form than the hu¬
man. The reafon of thefe differences will eafily ap¬
pear, if you compare thoir fituation and poflure in this
animal with thofe in a man who walks eretfl. They
are placed in this fubjedl in the inferior part of the
body, fo are not fnbjedt to the preflhre of the vifeera,
which feems to be the principal caufe of the fatnefs
of thofe organs in us 5 and perhaps may likewife be
the caufe of our being more fubjedt to the Hone than
IVE Anatomy. 2149
other animals. Hence there is no need of any cellu¬
lar fubltance to ward off this preffure where there
would neceffarily be fat colledted ; but the fuperior
part of their kidneys is pretty well covered with far,
lelt they Ihould fufter any compreffxon from the adlion
of the ribs and fpine. 22
In the internal ftrudture there is Hill a more confi- Papill*-
derable difference ; for the papillae don’t here fend out v
fingle the feveral tubuli uriniferi, but being all united
they hang down in form of a loofe pendulous flap in
the middle of the pelvis, and form a kind of feptum
medium ; fo that a dog has a pelvis formed within the
fubltance of the kidney. The only thing that is pro- 23
perly analogous to a pelvis here, is that lac or dilatation Pelvis,
of the ureters formed at the union of the dndlulre uri-
niferae. The reafon of thefe particularities may pro¬
bably be, that the liquors of this animal, as of all thofe
of the carnivorous kind, being much more acrid than
thofe that live on vegetable food, its urine muft incline
much to an alcalefcency ; as indeed the fmell and tafte
of that liquor in dogs, cats, leopards, ire. evidently
fliew, being fetid and pungent, and therefore not con¬
venient to be long retained in the body. For this end
it was proper, that the fecerning organs fhould have
as little impediment as poflible by preffure, ire. in the
performing their functions ; and for that defign, the
mechanifm of their kidneys feems to be excellently
adapted : we have moft elegant pictures in Euftachius
of the kidneys of brutes delineated, as fueh, with a
view to Ihew Vefalius’s error in painting and deferi-
bing them for the human. 24
The gland ulas or capfulse atrabilariae, are thicker and Capfulae a-
rounder than the human, for the fame reafon as the trabilarise.
kidneys. 25
The ureters are more mufcular than the human, Ureters,
becaufe of the favourable paffage the urine has through
them : they enter the bladder near its fundus. 26
The bladder of urine differs confiderably from the Vefica un¬
human ; and firft in its form, which is pretty much nark,
pyramidal or pyriform : this fliape of the dog’s blad¬
der is likewife common to all quadrupeds, except the
ape and thofe of an eredt pofture. In men it is by no
means pyriform, but has a large fac at its pofterior and
inferior part: this form depends entirely on the urine
gravitating in our eretft pofture to its bottom, which
it will endeavour to protrude ; but as it cannot yield
before, being contiguous to the os pubis, it will natu¬
rally ftretch out where there is the leaft refiftance,
that is, at the pofterior and lateral parts; and were
it not for this fac we could not come at the bladder to
extra<ft the ftone either by the kfier or lateral opera¬
tion of lithotomy. Moft anatomifts have delineated
this wrong, fo that fcarce any have juft’y painted it,
excepting Mr Cowper in his Myotomia, and Mr Rully.
It has certainly been from obferving it in brutes,
and young children, that they have been led into this
miftake. The fame caufe, viz. the gravity of the
urine, makes the bladder of a different form in brutes-;
in their horizontal pofition the cervix, from which the
urethra is continued, is higher than its fundus, the urine
mull therefore diftend and dilate the moft depending
part by its weight.
As to its connection, it is faftened to the abdominal Connefti-
mufcles by a procefs of the peritoneum, and that mem- 0B*
brane
2150
COMPARATIVE Anatomy. Chap. It
brane is extended quite over it; whereas in us its fu- Dr Heyfham totally denies, not only the efficacy of
perior and pofterior parts are only covered by it: the caufes commonly affigned for the rabies canina,
hence in man alone the high operation of lithotomy but the nature of the diiit mper itfelf; and conjeetures
28 ran be performed without hazard of opening the ca- that the caufe of it is not a putrefceucy but an acidity
Why the vity of the abdomen. Had the peritoneum been fpread of the fluids. See (the/«</< * i'Ubjoined to) Medicine. j
human over the bladder in its whole extent, the weight of The fpermatic veflels are much the lame way dii- vafa fpct^
bladder but ^ vjfcera jn our ere£t pofture would have fo bore pofed as in us ; they are contained within the cavity matica.
vercdby0' llPon h, that they would not liave allowed any confi- of the abdomen, as the guts are within the pc-rito-
theperito- derable quantity of urine to be colletfed there ; but neum, which is fpread over them, and from which
•ncum. we muff-have been obliged to diicharge its contents they have a membrane like a mefentery, fo hang loofe
too frequently to be conliftent with the functions of a and pendulous in the abdomen : whereas in us they
Tocial life. Whereas by means of the peritoneum the are contained in the cellular part of the peritoneum,
urine is now colledied in fufficient quantity, the vifcera which is tenfely ftretched over them. At tbeir paf- 32 |
not gravitating this way. fage out of the lower belly, there appears a plain per- Whence |
It may be taken for a general rule, that thofe crea- foration or holes j and from obferving this in quadru- the falfe jl
tures that feed upon animal food have their bladder peds has arifen the falfe notion of hernia or rupture
more mufcular and confiderably flronger, and lefs ca- among authors. This opening is of no difadvantage ruptUrc.
pacious than thofe that live on vegetables, fuch as hor- to them, but evidently would have been to us ; for,
fes, cows, fwine, &c. whofe bladder of urine is per- from the weight of our vifcera continually gravitating
feJtly membranous, and very large. This is wifely upon thefe holes, we mufl: have perpetually laboured
adapted to the nature of their food ; for in thefe firlt, under enteroceles j this they are in no hazard of, frnce
as all their juices are more acrid, fb in a particular in them this palfage is at the higheft'part of their
manner their urine becomes exalted, which as its re- belly, and in their horizontal pofture, the vifcera can-
mora might be of very ill confequence mult necefta- not bear upon it: and to prevent even the fmallelt
rily be quickly expelled. This is chiefly effected by hazard, there is a loofe pendulous femilunar flap of
29 its ftimulating this vifcus more ftrongly to contract, fat which ferves two ufes, as it both hinders the in-
A ftimulus and fo difcharge its contents. That a ftimulus is one teftines frtom getting into the paflage, and alfo the
proved to 0f the principal caufes of the excretion of urine, we courfe of the fluids from being flopped in the veflfels,
b^acP^J.nc^ learn from the common faline diuretic medicines that which is fecured in us by the cellular fubftance and
the evacna- are g^ven> which are diffolved into the ferum of the tenfe peritoneum.
tion of the blood, and carried down by the kidneys to the blad- The feptum medium, or conjuntflion of the two tu-
tdaddcr. der : the fame appears likewife from the application nics, is the fame as in men. There is next a palfage
of cantharides, or without any of thefe, when the parts quite down into the cavity, where the tefticles lie.
are made more fenfible, as in an excoriation of the Had the fame ftrudlure obtained in man, by the con-
bladder, there is a frequent defire to make water, ftant drilling down of the liquor which is fecerned for
Accordingly we find thefe animals evacuate their urine the lubricating of the guts, we Ihould always have la-
much more frequently than man, or any other crea- boured under an hydrocele ; but their pofture fecures
ture that lives on vegetable food. And if thefe crea- them from any hazard of this kind : indeed your very
tures, whofe fluids have already a tendency to putre- fat lap-dogs, who confequently have an overgrown
faction, are expofed to heat or hlinger, the liquids omentum, are fometimes troubled with an epiplocele. ^ i
muft for a confiderable time undergo the adiions of The fcrotum is Ihorter and not fo pendulous as ' Scrotum.
Caufes af- the containing veflels, and frequently perform the the human, this it has in common with all the dog
ligned for courfe of the circulation without any new fupplies of kind that want the veficulas feminales, who have it
the rabies food; by which the fluids becoming more and more pretty clofe tucked up, that the feed at each copula-
camna, &c. creature is apt to fall into feverilh and pu- tion might the fooner be brought from the teftes, thus
trid difeafes. Thefe caufes have been thought fuf- in fome meafure fupplying the place of the veficulae
ficient to produce that fatal and melancholy diftemper feminales; for the courfe of the feed through the va- The veficu*
the rabies catiina, vttlpina, &c. in fuch animals; where- fa deferentia is thus ftiortened by placing the fecern- las femina-i
as thofe that feed on vegetable food feldom or never ing veflels nearer the excretory organs. This at the les> |?ow j
contra# thefe difeafes but by infedtion. That the fame time explains the reafon why this creature is fo “’D* ie“' i
caufes commonly afligned for the rabies canina are in- tedious in copulation.
Fuflicient to produce it in ddgs and other animals of The ftrudture of the tefticles is much the fame with Teftes. ;
that kind, is denied in a diflertation on this difeafe by the human ; as are likevvife the corpus pyramidale
Dr Heylham. That heat is infufficient, he proves varicofum or pampiniforme, and the epididymis or ex-
from the difeafe being totally unknown in South Arne- cretory veflel of the tefticle ; the vafa deferentia en-
rica, where the heat is much greater than in this coun- ter the abdomen where the blood veflels come out,
try. Putrid aliment he alfo fays is taken in great and pafling along the upper part of the bladder, are
quantity by dogs without any inconvenience ; and as inferted a little below the bulbous part of the urethra,
it feems in this ftate to be molt agreeable to them, The praeputium has two mufcles fixed to it; one
the rabies canina cannot with any probability be alcri- that arifes from the fphindler ani, and is inferted all 36
bed to it. As to want of water, he obferves that the along the penis, arid this is called retra#or. preeputii, Penis,
difeafe often originates among dogs that are plenti- but the other, whofe office is directly contrary to this,
fully fupplied with that element, while others long de- is cutaneous, and feems to take its origin from the
prived of it have remained perfectly free. In ffiort, mufcles of the abdomen, or rather to be a production
, of
II. COMPARATIVE Anatomy. 2151
of their tunica carnofa, The corpora cavernofa rife
much in the fame way as the human ; but thefe foon
terminate, and the reft is fupplied by a triangular bone,
in the inferior part of which there is a groove exca¬
vated for lodging the urethra. There are upon the
penis two protuberant bulbous flefhy fubftances, at the
back of which are two veins, which by the erecftores
penis are comprefted in the time of coition, and the
circulation being ftopt, the blood diftends the large ca¬
vernous bodies : after the penis is thus fwelled, the
vagina, by its contraction, gripes it clofely, and fb the
male is kept in acftion forne time contrary to his will;
till time be given for bringing a quantity of feed fuf-
ficient to impregnate the female; and thus by that
orgafmus veneris of the female organs, the want of
the veficulae feminales are in fome meafure fupplied.
But as it would be a very uneafy pofture for the dog
to fupport himfelf folely upon his hinder feet, and for
the bitch to fupport the weight of the dog for fo long
a time ; therefore as foon the bulbous bodies are fuf-
ficiently rilled, he gets off and turns averfe to her ;
had then the penis been pliable as in other.animals,
the urethra muft of neceffity have been compreffed
by this twilling, and confequently the courfe of the
feed intercepted j but this is wifely provided againft
by the urethra’s being formed in the hollow of the
bone. After the emiffion of the feed, the parts turn
flaccid, the circulation is reftored, and the bulbous parts
can be eafily extended.
The proftrata feems here divided into two, which
are proportipnably larger than the human, and afford
a greater quantity of that liquid.
The uterus of multifarious animals is little elfe but
a continuation of their vagina, only feparated from
it by a fmall ring or valve. From the uterus two long
canals mount upon the loins, in which the foetus’s are
lodged ; nhefe are divided into different facs, which
are ftrongly conftridled betwixt each foetus, yet thefe
coareftions give way in the time of birth. From
thefe go out the tubse Fallopianae; fo that the ovaria
come to lodge pretty near the kidneys.
We ought next to examine the ftnufture of the
thorax and its contents; but firft it may not be amifs
to remark of the diaphragm in its natural fituation,
that it is in general more loofe and free than the hu¬
man, which is owing to its connection w>ith the neigh¬
bouring parts in a different manner from ours ; the
human diaphragm is connedled to the pericardium,
which again by the intervention of the mediaftinum-
is tied to the fternum, fpine, &c. but here there is
fome diftance between the diaphragm and pericardi¬
um. We obferve further that its middle part is much
more moveable, and the tendinous parts not fo large.
And indeed it was neceffary their diaphragm fhould
be fomewhat loofe, they making more ufe of it in dif¬
ficult refpiration than man. This we may obferve by
the ftrong heaving of the flanks of an horfe or dog
when out of breath ; which correfponds to the riflng
of the ribs in us.
The difpofition and fituation of the mammae vary
as they bear one or more young. Thofe of the uni-
parous kind have them placed between the pofterior
extremities, which in them is the higheft part of their
bodies, whereby their young get at them without the
inconvenience of kneeling ; neverthelefs, when the
creatures are of no great fize, and their breaft large,
as in fheep, the young ones are to take this pofture.
In multifarious animals they muft have a great number
of nipples, that their Teveral young ones may have
room at the fame time, and thefe difpofed over both
thorax and abdomen ; and the creatures generally
lie down when the young are to be fuckled, that they
may give them the moft favourable fituation. From
this it does not appear to be from any particular fit-
nefs of the velfels at certain places, for giving a pro¬
per nourifhment to the child, that the breafts are fo
placed in women, as we find them, but really from
that fituation being the moft convenient, both for mo¬
ther and infant. 43
The fternum is very narrow, and confifts of a great Sternum
number of fmall bones, moveable every way, which t'°1 **
always happens in creatures that have a great mobi¬
lity in their fpine. The ribs are ftreighter and by no
means fo convex as the human, whereby in refpiration
the motion forward will very little enlarge their tho¬
rax, which is compenfated by the greater mobility of
their diaphragm ; fo our thorax is principally enlarged
according to its breadth and depth, and theirs accord¬
ing to. its length. The want of clavicles, and the con-
fequent falling in of the anterior extremities upon the
cheft, may contribute fomewhat to the ftreightnefs of
the ribs. 44-
The mediaftiuum in this creature is pretty broad> Mediafti-
whereas the human being fo narrow has occafioned a I’um‘
difpute whether there be fuch a thing or not. The
pericardium is not here contiguous to the diaphragm-,
but there is an inch of diftance betwixt them, in which
place the fmall lobe of the lungs lodges, and by this
means the liver, &c. of this animal, though continual¬
ly prefling upon the diaphragm, yet cannot diflurb the
heart’s motion. 45
The heart is fituated with its point almoft directly Cor.
downwards, according to the creature’s pofture, and is
but very little inclined to the left fide. Its point is much
lharper, and its fhape more eonoidal than the human.
Here the names of right and left ventricles are pro¬
per enough, though not fo in the human, which ought
rather to be called anterior and pofterior, or fuperior, 4ft
and inferior. The animal has the vena cava of a Vena.Cava,
confiderable length within the thorax, having near the
whole length of the heart to run over ere it gets at
the firms lowerianus dexter.. In men, as foon as it
pierces the diaphragm, fo foon it enters the pericar¬
dium, which is firmly attached to it, and immediately
gets into the finus Lowerianus ; which finus in the hu¬
man fubjeeft, by the oblique fituation of the heart, is
almoft contiguous to the diaphragm, and,by this we
difeover that fevera! authors have taken their delinea¬
tions of the human heart from brutes, which is eafily
detedled by the (hape and fituation of the heart, and
long vena cava within the thorax.
This fituation of the heart of the creature agrees
belt with the Ihape of its thorax, which is lower than
the abdomen. 47-
The egrefs of the large blood-velfels from the heart Aorta ad
is fomewhat different from the human, for here the 5er|d«is
left fubclavian comes off firft, and then a large trunk
runs fame way upwards before, it gives off the left e
carotid.
2I52
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
Chap. H.
A mechani¬
cal account
of the fu.
llrength of
the right
arm, leg.
Thym
Glandula
thyroidea.
carotid, and fplits into the carotid and lubclavian of
the right fide : ib that neither here, properly {peak¬
ing, is there an aorta afcendens, more than in the hu¬
man ; but this name has probably been impoled upon
it from obferving this in a cow, where indeed there is
an afcending and defcending aorta.
From this fpeciality of the diltribution of the vef-
fels of the right fide, which happens, though not in fo
great a degree, in the human I'ubjeft, we may per¬
haps in fome meafure account for the general greater
firength, readinefs or faculty of motion which is ob-
fervable in the right arm. Upon meafuring the fides
of the veflels, the furface of the united trunk of the
right fubdawian and carotid is lei’s than that of the left
fubclavian and carotid, as they are feparated ; if lo,
the refiitance to the blood mufi be lefs in that common
trunk than in the left lubclavian and carotid ; but if
the refiftance be fmaller, the abfolute force with which
the blood is lent from the heart being equal, there mufi
neceflarily be a greater quantity of blood lent through
them in a given time: and as the firength of the mufcles
is, Cceteris paribus, as the quantity of blood lent into
them in a given time, thole of the right arm will be
flronger than thofe of the left. Now, children being
confcious of this fuperior firength, ule the right upon
all occalions ; and thus from uie comes that great dif¬
ference which is fo obfervable. That this is a fuffici-
ent caufe feems evident from fadt; for what a differ¬
ence is there betwixt the right and the left arm of one,
who has played much at tennis ? View but the arms
of a blacklinith, and legs of a footman, and you’ll
foon be convinced of this effedt arifing from ufing
them. But if by any accident the right arm is kept
from adtion for fome time, the other from being ufed
gets the better, and thole people are left-handed : for
it is not to be imagined that the fmall odds in the ori¬
ginal formation of the veffels Ihould be fulficient to
yefift the effedl of ufe and habit, (infiances of the con¬
trary occur every day) ; ’tis enough for our prefent
argument, that where no means are ufed to oppofe it,
the odds are fufficient to determine the choice in fa¬
vour of the right. Now becaufe it is natural to begin
with the leg correfponding to the hand we have molt
power of, this is what gives alfo a fuperiority to the
right leg.
This difference is not peculiar to man, but is ftill
more obfervable in thole creatures, in whom the fame
mechanifm does obtain in a greater degree. Do but
obferve a dog at a trot, how he bears forwards with
his right fide ; or look at him when a-fcraping up any
thing, and you will prefently fee that he ufes his right
much oftner than he does his left foot. Something
analogous to this may be obferved in horfes.
The thymus of this creature is proportionally much
larger than ours, whereas the glandula thyroidea is
much lefs, and it is generally remarked that thefe two
glands do thus always fuppiy the place of each other:
that is, in fuch animals as have a large thymus ; the
glandula thyroidea is fmaller, and vice verfa. Hence
we are naturally led to afcribe the fame ufe to both,
viz. the reparation of a thin lymph for diluting the
chyle in the thoracic ducfi, before it be poured into
the blood ; then if we conlider the different formation
of the thorax in both, we fliall readily account for the
variety in the bulk of thefe two glands. Refpiration
being chiefly performed in man by the widening of
the cheit, the lungs at every infpiration muft prefs up¬
on the thymus, and confpquently diminilh it; but the
diaphragm yielding more in the dog’s infpiration, this
gland is not fo much prefled by the lungs and fo will
he larger, and hence the glandula thyroidea will be
proportion ably lefs : again, from the poffure of this
creature, we lhall lee that it was much more conveni¬
ent for a dog to have the moft part of the diluting
lymph fupplied by the thymus, fince the neck being
frequently in a defcending pollute, the lymph of the
thyroid gland would have a very difad van tageous
courfe to get to the thoracic dutfl : whereas in the
human body, the thymus is really below the lacteal ca¬
nal, where it makes its curvature before it opens into
the fubclavian, and confequently there is a neceflity
of a confiderable lhare of the diluting liquor being
furnilhed by the thyroid gland, which is fituated much
higher, fo that its lymph has the advantage of a per¬
pendicular delcent. ^
We may here obferve that the thoracic duCt in a Dufhis
dog has no curvature before it enters the fubclavian thorackus.
vein. The horizontal pofition of this animal allow¬
ing a favourable enough courfe to the chyle, ib as not
to need that turn to force its paffage into the blood.
The lungs of this creature are divided into more nu¬
merous lobes and deeper than they are in man, for
the fame reafon as the liver. The left fide of the
thorax in this animal bears a greater proportion to the
right than in man, the one being nearly as three to
two, the other as four to three. j2
We look on it as a general rule, that all quadru- Neck,
peds, as having occafion to gather their food from the
ground, are provided with longer necks than man ;
but as a long neck not only gives the advantage of
too long a lever to the weight of the head, but alfo
when the animal is gathering his food, makes the brain
in danger of being opprelfed with too great a quan¬
tity of blood, by the liquor in thefe arteries having
the advantage of a delcent, while that in the veins
muft remount a confiderable way contrary to its own
gravity; it was therefore neceffary that a part of the
length of the neck Ihould be fupplied by the length of
the jaws. Thus we fee horfes, cows, be. who have
no occafion for opening their mouths very wide, yet
have long jaws. Bull dogs indeed, and fuch animals
as have occafion for very ftrong jaws, muft of necef-
fity have them Ihort; becaufe the longer they are,
the refifiance to be overcome a<5ts with a longer le¬
ver. Another exception to this general rule, is, fuch
animals as are furnifhed with fomething analogous to
hands to convey their food to their mouths, as cats,
apes, be. The teeth of this creature plainly Ihew it
to be of the carnivorous kind, for there are none of
them made for grinding their food, but only for tear¬
ing and dividing it. Even its pofterior teeth are not
formed with rough broad furfaces as ours are ; but
are made confiderably lharper, and prefs over one
another when the mouth is Ihut; that fo they may
take the firmer hold of whatever comes betwixt them.
The tongue in confequence of the length of the Tongue;
jaws, is much longer than ours; and as this creature !
feeds with his head in a depending pollure, the bolus
would
S3*
Jaws.
€hap. II. C O M P A R A T
56
Amygdals,
Velum pen¬
dulum pa-
lati.
Glottis.
59
Epiglottis-
60
The ufe of
the uvula in
tnan.
61
Oefopha-
gus.
62
Organ of
fmell.
would always be in danger of falling out of the mouth,
were it not for feveral prominences placed moftly at
the root of the tongue, and crooked backwards in
fuch a manner as to allow any thing to prels eafily
down to the jaws; but to hinder its return. In fame
animals who feed on living creatures, thefe under
hooks are Hill more confpicuous ; as in feveral large
filhes, where they are almolt as large as their teeth in
the forepart of their mouth, and near as firm and
ftrong.
When we open the mouth, we fee the amygdals
very prominent in the pofterior part of it; fo that it
would appear at firlt view, that thefe were inconve¬
niently placed, as being continually expofed to injuries
from the hard fuhltances this creature fwallows ; but
upon a more narrow fcrutiny we find this provided
for by two membranous gapfuke, into which the amyg¬
dals, when preffed, can efcape and remove themfelves
from fuch injuries.
The velum pendulum palati, is in this creature con-
fiderably longer than in man, to prevent the food from
getting into his nofe ; which would happen more fre¬
quently in this animal than in man, becaufe of its fi-
tuation while feeding.
In this fubje<5t there is no uvula; but then the epi¬
glottis, when preffed down, covers the whole rima en¬
tirely, and naturally continues fo 5 there is therefore a
ligamqnt, or rather mufcle, that comes from the os hy-
oides and root of the tongue, that is inferred into'that
part of the epiglottis where it is articulated with the
cricoid cartilage, which ferves to raife it from the ri¬
ma, though not fo (Irongly but that it may with a fmall
force be clapt down again. If then in all fuch ani¬
mals as have no uvula, the epiglottis is fo ordered as
, to be capable of covering the rima entirely, and if in
man the epiglottis cannot be fo preffed backwards and
downwards, as to fliut up the glottis perfectly, but
leaves a fpace that can be exactly filled up by the
uvula, we may very reafonably conclude that the ufe
of this part is to fupply this deficiency in the epi¬
glottis.
In the upper part of the pharynx, behind the cri¬
coid cartilage, there is a pretty large gland to be
found, which ferves not only for the feparation of a
mucous liquor to lubricate the bolus as it paffes this
way, but alfo fupplies the place of a valve, to hinder
the food from regurgitating into the mouth, which it
would be apt to do by reafon of the defcending fitua-
tion of the creature’s head.
The oefophagus is formed pretty much in the fame
way as the human ; authors indeed generally alledge,
that quadrupeds have their gullet compofed of a double
row of fpiral fibres decufling one another ; but this is
proper to ruminating animals, who have occafion for
fuch a decuffation of fibres. The action of thefe may
ealily be obferved in a cow chewing her cud.
The nofe is generally longer than in man, and its
external paffage much narrower. The internal ftruc-
ture is alfo better adapted for an acute fmelling, ha¬
ving a larger convulated furface on which the mem-
brana Scheideriana is fpread, and this is to be obfer¬
ved in moft quadrupeds, who have the offa fpongiofa
commonly large, and thefe too divided into a great
number of exceffively fine thin lamellae. The ele-
Vol. III.
IVE Anatomy. 2153
phant, which has a head pretty large in proportion t&
its body, has the greateit part of it taken up with the
cavity of the nofe and frontal finnffes, which bit ex¬
tend almoft over their whole head, and leaves but a
fmall cavity for their brains. A very nice fenfe of
fmelling was not fo abfolutely neceffary for man, who
has judgment and experience to diiecit him in the
choice of his food ; whereas brutes, wiio have only
their fenfes, mud have thefe of neceffity acute, fome
having one fenfe in greater perfection than others,
according to their different way of life. We not only
conclude a priori from the large expanded membrana
Scheideriana that their fenfe of fmelling is very acute,
but we find it fo by cows, and horfes, diflinguifhing
fo readily betwixt noxious and wholefome herbs,
which they do principally by this fenfe. 63.
The external ear in different quadrupeds is differ- Auris.
ently framed, but always calculated to the creature’s
manner of life : in fhape it commonly refembles the
oblique fe&ion of a cone from near the apex to the
bafis. Hares and fuch other animals as are daily ex¬
pofed to infults from hearts of prey, have large ears
dire<5ted backwards, their eyes warning them of any
danger before ; rapacious animals, on the other hand,
have their ears placed directly forwards, as we fee in
the lion, cat, \$c. The flow hounds and other ani¬
mals that are defigned to hear moft diftin&ly the
founds coming from below, have their ears hanging
downwards. Man again, who muft equally hear
founds coming from all quarters, but efpecially fuch
as are lent from about his own height, has his exter¬
nal ear placed in a vertical manner, fomewhat turned
forward. In fhort, where-ever we fee a fpeciality in
the make of this organ in any creature, we fhall with
very little reflection difcover this form to be more
convenient for that creature than another. There
are fome differences to be obferved in the ftruefture of
the internal ear, in different animals; but we know fo
very little of the ufe of the particular parts of that or¬
gan in the human fubjeft, that it is altogether impof-
fible to affign reafons for thefe variations in other
creatures.
All quadrupeds have at the internal canthus of the Membrars
eye, a ftrong firm membrane with a cartilaginous niftitans.
edge, which may be made to cover fome part of their
eye, and this is greater or lefs in different animals,
as their eyes are more or lefs expofed to dangers in
fearching after their food : this viembrana mElitans,
as it is called, is not very large in this animal; cows
and horfes have it fo large as to cover one half of the
eye like a curtain, and at the fame time is tranlparent
enough to allow abundance of the rays of light to pafs
through it; fifhes have a cuticle always over their
eyes, as they are ever in danger in that inconftant ele¬
ment. In this then we may alfo obferve a fort of
gradation. ^
All quadrupeds have a feventh mufcle belonging to Mufculus
the eye, called fufpenforius. It furrounds almoft the fufpenfo*
whole optic nerve, and is fixed into the fclerotic coat rius*
as the others are ; its ufe is to fuftain the weight of
the globule of the eye, and prevent the optic nerve
being too much ftretched, without obliging the four
ftraight mufcles to be in a continual contraction, which
would be inconvenient. At the fame time this mufcle
12 R may
2154
66
Pupilla.
6?
Tapeum.
68
Cerebrum
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
Chap. H.
may be brought to affift any of the other four, by
caufing one particular portion of it to aft at a time.
The next thing to be remarked, is the figure of the
pupil, which is different in different animals, but al¬
ways exaftly accommodated to the creature's way of
life. Man has it circular for obvious reafons; an ox
has it tranfverfe, to take in a larger view of his food ;
cats again have theirs fomewhat perpendicular, (but
can alter it pretty much) for a iimilar reafon, and fio
of the reft: the pupil of different animals varies in
widenefs according as the internal orgaqs of vifion are
more or lefs acute ; thus cats and owls who feek their
prey in the night, or in dark places (and confequently
muft have their eyes f’o formed as that a few rays of
light m:i^ make a lively imprefiion on the retina) have
their pupils in day-time contrafted into a very narrow
fpace, as a great number of rays would opprefs their
nice organs, while in the night they dilate confider-
ably. In the fame way when the retina is inflamed,
a great number of rays of light would o.ccaflon a pain¬
ful fenfation, therefore the pupil is contrafted ; on the
contrary in dying people, or in a beginning amaurolis
it is greatly dilated, as the eyes on fuch occafions are
very difficultly affecfted, and as it were infenfible.
The pofterior part of the choroid coat, which is
called tape turn, is of different colours in different crea¬
tures. Or oxen feeding moftly on grafs have this
membrane of a green cok)ur, that it may refleft upon
the retina all the rays of light which come from objefts
of that colour, while other rays are obfcured : thus the
animal fees its food better than other objefts. Cats
and owls have their tapetum of a whitifh colour, and
for the fame reafons have the pupil very dilatable, and
their organs of vilion acute ; and we fnall find that all
animals fee more or lefs diffinftly in the dark, accord¬
ing as their tapetum approaches nearer to a white or
black colour. Thus dogs who have it of a greyifh
colour diftinguifh objefts better in the night than man,
whole tapetum is dark brown, and who we believe fees
worft in the dark of any creature : it being originally
defigned that he fhould reft from all kinds of employ¬
ments in the night-time. The difference then of the
colour of the tapetum, as indeed the fabric of any o-
ther part in different creatures, always depends on
fome particular advantage accruing to the animal in
its peculiar manner of life from this Angularity.
We fliall now proceed to the brain, which we re¬
mark in the firft place is proportionally much fmaller
in all quadrupeds than the human. The reafon of
which may be, that as thofe creatures for the moft part
feek their food with their bemads in a depending po¬
llute,. this fituation would make it very inconvenient
for the brain itfelf to fend its animal fpirits, (or its in¬
fluence and energy, let that be what it will) through
the nerves, fo that it was neceflary they fhould be fup-
plied from fomewhere elfe ; and confequently there
was no reafon for the brain itfelf being of a great bulk.
As a confirmation of this theory, we find that the in-
tercoftal and eight pair of nerves, which ferve the vi¬
tal organs in the human body, take their origin from
the encephalon, which in quadrupeds come moftly
from the theca vertebrarum. Again there was no fuch
occafion for fo great a quantity of brains in thofe ani¬
mals as in man ; feeing in them all its energy is em¬
ployed in their progreflion, while man has a great
wafte of fpirits in the exercife of his reafon and intel¬
lectual faculties. And befides all this, a great bulky
brain would be inconvenient to thefe creatures, in fo
far as it would add confiderably to the weight of the
head, which having the advantage of a long lever
to aft with, would require a much greater force to
fupport it, than now it does; for the heads of the
greateft part of quadrupeds are not near fo heavy as
they would at fight feem to be, from the [uius fronta-
les being produced a great way upwards to enlarge
the organs of fmelling.
The pits in the anterior part of their Ikulls are much
more confpicuous than in the human cranium, which
may be occafioned by the depending pofture of thefe
creatures heads, while they gather their food : the
brain at this time gravitating much on the bones while
they are as yet foit, will gradually make impreflions
upon them at thefe places where it rifes into eminen-
cies. This is prevented in man moftly by his ereft
pofture.
The falx is not near fo large in quadrupeds as in
man, as they have little occafion to be on either fide ;
and the two hemifpheres of the brain are in a great
meafure hindred from juftling againft one another in
violent motions,, by the brain’s infinuating itfelf into
the above-mentioned pits.
The fecond procefs of the dura mater, or tentorium
cerebdlo fuperexpanfum is confiderably thicker and
ftronger in moft quadrupeds than in man, efpecially
in fuch of them as are very fwift of foot, as hares and
rabbits, and that moft when they are old. This mem¬
brane is generally offified, that it may the more eflec-
tually keep off the weight of the fuperincumbent brain
from the cerebellum in tl -eir rapid motions, which o-
therwife would be of bad confequence.
The olfaftory nerves are very large, andjuftly de-
ferve the name of procejfus mamillaris. They are
hollow, and confift of a medullary and cineritious fub-
ftance ; and at firft fight appear to be anterior ven¬
tricles of the brain produced ; but in man they are
fmall, and without any difcernable cavity. The rea¬
fon of this is pretty evident, if we coniider how this
animal’s head is fituated; for the lymph continually
gravitating upon the inferior part of the ventricles may
thus elongate and produce them: but from this very
inferior part the olfaftory nerves rile, and are fent
immediately through the os ethmoides into the nofe.
Hence the ancients thinking they were continued hol¬
low into the nofe, believed they were the emunftories-
of the brain. In the brain of fheep, which by its firm
texture is the beft fubjeft of any for fearching into the
ftrufture of this part, wc evidently fee, that the name
of the figmoid cavities was very properly applied by
the ancients to the lateral ventricles of the brain, which:
are really of a greater extent than they are ordinarily
painted by the anatomifts, reaching farther backwards
and forwards again under the fubftance of the brain.
The nates and teftes defefve this name much better
here than in the human body with refpeft to each o-
ther. They are here alfo of different colours, the
nates being of the colour of the cortical, and the teftes
of the medullary fubftance of the brain : whereas in
man they are both of one colour. The reafon of thefe
differences,
6<> 1
Falx. I
aris- |i
7r
Nates.
Teftes.
2155
Chap. III. G O M P A R A T
differences, and others of the like nature to be met
with, we fliall not pretend to determine ; for we have
hitherto fuch an imperfedt knowledge of the brain it-
felf, that we are entirely ignorant of the various ufes
of its different parts; we may in general conclude, that
the varying in one animal, from what it is in another,
^ 1 72 is fitted to the creature’s particular way of living,
sfeete mira- The rete mirabile Gaieni, fituated on each fide of the
) pile GAtrx\. fella turcica,about which there has been fo much difpute,
is more remarkable in quadrupeds than in the human
fubject, though it is certainly to be found there too ;
notwithftanding feveral anatomifts have denied its ex-
iftence. The ufe indeed which Galen aferibes to it is
frivolous, and, not welL grounded ; for he will have
this plexus of veffels ferve for checking the impetuo-
fity of the blood in the brain; but it is evident this can¬
not be the ufe of it: if indeed the whole carotid artery
i had fplit into fuch fmall veffels as compofe this net¬
work, the motion of the blood would certainly have
been retarded in it; but this is not the cafe, for it on¬
ly fends off a few fmall twigs to compofe the plexus
at its entry into the cranium ; and the branches going
out from this fame plexus, are diflributed to the neigh¬
bouring nerves : among the reft it gives fome twigs
to the ophthalmic branch of the fifth pair. It is this
diftribution of thefe arteries makes it fo difficult to de¬
termine whether there is a communication between
the intercoftal and that nerve ; for if you diffedf the
parts in a recent fubjeift, you would at firft view af¬
firm, that there is an anaftomofis; but when the caro-
II tid artery is injected, and the plexus filled with the
Tubtile liquor, thefe branches, which formerly feemed
to be nerves, have now the appearance of arteries by
. j the veffels of their coats being injetfted.
The ftrudiure of the brain differing but very little
in all quodrupeds, it will be needlefs to examine it in
I? any other.
(73 Chai>. III. Tbc Anatomy of a Cow.
The next fpecies of quadrupeds we propofed to
confider was the ruminant kind, of which we have an
example in a cow ; and accordingly fhall take the foetus
of the animal in utero, that we may firft remark fome
things that are peculiar to it in that ftate, and after¬
wards proceed to examine its vifeera as a ruminant
i animal; firft then as a foetus.
! Uterus. The form of a cow’s uterus differs from the human,
in having two pretty large cornua. This is common
j 75 to it with other brutes ; for a bitch has two long cornua
; ornua u- uteri; but thefe again differ (as being multiparous and
fei- uniparous) in this, that in the bitch’s cornua the fee-
tufes are contained, whereas here there is only part of
; • the fecundines, being moftly the allantois with the in¬
cluded liquor. The mufcular fibres of the uterus are
more eafily difeovered ; its internal furface has a great
v number of fpungy, oblong, protuberant, glandular bo¬
dies fixed to it by a fine membrane : thefe are com-
pofed of the feveral large veffels of the uterus termi¬
nating here. Thefe are very fmall, and fometimes
not to be obferved at all. In an impregnated uterus,
we can eafily prefs out of them a chylous mucilaginous
liquor ; they are compofed of a great many proceffes
or digituli, and deep caverns anfwering to as many
proceffes and caverns of the placenta. Their refem-
IVE Anatomy,
blance has occafioned the name of PapilLe to be given
them ; and hence it was that Hippocrates Was induced
to believe, that the foetus fucked in utero. It is not
eafy to determine, whether the uterus grows thicker Uterus if
or thinner in the time of geftation. The membranes thicker in
it is plain (by the ftretchingof the parts) muft be made tim.e of B£-
thinner ; but then it is as evident, that the veifels are ftat,OR-
at that time enlarged, upon which principally the thick-
nefs of any part depends ; fo there feems to be as
much gained the one way, as loft the other. The os
uteri is entirely (hut up by a glutinous mucilaginous
fubftance, that is common to the ferpales of all crea¬
tures when with young ; by this the external air is
excluded, which would loon make the liquors corrupt,
it alfo prevents the inflammation of the membranes,
and the hazard of abortion. By this means alfo the
lips of the womb are kept from growing together,
which otherwife they would certainly at this time do.
There are mucous glands placed here to fereen this
gluten, which on the breaking of the membranes with
the contained waters make a fapo that lubricates and
walhes the parts, and makes them eafily yield. The
firft of jhe proper involucra of the foetus is the cho¬
rion. 77
The chorion is a pretty ftrong firm membrane, on Chorion,
whofe external furface are difperfed agreat many red
flefliy bodies of the fame number, fize and ftructure
with the papillte, with which they are mutually indent¬
ed. They have been called Gotyledones from xotvA»i c ,
cavity. This is greatly difputed by fome as a name nes^ C
very improper, but without reafon, fince the furface
that is connetfled to the papillaj is concave, though
when feparated it appears rather convex. To (him
all difpute, they may be called properly enough P/a-
centula, fince they ferve the fame ufe as the placenta
in women. The feparation of thefe from the papillae
without any dilaceration feems to prove beyond a re¬
ply, that there can be here no anaftomofes betwixt
the velfels; on their coats run a great number of vef¬
fels, that are fent to the feveral placentulae, on the ex¬
ternal fide next to the uterus; whereas in creatures that
have but one placenta, as in the human fubjeift, cats,
dogs, ire. the adhefion is fomewhat firmer : the pla¬
centae are likewife joined to the papillae in the cornua
uteri. We fliall next give the hiftory of the allantois. 79
This is a fine tranfparant membrane contiguous to Allantois,
the former. It is not a general involucrum of the foetus
in the mother ; for it covers only a fmall part of the
amnios : it is moftly lodged in the cornua uteri. In
mares, bitches and cats, it furrounds the amnios,
being every where interpofed betwixt it and the
chorion. In flieep and goats it is the fame as in this
animal; and in fwine and rabbits it covers ftill lefs
of the amnios. This fac is probably formed by the
dilation of the urachus, which is connefted at its other
end to the fundus of the bladder, through which it re¬
ceives its contents ; and the membrane is doubled at
the extremity of the canal to hinder the return of the
urine back into the bladder. Its veffels are excef-
fively fine and few, and we cannot force an injected
liquor farther than the beginning of this coat. This
membrane is fo far analogous to the cuticula, as not to
be liable to corruption, or eafily irritated by acrid li¬
quors. The exiftence of this membrane in women
has
2156
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
80
The argu¬
ments for
and againft
the human
allantois.
sa
Canalis >e-
nofus.
has been very warmly difputed on both fides : thofe
who are againft its exiftence deny they could ever
find it, and allowing it were fo, alledge, that fince the
urachus is impervious, as appears by our not being
able to throw liquors from the bladder into it, or v/ce
vetja, it cannot ferve the ufe, that is agreed by all it
does lerve in beafts, and therefore in the human body
there is no fuch thing : but if we confider on the other
hand, that firft there feenis to be the fame neceffity for
fuch a relervoir in man, as in other animals. Secondly,
That we adlually find urine contained in the bladder of
the human foetus. Thirdly, That urine has been evacu¬
ated at the navel when the urethra was (lopped, which
urine without this conduit would have fallen into the
cavity of the abdomen. Fourthly, That midwives do
generally remark two different forts of waters come
away at the time of birth; and laftly. That Dr Littre
and Dr Hale have given in this tnembrane of an hu¬
man fubjecl, with all the other fecundines curioufly
prepared, the one to the Royal Academy at Paris, the
other to the Royal Society at London, by which fo-
cieties their refpe<ftive accounts are attefted ; not to
mention Verheyen, Heifter, Keil, i?c. who affirm
their having feen it; and Mr Albinus, that famous ana-
tomift, profeflbr at Leyden, is faid to have (hewn to
his college every year a preparation of it. On all
thefe accounts, it feems moft probable, that there is
fuch a membrane in the human body.
The third proper integument of the foetus is the
amnios ; it is thinner and firmer than the chorion ; it
has numerous ramifications of the umbilical veffels
fpread upon it, the lateral branches of which feparate
a liquor into its cavity. This is the proper liquor of
the amnios, which at firft is in a fmall quantity, after¬
wards encreafes for fome months, then again de-
creafes ; and in a cow near her time, the quantity of
this liquor is not abofre a pound. This membrane
does not enter the cornua uteri in this creature.
There are here two venae umbilicales, and but one in
the human fubje<ft; becaufe the extreme branches co¬
ming from the feveral placentulse could not unite, fo
foon, asahey would have done, had they come all from
one cake as in the human.
There is a fmall round flefhy body that fwims in the
urine of this creature, mares, l$c. called cuticula,
which is the hypomenes of the ancients. Several idle
opinions and whims have been entertained as to its
ufe ; but that feems to be (till unknown, or how it
is generated or nouriffied ; for it has no connexion
with the foetus or placentulae.
Having thus confidered the feveral involucra of
this animal in a foetus date, let us next obferve
the fpecialities in its internal ftrufture peculiar to a
foetus.
The umbilical vein joins the vena portarum in the
capfula gliffoniana without fending off any branches ns
it does in the human fubjeft. This vein foon after
birth turns to a ligament, yet there are fome inftances
where it has rentained pervious for feveral years after
birth, and occafioned an hemorrhage. We may next
obferve the dutft called canalis venofus, going ftraight
from the capfula gliffoniana to the vena cava;. this
turns alfo afterwards to a ligament. The umbilical
arteries rife at acute angles from the internal iliacks,
chap, nr.}
whatever fome may fay to the contrary : thefe alfo
become impervious.
The pulmonary artery coming from the right ven¬
tricle of the heart divides into two, the fmalleft called
canalis arteriofus opens into the defeending aorta; the
other divides into two, to ferve the lung on each fide.
The foramen ovale is placed in the partition betwixt Foramen
the right and left auricles. At the edge of this hole ovale,
is fixed a membrane, which when much Jli etched will
cover it all over, but more eafily yields to a force that
ads from the right auricle to the left, than from the *
left to the right. After what has been faid, we may
eafily underftand how the circulation is performed in g5
a foetus. The blood being brought from the placenta The circu
of the mother, is thrown into the capfula glift'oniana, lation, hov d,
where it is intimately blended with the blood in the performed >d
vena portarum : then part of this blood goes direcdly in a foetu«'
into the vena cava by the duiftus venolus, the relt
palfes through the liver. Firft then the whole is fent
from the vena cava into the right auricle, from whence
part of it is fent by the foramen ovale into the left
auricle ; the reft paffes into the right ventricle ; then
into the pulmonary artery ; then the greateft (hare it
receives is fent immediately into the detcending aorta
by the canalis arteriofus ; and the remainder circulates
through the lungs, and is fent back by the pulmonary
veins into the left auricle ; which, with the blood’
brought there by the foramen ovale is fent into the
left ventricle, from whence it is driven by the aorta
through the body. The great defign of this mecha-
nifm is, that the whole mafs of blood might not pafs
through the collapfed lungs of the foetus, but that part
of it might pafs through the foramen ovale and canalis
arreriofus without circulating at all through the lungs.
This was the opinion that univerfaliy prevailed till Meffieurs
the end of the laft century, when it was violently op-'Mery ant
pofed by Monfieur Mery, who is very fmgular in (e- ^inflow, rol
veral of his opinions. Fie will not allow that the fo- nions °of
ramen ovale tranftnits blood from the right to the left examined ini
auricle, but on the contrary from the left to the right;
and that for no other reafon but becaufe he obferved
the pulmonary artery in a foetus longer than the aorta :
Mr Window endeavours to reconcile thefe two opi¬
nions, by faying the blood may pafs either way, and
that it is here as it were blended ; his reafon is, that
on putting the heart in water, the foramen ovale
tranfmits it any way. Mr Rohault, profeffor of ana¬
tomy at Turin, and formerly one of Mery’s fcholars,
ftrongly defends his mafter and criticifes Mr Window-
What he principally builds on is the appearance this
foramen has in fome dryed preparations : this Mr
Window won’t allow as a proof. After all, the com¬
mon opinion feems moft probable; and that for the
following reafons : firft the pulmonary artery being
larger fignifies nothing, fince its coats are not only
thinner, and will bte more eafily diftended, but alfo
the refiftance to the blood in the pulmonary artery
from the collapfed lungs is greater than the refiftance
to the blood in the aorta. Secondly, if we (hould al¬
low any of thefe two uncommon opinions, we (hould
have the right ventricle vaftly more capacious than
the left; for if we fuppofe the foramen ovale to be
capable of tranfmitting one half of the whole mafs of
blood in any given time, and the arteriofus as much in
the
: Chap. IH. COMPARAT
the fame time; then, according to Mr Mery’s opinion,
the whole mals of blood being driven from the right
ventricle into the pulmonary artery, one third palles
by the canalis arteriofus into the defcending aorta ;
two thirds puffing through the lungs and returning
into the left auricle, one half of it, or one third of the
whole mafs paffes by the foramen ovale into the right
auricle, and the other or the laft third will be lent
into the left ventricle, and thence expelled into the
aorta ; which third, with that from the pulmonary ar¬
tery by the canalis arteriofus, circulating through the
body, are returned' into the right auricle, where
meeting with the other third from the foramen
ovale, with it are fent into the right ventricle to
undergo the fame courfe. Thus the whole mafs is
expelled by the right ventricle, and only one third
by the left. If this was the cafe, why is not the
right ventricle three times as large and Itrong as the
left? Then, if according to Mr Winflow’s fyitem, the
foramen ov^le tranfmits equal quantities from both
auricles, this comes to the fame, as if there was no
foramen ovale at all; that is to fay, the wiiole mafs
going from the right auricle into the right ventricle
and pulmonary artery, one third of the whole mafs
paffes into the aorta through the canalis arteriofu?, fhe
other two thirds paffing^ through the lungs, return to
the left ventricle and auricle, to be fent through the
canalis arteriofus to the right ventricle to undergo the
fame fate ; thus the right ventricle expels the whole
mafs, the left only one third ; but if according to the
comition opinion we fuppofe the foramen ovale to
convey the blood from the right to the left auricle ;
then one third pafTes this way into the left ventricle,
the other two thirds are fent by the right ventricle
into the pulmonary artery, from whence one third paf¬
fes by the canalis arteriofus into the aorta defcendens,
the other third circulates through the lungs and is re¬
turned into the left ventricle, where meeting with
that from the foramen ovale, is with it expelled into
the aorta ; and with the one third tranfmitted by the
canalis arteriofus returns into the auricle to run the
fame race as before. Thus we conclude that two
R thirds are expelled by each ventricle, and the whole
circulates through the body ; and hence they come to
be of pretty equal dimenlions. In all this calculation
we have had no regard to the blood difcharged from
the umbilical veffels ; but the greater quantity retur¬
ned by the veins than fent out by the arteries (till
i 87 argues for the common opinion.
1 The kid- The kidneys in the foetus are compofed of different
; neys. lobes, which ferves to give us an idea of the kidneys
being a congeries of different glands ; thefe lobes be¬
ing kept contiguous by the external membrane are
g8 preffed by the other vifcera till at length they unite.
1 Thehiftory We come now to confider the creature as a rumi-
' ef it as a nant animal. There are no dentes incifores in the
!| ruminant upper jaw, but the gums are pretty hard, their tongue
I animal. rough ; and they fupply this defeat by wrapping their
tongue round a tuft of grafs, fo prefling it againft the
upper-jaw keep it flretched, and cut it with the teeth
of the under-jaw ; then, without chewing, throw it
down into the oefophagus, which in thefe creatures
confifts of a double row of fpiral fibres decuffating one
another. All animals which ruminate muft have more
[VEANATOMr. 2157
ventricles than one ; fome have two, fome three; our
prefeut iuhjetil has no lefs than four. The food is It has four
carried directly down into the firlt, which lies upon ftomachs.
the left-fide and is the large!! of all; it is called ya-j-rp
ventriculus, and xoi?ua by way of eminence. It is Their
what is called by the general name of paunch by the names and
vulgar. There are no rugae upon its internal furface ; defcnption.
the food, by the force of its mnfcular coat, and the li¬
quors poured in here, is fiifficiently macerated, after
which it is forced up hence by the oefophagus into the
month, and there it is made very Ihiall by maftica-
tion ; this is what is properly called chewing the cud,
or rumination ; after this it is fent down by the gullet
into the fecond, for the oefophagus opens indifferent¬
ly into both ; however the creature has a power to
direct it into which it will. Some tell us that the
drink goes into the fecond ; but that might be eafily
determined by making them drink before flaughter ;
the fecond flomuch, which is the anterior and Imallelt,
is called reticulum, the bonnet or king's-bood.
It confifts of a great number of cells on its internal
furface of a regular pentagonal figure,dike to a honey¬
comb. Here the food is farther macerated, from
which it is protruded into the third, called or
omafum, vulgo the manyplus-, becaufe the internal fur¬
face riles up into a great many plica? or folds, and
flratinn fuper Jlratum, according to the length of this
ftomach. Some of thefe plicae are further produced
into the ftomach than others, /. e. firft two-long ones
c.n each fide, and within thefe, two Ihorter in the
middle, tec. There are feveral glands in this ftomach
which is next to the mCKuh, in bignefs, and from this it
pafles into the fourth, whofe names are nmo-rpov, abo-
mafum, caille, or the red, which is the name it com¬
monly has becaufe of its colour-. Caille fignifies curd¬
led; and hence the French have given that as a name
to this fourth ftomach ; becaufe any milk that is taken
down by young calves from the long remora it makes
here, turns add ; and by the remains of the milk be¬
fore taken down, afltfting, it is curdled. It is this
fourth ftomach with the milk curdled in it, that is
commonly taken for earning of milk ; (as they call it),
but after the bile and pancreatic juice enter, this coa¬
gulation is not to be found, which Ihews the tile of thefe
liquors. There are other creatures that ufe the fame
food, that have not fuch a mechanifm in their digeftive
organs ; horfes afles, have but one ftomach where
grafs is macerated, and a liquor for their nourifliment
extradled, and the remainder fent out by the anus
very little altered. From this different ftru&ure of
the ftomach in thefe creatures, a ruminant animal will
be ferved with one third lefs food than another of equal
bulk ; grafiers are fufficiently acquainted with this.
Thereafon is, that ruminating animals have many and
ftrong digeftive organs; all their food" is fully prepared
and almoftconverted into chyle; but a horfe’s ftomach
is not fitted for this, fo that they require a much grea¬
ter quantity of food to ext raft the fame nouriftiment. 91
The guts of thefe creatures are of a confiderable Inteiiin*.
length in proportion to the bulk of the animal’s body;
and this confirms what we laid formerly on the fub-
ject of the inteftines of a dog, viz. that the length and
capacity of the guts were different in different animals
according to the nature of their food.
The
2158
92
Duode¬
num.
93
I/4
Bladder.
96
Scrotum.
Veficulas
feminales.
A t98
fcendens
and defcen-
dens.
COMPARATIVE Anatomy. Chap. IV.
The duodenum is formed here much the fame way
as in a dog, and the general intention kept in view,
with regard to the mixture of the bile and pancreatic
lymph. The great guts here hardly deferve that
name, their diameter differing very little from that
of the fmall ones; but to compenfate this, they are
much longer proportionally than a dog’s are, being
convoluted in the fame way as the fmall guts are.
The ccecum is very large.
The fpleen differs not much either in figure or flot¬
ation from that of a dog’s; but it is a little more firmly
fixed to the diaphragm, there not being here fo much
danger of this vifcus being hurt in the flexions of the
fpine.
The liver is not fplit into fo many lobes in this crea¬
ture as either in a man or dog, which depends on the
fmall motion this creature enjoys in its fpine, which
made fuch a divifion needlefs.
Their vefica urinaria is of a pyramidal fhape, and
has fcarce any mufcular fibres. It is very large and
membranaceous; for the urine of thefe creatures not
being fo acrid as that of carnivorous animals, there
was no fuch occafion for expelling it fo foon.
This creature is provided with a loofe pendulous
fcrotum, and confequently with veficulse feminales.
The female organs differ from thofe of a bitch, moftly
as to the form of the cornua uteri, which are here con¬
verted in form of a fnail. In this and all uniparous
animals they contain only part of the fecundines ; but
in bitches and other multiparous animals they run
ftreight up in the abdomen, and contain the foetus
themfelves.
The fituation of the heart is pretty much the fame
with that of a dog, only its point is rather fharper;
in us the heart beating continually againll the ribs,
and both ventricles going equally far down to the con-
flitution of the apex it is verysobtufe; but here the apex
is made up only of the left ventricle, fo is more acute.
The aorta in this creature is juftly divided into
afcending and defeending, though this divifion is ill
founded either in a dog or man ; and it has certainly
been from this fubjeft that the older anatomifts took
their defcriptions when they made this divifion; for
here the aorta divides into two, the afcending and de¬
feending; the defeending runs upwards or forwards, >
according to their poflure, for two or three inches,
before it gives off the left fubclavian ; and ffill an inch
or more before the right fubclavian comes off, and yet
fomewhat further before it divides into the two caro¬
tids ; fo that the veffels that go to the anterior extre¬
mity of the right fide, do ftill keep longer in a com¬
mon trunk with the carotids th^n thole on the left.
Chap. IV. Of Fowls in general. 99
The next clafs of animals we come to confider,
are the feathered kind ; which are divided into the
granivorous and carnivorous. But before we go on
to confider the fpecialties in the vifeera of each kind,
we mull obferve what both fpecies agree in. IOo
Fowls have a particular covering of feathers differ- Their co-
ent from all other creatures, but exactly well fuited venng-
to their manner of life ; for it not only protects them
from the injuries of the weather, but ferves them in
their progreflion through that thin aerial element, they
are for the mofi: part employed in ; and as fome fowls
live much in the water, their feathers being continu¬
ally befmeared with an oily liquor, keeps the water
from foaking into their Ikins, and fo prevents the bad
effects which it would infallibly otherways produce. jOX
Fowls have the ftrongeft mufcles in their whole Their
body inferted into their wings ; whence by the way wings> how
we may obferve, that it is altogether impoffible for
man to buoy himfelf up into the air like birds, even
though he had proper machines in place of wings, un-
lefs he were likeways provided with mufcles ftrong 102
enough for moving them, which he has not. In the Why not
next place, their wings are not placed in the middle placed in
of their bodies, but a good deal further forwards;
whence it would at firfl: view appear that their heads 6 °*
would be ereeft, and their pofterior parts mofi depend¬
ing, when raifed in the air : but by ftretching out
their heads, which a<fi upon the lever of a long neck,
they alter their centre of gravity pretty much, and
alfo by filling the facs * or bladders in the infide of
their
* Dr Hunter hath lately made fome curious difeoveries relative to thefe internal receptacles of air in the bodies of birds. Some
of them are lodged in the fiefliy parts, and fome in the hollow bones; but all of them communicate with the lungs. He informs
us, that the air-cells which are found in the foft parts have no communication with the cellular membrane which is common to
birds as well as other animals. Some of them communicate immediately with each other, but all of them by the intervention of
the lungs as a common centre. Some of them are placed in cavities, as the abdomen ; others in the interftices of parts, as about
the breaft. The bones which receive air are of two kinds; fome of them divided into innumerable cells; others hollowed out
into one large canal. They may be diftinguilhed from fuch as do not receive air by having lefs fpecific gravity; by being lefs
valcular; by containing little oil; by having no marrow nor blood in their cells; by having lefs hardnels and firmnefs than others;
■and by the paffage for the air being perceivable-
The mechanifm by which the lungs are fitted for conveying air to thefe cavities is, their being attached to the diaphragm, and
cOnnefted alfo to the ribs and fides of the vertebrae. The diaphragm is perforated in feveral places by pretty large holes, allowing
a free paflage of air into the abdomen. To each of thefe holes is attached a diftindl membranous bag, thin and tranfparent- The
lungs open at their anterior part into membranous cells, which lie upon the fides of the pericardium, and communicate with the
cells of the fternum. The fuperior parts of the lungs open into cells of a loofe net-work, through which the trachea and cefopha-
gus pafs. When thefe cells are diftended with air, it indicates paffion, as in tire cafe of the turky-cock, pouting-pigeon, ire.
Thefe cells communicate with others in the axilla, and under the large peftoral mulcle; and thofe with the cavity of the os
humeri, by means of fmall openings in the hollow furface near the head of that bone. Laftly, The pofterior edges of the lungs
have openings into the cells of the vertebrae, ribs, os facrum, and other bones of the pelvis, from which the air finds a paftage to
the cavity of the thigh-bone.
Concerning the ufe of thefe cavities the doftor conjectures, that they are a kind of appendage to the lungs; and that like the bags
continued through the bellies of amphibious animals, they ferve as a kind of refervoirs of air. They alfift birds during their
flight, which muft be apt to render frequent refpiration difficult. He farther infinuates, that this con ft ruCtion of the organs of re-
Ipiration may aflift birds in fihging; which,’ he thinks may be inferred from the long continuance of fong between the breathings
of a canary bird. On tying the trachea of a cock, the animal breathed through a canula introduced into his belly; another through
the os humeri, when cut acrofs; and a hawk through the os femoris. In all thefe cafes the animals foon died. In the firft, the
doftor alcribes the death to an rnfiammation of the bowels; but in the laft, he owns it was owing to difficult breathing. What
took place, however, was fufficlent to (how that the animals really did breathe through the bone.
Chap. IV. COMPARAT
their abdomen with air, and expanding their tail, they
come to make the pofterior part of their bodies con-
fiderably higher ; and thus they fly with their bodies
near in an horizontal lituation. Hence we find, that
if their necks are kept from being ftretched out, or if you
cut away their tails, they become incapable of flying any
conliderable way. The largenefs of the wings in dif¬
ferent fowls varies, according to the occafions of the
creature. Thus birds of prey, who muft fly a confi-
derable way to provide their food, have large llrong
wings ; whereas domeftic birds, who find their nou-
rifliment almoft every where, have very Ihort and but
fmall wings. The beft account of the manner of pro-
greflion of fowls, is given by Alfonfus Borellus in his
treatife De motu animalium ; and in the “ Religious
Philofopher” we have Borelli’s doftrine fixipt pretty
much of its mathematical form. The pofterior extre¬
mities are fo fituated as to make us at firft think they
would be in continual hazard of falling down forwards
when they walk; but this is prevented by their hold¬
ing up their heads and necks; and when they have
occafion for climbing up a fleep place, they ifretch out
their head and necks forwards. Thus we may ob-
lerve a goofe, entering a barn-door, where generally
there is an afcending flep, to Itretch out its neck,
which before was railed, and incline its body for¬
wards ; this is laughed at by the common people,
who afcribe it to a piece of folly in the goofe, as
if afraid of knocking its head againli the top of the
103 door.
peculiar Carnivorous animals are provided with ftrong crook-
I'the toes ec^ c^aws ^or t^ie catt;fiing their prey ; water-fowls ufe
fowls, for fwimming ; and principally for this purpofe
have a ftrong firm membrane interpofed betwixt the
toes. There is a beautiful mechanifm to be obferved
in the toes of fowls, which is of confiderable ufe to
them ; for their toes are naturally drawn together or
bended when the foot is bended; this perhaps pro¬
ceeds from the tendons of the toes palling over in
them what is analogous to our heels, and when the
foot is bended muft confequently be much ftretched ;
and fince they are inferred into the toes, muft of ne-
ceffity bend them when the foot is bended ; and when
the foot is extended, the flexors of the toes are again
relaxed, and they therefore expanded. This is of
great ufe to water-fowls ; for had there been no fuch
contrivance as this, they muft have loft as much time
when they pulled their legs in, as they had gained by
the former ftroke ; but as the parts are now framed,
whenever the creature draws in its foot, the toes are
at the fame time bended and contrafled into lefs fpace ;
fo that the reliftance made againft the water is not
near fo great as before r on the contrary, when they
ftretch their foot their toes are extended, the. mem¬
brane betwixt them expanded, and confequently a
greater refiftance made to the water. Again, fuch
fowls as live moftly in the air, or have occafion to
luftain themfelves on branches of trees in windy wea¬
ther, and even in the night-time when afleep, while
all their mufcles are fuppofed to be in a ftate of re¬
laxation ; fuch have no more to do but lean down the
weight of their bodies, and their toes continue bended
without any mufcles being in a<ftion ; and whenever
they would difentangle themfelves, they raife up their
' I V E Anatomy. 2159
bodies, by which their foot, and confequently their
toes, are extended. 104
Carnivorous fowls have their beaks long, lharp and The variety
crooked; the domeftic fowls, ftjch as the hen kind, beaks
itc. have ftrong Ihort beaks, commodioufly fitted to &g.
dig up and break their food ; the water-fowls again ’
have long or very broad fcoop-like beaks, which is
moft convenient for them. The fternum of fowls is
much larger proportionally than the human, and has
a ridge riling in its middle for the more commodious
origin of the mufcles that move the wings. It is alfo
lefs moveable than ours; for had it been very move-
able, a great deal of the force employed for moving
the wings would at every contraction of the mufcles
have been loll, or elfe fome other mufcles muft have
come in play to keep firm the fternum; but this ad¬
ditional weight would have been inconvenient for
their progremon.
What other thing* are moft remarkable in the ftrue-
ture of the feveral vifeera, we fliall confider in that
common domeftic animal, the cock or hen, and after¬
wards obferve the difference of their vifeera chylo-
poietica from a carnivorous fowl.
Chap. V. The Anatomy of a GocL r0J
The oefophagus of this creature runs down its neck Oefopha-
fomewhat inclined to the right-fide, and terminates Sus-
in a pretty large membranous fac, which is the inglu- ns uvies*
vies or crop where the food is macerated and dilfol-
ved by a liquor, feparated by the glands which are
eafily obferved every where on the external furface
of this bag. The eifedl of this maceration may be
very well obferved in pigeons, who are fometimes in
danger of being fuffbeated by the peafe, ire. they feed
upon, fwelling to fuch an immenfe bulk in their in-
gluvies, that they can neither get upwards nor down¬
wards. If it be a favourite fowl, it might be pre-
ferved by opening the fac, taking out the peafe and
fewing up-the wound. 10g
The food getting out of this fac, goes down by the Ventriculus
remaining part of the cefophagus into the ventriculus fucccnturi-
fuccenturiatus or infundibulum peyeri, which is a con- ttus,.*5u 'n~
r . i, ^ rundibu-
tnniation of the gullet with more numerous glands, ium>
which leparate a liquor to dikite the food ftill more,
which at length gets into the true ftomachor gizzard,
which confilts of two very ftrong mufcles covered ex¬
ternally with a tendinous aponeurofis, and lined on
the infide by a very thick firm membrane, which we
evidently difeover to be a production of the cuticul.a.
This might have been proved in fome meafure a prio¬
ri, from taking notice that this membrane, which in
chicks is only a thin flight pellicle, by degrees turns
thicker and ftronger, the more attrition it fuflers: but
there is no other animal fubftance, fo far as we know',
which grows more hard and thick by being fubjedted io^
to attrition, excepting the euticula. Hence may be Epidermis
drawn fome kind of proof of what hath been affirmed inverts the
concerning the .tunica villofa of the ftomach, and in- internal
teftines in the human body, viz. that it was only a
continuation of epidermis. Nay, all the hollow parts vities^nd
of the body, even arteries, veins, ixc. feem to be lined vertels of
with a production of this membrane or one analogous human
to it. The ufe of this internal coat of the ftomach of
fowls is to defend the more tender parts of that vifeus
from
2l6o
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
from the hard grains and little ftones thofe creatures
take down.
The digeftion of thefe animals is performed, partly
at leaft, by attrition, as is evinced by many experi¬
ments. We fee them daily take down coniiderable
numbers of the moft folid rugged little flints they find,
and thefe can ferve for no other purpole than to help
the trituration of their aliments. After thefe pebbles
by becoming fmooth are unfit for this office, they are
thrown up by the mouth ; hence fowls that are long
confined, though never fo well fed, turn lean for want
•of thefe ftones to help their digeftion; but this was
put beyond all difpute by Mr Tauvry, who gave a
fpecies of metal to an oftrich, convex on one fide,
and concave on the other, but carved on both ; and
opening the creature’s body fome time after, it was
found that the carving on the convex fide was all ob¬
literated, while the engraved character remained the
fame as before on the concave fide which was not
fubjected to the ftomach’s preffure ; which could not
have happened had digeftion been performed by a
menftruum, or any other way whatfoever ; but may
be eafily folved by allowing a fimple mechanical pref-
108 fore to take place.
Duodenum. The duodenum begins pretty near the fame place,
at which the oefophagus enters; yet notwithftanding
the vicinity of thefe two tubes, the aliments are in
no danger of getting out before they are perfectly di-
gefted, by reafon of a protuberance to feptum me¬
dium betwixt the orifices; and in thofe creatures who
have fuch a ftrong mufcular ftomach, it is a matter of
great indifference, whether the entry of the oefopha¬
gus or pylorus be higheft, provided that the entry of
the cefophagus does not allow the food to regurgitate,
fince tlie force of the ftomach can eafily protrude it
towards the duodenum. This got is moftly in the
tog rjg,ht fide, and hangs pendulous in their abdomen, ha-
Duftus ving its two extremities fixed to the liver. The duc-
Choledo- tus communis choledochus enters near its termination,
^hus. where it mounts up again to be fixed to the liver ;
and left, by the contraction of the inteftines, the bile
fhould pafs over without being intimately blended
with the chyle, that du£t enters downwards contrary
to the courfe of the food, and contrary to what is ob-
ferved in any of the animals we have mentioned yet.
But ftill the general intention is kept in view, in allow¬
ing thefe juices the faireft chance of being intimately
i jo blended with the food.
Inteftina The fmall guts are proportionally larger than thofe
tenuia. Qf carnivorous birds, for the general caufe already af-
figned. At the end of the ilium they have two large
inteftina caeca, one on each fide, which ferve as re-
fervoirs to the fasces; which after fome remora there
regurgitate into what foon becomes the redlum, which,
together with the excretories of urine, and organs of
generation, empties itfelf into the common cloaca.
The f'mall inteftines are connected by a long loofe
mefentery, which has little or no fat accompanying
the blood veffels, there being no hazard of the blood’s
being flopped. There are no lacfteal veffels, glandu-
lae vagae or pancreas affellii to be obferved here. The
meferaic veins are proportionally very large, if you
either compare them with the correfponding arteries,
or confider them with refpedl to the guts themfelves.
Chap. V,
The want of la&eals, ire. is fupplied by thefe veins.
As a proof of thefe having a communication with the Laftealvef.
guts, in larger fowls the guts can be diftended by £els> how ;
blowing in at the meferaic vein ; and from this differ- upp led' ;
ence of ftrucilure, the ule of the glandulae vagae, ire.
can eafily be afligned, viz. the chyle in thefe animals, jI2 j
that have lacteals, being to be mixed with the blood Their ufe in
in a confideraS'le quantity at a time, left its particles other ani- |
fhould attraift one another too ftrongly, and fo hinder mals'
this mixture ; it was therefore necefl’ary it fhould be
well diluted by the huinores inquilini, which bear a
very great proportion to the quantity of pure chyle;
fince the lymph from: the inferior extremities, abdo¬
minal vilcera, neck, ire. are poured into it. Here
there was no hazard of any luch inconveniency by the
chyle being mixed with the blood in fmall proportion
from the immenle number of the fmall extremities of
the meferaic veins. 1
The pancreas in the creature lies betwixt the two Pancreas. 1
folds of the duodenum, and fends two or three dutffs
into this gut pretty near the biliary. n4
The fpleen is here of a round globular figure, fitua- The fple<
‘ ted between the liver and ftomach, and betwixt thefe
and the back-bone it enjoys the fame properties as in
other animals, viz. large blood-veffels, ire. All its
blood is lent into the vena portarum, and has a per¬
petual conqnalfation. It has no excretory as far as uj
we know. Their liver is divided into two equal Liver.
Jobes by a pellucid membrane, running according to
the length of their body ; and hence we may ol>
ferve, that it is not proper to that bowel to lie on the
right-ftde, which is ftill more confirmed by what we
obierve in fillies, where it almoft lies in the left»fide. 116
The fhape of their gall-bladder is not much differ- yefica fel-
ent from that of quadrupeds, but is thought to be
longer in proportion to the fize of the animal, and is
farther removed from the liver ; though in fifhes it is
ftill further removed, not being at all contiguous;
and in them the du£lus hepaticus and cyfticus do not
unite till juft at the entry into the gut. In thefe ani¬
mals, viz. fifhes, there feems to be no way of the
bile getting into the gall-bladder but by regurgitation.
The principal difference to be remarked in their
heart, is the want of the valvulae tricufpedes, and
their place being fupplied by one fldhy flap.
The lungs are not loofe within the cavity of the Pulmondj
thorax, but fixed to the bone all the way; neither their ftruc
are they divided into lobes, as in thole animals that tl'rc
have a large motion in their fpine. They are two u es'
red fpongy bodies covered with a membrane that is
pervious, and communicates with the large veficles or t
air bags that are difperfed over their whole abdomen, The nfe
which veficles ferve two very confiderable ufes ; the the veficli
one is to render their bodies fpecifically light, when
they have a mind to afeend and buoy themfelves up
when flying, by diftending their lungs with air, and
alfo flraiten their trachea arteria and fo return the air. 120
Secondly, they fupply the place of a mufcular dia- The dia-
phragm and ftrong abdominal mufcles; producing the P^SP1’.
fame effe£ls on the feveral contained vifeera, as thefe ■
mufcles would have done without the inconveniency
of their additional weight; and conducing as much to
the exclufion of the egg and faeces. 121
The trachea arteria, near where it divides, is very Trachei
much ter‘a’
«:!hap, V,
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
2161
much contra&ed, and their voice is principally ow¬
ing to this coanftion. If you liiten attentively to a
cock crowing, you will be fenfible that the noife
does not proceed from their throat, but deeper; nay
this very pipe, when taken out of their body and
cut off a little, after its divifion, and blown into, will
make a fqueaking,noife, fomething like the voice of
thefe creatures. On each tide, a little higher than
this contraction, there is a mufcle arifing from their
fternum, which dilates the trachea. The cartilages
of which the pipe is compofed in this animal, go
quite round it; whereas in men and quadrupeds, they
are difcontinued for about one-fourth on the back-part,
and the intermediate fpace filled up by a membrane.
Neither is the trachea fo firmly attached to their ver¬
tebrae as in the other creatures we have examined.
This ftrutfture we fliall find of great fervice to them,
if we confider, that had the fame ftruClure obtained
in them as in us, their breath would have been in ha¬
zard of being flopped at every flexion or twilling of
their neck, which they are frequently obliged to.
This we may be fenlible of by bending our necks con-
fiderably on one fide, upon which we (hall find a
great flraitnefs and difficulty of breathing; whereas
their trachea is better fitted for following the flexions of
the neck by its loofe connexion to the vertebrae: and
as from the flruClure of the trachea it cannot yield to
every caufe diflending the cefophagus as in us, it was
proper they fhould be placed at a greater diflance from
each other, which we accordingly find they are.
In place of a mufcular diaphragm, this creature has
nothing but a thin membrane conneCled to the peri¬
cardium, which feparates the thorax and abdomen.
But befides this, the whole abdomen and thorax are
divided by a longitudinal membrane or mediaftinum
connecfted to the lungs, pericardium, liver, llomach,
and to the fat lying over their flomach and guts, which
is analogous to an omentum, and fupplies its place.
The kidneys lie in the hollow, excavated in the fide
of the back bone, from which there is fent out a blue-
ifh coloured canal, running along by the fide of the
vas deferens, and terminates diredlly into the com¬
mon cloaca. This is the ureter, which opens by a
peculiar aperture of its own, and not at the penis.
This creature having no vefica urinaria, it was thought
by fome they never pafled any urine, but that it went
to the nourifhment of the feathers, but this is falfe;
for that whitifh fubflance that you fee their greenifh
faeces covered with, and which turns afterwards chal¬
ky, is their urine. Let us next confider the organs
123 of generation of both fexes, and firfl thofe of the male,
jhe organs The teflicles are fituated one on each fide of the
o if in The fiack'l*one> and are proportionally very large, to the
isle. creature’s bulk. From thefe run out the vafa femi-
nifera, at firft ftreight, but after they recede farther
from the body of the tefticle, they acquire an undu¬
lated or convoluted form, as the epididymis in man.
Thefe convolutions partly fupply the want of veficu-
lae feminales, their coition being at the fame time ve¬
ry fliort; thefe terminate in the penis, of which this
creature has two, one on each fide of the common
cloaca pointing directly outwards, and are very fmall
and very fliort, hardly fo big as a millet feed ; whence
they have efcaped the notice of anatomifts, who have
VOL. III.
kidneys
often denied their exiltence. This is what is chiefly
remarkable in the organs of the male. 124
The racemus vitellorum being analogous to the o- vitelLti'
varia in the human fubjeift, are attached by a proper vm.
membrane to the back-bone. This is very fine and
thin, and continued down to the uterus. Its orifice
is averfe with refpetft to the ovaria, yet notwith-
llanding, by the force of the orgafmus venereus, it
turns round and grafps the vitellus, which, in its paf-
fage through this lined called the infundibulum, re¬
ceives a thick gelatinous liquor, fccreted by certain
glands. This, with what it receives in the uterus,
compofe the white of the egg. By this tube then it
is carried into the uterus. I2j
The uterus is a large bag, placed at the end of the Uteius.
infundibulum, full of wrinkles on its infide; here the
egg is completed, receiving its k.It involucrum, and
the ftiell is at laft pufhed out at an opening in the fide
of the common cloaca. From the teftes in the male
being fo very large, in proportion to the body of the
creature, there mull neceflarily be a great quantity of
femen fecerned; hence the animal is falacious, and
becomes capable of impregnating fo many females. 126
The want of the veficulx feminales is in fome mea- The want
lure fupplied by the convolutions of the vafa deferen- °f the veil-
tia, and by the fmail diltance betwixt the fecerning Tdes how
and excretory organs. The two penes contribute fUppiied
alfo very much to their Ihort coition, at which time
the opening of the uterus into the cloaca is very much
dilated, that the effedt of the femen on the vitelli may
be the greater.
A hen will of herfelf indeed lay eggs, but thefe are
not impregnated, and yet appear entirely complete,
except that the fmall black fpot, which comes after¬
wards to be the rudiments of the chick, is not here to
be obferved. After having obferved the contents of
the abdomen and thorax, we next proceed to exa¬
mine the parts about the neck and head.
Thefe creatures, as was obferved of fowls in gene¬
ral, have no teeth, which would have been needlefs, ,2y
as they fwallow their food intire ; but their tongue is Tongue, its
made pretty firm, left it Ihould be hurt by the lharp form,
points of the grain they feed on. It is of a triangular
figure and pointed before ; and as' by the depending
pollute, their meat is in hazard of falling out of their
mouths, to prevent this, there are feveral fmall point¬
ed papilla: Handing out upon their tongue and palate,
with their points inclined backwards, allowing an ea-
fy paflage to the food, but hindering its return.
- We have here no velum palatinum, uvula, or epi¬
glottis, and in place of two large holes opening into
the nofe, there is only a long narrow rima fupplied
with pretty llrong muffles, and fuch another fupplies
the place of a glottis. The creature has a power of
Ihutting both at pleafure ; and the nature of their food
feems not only to exempt them from the hazard of its
getting into the nofe or trachea, but its lharp points
would hurt an uvula or epiglottis, if they had any.
Hence we fee with what difficulty they fwallow dough
or other fort of food that can be eafily moulded into
any form. I2g
Their cranium is more cellular and cavernous than Cranium,
ours, by this means their heads are light, yet ftrong
enough to refill external injuries; for the enlarging
11 S the
2l62
129
The orga
of fmeU-
bg<
»30
Eye.
VE Anatomy. Chap. VL
opaque, both which would have been equally inconve¬
nient, but being fomewhat tranfparent, allows as many
rays to enter as to make any object juft vifible, and is
fufficient to direct them in their progreffion. By means
of this membrane it is that the eagle is faid to look at
the fun. Quadrupeds, as we mentioned before, have a
membrana ni&itans; but then it only can cover that part
of the eye which is never covered by their eye-lids.
Beiides, all fowls have another particularity, whofe Bourfe '
ufe is not lb well underftood ; and that is a pretty long no“'e; .rtJ
black triangular purfe riling from the bottom of their
eye juft at the entry of the optic nerve, anti ftretched
out into their vitreous humour, and one would ima¬
gine it gave home threads to the cryftallir.e. To this
the French (who probably were the firft who took
notice of it in their diftecftions before the Royal Aca¬
demy) give the name of bourfe noire. This may pof-
fibly ferve to fuffocate fome of the rays of light, that
they tnay fee objects more diftincftly without hurting
their eyes. It has a connexion with the vitreous,
and feems to be joined alfo to the cryftalline humour.
If we fuppofe it to have a power of contradlion,
(which may be as well allowed as that of the iris) it
may fo alter the pofition of the vitreous and cryftal¬
line humours, that the rays from any body may not
fall perpendicularly upon the cryftailine ; and this
feems to be neceflary in them, fince they cannot
change the figure of the anterior part of their eye fo
much as we can do ; and as this animal is expofed
often to too great a numbOr of rays of light, fo they
having no tapetum, have the bottom of their eye
wholly black on the retina; and in confequence of this
fowls fee very ill in the dark. ,32
They have no external ear, but in place thereof a Organ oF
tuft of very fine feathers covering the meatus audito- hearing,
rius, which eafily al(pw the rays of found to pafs
them, and likewife prevent duft, or any infecft from
getting in. An external ear would have been incon¬
venient in their palling through thickets and in flying,
ire. A liquor is feparated in the external part of the
ear or meatus auditorius to lubricate the paflage, and
further prevent the entrance of any infedts, ire. The
membrana tympanf is convex externally, and no muf-
cles are fixed to the bones of their ear, which are
rather of a cartilaginous confiftence; any tremulous
motions imprefled on the air are communicated in
thefe creatures, merely by the fpring and elafticity of
thefe bones; fo probably the membrane is not ii> di-
ftended as in the human ear, where this is done by
mufcles. The cochlea and femicircular canals are
very diftindt and eaftly prepared.
COMPARATI
the diameter of bones contributes to their ftrength.
By this cavernous cranium the organ of fmelling is
confiderably enlarged; and further, finging birds, as
is obferved by Mr Ray and Mr Derham, have this
cavernous ftrudlure of the brain ftill more obfervable;
and we are told that the cavity of the tympanum
communicates with the cells ; but this feems rather
founded on theory than matter of fadl. Their brain
is covered with the common membranes, but its ex¬
ternal furface is not formed into fo many gyrae or con¬
volutions as ours. Its anterior part is quite folid, of
a cineritious colour, and fo far has a refemblance of
the corpora ftriata, as to give rife to the olfadlory
nerves. The whole of it appears to us as imperfedt,
and we can fcarce determine whether there be any
thing analogous to a third or fourth ventricle ; neither
the corpus callofum, fornix, nates, or teftes, ire. can be
obferved here ; which parts therefore cannot be ima¬
gined as abfolutely neccffiry for the fundi ions of life,
fince we find thefe creatures perform them fufficient-
ly well. We may perhaps think thefe ferve a parti¬
cular ufe in man, who is a rational creature, but then
quadrupeds enjoy them in common with man. Thefe ..
protuberances, ir c. feem rather to depend on the dif¬
ferent difpofition of the feveral parts, being varioufly
connedted, and meeting in different diredlions in dif¬
ferent places, than their being abfolutely neceflary for
any particular ufe ; and the ufes that have been af-
figned to different parts of the brain by authors, feem
to have no foundation but in the author’s fancy.
Their organ of fmelling is very large and well pro¬
vided with nerves; hence they have this fenfation
very acute. Ravens and other birds of prey give a
fure proof of this by their being able to find out their
prey though concealed from their fight, and at a con-
fiderable diftance.
Thole birds that grope for their food in the waters,
mud, ire. have large nerves which run quite to the
end of their bills, by which they find out and diftin-
guilh their food.
The anterior part of their eyes (inftead of having
the fclerotic coat continued, fo as to make near a
fphere as in us) turns all of a hidden flat; fo that here
the fclerotic makes but half a fphere ; and the cor¬
nea rifes up afterwards, being a portion of a very
fmall and diftinift fphere ; fo that in thefe creatures
there is a much greater difference betwixt the fclero¬
tic and cornea than in us. Hence their eyes do not
jut out of their heads as in man and quadrupeds. As
moft of thefe creatures are continually employed in
hedges and thickets, therefore that their eyes might
be fecured from thefe injuries, as well as from too
much light when fl ing in the face of the fun, there
is a very elegant mechanifm in their eyes, which is a
membrane riling from the internal canthus of the eye,
which at pleafure, like a curtain, can be made to co¬
ver the whole eye, and this by means of a proper
mufcle that rifes from the fcierotic coat and parting
round the optic nerves runs through the mufculus oculi
attollens (by which however the optic nerves are not
comprefled) and palpebra to be inferted into the edge
of this membrane. Whenever this mufcle ceafes to
a<5l, the membrane by its own elafticity again difeo-
yers the eye. This covering is neither pellucid nor
Chap. VI. The Anatomy of a carnivorous Fowl.
WE come next to the birds of prey, and for an ex- 133
ample lhall take a ftenhill. The principal difference
to be obferved in them, is in their chylopoietic vif-
cera, which may be accounted for from their different
way of life.'
Immediately under their clavicles, you Mull obferve Ingluvies.
the cefophagus expanded into their ingluvies, which
is proportionally lefs than in the granivorous kind,
fince their food does not fwell fo much by maceration,
and for the fame reafon there is a lefs quantity of a
menftruum to be found here.
They
2163
VII.
COMPARATIVE Anatomy.
137
.138
135 They have alto a ventriculus fuccenthriatus plenti-
entriculus ful]y ftored with glands, fituated immediately above
their (tomach, which we lee here is evidently mem¬
branous, otherwile than in the granivorous kind ; and
this difference, which is almoft the only one we fhall
find betwixt the two different fpecies of fowls, is ea-
lily accounted for from the nature of their food, which
requires lei’s attrition, Ifeing eafier of digeffion than
that of the other kind ; neverthelefs it feems requi-
fite it fhould be ftronger than the human, to compen-
fate the want of abdominal mufcles, which are here
very thin.
The fame mechanifm obtains in this creature’s duo¬
denum, that we have hitherto obferved. As being a
carnivorous animal, its guts are proportionally fliorter
than thofe of the granivorous kind, for the reafon firfl
given, viz. its food being more liable to corrupt,
therefore not proper to be long detained in the body,
and for that reafon it has no inteftina caeca, of which
the other fpecies of fowls have a pair. The differ¬
ence in their wings, backs, and claws are obvious, and
have been already in feme meafure obferved.
Chap. VII. The Anatomy of Fijhes.
AquEOUS animals are generally divided into fuch’as
have lungs, and fuch as want them. The firft fpecies
differ very inconfiderably from an ox or any other
quadruped, and are not eafily procured; fo that all we
have to fay on fifties, fhall be taken from that fpecies,
which is not provided with refpiratory organs.
Of thefe we may firft obferve, that they have a
likenefs to very ftrong thick cuticle compofed evidently of a great
" human. nurnijer Gf fcales laid one on another like the tiles of
houfes ; this among otfier arguments ferves to prove
the human epidermis to be of a fquamous ftrucfture.
jgg In the next place thefe creatures have neither ante-
Jwimming, rior nor porterior extremities, as quadrupeds and
per. fowls: for their progreflion is performed in a differ-
evenflufes ent wa^ ^rom eit'ier °f thefe fpecies of animals ; for
"f their 6 t'113 purpofe they are provided with machines proper¬
ly conftfting of a great number of elaftic beams, con-
netfted to one another by firm membranes, and with
a tail of the fame texture ; their fpine is very move-
able towards the pofterior part, and the ftrongeft
mufcles of their bodies are inferred there. Their
tails are fo framed as to contract to a narrow fpace
when drawn together to either fide, and to expand
again when drawn to a ftreight line with their bodies,
fo by the afilftance of this broad tail, and the fins on
their fides, they make their progreflion much in the
fame way as a boat with oars on its fides and rudder
at its ftern. TTie perpendicular fins fituated on the
fuperior part of their body keep them in equilibrium,
hindering the belly from turning uppermoft, which it
would readily do, becaufe of the air bag in the abdo¬
men rendering their belly fpecifically lighter than their
back, but by the refiftance thefe fins meet with when
inclined to either fide, they are kept with their backs
always uppermoft. The beft account of this matter
we have in the treatife before mentioned, viz. Bo-
relli de motu Animalium, Part I. chap. 23.
It may be next obferved, that thefe creatures have
nothing that can be called a neck, feeing they feek
their food in an horizontal way, and can move their bo¬
ns, tail, ai
[bags, &c.
dies either upwards or downwards as they have oc*
cafion by the contraction or dilatation of their air bag;
a long neck, as it would hinder their progreflion,
would be very difadvantageous in the element they
live in.
The abdomen is covered on the inferior part with
a black-coloured thin membrane refembling our peri¬
toneum. If is divided from the thorax by a thin mem¬
branous partition, which has no mufcular appearance ;
fo that we have now feen two different forts of ani¬
mals that have no mufcular diaphragm.
Thefe creatures are not provided with teeth pro¬
per for breaking their aliment into fmaller morfels; as
the food they uie is generally fmall fifties or other ani¬
mals that need no trituration in the mouth, but fpon-
taneoufly corrupt, and gradually diffolve into a liquid
chyle. Their teeth ferve to grafp their prey and hin¬
der the creatures they have once catched from efca-
ping again. For the fame purpofe the internal carti¬
laginous balls of the bronchi, and the two round bo¬
dies fituated in the pofterior part, of the jaws, have a
great number of tenter-hooks fixed into them in fuch
a manner, as that any thing can eafily get down, but
is hindered to get backwards. The water that is ne-
ceflarily taken in along with their food in too great
quantities to be received into their jaws in deglutition,
pafl’es betwixt the interftices of the bronchi, and the
flap that covers them. The compreflion of the water
on the bronchi is of confiderable ufe to the creature,
as we fhall explain by and by.
The cefophagus in thefe creatures is very ihort, and
fcarcely diftinguifhed from their ftomach, feeing their
food lies almoft equally in both. The ftomach is of an
oblong figure. There are commonly found fmall fifties
in the ftomach of large ones, ftill retaining their na¬
tural form, but when touched they melt down into a
jelly. From this and the great quantity of liquors
poured into their ftomachs, we may conclude that di-
geftion is folely brought about in them, by the diflol-
ving power of a menrtruum, and that no trituration
happens here.
The guts in thefe animals are very fhort, making
only three turns, the laft of which ends in the com¬
mon cloaca for the foeces, urine and femen, fituated
about the middle of the inferior part of their bodies.
What we call the pancreas, is by fome named the
inteftinula caca. It confifts of a very great number
of fmall threads, like fo many little worms, which all
terminate at laft in two larger canals, that open into
the firft gut, and pour into it a vifeous liquor, much
about the place where the biliary dufts enter. Their
inteftines are connedfed to the back-bone by a mem¬
brane analogous to a myfentery. No laifteals have
been yet obferved, and it is probable, their aliment is
taken in by the meferaic veins.
Their liver is very large, of a whitifh colour, and
lies almoft in the left-fide wholly, and contains a great
deal of fat.
The gall-bladder is fituated a confiderable way
from the liver, and fends out a canal, the cyftic duff,
which joins with the hepatic dudt juft at the entry into
the gut ; fome fibres are ftretched from the liver to
the gall-bladder, but none have hitherto difeovered
any cavity in thefe cords ; fo that in this animal it
12 S 2 fhould
140
Teeth, for
what made.
141
Digeftion
performed
folely by a
menftru-
142
Inteftina.
143
Pancreas.
144
Liver, gall-
bladder,
And their
dufts.
2164
bpleen, its
ufe drawn
from ana¬
logy.
146
Organs of
generation.
The air-
bladder,
COMPARATIVE Anatomy. Chap. \l
fhould feem impoffible that the bile can be carried in¬
to the gall-bladder in the ordinary way, and confe-
quently mult either be lecerned on the fides of that
lac, or regurgitate into it from the canalis choledo-
chus.
The fpleen is placed near the back-bone, and at a
place where it is l'ubjecited to an alternate prelfm e from
the conltricition and dilatation of the air-bag, which
is fituated in the neighbourhood. Since in all animals,
we find the Ipleen attached to fomewhat that may
give it a conquaflation, as in the human 1'ubjecit and
quadrupeds, it is contiguous to the diaphragm; in fowls
it is placed betwixt the back-bone, the liver and llo
mach; in fifties it lies on the laccus aerius; ^ind fince we
find it fo well ferved with blood-veflels, and all its
blood returning into the liver, we muft not conclude
the fpleen to be an inuiile pondus, only to ferve as a
balance to the animal pro equilibrio, but particularly
defigned for preparing the blood to the liver.
The only organs of generation in this animal are
two menftruous bags fituated in the abdomen uniting
near the podex. Thefe in the male are filled with a
whitifli firm fubfiance called the milt, and in the fe¬
male with an infinite number of little ova cluftered to¬
gether, of a reddiih yellow colour called the roe. Both
thefe at {pawning time we find very much diftended ;
whereas, at another time, the male organs can fcarce
be difiinguiftied from the female, nor is there any pro¬
per inftrument in the male for throwing the feed in¬
to the organs of the female, as in other creatures. We
fliall not take upon us to determine the way whereby
the female fperm is impregnated ; but we find, that the
fpawn of frogs con lifts in the fmall fpecks wrapt up in
a whitifti glutinous liquor; thefe fpecks are the rudi¬
ments of the young frogs, which are nouriftted in that
liquor, till they are able to go in fearch of their food.
Ip the fame way the ova of fifties are thrown out and
depofited in the fand, the male being for the molt
part ready to impregnate them, and they are incuba¬
ted by the heat of the fun. It is curious enough to re¬
mark with what care they feek for a proper place
to depofite their ova, by fwimming to the fliallow,
where they can better enjoy the fun’s rays, and Ihun
the large jaws of other fifties. The river fifties again
fpawn in fbme creek, free from the hazard of the im¬
petuous ftream. But whether this mixture be brought
about in fifties, by a fimple application of the genitals
to each other ; or rf both of them throw out their li¬
quors at the fame time in one place, and thus bring
about the defired mixture, is not eafy to determine ;
the latter feems moft probable. Thefe creatures are
fo ftiy that we cannot poffibly get to obferve their
way of copulation, and are confequently but little ac¬
quainted with their natural hiftory.
After railing up the black peritoneum, there comes.
in view an oblong white membranous bag, in which
there is nothing contained but air. This is the fwim-
ming-bladder : it lies clofe to the back-hone, and has
a pretty ftrong mufcular coat, whereby it can contract:
itfelf. By contracting this bag, they can make the
ninfcles fpecifically heavier than water and fo readily
fall to the bottom ; whereas the mufcular fibres cea-
fing to a Cl, they become fpecifically lighter than wa¬
ter and fo fwim above. According to the different
degrees of contraClion and dilatation of this bladder,
they can keep liigher or lower in the water at plea-
fure. Hence flounders, foies, raia, and fuch other
fifties as want this fac, are found always groveling at
the bottom of the water : it is owing to this that dead
fifties (unlefs this membrane has been previoufly broke)
are found fwimming a-top, the mufcular fibres then
cealing to aCl, and that with their bellies uppermoft ;
for the back-bone cannot yield, and the diftended fac
is protruded into the abdomen, and the back is con¬
fequently heavieft at its upper part according to their
pofture. There is here placed a glandular fubftance
containing a good quantity of red blood, and all the
red in their body is contiguous to this air bag, excep¬
ting the guts. From the anterior part of the bag, go
out two procelfes or appendices, which, according to jt$ *
the gentlemen of the French academy, terminate in pus 0I|
their fauces : but there is great reafon to fufpe6t that muniJ
their experiments were inaccurately made; and that with tl1
there is here, as in fome places of the human body, an ventic|f
aer infitus. _ ,1,
At the fuperior part of this bag there are other red Uretcrjir*
coloured bodies, of a glandular nature, which are con- fica Uip
necled with the kidneys. From them the ureters go ria- j
down to their infertion in the vefica urinaria, which Ure
lies in the lower part of the abdomen, and the urethra
is there produced, which terminates in the podex.
Thefe laft mentioned parts have not hitherto been
obferved in fome fpecies of fifties, whence authors too
haftily denied them in all. Thefe creatures have a ,
membranous diaphragm which forms a fac, in which Dia- |fu
the heart is contained. It is very tenfe, and almoft phragi^’
perpendicular to the vertebrae. j 4 j
The heart is of a triangular form with its bale The lilt
downwards, and its apex uppermoft, which fituation has buffe*
. .. ......1 ... .. anricl(JU'<
it has becaufe of the branchise. It has but one auricle
ci<4d
and one ventricle,, becaufe they want lungs ; and one trkle!Mf
great artery. The fize of the auricle and ventricle
are much the fame ; the artery fends out numberlefs i;
branches to the branchiae or gifts. ,5^
The branchise lie in two large flits at each fide of The bAJ:
their heads, and feem to be all they have that chiae. 1
bears any analogy to lungs. Their form is femi-cir- Thcir|5'
cular; they have a vaft number of red fibrillas Handing af
out on each fide of them like a fringe, and very much
refemble the vane of a feather. Thefe branchiae are Q.
perpetually fubjeifred to an alternate motion and pref-
fure from the water ; and we may here remark, that
we have not found any red blood, but in places fub-
jedled to this alternate preflure ; this obftrvation will |j
help us in explaining the a6iion of the lungs upon the |
blood. Over thefe gills there is a large flap, allow¬
ing a communication externally, by which the water i
they are obliged to take into their mouths with their
food finds an exit, without pafllng into their fto-
mach ; it is owing to thefe flaps coming fo far down,
that the heart is laid commonly to be fituated in their j
heads. I5i
Their brains are formed pretty much in the fame Cerebifsl
wav as that of fowls, onlv we mav obferve that the
way as that of fowls, only we may obferve that the
pofterior lobes bear a greater proportion to the ante- 1
rior. 154
Their organ of fmefling is large, and they have a Organ Jfl
power of contracting and dilating the entry into their fmcll< 1 ■
nofe
Chap. VII. COMPARAT
nofb-as they have occafion. It feems to be nioftly by
their acute fmell that they difcover their food ; for
their tongue feems not to have been deiigned for a
very nice ienfation, being of a pretty firm cartilagi¬
nous fubftance; and common experiment evinces, that
their fight is not of lb much ufe to them as their fmell
in fearching for their nourifliment. If you throw a
frelh worm into the water, a fifh fliall diftiaguiih it at
a confiderable diftance ; and that this is not done by
the eye, is plain from obferving, that after the fame
worm has been a confiderable time in the water and
loll its fmell, no filhes will come near it: but if you
take out the bait and make feveral little incifioris into
it, fo as to let out more of the odoriferous effluvia, it
lhall have the fame effe<5l as formerly. Now it is cer¬
tain, had the creatures difcovered this bait with their ,
eyes, they would have come equally to it in both
cafes : in confequence of their fmell being the princi¬
pal means they have of difcovering their food, we
may frequently obferve their allowing themfelves to
be carried down'with the ftream, that they may af-
cend again leifurt ly againfl the current of the water ;
thus the odorous particles fwimming in that medium,
being applied more forcibly to their fineHing organs,
I i55 produce a ftronger fenfation.
j Optic The optic nerves in thefe animals are not confound-
i nerves, ed with one another in their middle progrefs betwixt
their origin and the orbit, but the one pafles over the
other without any communication; fo that the nerve
that comes from the left fide of the brain goes diftinfl-
156 ly to the right eye : and vice verfa.
4 The cry- The lens cryftallina is here a compleat fphere ;
I ftalline hu- whereas in men and all other terreflrial animals it
1 cornpleat confifis of two portions of unequal fpheres laid on one
4 fphere and another : to account for this, it muft be confidered
why. that thefe creatures have got no aqueous humour, as
the rays that come to their eyes are conveyed through
a medium of the fame denfity with that humour in
other animals, and confequently would have gone on
COM
Comparative Degree, among grammarians, that
between the pofitive and luperlative degrees, expref-
fing any particular quality above or beneatif the level
of another.
COMPARISON, in a general fenfe, the confidera-
tion of the relation between two perfons or tilings,
when oppofed and fet againfl each other, by which we
judge of their agreement or difference.
Comparison of Ideas, an adl of the mind, where¬
by it compares its ideas one with another, in refpetR
oi extent, degree, time, place, or any other circum-
Rances. See Idea.
Brutes feem not to have this faculty in any great
degree : they have, probably, feveral ideas diilinA
enough ; hut cannot .compare them farther than as to
feme fenfible circumftanees annexed to the objefts
themfelves; the power of comparing general ideas,
which we obferve in men, we may probably conjec¬
ture they have not at all.
Comparison, in grammar, the infledlion of the
comparative degree. See Grammar, n° 54.
Comparison, in rhetoric, is a figure whereby two
I VE Anatomy. 2165
in a flreight line without any refraclion til] they came
to the lens, although they had been provided with an
aqueous humour ; thus then the rays impinging upon
their lens have hitherto fuffered no refraction ; that
they might therefore be fufficiently refra6ted and meet
in a point on the retina, it was neceffary the lens fhould
be made more convex than it is in other creatures who
have the rays confiderabiy refracted in their palfage
from the air through the aqueous humour.
As fillies are continually expofed to injuries in the
uncertain element they live in, and as they are in
perpetual danger of becoming a prey to the larger
ones, it was neceflary their eyes fhould never be fliut,
and In confequence of this they are not provided with
palpebrae ; hut then, as in the current itfelf, the eye
mull be expofed to feveral injuries, there was a ne-
ceility it fbould be fidficiently defended, which in effect
it is by a firm pellucid membrane that feems to be a
continuation of the cuticula, being flretched over here.
The epidermis is very proper for this purpofe, as be¬
ing infenfible anddeftitute of’veffels, atid confequently
not liable to obitruflions, or by that means of becom¬
ing opake. 157
Whether fifties have a fenfe of hearing or not is filhes, if
very uncertain : all that has the appearance of an or- ^c^0(ear
gan of hearing in thefe creatures is a bone, about the
bulk of one half of a common bean, of a particular
flrudture, being very brittle and compofed of a great
many different fegments1 laid at one another’s iides,
and fituated in a particular form at the fide of the
brain ; is then the idea pf found communicated to
them by means of this bone ? or does their running
away, at flamping hard on the ground or crying loud,
depend upon fome other kind of fenfation ? This may
poffibly be produced in them, by a tremulous mo¬
tion communicated to their bodies by the circum¬
ambient water, which is put in agitation, from the
like concuflions happening in the air or neighbouring
ground.
COM
things are confidered with regard to fome third, which
is common to them both.
Inftruction is the principal, but not the only end of
comparifon. It may be employed with fuccefs in put¬
ting a fubjeft in a flrong point of view. A lively idea
is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of
a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in pur imagination
comparing it to a river overflowing its bank, and in¬
volving all in its impetuous courfe. The fame eJletfl
is produced by contrail: a man in profperity becomes
more fenfible of his happinefs, by comparing his con¬
dition with that of a perfon in want of bread. Thus
comparifon is fubfervient to poetry as well as to phi-
lofophy.
Comparifons ferve two purpofes: when addreffed
to the underflanding, their purpofe is to inflrwft: when
to the heart, their purpofe is to pleafe. Various means
contribute to the latter : iff, the fuggefting fome un-
ufual refemblance or contrail * ; 2d, the fetting an oh- * See the
jecl in the flrongefl light ; 3d, rite dfociating an oh-
je6i with others that are agreeable ; 4th, the elevating BI,ANCE
.an oljecl; and 5th, the depreffing it. And that com- awl Difi-
parifons niilituds.
COM [ 2166 ] COM
Comparifon parifons may give pleafure by thefe various means,
■ will be made evident by examples which lhall be given,
after premifing fome general obfervations.
Objects of different fenfes cannot be compared to¬
gether ; for fuch obje&s are totally feparated from
each other, and have no circumftance in common to
admit either refemblance or contrail. Objects of hear-
irig may be compared together, as alfo of tafle, of
fmell, and of touch : but the chief fund of comparifon
are objects of fight; becaufe, in writing or fpeaking,
things can only be compared in idea, and the ideas of
fight are more diftinft and lively than thofe of any
other fenfe.
When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to
think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot
long lie concealed ; and when difcovered, they are
generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all
bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earlieft poems
of every nation, we find metaphors and fimiles found¬
ed on the flighted and mod didant refemblances,
which, lofing their grace with their novelty, wear
gradually out of repute ; and now, by the improve¬
ment of tade, no metaphor nor fimile is admitted into
any polite compofition but of the mod driking kind.
To illudrate this obfervation, a fpecimen {hall be
given afterward of fuch metaphors as we have been
defcribing : with refpefl to fimiles take the following
Ipecimcn.
“ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as
tc a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead :
1‘ thy teeth are like a flock of fheep from the wafh-
“ ing, every one bearing twins : thy lips are like
“ a thread of fcarlet: thy neck like the tower of
“ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a
“ thoufand fhields of mighty men : thy two breads
te like two young roes that are twins, which feed
“ among the lilies : thy eyes like the filh-pools in
“ Heflxm, by the gate of Bath-rabbin : thy nofe
“ like the tower of Lebarton, looking toward Da-
mafcus.’* Sotig of Soiotnon.
“ Thou art like fnow on the heath ; thy hair
“ like the mid of Cromla, when it curls on the
“ rocks and fhines to the beam of the wed : thy
<l breads are like two fmooth rocks feen from
(< Branno of the dreams: thy arms like two white
•“ pillars in the hall of the mighty Fingal.”
Fingal.
It has no good effecd to compare things by way of
fimile that are of the fame kind ; nor to contrad things
of different kinds. The reafon is given in the article
above cited on the margin, and fliall be here illudra-
ted by examples. The fird is a comparifon built upon
a refembiance fo obvious as to make little or no im-
preflion. Speaking of the fallen angels fearching for
mines of gold :
A numerous brigade haden’d : as when bands
Of pioneers with fpade and pick-ax arm’d.
Forerun the royal camp to trench a field
Or cad a rampart. Milton.
The next is of things contraded that are of diffe¬
rent kinds.
Qiieen. What, is my Richard both in fliape and
mind
Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d
Thine intelleid ? Hath he been in thy heart ?
The lion, dying, thrudeth forth his paw,
And wounds the earth, if nothing elfe, with rage
To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like,
Take thy correidion mildly, kifs the rod,
And fawn on rage with bafe humility ?
Richard II. aft S.fc. I.
This comparifon has fcarce any force : a man and
a lion are of different fpecies, and therefore are pro¬
per fubjedls for a fimile ; but there is no fuch refem¬
blance between them in general, as to produce any
drong effect by contrading particular attributes or cir-
cumdances.
A third general obfervation is, That abdradl terms
can never be the fubjedl of comparifon, otherwife
than by being perfonified. Shakefpear compares ad-
verfity to a toad, and flander to the bite of a croco¬
dile; but in fuch comparifons thefe abfiraCt terms mud
be imagined fenfible beings.
To have a jud notion of comparifons, they mud be
didinguifhed into two kinds ; one common and fami¬
liar, as where a man is compared to a lion in courage,
or to a horfe in fpeed; the other more didant and re¬
fined, where two things that have in themfelves no
refemblance or oppofition, are compared with refpecl
to their effcads. There is no refemblance between a
flower-plot and a cheerful fong; and yet they may be
compared with refpedl to their effects, the emotions
they produce in the mind being extremely fimilar.
There is as little refemblance between fraternal con¬
cord and precious ointment; and yet obferve how
fuccefsfully they are compared with refpedl to the im-
preffions they make.
“ Behold, how good and how pleafant it is for
“ brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like
“ the precious ointment upon the head, that ran
“ down upon Aaron’s beard, and defcended to the
“ fkirts of his garment.” Pfalm
For illuflrating this fort of comparifon, we fhall add
fome more examples :
“ Delightful is thy prefence, O Fingal! it is like
“ the fun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns his
“ abfence for a feafon, and fees him between the
“ clouds.
“ Did not Oflian hear a voice ; or is it the found
“ of days that are no more ? Often, like the even-
il ing-fun, comes the memory of former times on
■“ my foul.
“ His countenance is fettled from war ; and is
“ calm as the evening-beam, that from the tloud
“ of the weft looks on Cona’s filent vale.”
Fingal.
We now proceed to illuftrate, by particular inftan-
ces, the different means by which comparifons, whe¬
ther of the one fort or the other, can afford pleafure;
and, in the order above eftablifhed, we fhall begin with
fuch inftances as are agreeable, by fuggefting fome
unufual refemblance or contrail.
Sweet are the ufes of Adverfity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in her head.
As you like it, all 2.fc. I.
See, how the Morning opes her golden gates,
And takes her farewel of the glorious fun ;
Comparifot^
How
COM [2167
fbn How well refetnbles it the prime of youth,
Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love. <
Second Part Henry VI. atf 2. fc. 1. <
Thus they their doubtful confnltations dark
Ended, rejoicing in their marchiefs chief:
As when from mountain tops, the dulky clouds
Afcending, while the North-wind fleeps, o’erfpread
Heav’ns cheerful face, the lowring element
Scowls o’er the darken’d landfcape, fnow, and
fhower;
If chance the radiant fun with farewel fweet
Extends his ev’ning-beam, the fields revive.
The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Atteft their joy, that hill and valley rings.
Paradife Lofl, book 2.
None of the foregoing fimiles tend to illuftrate the
principal fubject: and therefore the chief pleaiiire they
afford muft arife from fuggefling refemblances that
are not obvious : for undoubtedly a beautiful fubject
introduced to form the fimile affords a feparate plea-
fure, which is felt in the fimiles mentioned, particular¬
ly in that cited from Milton.
The next elfedt of a comparifon in the order men¬
tioned, is to place an object in a ftrong point of view ;
which effect is remarkable in the following fimiles.
As when two fcales are charg’d with doubtful loads.
From fide to fide the trembling balance nods,
(While fome laborious matron, juft and poor.
With nice exa&nefs weighs her woolly ftore).
Till pois’d aloft, the retting beam fufpends
Each equal Weiglit; nor this nor that defcends :
So flood the war, till Hector’s matchlefs might,
With fates prevailing, turn’d the fcale of fight.
Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies.
And fires his hoft with loud repeated cries.
Iliad, b. xii. 521.
 She never told her love ;
But let concealment, like a worm i* th’ bud,
Feed on her damafk cheek : fhe pin’d in thought}
And with a green and yellow melancholy,
She fat like patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief. Twelfth Night, all 2.fc. 6.
“ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with
“ the forrowful. But they are wafted with mourn-
u 'ng> O daughter of Tofcar, and their days are
“ few. They fall away like the flower on which
“ the fun looks in his flrength, after the mildew
“ has pafled over it, and its head is heavy with the
“ drops of night.”
 Out, out, brief candle !
Life’s but a walking fhadow, a poor player,
That flruts and frets his hour upon the ftage,
And then is heard no more.
Macbeath, aB 5. /c. 5.
O thou goddefs.
Thou divine nature ! how thyfelf thou blazon’ft
In thefe two princely boys! they are as gentle
As zephyrs blowing below the violet,
Not wagging his fweet head ; and yet as rough
(Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rud’ft wind.
That by the top doth take the mountain-pine.
And make him ftoop to th’ vale.
Cy tube line, all 4. fc. 4.
] COM
“ Why did not I pafs away in fecret, like the Cqmpanfoa
flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unfeen  ~~
and ftrows its withered leaves on the blaft ?”
Fingal.
As words convey but a faint and obfcure notion of*
great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the
objedt he defcribes with regard to number, does well
to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known.
Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of
number to a fwarm of bees: in another paffage he
compares it to that profufion of leaves and flowers
which appear in the fpring, or of infedts in a fummer’s
evening : And Milton,
 As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s fon in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coaft, up call’d a pitchy cloud
Of locufts, warping on the eaftern wind,
That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung
Like night, and darken’d all the land of Nile :
So numberlefs were thofe bad angels feerr,
Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell,
’Twixt upper, nether, and furrounding fires.
Paradife LoJ!, book 1.
Such comparifons have, by fome writers, been con¬
demned for the lownefs of the images introduced
but furely without reafon ; for, with regard to num¬
bers, they put the principal fubjedt in a itrong light.
The foregoing comparifons operate by refemblance;
others have the fame effect by contraft.
Tork. I am the laft of noble Edward’s fons.
Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was firft ;
In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce ;
In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild ;
Than was that young and princely gentleman.
His face thou haft, for even fo look’d he,
Accomplifh’d with the number of thy hours.
But when he frown’d, it was againft the French,
And not againft his friends. His noble hand
Did win what he did fpend ; and fpent not that
Which his triumphant father’s hand had won.
His hands were guilty of no kindred’s blood,
But bloody with the enemies of his kin.
Oh Richard, York is too far gone with grief,
Or elfe he never would compare between.
Richardaft 2, fc. 3.
Milton has a peculiar talent in embellifhing the prin¬
cipal fubjedt, by aflbciating it with others that are
agreeable; which is the third end of a comparifon.
Similes of this kind have, befide, a feparate efledt :
ttngal. (hey (hverfjfy the narration by new images that are
not flxidtly neceflary to the comparifon : they are
fbort epifodes, which, without drawing us from the
principal fubjedt, afford great delight by their beauty
and variety.
He fcarce had ceaf’d, when the fuperior fiend
Was moving toward the fhore; his pond’rous fhield.
Ethereal temper, mafly, large, and round,
Behind him caft; the broad circumference
Hung on his fhoulders like the moon, whofe orb
Through optic glafs the Tufcan artift views
At ev’ning from the top of Fefole,
Or in Valdarno, to defcry new lands.
Rivers,, or mountains, in her fpotty globe.
Milton, book r.
——Thus
COM [ 2168 ] COM
Comparifon -————Thus far thefe beyond
   Compare of mortal prowefs, yet obferv’d
Their dread commander. He, above the reft.
In lhape and ftature proudly eminent.
Stood like a tow’r ; his form had not yet loft
All her original brightnels, nor appear’d
Lefs than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excefs
Of glory obfcur’d : as when the fun new-rifen
Looks through the horizontal mifty air
Shorn of his beams; or, from behind the moon
In dim eclipfe, difaftrous twilight Iheds
On half the nations, and with fear of change
Perplexes monarchs.
Milton, book J.
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
Whole fnowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Diflodging from a region fcarce of prey
To gorge the fielh of lambs, or yeanling kids.
On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the I'prings
Of Ganges or Hydafpes, Indian ftreams,
But in his way lights on the barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chinefes drive
With fails and wind their cany waggons light:
So on this windy fea of land, the fiend
Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey
Milton, book 3.
Next of comparifons that aggrandife or elevate.
Thefe aflett us more than any other fort: the reafon
of which will be evident from the following inftances.
As when a flame the winding valley fills.
And runs on crackling flirubs between the hills,
/ Then o’er the ftubble up the mountain flies.
Fires the high woods, and blazes to the Ikies,
This way and that, the fpreading torrent roars ;
So fweeps the hero through the wafted fliores.
Around him wide, immenl'e deftrudtion pours,
And earth is delug’d with the fanguine fhow’rs.
Iliad xx. 569.
Methinks, king Richard and myfelf Ihould meet
With no lefs terror than the elements
Of fire and water, when their thund’ring fhock,
At meeting tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven.
Richard \\. all 1,. fc. f.
“ As rulheth a foamy ftream from the dark lhady
“ fteep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above,
(t and dark brown night refts on the hill: fo fierce,
“ fo vaft, fo terrible, rulh forward the fonsof Erin.
“ The chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all
“ its billows, pours valour forth as a ftream, rolling
“ its might along the Ihore.” Fingal, book 1.
“ As roll a thoufand wraves to a rock, fo Swa-
ran’s hoft came on ; as meets a rock a thoufand
“ waves, fo Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid.
The laft article mentioned, is that of lelfening or
deprefling a hated or difagreeable objeel; which is
efledtually done by refembling it to any thing low or
defpicable.
Thus Milton, in his defcription of the rout of the
rebel-angels, happily exprelfes their terror and difmay
in the following fimile :
   As a herd
Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d
Drove them before him thunder-ftruck, purfu’d
With terrors and with furies to the bounds CompailtfJ
And cryftal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide,
Roll’d inward, and a fpacious gap difclos’d
Into the wafteful deep; the monftrous fight
Struck them with horror backward, but far worfe
Urg’d them behind ; headlong themfelves they threw
Pown from the verge of heav’n
Milton, book 6.
By this time the different purpofes of companion,
and the various impreflions it makes on the mind, are
fulficiently illuftrated by proper examples. This was
an eafy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules
about the propriety or impropriety of comparifons;
in what circumftances they may be introduced, and in
what drcumrtances they are out of place. It is evi¬
dent that a comparifon is not proper upon every oc-
calion : a man in his cool and fedate moments, is not
difpoled to poetical flights, nor to facrifite truth and
reality to the delulive operations of the imagination ;
far lefs is he fo difpofed, when opprefled with care,,
or interefted in fome important tranfa&ion that occu¬
pies him totally. On the other hand, it is obfervable,
that a man, when elevated or animated by any paf-
fion, is difpofed to elevate or animate all his fubje&s :
he avoids familiar names, exalts objedts by circumlo¬
cution and metaphor, and gives even life and volun¬
tary adlion to inanimate beings. In this warmth of
mind, the higheft poetical flights are indulged, and
the boldeft fimiles and metaphors relilhed. But with¬
out foaring fo high, the mind is frequently in a tona
to relilh chafte and moderate ornament; fuch as com¬
parifons that let the principal object in a ftrong point
of view, or that embellifh and diverfify the narration.
In general, when by any animating paflion, whether
pleafant or painful, an impulfe is given to the imagi¬
nation ; we are in that condition difpofed to every
fort of figurative exprelfion, and in particular to com¬
parifons. This in a great* meafure is evident from
the comparifons already mentioned ; and lhall be fur¬
ther illuftrated by other inftances. Love, for example,
in its infancy, roufing the imagination, prompts the
heart to difplay itfelf in figurative language, and in
fimiles :
Troilus. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love.
What Creflid is, what Pandar, and what we ?
Her bed is India, there Ihe lies, a pearl :
Between our Ilium, and where Ihe refides,
Let it be call’d the wild and wandering flood ;
Ourfelf the merchant, and this failing Pandar
Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark.
Troilus and Creffida, all 1. fc. 1.
Again :
Come, gentle night; come, loving black-brow’d
night!
Give me my Romeo; and, when he fhall die.
Take him, and cut him out in little ftars,
And he will make the face of heav’n fo fine,
That all the world fhall be in love with night,
And pay no worfhip to the garifh fun.
Romeo and Juliet, all 4.
But it will be a better illuftration of the prefent
head, to give examples where comparifons are impro¬
perly introduced. Similes are not the language of a
man in his ordinary ftate of mind, difpatching his
daily
COM [ 2169 ] COM
omparifon daily and ufual work : for that reafon, the following
— fpeech of,.a gardener to his fervant, is extremely im¬
proper :
Go bind thou up yoq dangling apricots.
Which, like unruly children, make their fire
Stoop with oppreffion of their prodigal weight:
Give fome fupportance to the bending twigs.
Go thou, and, like an executioner.
Cut off the heads of too-fall-growing fprays.
That look too lofty in our commonwealth :
All mull be even in our government.
Richard 11. afi ■}. fc. 7.
The fertility of Shakefpear’s vein betrays him fre¬
quently into this error.
Rooted grief, deep auguifh, terror, remorfe, de-
fpair, and all thfe fevere difpiriting paffions, are decla¬
red enemies, perhaps not to figurative language in ge¬
neral, but undoubtedly to the pomp and folemnity of
comparifop. Upon this account, the fimile pronoun¬
ced by young Rutland, under terror of death from an
inveterate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural :
So looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch
That trembles under his devouring paws;
And fo he walks infulting o’er his prey,
And fo he comes to rend his limbs afunder.
Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy fworxl,
And not with fuch a cruel threat’ning look.
Third part Henry VI. aft 1. fc. 5.
A man fpent and difpirited after loling a battle, is
not difpofed to heighten or illuflrate his difcourfe by
limiles.
York.. With this we charg’d again ; but out! alas.
We bodg’d again; as I have feen a fwan
With bootlefs labour fwim againft the tide,
And fpend her flrength with over-matching waves.
Ah ! hark, the fatal followers do purfue;
And I am faint and cannot fly their fury.
The fands are number’d that make up my life ;
Here mufl 1 flay, and here my life mull end.
Third part Henry VI. aft l. fc. 6.
Similes thus unfeafonably introduced are finely ri¬
diculed in the <e Rehearfal.”
“ Bayes. Now here fhe muft make a fimile.
f‘ Smith. Where’s the necelfity of that, Mr Bayes ?
“ Bayes. Becaufe file’s furprized ; that’s a gene-
“ ral rule ; you mull ever make a fimile when you
u are furprized ; ’tis a new way of writing.”
A comparifon is not always faultlefs, even where it
is properly introduced. A comparifon, like other hu¬
man produ<5lions, may fall fliort of its end ; of which
defeat inftances are not rare even among good wri¬
ters : and to complete the prefent fubjecl, it will be
neceffary to make fome obfervations upon fuch faulty
comparifons. Nothing can be more erroneous than
to inllitute a comparifon too faint: a diflant refem-
blance or contrail fatigues the mind with its obfcurity,
inflead of amufing it; and tends not to fulfil any one
end of a comparifon. The following fimiles feem to
labour under this defedl.
K. Rich. Give me the crown.—Here, coulin,
feize the crown.
Here, on this fide, my hand; on that fide, thine.
Now is this golden crown like a deep well.
That owes two buckets, filling one another j
Vox.. III.
The emptier ever dancing in the air, Comparifon
The other down, unfeen and full of water ; ———
That bucket down, and full of tears, am I,
Drinking my griefs, whilfl you mount up on high.
Richard II. aft 4. fc. 3.
K. John, Oh ! coufin, thou art come to fet mine
eye ;
The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt;
And all the fhrouds wherewith my life fhould fail,
Are turned to one thread, one little hair :
My heart hath one poor firing to flay it by.
Which holds but till thy news be uttered.
King John, aft 5. fc. 10.
York. My uncles both are flain in refcuing me :
And all my followers to the eager foe
Turn back, and fly like ftiips before the wind.
Or lambs purfu’d by hunger-ftarved wolves.
Third part Henry VI. aft r. fc. 6.
The latter of the two fimiles is good : the former,
becaufe of the faintnefs of the refemblance, produces
no good effedi, and crouds the narration with an ufelefs
image.
In an epic poem, or in any elevated fubjedl, a wri¬
ter ought to avoid raifing a fimile upon a low image,
which never fails to bring down the principal fubjedl.
In general, it is a rule, that a grand object ought ne¬
ver to be refembled to one that is diminutive, how¬
ever delicate the refemblance may be : for it is the
peculiar chara&er of a grand objeiSl to fix the atten¬
tion, and fwell the mind ; in which flate, it is difa-
greeable to contract the mind to a minute object,
however elegant. The refembling an objeifl to one
that is greater, has, on the contrary, a good effedl,
by raifing or fwelling the mind : for one pafles with
fatisfadlion from a fmall to a great objeiH:; but cannot
be drawn down, without reludlance, from great to
fmall. Hence the following fimiles are faulty.
Meanwhile the troops beneath Patroclus’ care,
Invade the Trojans, and commence the war.
As wafps, provok’d by children in their play,
Pour from their manfions by the broad highway.
In fwarms the guiltlefs traveller engage,
Whet all their flings, and call forth all their rage ;
All rife in arms, and with a general cry
Affert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny :
Thus from the tents the fervent legion fwarms.
So loud their clamours, and fo keen their arms.
Iliad xvi. 312.
So burns the vengeful hornet (foul all o’er)
Repuls’d in vain, and thirfly flill of gore ;
(Bold fon of air and-heat) on angry wings
Untam’d, untir’d, he turns, attacks, and flings.
Fir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides flew,
And fent his foul with ev’ry lance he threw.
Iliad, xvii. 642’.
An error oppolite to the former, is the introducing
a refembling image, fo elevated or great as to bear
no proportion to the principal fubjedfl. Their re¬
markable difparity, being the mofl flriking circum-
flance, feizes the mind, and never fails to deprefs the
principal fubjetfl by contrail, inflead of raifing it by
refemblance : and if the difparity be exceeding great,
the fimile takes on an air of burlelque ; nothing being
more ridiculous than to force an objecSl out of its pro-
12 T per
COM
21
Comparifon per rank in nature, by equalling it with one greatly
fuperior or greatly inferior. This will be evident
from the following coniparifon.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring.
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the fpring.
Odjjfey, xxi. 51.
Such a fimile upon the fimpleft of all actions, that of
opening a lock, is pure burlelque.
A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compa-
rifons from any image that is naufeous, ugly, or re¬
markably difagreeable ; for however lirong the re-
femblance may be, more will be loft than gained by
fuch comparifon. Therefore we cannot help condem¬
ning, though with fome relmftancy, the following fi¬
mile, or rather metaphor.
O thou fond many ! with what loud applaufe
Didft thou beat heav’n with bleffing Bolingbroke
Before he was what thou would’ft have him be ?
And now being trimm’d up in thine own defires,.
Thou, beaftly feeder, art fo full of him.
That thou provok’ft thyfelf to caft him up.
And fo, thou common dog, didft thou difgorge
Thy glutton bofom of the royal Richard,
And now thou would’ft eat thy dead vomit up,
And howl’ft to find it.
Second Part Henry IV. aEl \. fc.
The ftrongeft objection that can lie againft a com¬
parifon is, that it confifts in words only, not in fenfie.
Such falfe coin, or baftard-wit, does extremely well
in burlefque ; but it is far below the dignity of the
epic, or of any ferious compofition.
The noble filter of Poplicola,
The moon of Rome ; chafte as the icicle
That’s curdl’d by the froft from pureft fnow,
And hangs on Dian’s temple.
Coriolanus, a(i $. fc. 3.
There is evidently no refemblance between an icicle
and a. woman, chafte or unchafte : but chaftity is cold
in a metaphorical fenfe, and an icicle is cold in a pro¬
per fenfe ; and this verbal refemblance, in the hurry
and glow of compofing, has been thought a fufficient
foundation for the fimile. Such phantom fimiles are
mere witticifms, which ought to have no quarter,
except where purpofely introduced to provoke laugh¬
ter. Lucian, in his diflertation upon hiftory, talking
of a certain author, makes the following comparifon,
which is verbal merely.
" This author’s defcriptions are fo cold, that they
« furpafs the Cafpian fnow, and all the ice of the
a north.”
 But for their fpirits and fouls
This word rebellion had froze them up
As filh are in a pond.
Second Part Henry IV. aft 1. fc. 3.
Pope has feveral fimiles of the fame ftamp.
And hence one mafter paffion in the breaft.
Like Aaron’s ferpent fwallows up the reft.
Epift. 2. /. 131.
And again, talkingof this fame ruling or mafter paflion :
Nature its mother. Habit is its nurfe ;
Wit, fpirit, faculties, but make it worfe ;
Reafon itfelf but gives it edge and pow’r ;
As heav’n’s tdefs’d beam turns vinegar more four.
Ibid. A 145.
70 ] COM
Where the fubjecft is burlefque or ludicrous, fuch Comparifon
fimiles are far from being improper. Horace fays ||
pleafantly, ComPa'f£-
Quamquam tu levior cortice. Lib. 3. od. 9.
And Shakefpear,
In breaking oaths he’s ftronger than Hercules.
And this leads to obferve, that befides the fore¬
going comparifohs, which are all ferious, there is a
ipecies, the end and purpofe of which is to excite
gaiety or mirth. Take the following examples.
FalftafF, fpeaking fo his page :
“ I do here walk before thee, like a fow that
(C hath overwhelmed all her litter but one.”
Second part Henry IV. all t.fc. 10.
“ I think he is not a pick-purfe, nor a horfe-
t( ftealer; but for his verity in love, I do think him
t( as concave as a.covered goblet, or a worm-eaten
nut.” As you like it, all 3.^. IC.
This fword a dagger had his page,.
That was but little for his age;
And therefore waited on him fo,
As dwarfs upon knights-errant do.
Hudibras, canto t.
“ Books, like men, their authors, have but one
tt way of coming into the world ; but there are
u ten thoufand to go out of it, and return no more.”
Tale of a Tub.
“ The moft accomplilhed way of ufing books at
“ prefent is, to ferve them as fome do lords, leant
u their titles, and then brag of their acquaintance.”
Ibid.
u He does not confider, that fincerity in love is
u as much out of fafttion as fweet fnuff; no body
“ takes it now.” Carelefs Hujband.
COMPARTITION, in architeifture, denotes the
ufeful and graceful difpolition of the whole ground-
plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of recep¬
tion or entertainment.
COMPARTMENT, in general, is a defign compo-
fed of feveral different figures, difpofed with fymme-
try, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling, tec.
A compartment of tiles or bricks, is an arrangement
of them, of different colours, and varniffied, for the
decoration of a building. Compartments in garden¬
ing, are an aflemblage of beds, plats, borders, walks,
tec. difpofed in the moft advantageous manner that
the ground will admit of. Compartments in heraldry
are otherwife called partitions.
COMPASS, or Compass, is an inftru-
ment whereby the Ihip’s courfe is determined. See
Navigation, fe<ft. i. 1 j. and Mariner’s Compafs.
The compafs being of the utmoft confequence to
navigation, it is reafonable to expecft that the greateft
attention ffiould be ufed in its conftrudlion, and every
attempt to improve it carefully examined, and, if pro¬
per, adopted. But fo carelefs are the generality of
commanders of this moft ufeful inftrument, that almoft
all the compafles ufed on board merchant-lhips have
their needles formed of two pieces of fteel-wire, each
of which is bent in the middle, fo as to form an ob-
tufe angle ; and their ends, being applied together,
make an acute one ; fo that the whole reprefents the
form of a lozenge ; in the centre of which, and of
the card, is placed the brafs cap. Now, if we exa-
COM [21
Compafs. mine a number of thefe cards, we fliall rarely, if ever,
find them all in the fame direction, but they will all
vary more or lefs, not only with regard to the true
direction, but from one another.
Thefe irregularities are owing to the ftrudture of
the needle ; for the wires of which it iscompofed are
only hardened at the ends; now, if thefe ends are not
equally hard, or if one end be hardened up higher
than the other, when they come to be put together,
in fixing them to the card,, that end which is hardeft
will deltroy much of the virtue of the other; by which
means the hardeft end will have the moft power in
diretfting the card, and confequently make it vary to*
ward its own direftion : and, as the wires are difpo-
fed in the form of a lozenge, theft cards can have but
little force, fo that they will often, when drawn afide,
ftand at the diftance of feveral degrees on either fide
the point from whence they are drawn : for all mag-
netical bodies receive an additional ftrength by being
placed in the direction of the earth’s magnetifm, and
act proportionably lefs vigoroufly when turned out of
it; wherefore, when theft kind of needles are drawn
afide from their true point, two of the parallel fides
of the lozenge will confpire, more diredtly than be¬
fore, with the earth’s magnetifm ; and the other two
will be lefs in that direction : by which means the
two fides will very much impede its return ; and
the two latter will have that impediment to over¬
come, as well as the friction, by their own force alone.
To remove thefe inconveniencies, fome needles are
made of one piece of fteel of a fpring temper, and
broad towards the ends, but tapering towards the
middle, where a hole is made to receive the cap. At
the ends they terminate in an angle, greater or lefs
according to the (kill or fancy of the workman. Theft
needles, though infinitely preferable to the other, are,
however, far from being perfeift ; for every needle
of this form hath fix poles inftead of two, one at each
end, two where it becomes tapering, and two at the
hole in the middle : this is owing to their lhape ; for
the middle part being very flender, it has not fub-
ftance enough to conduct the magnetic ftream quite
through, from one end to the other : all thefe poles
appear very diftindlly, when examined with a glafs
that is fprinkled over with magnetic fand. This cir-
cumftance, however, does not hinder the needle from
pointing true; but as it has lefs force to move the card
than when the magnetic ftream moves in large curves
front one end to the other, it is certainly an imper-
fedion.
Thefe inconveniencies induced the ingenious Dr
Knight to contrive a new fta-compafs, which is now
ufed on board all the fliips of war. The needle in
this inftrument is quite ftraight, and fquare at the
ends; and confequently has only two poles, though
about the hole in the middle, the curves are a little
confufed. Needles of this conftrudtion, after vibra¬
ting a long time, will always point exadUy in the
fame direction ; and if drawn ever fo little on one
fide, will return to it again, without any ftnfible dif¬
ference. We may therefore conclude, that a regular
parallelepiped is the belt form for a needle, as well as
the fimpleft, the holes for the caps being as fmall as
poffible.
71 ] COM
And as the weight fliould be removed to the great- Compafs
eft diftance from the centre of motion, a circle of ^ (r ?
brafs, of the fame diameter of the card, may be ad- !’
ded, which will ferve alfo to fupport the card, which
may then be made of thin paper, without any thing
to ftiffen it. This ring being fixed below the card,
and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is pla¬
ced low enough to admit of the cap being put under
the needle, whereby the hole in the needle becomes
unneceflary.
The above obfervations will be eafily underftood
from viewing the feveral parts of the inftrument as
reprefented on Plate LXXXIH. fig. 3. where nQ r.
is the card, with the needle K L, and its cap M, fixed
upon it, being one-third of the diameter of the real
card.
N° 3, is a perfpedtive view of the backfide of the
card, where A B repreftnts the turning down of the
brafs edge, C the under part of the cap, D and E two
Hiding weights to balance the card, and F, G, two
ferews that fix the brafs edge, ire. to the needle.
N° 2, is the pedeftal that fupports the card, con¬
taining a ferewing needle, fixed in two fmall grooves
to receive it, by means of the collet C, in the man¬
ner of a port-crayon. D, the ftem, is filed into
an oeftagon, that it may be the more eafily unferew-
ed.
Azimuth Compass. See Azimuth.
CoMPASS-D/tf//, are fmall horizontal dials, fitted in
brafs or filver boxes, for the pocket, to Ihew the hour
of the day, by the direction of a needle that indicates
how to place them right, by turning the dial about tin
the cock or ftyle ftand direftly over the needle ; but
thefe can never be very ex aft, becaufe of the varia¬
tion of the needle itftlf. See Compass, and Dial¬
ling.
COMPASSES, or /’rt/V e/Compasses, a mathe¬
matical inftrument for deferibing circles, meafuring
figures, ire.
The common compaffts confift of two fharp-pointed
branches or legs of iron, fteel, brafs, or other metal,
joined together at the top by a rivet, whereon they
move as on a centre.
The principal perfection of this, as of all other
compaffts, confifts in the eafy and uniform opening and
(hutting of their legs ; one of which may be taken out,
in order to make room for others.
There are now ufed compaffts of various kinds
and contrivances, accommodated to the various ufts
they are intended for ; as,
Compasses of three Legs are, fetting afide the ex-
cefs of a leg, of the fame ftructure with the common
ones : their ufe being to take three points at once,
and fo to form triangles; to lay down three pofitions
of a map, to be copied at once, tec.
Beam Compasses confift of a long branch, or beam,
carrying two brafs curfors, the one fixed at one end,
the other Aiding along the beam, with a ferew to faft-
en it on occafion. To the curfors may be ferewed
points of any kind, whether fteel, for pencils, or the
like. It is ufed to draw large circles, to take great
extents, tec.
Caliber Compasses. See Caliber.
Ctochnaker’s Compasses are joined like the com-
12 T 2 mon
COM [ 2172 ] COM
Compaffes. mon compares, with a quadrant, or bow, like the
*——  fpring compaffes; only of different ufe, ferving here
to keep the inftrument firm at any opening. They
are made very ftrong, with the points of their legs
of well tempered fteel, as being ufed to draw lines.
on pafte-board or copper.
Cylindrical and Spherical Compasses, confift of
four branches, joined in a centre, two of which are
circular, and two flat, a little bent on the ends : their
ufe is to take the diameter, thicknefs, or caliber of
round or cylindric bodies; fuch as cannons, pipes, &c.
Elliptic Compasses confift of a crois ABGH,
(plate LXXXIV. fig. 9.) with grooves in it, and an
index CE, which is fattened to the crofs by means of
dove-tails at the points C D, that Aide in the grooves;
fo that when the index is turned' about, the end E will
defcribe an ellipfis, which is the ufe of thefe compaffes.
Gertnan Compasses have their legs a little bent
outwards, towards' the top ; fo that when fliut, the
points only meet.
Lapidary's Compasses are a, piece of wood, in
form of the fhaft of a plane, cleft at top, as far as.half
its length ; with this they meafure the angles, of
jewels and precious ftones, as they cut them. There
is in the cleft a . little brafs rule, fattened there at
one end by a pin ; but fo that it may be moved in the
manner of a brafs level : with this kind of fquare they
take the angles of the ftones, laying them on the fhaft
as they cut them.
Proportional Compasses are fuch as have two legs,
but four points, which, when opened, are like a crofs,
as not having the joint at the end of the legs like com¬
mon compafles : fome of thefe have fixed joints,
others moveable ones ; upon the legs of the latter of
which are drawn the lines of chords, fines, tangents,
ire. Their ufe is to divide lines and circles into equal
parts ; or to perform the operations of the fe&or at
one opening of them.
.S/r/w^-CoMPAssES, or dividers; thofe with an
arched head, which by its fpring opens the legs; the
opening being directed by a circular ferew fattened to
one of the legs, and let through the other, worked
with a nut. Thefe compafles are made of hardened
fteel.
Trifefling Compasses confift of two central rules,
and an arch of a circle of 120 degrees, immoveable,
with its radius ; which is fattened with one of the
central rules like the two legs of a fedlor, that the
central rule may be carried through all the points of
the circumference of the arch. The radius and rule
fliould be as thin as poflible ; and the rule fattened to
the radius fliould be hammered cold, to attain the
greater ejlaftieity ; and the breadth of the central rule
Ihould be triple that of the radius : there mutt alfo be
a groove in this rule, with a dove-tail fattened on it
for its motion, and a hole in the centre of each rule.
The ufe of this inftrument is to facilitate the trifec-
tion of angles geometrically ; and it is faid to have
been invented by M. Tarragen for that purpofe.
Turn-up Compasses. The body of this inftru¬
ment is like the common compafles : but towards the
bottom of the legs, without-lide, are added two other
points befides the ufual ones; the one whereof carry
a drawing pen point, and the other a port-crayon,
both adjufted fo as to turn round, and be in the way Compatible
of ufe, or out of it, as occafion requires. Thefe com- H .
pafles have been contrived to fave the trouble of chan- - Qnipl a ia
ging the points.
COMPATIBLE, fomething that may fuit, or con¬
fift with another. See Incompatible.
COMPEIGNE, a handfome town of the ifle of
France, in the county of Senlis, with a palace, or cattle,
where the king often refides. The maid of Orleans was
taken prifoner here in 1430. It is feated on the river
Oife, near a large foreft. E. Long. 3. 12. N. Lat.
49- 2L
COMPENDIUM, in matters of literature, denotes
much the lame as epitome or abridgement. See A-
BRIDGEMENT.
COMPENSATION, in a general fenfe, an adtion
whereby any thing is admitted as an equivalent to
another.
Compensation, in law. Where the fame perfon is
debtor and creditor to another, the mutual obligations,
if they are for equal fums, are extinguilhed by com-
penfation ; if’ for unequal, the lelfer obligation is ex -
tinguiflied, and the greater diminilhed, as far as the
concourfe of debt and credit goes.
COMPETENCE, or Competency, in a general
fenfe, fuch a quantity of any thing as is fufficient.
Competence, in law, the right or authority of a
judge, whereby he takes cognizance of any thing.
COMPETENTES, an order of catechumens, in the
primitive Chrittian church, being the immediate can¬
didates for baptifm. See Catechumen.
COMPETITION, in a general fenfe, is the fame
with rivallhip, or when two or more perfons contend
for the fame thing.
Competition, in Scots law. In efeheats, fee Law,
Part III, N° clxvi. 17, ire. In confirmations by the
fuperior, in refignations, and in perfonal rights of
lands, ibid, clxviii. 5,— 9. In inhibitions, in adjudica¬
tions, amongtt aflignees, arretters, and poinders, ibid.
clxxi. 6. dxxii. 3. clxxvii. 2. clxxviii. 8, 9, 10. A-
mongft creditors of a defundt, clxxxi. 19.
COMPITALIA, or Compitalita, feafts held a-
mong the ancients in honour of the lares. The word
comes from the Latin compitum, a crofs- way ; by rea-
fon the featt was held in the meeting of feveral roads.
The compitalia are more ancient than the building of
Rome. Dionyfius Halicarnalfeus, and Pliny, indeed,
fay, they were inttituted by Servius Tullus ; but this
only fignifies that they were then introduced into
Rome. The feaft being moveable, the day whereon
it was to be obferved was proclaimed every year. R
was ordinarily held on the 4th of the nones of Fe¬
bruary, i. e. on the 2d of that month. Macrobius
obferves, that they were held not only in honour
of the lares, but alfo of mania, madnefs. The pfiefts
who officiated at them were Haves and liberti, and
the facrifice a fow. They were re-eftablilhed, after
a long negledt, by Tarquin the Proud, on occafion
of an anfwer of the oracle, that they Jhould facrifice
heads for heads ; i. e. that for the health and profpe-
rity of each family, children were to be facrificed :
but Brutus, after expelling the kings, in lieu of thole
barbarous vidtims fubftituted the heads of garlic and
poppy ; thus fatisfying the oracle which had enjoined
capita,
COM [2
3 Comple- capita, heads. During the celebration of this feaft,
ment each family placed at the door of their houfe, the
Com ^ ft ^atue tlie goddefs Mania : they alfo hung up at
. p° 1 e~ their doors figures of wool, reprefenting men and
women ; accompanying them with fupplications that
the lares and mania would be contented with thofe fi¬
gures, and fpare the people of the houfe.
COMPLEMENT, in geometry, is what remains of
the quadrant of a circle, or 90°, after any certain arch
has been taken away from it.- Thus, if the arch ta¬
ken away be-40°, its complement is 50 ; becaufe
50+40ZZ90. The fine of the complement of an
arch is called the co-fine, and that of the tangent the
co-tangefit, &c.
COMPLETUS flos, in botany. A flower is faid
to be complete, which is provided with both the co¬
vers, viz. the calix or flower-cup, and the petals. The
term was invented by Vaillant, and is fynonimous to
calyculatus flos in Linnaeus. Berkenhout erroneoufly
conlpunds it with the auttus and catyculatus calix of
the fame author.
COMPLEX, in a more general fenfe, a term fy -
nonimous with compound ; though, in llridlnefs of
fpeech, there is fome difference.
Complex is properly applied where a thing contains
divers others, or confifts of divers parts not really di-
ffinft from each other, but only imaginarily, or in
our conceptions. In this fenfe the foul may be faid
to be complex, -in refpedl of the underftanding and
will, which are two things that our reafon alone diftin-
guiffies in it.
Complex Term or Idea, is a term compounded
of feveral fimple or incomplex ones. Thus in the
propofition, A jtifl Cod cannot leave crimes unpum fh-
ed ; the fubjedt of this propofition, viz. a jufl Cod is a
complex term, or Hands for a complex idea com-
pofed of two fimple or incomplex ones, viz. Cod and
juft.
COMPLEXION, among phyficians, the tempera¬
ment, habitude, and natural difpofition, of the body ;
hut more often the colour of the face and ikin. See
Colour of the Human Species.
COMPLEXUS; and Complexusor TViz-
chelo-mafloidaus: two mufcles in the ppfterior part
of the trunk. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
COMPLICATION, in general, denotes the blend¬
ing, or rather interweaving, of feveral different things
together : thus a perfon afflicted with feveral difor-
ders at the fame time, is faid to labour under a com¬
plication of diforders.
COMPLINE, the laft divifion of the Romifh bre-
I viary. It was inftituted to implore God’s proteftion
during the night, as the prime is for the day. It is
recited after fun-fet, and is fo called, becaufe it com¬
pletes the office for the 24 hours.
COMPOUND, Compone, or Gobony, in heral¬
dry, is faid of a bordure made up of angular parts, or
chequers, of alternate metals and colours. See He¬
raldry, N°II. examp. 8.
COMPOSITE, in general, denotes fomething com¬
pounded, or made up of feveral others united toge¬
ther ; thus,
Composite Numbers, are fuch as can be meafured
exaftly by a number exceeding unity j as 6 by 2 or
173] COM
3, or 10 by 5, tfle. fo that 4 is the loweft compofite Compofite
number. Compofite numbers, between themfelves, II
are thofe which have fome common meafure belides Co™P°f1*
unity ; as 12 and 15, as being both meafured by 3. 10n‘'
Composite Order, in architecture, the laft of the
five orders of columns ; fo called becaufe its capital is
compofed out of thofe of the other columns, borrow¬
ing a quarter-round from the Tufcan and Doric, a row
of leaves from the Corinthian, and volutes from the
Ionic. Its corniche has fimple modillions or dentils..
It is alfo called the Roman or Italic order, as having
been invented by the Romans., By moft authors it is
ranked after the Corinthian, either as being the next
richeft, or the laft invented. See Architecture,
n° 53-
COMPOSITION, in a general fenfe, the uniting
or putting together feveral thjngs, fo as to form one
whole, called a compound.
Composition of Ideas, an atft of the mind, where¬
by it unites feveral fimple ideas into one conception
or complex idea.
When we are provided with a fufficient ftock of
fimple ideas, and have by habit and tile rendered them
familiar to our minds, they become the component
parts of other ideas itill more complicated, and form
what we may call a fecond order of compound notions.
This procefs may be continued to any degree of com-
polition we pleafe, mounting from one ftage to ano¬
ther, and enlarging the number of combinations.
Composition, in grammar, the joining of two
words together; or prefixing a particle to another
word, to augment, diminifh, or change its fignification.
Composition, in logic, a method of reafoning
whereby we proceed from fome general felf-evident
truth, to other particular and Angular ones.
In difpofing a nd putting together our thoughts, there
are two ways of proceeding, equally within our choice:
for we.may fo fuppofe the truths, relating to any part
of knowledge, as they prefented themfelves to the
mind, in the manner of inveftigation; carrying on the
feries of proofs in a reverfe order, till they, at laft,
terminate in firft principles: or beginning with thefe
principles, we may take the contrary way, and from
them deduce, by a direft train of reafoning, all the
feveral propofitions we want to eftablilh.
This diverfity, in the manner of arranging our
thoughts, gives rife to the twofold divifion of method
eftablifhed among logicians; the one called analytic
method, or the method of reflation, inafmuch as it
traces things back to their fource, and refolves know¬
ledge into its firft and original principles. This me¬
thod Hands in contradiftinaion to the method of com-
pofition; or, as it is otheiwife called, the fynthetic
method : for here we proceed by gathering together
the feveral fcattered parts of knowledge, and combi¬
ning them into one fyftem, in fuch a manner,, as that
the underftanding is enabled diftinflly to follow truth
through all the different ftages of gradation.
Composition, in mufic, is the art of inventing,
ami writing airs ; of accompanying them with a fni-
table harmony; in fhort, of forming a complete piece
of mufic in all its parts.
The knowledge of melody, harmony, and its rules,
is the foundation of compofition. Without doubt,
/ * it
COM [ 1474 ] COM
CompoG- it is neceflary to know in what manner chords fhould
tion. be filled, how to prepare and refolve diflbnances,
how to find the fundamental bafs, and how to put in
practice all the other minutiae of elementary know¬
ledge ; but with the mechanical rules of harmony alone,
one is by no means better qualified to underitand the
art, and operate in the practice of compofition, than
to form himfelf for eloquence upon all the rhetorical
precepts exhibited in grammar. We need not fay, that
befides this, it is neceffary to underftand the genius
and compafs of voices and inftruments; to judge what
airs may be of eafy, and what of difficult, execution;
to obferve what will, and what will not, be produc¬
tive of any effect:; to feel the character of different
movements, as well as that of different modulations,
that both may be always fuitably applied; to know
the different rules eflablifhed by convention, by taffe,
by caprice, or by pedantry, as fugues, imitations, or
in pieces where the fubjedt is confined to uniform
laws in its harmony, melody, rhithmus, <Lrc. All thefe
acquifitions are flill no more than preparatives for
compofition: but the compol’er muft find in his own
genius the fources of beautiful melody, of fublime har¬
mony, the pi<5lurefque, and the expreffive in mufic ;
he muff, in fhort, be capable of perceiving, and of
forming, the order of the whole piece ; to follow the
relations and aptitudes of which it is fufceptible in
every kind ; to inflame his foul with the 1’pirit and en-
thufiafm of the poet, rather than childifhly amufe him¬
felf with punning in harmony, or adapting the mufic
to each particular word. It is with reafon that our
muficians have given the name of words to the poems
which they fet to mufic. It appears evident from
their manner of exprefling them, that, in their appre-
henfion, they feemed words, and words alone. One
would be tempted to imagine, particularly during fome
of thefe laft years, that the rules for the formation
and fucceflion of chords have cauftd all the reft to be
neglected or forgot; and that harmony has made no
acquifitions, but at the expence of what is general
and eflential in the mufical art. All our artifts know
how to fill a chord with its conftituent founds, or a
piece of harmony with its conftituent parts; but not
a foul amongft them feels a ray of compofition. As
to what remains, though the fundamental rules of
counter-point, or mufic in parts, continue ftill the fame,
they are more or lefs rigorous and inflexible in pro¬
portion as the parts increafe in number ; for accord¬
ing as the parts are multiplied, the difficulty of com¬
pofition is heightened, and the rules are lefs fevere 
Compofitions in two parts are called duettos, when
the two performers fing equally ; that is to fay, when
the fubjeil is no further extended, but divided between
them. But if the fubjeift is in one part alone, and the
fubordinate harmony no more than an accompany-
ment, the firft part is then either called a recitative or
a folo; and the other, an accompanyment, or conti¬
nued bafs, if it is a bafs. It is the fame cafe with the
trio, with compofitions in three, in four, or in five parts.
The name of compofition is likewife given to fuch
pieces of mufic themfelves, as are formed according to
the rules of the art. For this reafon the duetts, trios,
quartettes, which have juft been mentioned, are called
c-tmpojitions.
Compofitions are either formed for the voice alone, Compofi-
or for inftruments, or for voices and inftruments join- don.
ed. Full chorufes and fongs are the only compofitions
principally intended for the voice, though fometimes
inftruments are joined with it to fupport it. Compo¬
fitions for inftruments are intended to be executed by
a band in the orcheftra, and then they are called
fyrnphonies, concertos; or for fome particular fpecies
of inftruments, and then they are called pieces or fo-
natas.
Such compofitions as are deftined both for voices
and inftruments, have been generally divided into
two capital fpecies, viz. the facred, and the fecular.
The compofitions deftined for the church, whether
pfalms, hymns, anthems, or refponfives, are in gene¬
ral diftinguilhed by the name of church-viujic, and
chara<fterized by their intention to be lung with
words. Secular mufic in general may likewife be di¬
vided into two kinds; theatrical and chamber mu¬
fic. Of the firft kind, is that ufed in the operas; the
fubdivifions of the fecond are endlefs. Solos, concer¬
tos, cantatas, fongs, and airs, almoft of every kind,
which are not adapted to the church or the ftage, may
be included in the idea of chamber-mufc.
In general, it is thought, that facred mufic requires
deeper fcience, and a more accurate obfervation of
rules; the fecular fpecies gives more indulgence to ge¬
nius, and fubfifts in greater variety.
But we muft here obferve, that the ecclefiaftical
mufic now ufed, or rather profaned and murdered,
amongft us, though regular in its harmony, is Ample
in its compofition, and demands not that profound
knowledge in the art, either to form or comprehend
it, which Rouffeau whom till now, we have fol¬
lowed in this article, feems to imagine. His afler-
tion can only be applicable to the church-mufic of Ita¬
ly. That which is now eftablifhed amongft us, feems
not to be indigenius, but transferred with the Calvo-
niftical liturgy from Geneva; and as it is intended for
popular ufe, it can by no means be efteemed an high
exertion of the mufical art: yet, however Ample, it is
pleafing; and, when properly performed, might ele¬
vate the foul to a degree of devotion, and even of
rapture, which at prefent we are fo far from feeling,
that we rather feem to fleep or to howl, than to fing
the praife of God. Perhaps our clergy may find more
advantage in cultivating their farms-; but they would
furely feel a higher and diviner pleafure, in cultiva¬
ting the tafies and voices of their people. The one,
however, is not incompatible with the other. An
hour of relaxation in a winter-evening might ferve
for the accompliftimenc of this pious purpofe ; and one
Ihould imagine, that, independent of religious confi-
derations, the fpirit of the craft might dictate fuch a
meafure as calculated to produce popular intertain-
ment and gain popular affeiftion.
In compofition, the author either confines himfelf,
as a fubjetft, to the mere mechanical modulations and
arrangements of found; and, as his end, to the pleafure
of the ear alone: or otherwife he foars a nobler height;
he afpires to imitative mufic ; he endeavours to ren¬
der the hearts and fouls of his auditors duiftile by his
art, and thus to produce the nobleft emotions and
moft falutary effects. In the firft view, it is only
neceflary,
COM [ 2175 ] COM
c* Compofi. neceflary, that he fliould look for beautiful founds and
tion agreeable chords; but in the fecond, he ought to con-
, c ^ f fider mufic in its conformity with the accents of the
ia ompo 1 us jiuman vojt.ej anci jn the exprelfive powers of notes
harmonically combined to fignify or paint fuch objedls
as are fufceptible of imitation. In Rouffeau’s article
opera, fome ideas may be found by which the art may
be ennobled and elevated, by forming mulic into a
language more powerful and pathetic than eloquence
itfelf. See Opera.
Composition, in literature, the art of forming
and arranging fentiments, and cloathing them with
language fuitable to the nature of the fubjedt or dif-
courfe. See the articles Language, Oratory, and
Poetry.
Composition, in chemiftry, is the union and com¬
bination of feveral fubftances of different natures,
from which a compound body refults. From this u-
nion of bodies of different natures, a body is formed,
of a mixed nature, which Becker and Stahl have cal¬
led a mixture, and which may be called a combination,
or chemical compaction, to avoid the equivocal fenfe
of the word mixture. By this lad, we underftand
only a mere appolition of parts; and which would there¬
fore give a very falfe idea of chemical compofition,
in which a mutual adhefion takes place between the
combined fubdances.
Composition, in painting, includes the invention
as well as difpolition of the figures; the choice of at¬
titudes, ire.
Compofition, therefore, confifts of two parts; one
of which finds out, by means of hifiory. properob-
jedls for a picture; and the other difpofes them to
advantage. See Painting.
Composition, in pharmacy, the art or a<5t of
mixing divers ingredients together into a medicine
fo as they may affift each other’s virtues, fupply each
other’s defeeffs, or corredl any ill qualities thereof.
See Pharmacy.
Composition, in commerce, a contract: between
an infolvent debtor and his creditors, whereby the
latter accept of a part of the debt in compofition for
the whole, and give a general acquittance accord-
ingly.
Composition, in printing, commonly termed co?n-
pofiug, the arranging of feveral types or letters in the
compofing-ftick, in order to form a line ; and of fe¬
veral lines ranged in order, in the galley, to make a
page ; and of feveral pages to make a form. See
Printing.
COMPOSITE, in botany. The name of a clafs
in Hermannus and Royen ; as likewife, of an order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confilting
in general of the plants which have the characters
enumerated in the following article. A particular
defeription of this order, is given under the article
Syngenesia, which includes all the compound
flowers.
COMPOSITUS flos, in botany, an aggregate
flower compofed of many flofeuli feffiles, on a common
entire receptaculnm, with a common perianthium, and
whofe antherae being five in number unite in the form
of a cylinder; the flofeuli are monopetalous, and
under each of them is a monofpermous germen.
Compound flowers are either ligulati, tubulcfi, or Compoff.
radiati.
COMPOST, in agriculture, denotes a certain kind
of mixture defigned to alfift the foil in the way of ve¬
getation, inftead of dung. The requifites for a com¬
port are, I. That it ought to be cheaper than the quan¬
tity of dung required for an equal extent of foil.
2. It ought to be lefs bulky ; and 3. It ought to pro¬
duce equal effecls.
Under the article Agriculture, we have endea¬
voured to fliew, that the true vegetable food confirts
in reality of the putrid effluvia proceeding from de¬
cayed animal and vegetable fubrtances. If this theory
is admitted, the hope of making comports as a fucce-
daneum for dung is but very final], unlefs they are
made of putrefied animal and vegetable fnbftances, in
which cafe, unlefs in very fingular circumrtances, they
will prove much dearer than dung itfelf. Several at¬
tempts, however, have been made by thole who had
other views concerning the nature of the true vege¬
table food. An oil-comport is recommended in the
Georgical Effays, upon a fuppofition that the food of
vegetables is of an oily nature. It is made as follows:
“ Take of North-American potalh I2lb. Break the
fait into fmall pieces, and put it into a convenient
veffel with four gallons of water. Let the mixture
ftand 48 hours, then add courfe train oil 14 gallons.
In a few days the fait will be diffolved, and the mix¬
ture, upon ftirring, will become nearly uniform.
Take 14 bulhels of land, or 20 of dry mold ; upon
thefe pour the above liquid ingredients. Turn this
compofition frequently over, and in fix months it will
be fit for ufe. When the liquid ingredients are put
to one or two hcglheads water, a liquid comport will
be formed, which muft be ufed with a water cart.”
This comport, however, the inventor himfelf owns
to be inferior to rotten dung, as indeed may very na¬
turally be fuppofed ; yet in fome cafes it feems ca¬
pable of doing fervice, as will appear from fome of
the following experiments which we extract from the
effays above-mentioned.
Exp. I. By the author of the effays. “ I took four
pots, n° 1, 2, 3, 4. N° 1. contained I2lb of barren
fand, with ioz of the fand oil comport. N° 2. con¬
tained i2lb of fand without any mixture. N® 3. had
I2lb of fand with half an ounce of flaked lime. N° 4.
had i2lbof fand with 40Z of the fand oil-comport.
In the month of March, I put fix grains of wheat in¬
to each pot, and during the fummer, I occafionally
watered the plants with filtrated water. All the time
the plants were confuming the farina, I could obferve
very little difference in their appearance. But after
one month’s growth, I remarked that n° r. was the
beft; n° 2. the next; n? 3. the next; and n0 4. much
the worrt.” The fame differences were obferved in
Auguft, when n® 1. the beft, had five fmall ears,
which contained a few poor grains of wheat.
Exp. II. By the fame. “ In the month of June, I
felefted four lands of equal goodnefs in a field intend¬
ed for turnips. The foil was a light fand, with a to¬
lerable quantity of vegetable earth amongft it. It was
plowed out of fward in November, and had not borne
a crop for many years. I fliall diftinguifti my experi¬
mental lands by n9 1, 2, 3, 4, N° 1. was manured
witht
Compoft.
COM [ 2176 ] COM
with rotten dung; n0 2. with oil compoft; n° 3. with
lime ; n0 4. was left without any dreffing. On the 20th
of June they were all fown with turnip-feed broad-caft,
and during the courfe of the feafon were twice hoed.
In November I viewed the field, and made the fol¬
lowing remarks. N° 1. the belt ; n° 2. the next;
n® 3. the word; n° 4. better than n° 3.” Here the
oil compoft appears in a favourable light; but other
trials, made with equal accuracy, feem rather to
prove, that it is not proper for turnips, barley, or
quick growing vegetables. It requires being melio¬
rated by the atmofphere, and therefore is better ad¬
apted for winter crops.
Exp. III. by the fame. “ In the month of May, I
planted 12 alleys that lay between my afparagus beds
with cauliflower plants. Each alley took up about
30 plants. One of the alleys I fet apart, for an ex¬
periment with the oil-compoft, prepared according to
the directions already given. About an handful of
the compoft was put to the root of each cauliflower
plant. In all other refpeCls the alley was managed
like the reft. The plants in general flowered very
well; but thofe to which I applied the compoft fprung
up haftily with fmall ftalks, and produced very poor
flowers. I imputed this unfavourable appearance to
the frelhnefs of the compoft, which was only a few
weeks old. In the September following this unfuc-
cefsful experiment, I planted the fame alleys with
early cabbages. The neceflity of meliorating the
compoft was in this trial fully confirmed. For the
cabbages that grew upon the alley, which in May had
received the compoft, were larger and in all refpe&s
finer than the others.”
Exp. IV. by James Stovin, Efq; of Doncafter. “ In
the year 1769, I made the following trial with the
oil-compoft, prepared as above directed. One acre
fown with barley, and manured with, oil-compoft at
18 s. produced five quarters, five bulhels. An acre
adjoining, fown with barley, and manured with 12
loads of rotten dung at 31. produced four quarters
three bufhels and two. pecks. The compoft-barley
was bolder and better corn than the other. In the
year 1770, the dunged acre produced of rye, three
quarters. The compoft acre of ditto, two quarters
fix bufhels. In the year 1771, the fame lands were
Ibwn with oats, and the produce was greatly in fa¬
vour of the dunged acre. Thefe experimental lands
were in a common field that had been long under the
plough.”
Exp. V. by Richard Townly, Efq; of Belfield. “ In
the fpring 1770, I prepared a piece of ground for
onions. It was laid out into lix beds of the fame fize,
and which were all fown at the fame time. Over two
of them, the oil-compoft was fcattered in a very mo¬
derate quantity. Over other two, pigeons dung; and
over the remaining two, fome of my ivced-compoft,
(formed of putrefied vegetables) which I efteem one
of the belt manures, for moft vegetables, that can be
made. The onions came up very well in all the
beds ; but, in about fix weeks, thofe that were fed
with the oil-compoft, plainly difcovered the advantage
they had over the reft, by their luxuriancy and co¬
lour, and at the end of the fummer perfected the fineft
crop I had ever feen, being greatly fuperior to the
others both in quantity and fize. The fame fpring 1
made an experiment upon four rows of cabbages, let -
at the diftance of four feet every way. Two were
manured with oil-compoft, and two with my own.
All the plants were unluckily damaged, juft before
they began to form, by fome turkies getting into the
field and plucking off the greateft part of the leaves.
However, they fo far recovered, in the September
following, from 22 to 28 lb a-piece. The rows pro¬
ved fo equal in goodnefs, that I could not determine
which had the advantage. The fame year, one part
of a field of wheat expofed to the north-ealt winds,
which, that fpring, continued to blow for a month or
five weeks, appeared very poor and languid at the
time of tillering. Over it I ordered fome of the oil-
compoft to be fown with the hand; which not only re¬
covered, but alfo pufhed forwards the wheat plants in
that part of the field, fo as to make them little infe¬
rior, if any, to the reft. The fame fpring, I made
a comparative experiment, upon four contiguous lands
of oats, between the oil-compoft and my own weed-
compoft. The latter had manifeftly the advantage,
though the other produced a very large and fine crop.
I alfo tried the oil-compoft upon carrots, and it an-
fwered exceedingly well. I did the fame this year
1771) both upon them and my onions, and have the
neft crops of thefe vegetables I ever faw any where
upon the fame compafs of ground.”
Exp. VI. by Mr J. Broadbent of Berwick, in Elmet
near Leeds. “ On the firft of October 1771, I
fowed two acres of a light channelly foil with wheat,
and harrowed in the compoft with the grain. Being
at a confiderable diftance from a large town, we find
it very difficult and expenfive to procure rotten dung
in fufficient quantity for our tillage lands, for which
reafon we have recourfe to land dreffings both for our
winter and fpring-corn. Rape-duft and foot are prin¬
cipally ufed; but the prefent price of both thefe articles
is a heavy tax upon the farmer. To obviate that in¬
convenience, I refolved to make trial of the oilrcom-
poft; and from what I have obferved in this one-ex¬
periment, I am encouraged to make a more extenfive
ufe of it the next year. Being well acquainted with
the nature and efficacy of foot, I am fatisfied, that the
above two acres produced as good a crop of wheat as
if they had been dreffed with that excellent ma¬
nure.”
On the fuppofition that vegetables are fupported by
matters of a f'aline nature, compofts formed of dif¬
ferent forts of falts have been contrived, but with lefs
fuccefs than the one above treated of. A famous com-
pofition of this kind, was lately /old by patent, under
the name of Baron Van Haak’s comport. The follow¬
ing experiment is mentioned in the Georgical Effays,
as made with a view to determine the virtues of it
compared with the oil-compoft and foot mixed with
allies.—“ In the beginning of April 1773, an acre of
land was fown with forward oats. I pitched upon one
land in the middle of the. piece, which I efteemed
better than any of the reft, and upon this I fcattered
Baron Van Haak’s compoft, in the quantity direcled
in his inftrutftions. On one fide I manured a land with
the oil-compoft, but rather with a lefs quantity than
diredfed; and, on the other fide, I manured two lands
with
Compoft.
COM [ 2177 ] COM
i I Compofl:. with dry coal-alhes fifted fine, and an equal quantity pends upon circumftances. Guard the heap from Compuft
11  of foot. The lands upon which this experiment was dogs, pigs, badgers, and vermin, as thefe animals are I!
made, were much worn out with a long fuccelfion of remarkably fond of whale-flelh. This animal-compoft Coi:nPoun,j-
crops. The lands which had the benefit of the afhes may with great advantage be applied to all purpofes
and foot, produced an exceeding fine crop ; the oil- where good rotten dung is required. I have tiled it
1 compoft produced a tolerable good one ; but that which with great fuccefs for cabbages, and find it an extel-
had only the affiftance of the baron’s compoft, produ- lent drefling for meadow-ground. According to the
eed a very poor one. It could not have been worl'e beft computation, one hogfhead of whale refufe, will
-had it been left deftitute of every afiiftance.” make eight loads of dung, which, when we confider
Compofts, made with putrefied animal fubrtances, the great facility with which this bafis of our dung hill
will no doubt anfwer much belter, in molt cafes, than may be carried, is a momentous concern to fuch far-
any other kind of manure, but they are difficult to be mers as lie remote from a large town.” See Ma-
procured. The following is recommended by Dr Him- nure.
ter of York.—“ Take a fufficient quantity of law- Compost in gardening, is a mixture of feveral
dull, incorporate it with the blood and offal of a flaugh- earths, earthy fubrtances, and dungs, either for the im-
ter-houfe, putting a layer of one and a layer of the o- provement of the general foil of a garden, or ,that of
ther till the whole becomes a moirt and fetid compo- for fome particular plants. Almort every plant de-
Ikion. Two loads of this comport, mixed with three lights in fome peculiar mixture of foils or compoft, in
loads of earth, will be fufficient for an acre of wheat, which it will thrive better than in others. The moll
or fpring-corn. Being a kind of top-drefling, it fhould remarkable and generally ufeful of thefe, are taken
be put on at the time of lowing, and harrowed in with notice of under the del'cription of the feveral botanical
the grain. The prefent year I have a field of wheat articles, as they occur in the order of the alphabet,
manured in this manner, and have the pleafure to fay, COMPOSTELLA, a celebrated town of Spain, and
that it is extremely clean, and has all the appearance capital of Galicia, with an archbilhop’s fee, and an
of turning out an excellent crop. As this kind of com- univerfity. The public fquares, and the churches, par-
port lies in a finall compafs, it ieems well adapted for ticularly the Metropolitan church, are very magnifi-
the ufe of fuch farmers as are obliged to bring their cent. It has a great number of monafteries, for both
manures from a diftance. It is belides extremely fexes, and about 2000 houfes. It is pretended that
rich, and will probably continue in the land much Ion- the body of St James was buried here, which draws %
ger than fold-yard or ftabie-dung. I apprehend that great number of pilgrims from moft parts of Chrirten-
it is capable of reftoring worn out land to its original tlom. They walk in proceffion to the church, and
frelhnefs ; and I am induced to be of that opinion, viiit his wooden image, which (lands on the great al-
from the appearance of the above crop, which is now tar, and is illuminated with 40 or 50 wax-candles,
growing upon land much impoverifhed by bad ma- They kifs it three times, with a very refpetrtful devo-
nagement.” tion, and then put their hats on its head. In the
Another compoft, prepared from whales flefh, is church there Rre 30 filver lamps, always lighted, and
recommended by Mr Charles Chaloner.—“ I have a fix chandeliers of filver, five feet high. The poor
particular pleal’ure, (fays he), in deferibing and making pilgrims are received into an holpital, built for that
public the heft method offorming a comport from whales purpofe, which ftands near the church; and round it
flefh, as recommended to me by Dr Hunter. Having are galleries of free ftone, fupported by large pillars,
marked out the length and breadth of your intended The archbifhop is one of the richeft prelates in Spain,
<lung-hill, make the firft layer of earth about a foot in having 70,000 crowns a-year. From this town the
thicknefs. Moor-earth, or fuch as is taken from ant- military order of St Jago, or St James, had its origi-
hills, is the bert for this purpofe. Over the earth, lay nal. It is feated in a peninfula, formed by the rivers
one layer of long litter, from the fold-yard or liable, Tambra and Ulla, in a pleafant plain. W. Long. 7. 17.
about 12 inches in thicknefs, then a layer of whale-flefh, N. Lat. 42. 54.
and over that another layer of dung. Repeat the ope- Afcw Compostella, a town of North America,
rations till the heap be railed about fix feet, then give in New Spain, and province of Xalifco, built in 1531.
it a thick covering of earth, and coat the heap with It is feated nearHhe South Sea. W. Long. 110. 12.
fods. In this manner each layer of flelh will be placed N. Lat. 2t. o.
between two layers of dung. In about a month turn COMPOUND, in a general fenfe, an appellation
the whole in the ufual manner, which will occafion a given to whatever is compofed or made up of difle-
ftrong degree of heat and fermentation. When turn- rent things ; thus we fay, a compound word, corn¬
ed, coat with earth as before, with a view to confine pound, found, compound tafte, ire.—Compound differs
the putrid rteam which would otherwife efcape. In from complex, and ftands oppofed to finiple. See
a month ortwo the heap will be found to be confider- Complex and Simple.
ably fallen, when it fhould have a fecond turning as Compound Flower. See Compositus T/ol.
before. The operation of turning mnfl be repeated Compound Interejt, called alfo interejl upon inte-
•at proper intervals, till the whole becomes an uniform- rejl, is that which is reckoned not only upon the prin-
ly putrid mafs. The whale-flelh is of different de- cipal, but upon the interefl itfelf forborn ; which
grees of firmnefs, fome of it being almoft liquid; and, hereby becomes a fort of fecondary principal. See
in proportion to its firmnefs, the heap will become Interest.
fooner or later fit for ufe. In general, the compoft Compound Motion, that motion which is effected
fiiould not be ufed till 12 months old ; but that de- by feveral confpiring powers. Powers are faid to
Vol. III. 12 U confpire
COM [2
Compound confpire if the direclion of the one be not quite oppo-
|| fite to that of the other ; as when the radius of a
Compurga- circle is conceived to revolve about a centre, and at
tor‘ the fame time a point to move liraight along it.
CoMPOtTND Nut/ibers, thofe which may be divided
by fome other number befides unity, without leaving
any remainder ; fuch are 18, 20, &c. the firft being
nieafured by tlxe numbers 2, 6, or 9 ; and the fecond
by the numbers 2, 4, 5, 10..
Compound Quantities. See Algebra, n0 4.
Compound Ratio, is that which the produbl of the
antecedents of two or more ratios has to the product
of their confequents. Thus, 6 to 72 is in a ratio com¬
pounded of 2 to 6, and of 3 to 12.
Compound, (fubltantive), the refult or effed of a
compolition of different things ; or a mafs formed
by the union of many ingredients.
COMPRESS, in furgery, a bollter of foft linen
cloth, folded in feveral doubles, frequently applied to
cover a plafter, in order not only to preferve the part
from the external air, but alfo the better to retain the
dreffings or medicines.
‘COMPRESSION, the a& of prefung or fqueezing
fome matter together, fo as to fet its parts nearer to
each other, and make it poffefs lefs fpace. Compref-
fion properly differs from cotidcnfation, in that the lat¬
ter is performed by the action of cold, the former by
fdme external violence.
COMPROMISE, a treaty or contra(5t, whereby two
contending parties eftablilh one or more arbitrators to
judge of, and terminate their difference in an ami¬
cable manner.
COMPTON (Henry), bifliop of London, was the
youngeft {bn of Spencer Earl of Northampton, and
born in 1632. After the reftoration of Charles II. he
became cornet of a regiment of horl'e : but foon after
quitting the army for the church, he was made bifhop
of Oxford in 1674; and about a year after tranflated
to the fee of London. He was entrufted with the
education of the two princeffes Mary and Anne, whom
he alfo afterwards married to the princes of Orange
and Denmark : and their firmnefs in the Protefrant
religion was in a great meafure owing to their tutor,
to whom, when popery began to prevail at court, it
Was imputed as an unpardonable crime. He was fu-
Ipended from his ecclefiaftical funflion by James II.
but was feftored by him again on the prince of Orange’s
invafion. He and the bilhop of Briftol made the ma¬
jority for filling the vacant throne with a king : he
performed the ceremony of the coronation ; was ap¬
pointed one of the commiflioners for raifing the litur¬
gy ; and laboured with much zeal to reconcile diffen-
ters to the church. His fpirit of moderation made
him unpopular with the clergy, and in all probability
checked his further promotion. He died m 1713;
but, living in bufy times, did not leave many writings
behind him.
COMPUNCTION^ in theology, an inward grief of
mind for having offended God. '
COMPURGATOR, one that, by oath, juftifies an¬
other perfon's innocence. Compurgators were intro¬
duced as evidences in the jurifprudence of the middle
ages. Their number varied according to the impor¬
tance of the fubjecfr in difpute, or the nature of the
178 ] CON
crime with which a perfon was charged. Comput*^
COMPUTATION, in a general fenfe, the manner bon
of efrimating time, weights, meafure, moneys, or quan- ConcJ!pt;on
titles of any kind. .   
COMUS, in Pagan mythology, the god of noilur-
nal revels and feltivals. He was reprefented as a
young man crowned with roles or myrtle, holding in
one hand a golden cup, and in the other a dilh of
fruit.
CONANT (Dr John), a learned Englilh divine,
born in 1608. He took his degrees at Exeter College
Oxford ; was, by the parliament, conftituted one of
the affembly of divines, though he feldom, if.ever, fat
with them ; and in 1657 was admitted vice-chancellor
of the univerfity. On the reltoration he was. one of
the commiffioners, and affilled at the conferences in
the Savoy ; but was deprived by the a& of uniformi¬
ty : after eight years he was confirmed, and was ra'ado
arch-deacon of Norwich, and prebendary of Worcef-
ter. In 1686 he loft his fight; and-died in 1693;
leaving a number of admired fermohs, afterwards pu-
bliflied in fix volumes.
CONARION, orCoNOiDES, a name for the pineal
gland. See Anatomy, n° 397. c.
CONATUS, a term frequently ufed in philofophy
and mathematics, defined by fome to be a quantity of
motion, not capable of being expreffed by any. time,
or length ; as the conalus recedendi ab axe Hiatus, is
the endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes
to recede, or fly off from the centre or axis of its mo¬
tion.
CONCALE bay, is on the coaft of France in Bri-
tany, where the Englhh forces landed in June 1758,
in order to go to St Maloes ; which they did, and
burnt all the {hips in that harbour, which Were above
too, of all forts. Concale is the town which gives
name to the bay, and is famous for oyfters. It is 18
miles eaft of St Maloes, and 197 weft of Paris.
W. Long. x. 47. N. Lat. 48. 41.
CONCARNEAU, a town of France, in Bretagne,
with a harbour and a caftle. E. Long. 3. 45. N. Lat.
47- 55-
CONCATENATION, a term chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of the mutual dependence of fecond caufes upon
each other.
CONCAVE, an appellation ufed in fpeaking of the
inner furface of hollow bodies, but more efpeciaUy of
fpherical ones.
Concave GIoffes, fuch as are ground hollow, and
are ufually of a fpherical figure, though they may be
of any other, as parabolical, frc. All objects feen
through concave glafles, appear ere<5l and diminilhed.
CONCENTRATION, in general, fignifies the bring¬
ing things nearer a centre. Hence the particles of
fait, in fea-water, are faid to be concentrated ; that
is, brought nearer each other, by evaporating the
watery part.
CONCENTRIC, in mathematics, fomething that
has the fame common centre with another : it Hands
in oppofition to exceiitric.
CONCEPTION,* among phyficians, ire. denotes
the firft formation of an embryo in the womb of its
parent, who, from that time, becomes pregnant. See
Generation.
Conception
CON [ 2179 ] CON
onceptlon Conception htmaculate of the holy virgin, is a
1 feaft eftablifhed in honour of the holy virgin, particu-
onceflion. ]ar|y regar(j to her having been conceived and
born hmnaculats, i. e. without original fin, held in
the Ronnfli church on the 8th of December. The
inrmachlate conception is the great head of controVer-
fy between the Scotifts and Thomifls ; the former
maintaining, and the latter impugning it. In the three
Spanifli military orders, of St James of the fwofd, Cala-
trava, and Alcantara, the knights take a vow at their
ad million to defend the immaculate conception. This
refolution was firft taken in 1652. Peter d’Alva has
publilhed 48 huge volumes in folio on the mylteries of
the conception.
Conception, an epifcopal town of Chili in South
America. It is fituated in W. Long. 79. 12. S. Lat.
56. 43 ; and is the oldeft European fettlement in Chili,
and the fecond in point of dignity. On their firlt
fettlement here, the Spaniards were repeatedly driven
off by the Indians, fo that they were obliged to take
up their refidence at St Jago. Since that time both
the cities of Conception and St Jago have been fre¬
quently deftroyed by earthquakes. In the year 1730
both of them were laid in ruins by a dreadful Ihock,
the firlt concuflions of which were attended with an un-
ufual fwelling of the fea,that overturned the few houfes
which had efcaped the ravages- of the earthquake.
The harbour is good, and pretty much frequented, on
which account the city is regarded as a place of con-
fequence. The king allows annually 350,000 pieces
of eight for the fupport of a garrifon of 3500 men ; a
corps that is feldom complete. None of the fortifica¬
tions are confiderable ; but thofe towards the land are
wretched. The Spaniards-now live in tolerable fecu-
rity with refpeft to the Indians, and have no notion
of any attack from the land fide. It is faid indeed,
that not only this but all the fettletnents in Chili and
Peru would fall an eafy prey to the attacks of a foreign
enemy ; the fortifications being in ruins, and the gar-
rifons fcarce half the number required by the king :
owing to the avarice, ignorance, and fupine negligence
of the governors, who lludy nothing but to enrich
themfelves.
Conception, a town of North America, in New
Spain, and in the Audience of Guatimali. It is feated
near the fea-coafi, 100 miles weft of Porto-bello, and
a fmall river that runs into the fea. W. Long. 83. 5.
N. Lat. 10. o.
CONCERT, or Concerto, in mufic, a number
or company of muficians, playing or finging the fame
piece of mufic or fong at the fame time.
CONCERTATO intimates the piece of mufic to be
compofed in fuch a manner, as that all the parts may
have their recitativos, be it for two, three, four, or
more voices or inftruments.
CONCERTO grossi, the grand chorus of a con¬
cert, or thofe places where all the feveral parts per¬
form or play together.
CONCESSION, in general, fignifies either the adt of
granting or yielding any thing, or the thing itfelf
which is fo granted or yielded.
Concession, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby fome-
thing is freely allowed, that yet might bear difpute,
to obtain fomething that one would have granted to
him, and which he thinks cannot fairly be denied, as
in the following conceffion of Dido, in Virgil :
“ The nuptials he difclaims, I urge no more ;
“ Let him purfue the promis’d Latian Ihore.
“ A Ihort delay is all I alk him now ;
“ A paufe of grief, an interval from wo.”
CONCHA, in zoology, a fynonime of the Mytixus,
So ten, £ifc.
CONCHES, a town of Normandy, with a Bene-
didtine abbey, which carries on a confiderable trade.
It is feated on the top of a mountain, in the territory
of Ouche, 45 miles north-weft of Paris. E. Long,
o. 51. N. Lat. 48. 58.
CONCHITES marmor, a name given by the an¬
cients to a fpecies of marble dug near Megara, and
remarkable for containing a great number of fea-lhells,
and other marine bodies immerfed in it.
CONCHOID, in geometry, the name of a curve,
given to it by its inventor Nicomedes. See Fluxions.
CONCHYLIA, a general name for all petrified
Ihells, as limpets, dochleae, nautili, conchse, lepades, ire.
CONCIATOR, in the glafs art, is, for the cryftal-
glafs, what the founder is at the green-glafs houfes.
He is the perfon that weighs and proportions the fait
on allies and land, and works them with a ftrong fire
till they run into lumps arid become white ; and if the
metal be too hard, and confequently brittle, lie adds
fait or alhes, and if too foft, land ; ftill mixing them
to a fit temper, which is only known by the working.
CONCINNOUS intervals, in mufic, are fuch as
are fit for ninfic, next to, and in combination with
concords; being neither very agreeable nor difagree-
able in themfelves; but having a good effedt, as by
their oppofition they heighten the more effential prin¬
ciples of pleafure ; or as, by their mixture and combi¬
nation with them, they produce a variety neceffary
to our being better pleafed.
Concunnous Syftem, in mufic. A fyftem is faid
to be concinnous, or divided concinnoully, when its
parts, confidered as fimple intervals, are concinnous;
and are befides placed in fuch an order between the
extremes, as that the fucceffion of founds, from one
extreme to the other, may have an agreeable effedl.
CONCLAVE, the place in which the cardinals of
the Romilh church meet, and are flint up, in order to
the eledlion of a pope.
The conclave is a range of fmall cells, 10 feet fquare,
made of wainfeot : thefe are numbered, and drawn
for by lot. They Hand in a line along the galleries
and hall of the Vatican, with a finall fpace between
each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal over it.
The conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place,
for the conftitutions of the church allow the cardinals
to make choice of fuch a place for the conclave as they
think molt convenient; yet it is generally held in the
Vatican.
The conclave is very ftri&ly guarded by troops :
neither the cardinals, nor any perfon flint up in the
conclave, are fpoke to, but at the hours allowed of,
and then in Italian or Latin ; even the provifions for
the conclave are examined, that no letters be convey¬
ed by that means from the minifters of foreign powers,
or other perfons who may have an intereft in the e-
leeftion of the pontiff.
12 U 2 Conclave
Concefllon
Conclave.
CON f 2180 I CON
Conclave Conclave is alfo ufed for the aflembly, or meet-
11 . ing, of the cardinals fluit up for the election of a pope.
Concretlon- CONCLUSION, in logic, the confequence or judg¬
ment drawn from what was aflerted in the premifes;
or the previous judgments in reafoning, gained from
combining the extreme ideas between themfelves.
CONCOCTION, in medicine, tfie change which
the food undergoes in the ftomach, &c. to become
chyle. See Chyle.
CONCOMITANT, fomething that accompanies or
goes along with another.
CONCORD, in grammar, that part of conftrudtion
called fynfaxy in which the words of a lenience agree ;
that is, in which nouns are put in the fame gender,
number, and cafe; and verbs in the fame number and
perfon with nouns and pronouns.
Concord, in mufic, the relation of two founds that
are always agreeable to the ear, whether applied in
lucceffion or confonance.
CONCORDANCE, a fort of dictionary of the
Bible, explaining the words thereof in alphabetical
order, with the feveral books, chapters^ and verfes
quoted, in which they are contained.
CONCORDANT verses, fuch as have feveral
words in common ; but which, by the addition of
other words, convey an oppolite, at leaft a different
meaning. Such are thole,
r f cants 7 • /■/ C vcnatur 7 • C Ccrvat.
•cM / t tn \iiva -s . >13 omnia ,, .
C /n/>us y 7. nutntur y vajiat.
CONCORDIA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mirandola ; feated on the river Sechia, 5 miles welt
of My-andola,. and 1.5 miles fouth-ealt of Mantua ;
fubject to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. n. 22.
N. Lat. 44. 52.
Concordia, a Pagan divinity of the Romans.
She had a temple on the declivity of the capitol; ano¬
ther in the portico of Livia ; and a third on Mount
Palatine, built of brafs by Cn. Flavius, on account of
a vow made for reconciling the fenate and people.
She was pictured with a cup in her right hand ; in
her left was fometimes a fceptre, and fometimes a
cornucopia. Her fymbols were two hands joined, as
is feen in a coin of Aurelius Venus, and another of
Nero ; alfo two ferpents twilling about a caduceus.
CONCOU, in botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to an herb, which is in great efteem among
them for killing that tronblefome fort of worm called
the Guinea-worm, that breeds in their fielh. They
bruife the leaves, and mixing them with oil, apply
them in form of a cataplafm.
CONCRETE, in the fchool-philofophy, an affem-
blage or compound.
Concrete, in natural philofophy and chemiftry,
Cgnifies a body made up of different principles, or any
mixed body.: thus, foap is a factitious concrete, mix¬
ed together by art ; and antimony is a natural con¬
crete, or a mixed body compounded in the bowels of
the earth.
CONCRETION, the uniting feveral fmall particles
of a natural body into fenfible maffes, or concretes,
whereby it becomes fo and fo figured and determi¬
ned, and is endued with fuch and fuch properties.
Concretion is alfo the aCt whereby foft bodies
are rendered hard ; or an infenfible motion of the
particles of a fluid or foft body, whereby they come ConcubJ.
to a conliffence. It is indifferently ufed for indura- naSe
tion, condenfation, congelation, and coagulation. Conde.
CONCUBINAGE, denotes fometimes a criminal or - ■ ' >
prohibited commerce between the two fexes ; in
which fenfe it comprehends adultery, incell, and Ample
fornication : but, in a more limited fenfe, it fignifies
the cohabitation of a man and woman in the way of
marriage, without having pafled the ceremony there¬
of.
CONCUBINE, a woman whom a man takes to co¬
habit with after the manner of a wife, without being
authorifed thereto by a legal marriage.
CONCUPISCENCE, according to divines, an irre¬
gular appetite, or luft after carnal things, inherent in
the nature of man ever fince the fall.
CONDE (Lewis de Bourbon prince of), was bom
at Paris Sept. 7. 1621. He was flyled Duke d’Enguien,
till he fucceeded to the title of Prince of Conde by his
father’s death in 1646. As he was of a tender and
delicate conflitution, the prince lent him to the caflle
of Montrond in Berry, that he might breathe a more
pure and falutary air. Here he was educated in his
infancy by fome experienced and prudent citizens
wives. When he was of a proper age, the prince
took upon himfelf the talk of governor, and appointed
for his aflillant M. de la Bouflieres, a private gentle¬
man, a man of honour, fidelity, and good nature,
and who made it a rule to obferve inviolably the or¬
ders that were given him. Two Jefuits diftinguifhed
fof their genius and knowledge were alfo given him
for preceptors. He formed him a houfehold of 15 or
20 officers, all men of the greatelt virtue and dii'cre-
tion.
With thefe attendants the duke d’Enguien went to
fettle at Bourges, where he frequented the college of
Jefuits. Here, befides the ordinary fludies, he was
taught ancient and modern hiffory, mathematics, geo¬
graphy, declamation ; alfo riding and dancing, in
which lafl he foon excelled. He made fuch a furpri-
fing progrefs, that before the age of 13 he defended,
in public fome queftions in philofopy with incredible
applaufe. At his return from Montrond, he had for
his tutor M. de Meriiie ; a man deeply verfed in the
knowledge of common law, of ancient and modern
laws, of the holy fcriptures, and of the mathematics^
Under his direction the duke went through that new
courfe with prodigious fuccefs. He acquired a criti¬
cal tafle in the arts and fciences, which he retained all
his life ; he never fuffered a day to pafs without de¬
dicating two or three hours at leaft to reading ; his
thirft for knowledge was univerfal, and he endea¬
voured to fearch every thing .to the bottom. His.
chief inclination, however, lay towards the military
art ; and at the age of 18 he obtained permiffion to
make his firft campaign as a volunteer in the army
commanded by M. de la Mcilleraye. This campaign,
was unfUrtunate ; and the duke d’Enguien was only
a witnefs of the marfhal’s imprudence and difgrace.
Neverthclefs, in this campaign he laid the foundation
of that renown which made him afterwards confider-
ed as the greateft general of his age.
On his return to Paris, the duke waited upon car¬
dinal Richelieu atRuel. That minifter was fo pleafed
with.
CON [21
with his converfation, that he foon after made propofals
of an alliance with the prince of Conde, by marrying
the duke d’Enguien to Claire Clemence de Maille
Breza, the cardinal’s niece. The duke confented to
this match out of obedience to his father ; but the
force he put upon himfejf by yielding to it was fo
great, that he fell dangeroufly ill. It was long before
he got the better of his diltemper ; but at length he
not only recovered, but became fo ftrong as after¬
wards to bear the greateft fatigues with eafe.
The duke made two more campaigns as a volun¬
teer; the one under the marlhal de la Meilleraye, the
other in the army of Lewis XIII. which conquered
Rouflillon. In 1643, at the age of 22, he obtained
from the king, at the perfuafion of cardinal Mazarine,
the command of the army dellined to cover Cham-
paigne and Picardy ; which command was confirmed
to him after the king’s death by the queen regent,
Anne of Aultria, to whofe intereft he was flrongly
devoted. In this flation, though he never had been
prefent at any battle, he foon gave fuch a fpecimen of
his abilities as crowned him with glory. The Spani¬
ards who threatened France with an invafion, were
defeated by him at Rocroi ; and this fignal vidlory
made him from that time confidered as the guardian
genius of his country. He next formed the project
of befieging Theonville, and propofed it to the coun¬
cil of regency. They confented with fear and dif-
trull ; but the duke carried it into execution w’ith
fuch Ikill, activity, and courage, that he became juftly
the fubjeft of general admiration. In two months
time Theonville furrendered. At length, having co¬
vered Alface and Lorrain from the enrerprizes of the
Imperialifts, the duke returned to Paris, where he ob¬
tained the government of Champaigne, and of the
city of Stenai.
The three following years were little more than a
feries of military operations. The three battles of
Fribourg, in which the duke d’Enguien triumphed
over Veit Marlhal count de Mercy, the greateft ge¬
neral in all Germany ; the taking of Pbilipfbourg, and
a great number of other places, which rendered him
mailer of the palatinate, and of the whole courfe of
the Rhine ; the victory of Nortlingue, by which he
revenged the vifcount du Turenne’s defeat at Mari-
endal; the fiege and conqueft of Dunkirk ; the good
and bad fuccefs of his arms in Catalonia, where, though
he was forced to raife the fiege of Lorida, he kept
the Spaniards in awe, and cut to pieces their rear
guard : thefe are the principal events which diftin-
guilh the campaigns of 1644, 164J, and 1646.
The vitftories of the duke d’Engnien, his great re¬
putation and efteem with the people, began now to
give umbrage to Mazarin. The cardinal’s diffike to
him appeared on the death of the duke de Breze, ad¬
miral of France. The prince of Conde earneftly de¬
manded for his fon the duke de Breze’s places. But
Mazarin, afraid of increafing the wealth and power
of a prince whom his victories and the love and con¬
fidence of the people and the army had already ren¬
dered too formidable to him, evaded his requeft, by
perfuading the queen to take the admiralty to herfelf.
On the death of his father, the minifter’s diflike to the
young prince of Conde became ftill more apparent.
81 ] CON
By the minifter’s perfuafion he had accepted of the Coiluc'
command of the army in Catalonia ; but, on his arri¬
val at Barcelona, he found neither troops, money, ar¬
tillery, provilions, nor ammunition. Enraged at this
deception, he vented his refentment in bitter com¬
plaints and fevere threats ; but by the refources that
he found in this dilemma, the prince added new luftre
to his glory.
The campaign of 1648 was as glorious to Conde as
thofe which preceded it had been. To difconcert at
once the projects of the archduke Leopold, the prince
refolved to attack him even in the heart of the Low
Countries; and notwithftanding the coniiderable dif¬
ficulties whicli he had to furmount, he befieged the
important city of Ypres, and took it in fight of all the
enemies forces.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, Conde faw himfelf ar
the point of experiencing the greateft reverfe of for¬
tune. His army was a prey to fcarcity, to naked-
nefs, contagious diftempers, and defertion. For eight
months it received no fupply from the minifter, but half
a mufter. Every thing was fupplied by the prince him¬
felf; he lavilhed his money, and borrowed more to fup¬
ply his troops. When it was reprefented to him that he
was in danger of ruining himfelf by Inch an enormous
expence, he replied, that “ fince he every day ven¬
tured his life for the fervice of his country, he could
very well facrifice his fortune to it. Let but the go¬
vernment exift, (added he), and11 lhall want for no¬
thing.”
The French army having been reinforced by 4000
of the troops of Weimar, Conde attacked the Spani¬
ards advantageoufly encamped near Lens, and gained
a complete vidiory over them, which difabled them
from attempting any thing more, and even from firp-
porting themfelves. Afterwards he befieged Furnes,
the garrifon of which, 500 men, furrendered them¬
felves prifoners of war. But the prince was wound¬
ed there in the trenches by a mulkct-fhot above the
right hip ; and the contufion was fo great, that he
was forced to fubinit to feveral incifions.
The French court, animated with the vidiory at
Lens, thought this a proper time to take vengeance
on the factions which for fome time had violently
agitated the kingdom ; and accordingly imprifoned
Brouflel and Blancmenil, two of the principal leaders
of the country party. This vigorous proceeding, how¬
ever, occafioned a general revolt. Two hundred thou-
fand men took arras in Paris, barricaded the ftreets,
invefted the palais-royal, and demanded the prifoners.
It was necelfary to releafe them ; but from that time
the regal authority was annihilated ; the queen was
expofed to a thoufand infults, and Mazarin dared no
longer venture out of the palais-royal. In this em-
barraffment the queen recalled the prince of Conde,
as the only one from whom Ihe could hope for fup-
port. He retired to Ruel, whither the regent had
gone with the young king and Mazarin. "Anne of
Auftria propofed to him the reducing of Paris by force
of arms: but he calmed the refentments of that prin-
cefs; and inftead of being acceflary to her vengeance,
he directed all his views to pacify the kingdom, and
at length brought about an accommodation between
the parties, who defined it with equal ardour. But-
new
CON [21
Cancle, new incidents foon rekindled the combuftiom The
   treachery of Mazarin, and the artifices of the leaders
of the country party, occaftoned new cabals and frefti
troubles. Conde was careffed by the leaders of both
parties ; but at laft, enraged at the arrogance of the
malcontents, who every day formed new pretenfions,
he took part openly With the court, though he thought
it ungrateful, and protected the minifter, though he
did not etteem him.
The royal family, the duke of Orleans, Conde, and
Mazarin, left Paris privately in the night between the
5;tj» and 6th of January 1649, and went to S1 Ger¬
mains. The parliament lent deputies to learn from
the queen herfelf the reafons of her departure, and
to beg her to name the citizens whom file fufpecTted,
that they might be tried. Mazarin had the impru¬
dence to difmifs them without any anfwer. Exal'pe-
rated at this, the people again took up arms in order
to defend themlelves again(1 the enterprizes of the
court, who had determined to block up and to ffarve
the capital, in order to fupprefs the party of malcon¬
tents. With 7 or 8000 men, the broken relics of the
laft campaign^ the prince of Coude formed a defign of
reducing above 500,000 intrenched behind walls. He
had neither money nor magazines ; he law himfelf in
the depth of a molt fevere winter ; neverthelefs he
triumphed over Paris, and this great iitccels compleat-
ed his glory. It did him fo much the more honour,
as during the fieged»9 conftantly defeated the troops
of the malcontents ; he prevailed on the army that
marched to their afliftance under Turenne, to aban¬
don that general; he Hopped the prqgrefs of the duke
de Longuerville, who had caufed an infurredtion in
Normandy; and got the ftart of the Spaniards, who
were advancing to give him battle.
Condi de Retz, co-adjutor of Paris, and afterwards
cardinal; was the life and foul of the revolters, and
diredted all their motions. He had taken Catiline
for his model ; and was equally intrepid and capable
of the greateft adtions; of an exalted genius, but go¬
verned by his ambition. He diltinguilhcd his hatred
to Mazarin by arming the malcontents : and he him¬
felf raifed at his own expence a regiment which he
called the regiment of Corinth: as loon as this corps
took the field during the blockade of Paris, it was de¬
feated and difperfed. This check was called “ the
firft to the Corinthians.” The peace was ligned at
S' Germains; but neither party carried its point, and
fcarce any one but Conde acquired glory by this war.
After the conclufion of the treaty, the prince repaired
to the capital, and traverfed all the ifreets in his coach
alone. All perfons of any confequence paid their
compliments to him, and the parliament lent a folemn
deputation to thank him for the peace to which he
had fo powerfully contributed. The people, how¬
ever, made loud complaints on account of the king’s
abfence (for the court was not yet returned to Paris),
and the malcontents gave reafon to apprehend a new
infurredtion. Conde encouraged the king and queen
to return; and at length brought them to Paris, amidll:
the acclamations and blefiings of the public.
The important fervice which Conde had juft done
the court iwtitled him to the acknowledgements of the
queen, and efpecially of Mazarin; but the dark foul
82 ] CON
of that cardinal only remembered it to puniih a too Conde.
fortunate and too powerful protpcdor. He privately  
fwore the prince’s deftrpdtion; at leaft that he Ihouid
give the whole kingdom a pattern of fubmillion and
dependence on hjs will. However, not to excite the
public indignation, he ftill kept up appearances with
the prince, while he fecretly fpread about him difgufts,
fufpicions, fnares of every kind, and. the moft heinous
calumnies. The ungrateful minifter deceived the
prince by making him the molt flattering propofals ;
and with the melt alluring promifes which he always
found means to avoid fulfilling. The enraged prince
defpifed the minifter, and treated him with difdaiti.
After this they were reconciled again only to bp again
at variance. Each of them in their turn courted the
country party, in order to make it fubfervient to their
deligns. At laft Mazarin thought of an expedient,
which but too efl’edhtally anfwered his purpofe, of ma¬
king an irreconcileable quarrel between that, party
and the prince. There was among the malcontents,
one marquis de la Boulaie, a man of an infamous cha-
raHer, who had obtained the confidence of . the party
by falle appearances of hatred to the cardinH, but who
fecretly kept up a correfpondeuce with him. It is
pretended that he made him an oft’er of privately kill¬
ing Conde. Mazarin was charmed with the propofal ;
yet he only required Boulaie to exhibit all the proofs
of an aflalfinatjon, and to adl in fuch a manner that
every thing might concur to render the country party
fufpeHed of that crime. He was pundlually obeyed ;
the coach was flopped ; fome piftols were fired at
it, by which two of the footmen were dangeroully
wounded ; and, after that lhameful exploit, la Boulaie
took refuge in the hotel of the duke of Beaufort, who
was the. hero of the party, in order no doubt to coun¬
tenance the prince’s fufpicion of the malcontents.
Luckily, Conde was not in his coach when it was
flopped ; the cardinal had fphead the report of his in¬
tended affaffination ; and in concert with the queen
and the prince he had prevailed to have the coach
fent away empty, to prove the reality of the attempt.
Mazarin counterfeited a zeal for the prince’s life ; he
furioufly declaimed againft the malcontents, who, he
pretended, had made an attempt on a life fo precious
to the ftate ; and he inflamed Conde’s refentment
againft the duke of Beaufort and the coadjutor, whom
he fuppofed to be the authors of this heinous outrage.
The prince Was fo ftrongly prejudiced, that he retii-
fed to hear them when they appeared before him to
juftify themfelves. He demanded joftice againft them
of the king ; he formally accufed them before the
parliament, and remained inflexible in fpite of the
pains which the leaders of the party took to demon-
ftrate to him that he had been impofed upon. How¬
ever, the affair was brought before the parliament ;
the accufed defended themfelves, and the coadjutor,
who had difeovered the cardinal’s fecret, unmafked
him fo Well, that the prince agreed to a private ne-
gociation with the malcontents ; he required no¬
thing more than the coadjutor’s leaving Paris, but
with the rank of ambaflador to Rome or Vienna.
That prelate would have confented to it, to fatisfy
Conde, if Mazarin, fome days after, had not given
him the choice of any recompence, in order to engage
CON [ 2183 ] CON
his concurrence in the prince’s deftrutftion. Affairs
were now in fuch a dangerous fituation, that the car¬
dinal faw clearly it was neceffary to haften to the
winding up of the plot. Mafter of the queen’s mind,
which he guided as he pleafed ; and fure of having in¬
flamed again!! Conde, all the refentment of the male-
contentshe fought and obtained, by means of the
duchefs Chevreufe, the fupport of that powerful fic¬
tion, which connected itlelf the more readily with
him, in hopes that the prince’s fall would foon enable
it to crufli without difficulty the cardinal himfelf. The
coadjutor had private conferences with the queen, and
the minifler. Conde had notice of it; and in order
to difcover if it were true, he endeavoured to furprife
it from Mazarin’s own mouth. “ Cardinal, (faid he,
one d ly), it is publicly reported that you have nightly
meetings with the coadjutor, difguifed like a trooper.”
He accompanied this fpeech with a quick and pene¬
trating look : but the cardinal, who was a perfect
mailer of diflimulation, anfwered him in fuch a free,
artlefs like manner, that he entirely removed Conde’s
apprehenfions; and he flighted the information he had
received, of the plot forming againfl him.
Mazarin wanted nothing but the firpport of the duke
of Orleans; and at la!! founds means, by the duchefs of
Chevreufe, to enflame the jealoufy of that fickle and
inconflant prince, and to engage him to confent to the
imprifonment of Conde. Having thus united all par¬
ties, and fearing no other obliacie, this ungrateful and
perfidious miniifer made preparations for privately ar-
refiing the prince; the order for it was frgned January
18th 1650. Conde having that day repaired as ufual
to the palais-royal, to afliit at council with the prince
of Conti and the duke of Longueville, the queen gave
orders to arfeft them all three, and convey them with¬
out any noife to the caftle of Vincennes. She was in-
fiantly obeyed, arid the princes were ftriflly guarded
in that prifon.
In this unexpected reverfe of fortune, the fortitude
and greatnefs of Conde’s mind appeared only the more
remarkable. Confined with the other two princes in
the tower of Vincennes, where neither fupper, furni¬
ture, nor beds were provided, he contented himfelf with
two new laid eggs, and threw himfelf in his cloaths, on
a trufs of ftraw, where he fiept 12 hours without wa¬
king. He Hill retained his cheerfulnefs, and dedi¬
cated the greateft part of his time to reading, the
reft to converfation, playing at battle-door and fliuttle-
cock, to bodily exercifes, and the cultivation of flow-
Mazarin triumphed at the difgrace of the princes,
proferibed all thofe who were attached to Conde, and
behaved in the moil infolent and arbitrary manner.
The prince’s friends, however, notwithftanding their
being ftriCIly watched, found means to keep up a punc¬
tual cprrefpondence with him. They made various at¬
tempts to relpafe him : they raifed troops; in particu¬
lar, the dukes of Bouillon and Rochefocault, and the
vilcount de Turenne. The princels of Conde engaged
the province of G.uienne to declare in his favour; !he
made war, in order to force the court to release him ;
at lerigth the partifans of the prince figned a treaty
with the Spaniards, to labour in concert for his en¬
largement. But all thefe efforts would, perhaps, have
been ineffectual, if other more powerful refources had
not been employed.
In that gallant and warlike age, every thing was
managed by the paffions and intrigues of five or fix
women, who pofleffed the confidence of the leaders of
the ftate, and of the various parties. The princefs of
Mantua, wife to one of the fons of the eleClor Pala¬
tine, king of -Bohemia, principally direCted the coun-
fels in the party of the princes. She found means to
reconcile the duke of Orleans, the coadjutor, and the
malcontents with the friends of the prince, and united
their efforts again!! the cardinal. The parliament, on
the other fide, loudly demanded the releafe of the pri-
foners. All the orders of the ftate united in foliciting
it, infomuch that the queen was at la!! prevailed on to
give her confent. At this news, Mazarin was fo con¬
founded, that he fled in the difguife of a trooper, and
arrived at the gates of Richlieu, where a body of horfe
waited for him. The parliament, informed by tfie
queen of his flight, thundered forth an arret, by which
he was obliged to leave the kingdom, with his family
and foreign fervants, in the fpace of 15 days, under
the penalty of being expofed to a criminal profeCn-
tion. The queen defired to follow him with the king;
but the nobles and burghers invefted the palais-royal,
and prevented the execution of this projeCl, which
would have kindled a civil war. Mazarin, therefore,
perceiving that it was impoflible for the queen to join
him, determined to go himfclf to reftore the princes
to their liberty, and to get the ftart of the deputies
who were coming to acquaint them with it. On his
arrival at Havre, he informed the princes that theyT
were free; he entreated Conde’s friendfhip; and was
fo abjeC! as to proftrate himlelf at the. feet of him
Whom he had fo bafely oppreffed. Coride gave him
a polite reception, and fpoke to him in a free and
cheerful tone; but tired with the mean lubmiffions
which the cardinal lavilhed upon him, he left him
without making any promife, and fet out on his re¬
turn to Paris, which he entered as it were in triumph,
amid!! the acclamations of all orders of men, and the
demonftrations of a moft fincere and general joy.
After this a civil war enfued, iri which the prince
of Conde fided with the malcontents. Being preffed
by the king’s army, he retired into the fu.burbs of
St Anthony, where he behaved with the utinoft bra¬
very ; when the citizens opened their gates and re¬
ceived him in ; and a peace, enfued foon after. His
hatred of the cardinal, however, made him quit Paris,
and take refuge among the Spaniards, who made him
generaliflimo of their forces ; and he took Rocroi.
The peace of the Pyrenees feftored him to his coun¬
try ; and he again fignalized himfelf at the head of
the king’s armies, fieing affli&ed with the gout he
refufed the command of the army in 1676., and re¬
tired to Chartilley, where he was as much efteemed
for the virtues of peace, as he had been before for hi?
military ones. He died in 1686, at Fontainbleau.
Conde, a town of the French Netherlands, in the
province of Haiuhault, with the title of a principality,
and a caftle. It is one of the ftrongeft towns in this
country, and ffcated near the confluence of the rivers
Haifne and Scheld. E. Long. 3. 29. N. Lat. 50. 27.
Conde, a town of France, in Normandy, and in
the
CON [ 2184 ] CON
Condemna- the Beilin, which carries on a confiderable trade;
non feated on the river Nereau. W. Long. o. 37.
jn. Lat. 4«. 50.
CONDEMNATION, the acl of giving judgment,
paffing or pronouncing lentence againft a perfon ,fub-
jected thereby to fome penalty or punilhment, either
in refpedl of life, reputation, or fortune.
CONDENSATION, the aft whereby a body is
rendered more denfe, compaft, and heavy. The word
is commonly applied to the converfion of vapour into
water, by dillillation, or naturally in the clouds. The
way in which vapour commonly condenfes, is by the
application of fome cold fubftance. On touching it,
the vapour parts with its heat which it had before ab-
forbed ; and on doing fo, it immediately lofes the pro¬
per charafteriftics of vapour, and becomes water.
But though this is the molt common and ufual way in
which we obferve vapour to be condenfed, nature
certainly proceeds after another method : fince we
often obferve the vapours moil plentifully condenfed
when the weather is really warmer than at other
times. See the articles Cloud, Expansion, Eva¬
poration) Vapour, ire. s
CONDENSER, a pneumatic engine, or fyringe,
whereby an uncommon quantity of air may be crowd¬
ed into a given fpace ; fo that fometimes ten atmo-
fpheres, or ten times as much air as there is at the fame
time, in the fame fpace, without the engine, may be
thrown in by means of it, and its egrefs prevented by
valves properly difpofed. See plate LXX1V.
It confilts of a brafs cylinder, wherein is a moveable
pifton; which being drawn out, the air rulhes into the
cylinder through a hole provided on purpofe ; and
when the pilton is again forced into the.cylinder, the
air is. driven into the receiver through an orifice, fur-
nilhed with a valve to hinder its getting out.
The receiver or veffel containing the condenfed air,
fiiould be made very llrong, to bear the force of the
air’s fpring thus increafed ; for which reafon they are
generally made of brafs: its orifice is fitted with a fe¬
male ferew to receive the male ferew at the end of
the condenfer.
. If glafs be ufed for a condenfer, it will not fuffer fo
great a degree of condenfation ; but the experiment
will be more entertaining, fince the fubjeft may be
viewed in the condenfed air.
CONDITION, in the civil law, a claufe of obliga¬
tion ftipulated as an article of a treaty or a contraft ;
or in a donation of a tefiament, legacy, £3V. in which
lad cafe a donee does not lofe his donative if it be
charged with any dilhoneft or impoflible conditions.
CONDITIONAL, fomething not abfolute, but fub¬
jeft to condition^.
Conditional Conjunttions,‘m grammar, are thofe
which ferve to make propofitionsconditional; as i/j un-
lefs, provided, 8cc.
Conditional Propofitions, in logic, fuch as con-
fift of two parts connefted together by a conditional
particle.
Conditional Syllogifm, a fyllogifm where the
major is a conditional propofition. Thus,
If there is a God he ought to be worlhipped.
But there is a God ;
Therefore he ought to be worlliipped.
The Arminian divines maintain that all the decrees Condjont
of God relating to the falvation and damnation of man tt
are truly conditional; and the Calvinilts, that they are Con<:•
abfolute.
CONDOM, a town of Gafcony in France, capital
of the Condomois, with a bifhop’s fee. It is but a
poor place, and the trade is very fmall. It is feated
on the river Gelilfe, in E. Long. o. 22. N. Lat. 44.
CONDOR, or Contor, in ornithology. See
VULTUR.
CONDORMIENTES, in church-hiftory, religious
feftaries, who take their name from lying all toge¬
ther, men and women, young and old. They arofe
in the 13th century, near Cologne ; where they are
faid to have worlhipped an image of Lucifer, and to
have received anfwers and oracles from him.
CONDRIEU, a town of Lyonnois in France, re¬
markable for its excellent wines. It is feated at the
foot of a hill near the river Rhone, E. Long. 4. 33.
N. Lat. 45. 28.
CONDUCTOR, in furgery, an inftrument which
ferves to conduft the knife in the operation pf cutting
for the Hone, and in laying up finufes and ftllulas.
Conductors, in eleftfical experiments, are thofe
bodies that receive and communicate eleftricity; and
thofe that repel it are called non-conduftors.
CONDUIT, a canal or pipe for the conveyance of
water, or other fluid.
There are feveral fubterraneous conduits through
which the waters pafs that form 1’prings. Artificial
conduits for water are made of lead, Hone, caft-iron,
potter’s earth, timber, ire.
CONDYLOID and Coronoid Proceffes. See
Anatomy, n° 25. b.
CONDYLOMA, in medicine, a tubercle, or cal¬
lous eminence which arifes in the folds of the anus, or
rather a fwelling or hardening of the wrinkles of that
part.
CONDYLUS, a name given by anatomifts to a
knot in any of the joints, formed by the epiphyfis of
a bone.
CONE, in geometry, a folid figure, having a circle
for its bale, and its top terminated in a point or ver¬
tex. See Conic Sections.
Melting Cone, in chemiftry, is a hollow cone form¬
ed of copper or brafs, with a handle, and with a flat
bottom adjoining to the apex of the cone, upon which
it is intended to reft. Its ufe is to receive a mafs of
one or more metals melted together, and call: into it.
This mafs, when cold, may be eafily Ihook out of the
veflel, from its figure. Alfo, if a melted mafs con-
fifting of two or more metals, or other fubftances not
combined together, be poured into this velfel, the co¬
nical figure facilitates the feparation of thefe fubftances
according to their refpeftive denfities. The cone
ought to be well heated before the melted mafs is
thrown into it; that it may not contain any moifture,
which would occafion a dangerous explofion. It ought ,
alfo to be greafed internally with tallow, to prevent
the adhefion of the fluid matter.
Cone of Rays, in optics, includes all the feveral
rays which fall from any radiant point upon the fur-
face of a glafs.
Cone, in botany. See Conus.
CONESSI,
CON [21
ilConeffi CONESSI, a fort of bark of a tree, which grows
■ y on the Coromandel coaft in the Eaft Indies. It is re-
Ifonfcflion. commended in a letter to Dr Monro, in the Medical
Eflays, as a fpecific in diarrhaeas. It is to be finely
pulverized, and made into an electuary with fyrup of
oranges. The bark fliould be frefh, and the electua¬
ry new made every day, or fecond day, othei wife it
lofes its auflere but grateful bitternefs on the palate,
and its proper effeCts on the inteftines.
CONFECTION, in pharmacy, fignifies, in gene¬
ral, any thing prepared with fugar: in particular it
imports fomething preferved, efpecially dry fubftan-
ces. It alfo fignifies a liquid or foft eleCtuary, of which
there are various forts directed in dilpenfatories. See
Pharmacy, n°883.
CONFECTS, a denomination given to fruits,-flow¬
ers, herbs, roots, ire. when boiled or prepared with
fugar or honey, to difpofe them to keep, and render
them more agreeable to the tafte.
CONFEDERACY, in law, is when two or more
perfons combine to do any damage to another, or to
commit any unlawful aCt. Confederacy is punifhable,
though nothing be put in execution ; but then it muft
have thefe four incidents: 1. That it be declared by
fome matter of profecution, as by making of bonds or
promifes to one another; 2. That it be malicious, as
for unjuft revenge ; 3. That it be falfe, i. e. againft the
innocent; and, laftly, That it be out ofcourt, voluntary.
CONFERVA, River-weed ; a genus of the or¬
der of algae, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. There are 21 fpecies, moft of them growing
on ftones in flow ftreams, on the fides of cifterns, or
in ponds.
CONFESSION, in a civil fenfe, a declaration or
acknowledgment of fome truth, though againft the
intereft of the party who makes it; whether it be in
a court of juftice, or out of it. It is a maxim, that
in civil matters, the confeffion is never to be divided,
but always taken entire. A criminal is never con¬
demned on his Ample confeffion, without other colla¬
teral proofs; nor is a voluntary extrajudicial confef¬
fion admitted as any proof. A perfon is not admitted
to accufe himfelf, according to that rule in law, Non
auditur psrire volens. See Arraignment.
Confession, among divines, the verbal acknow¬
ledgement which a Chriftian makes of his fins.
Among the Jews it was the cuftom, on the annual
feaft of expiation, for the high-prieft to make confef¬
fion of fins to God in the name of the whole people :
befide-s this general confeffion, the Jews were enjoin¬
ed, if their fins were a breach of the firft table of the
law, to make confeffion of them to God ; but viola¬
tions of the fecond table were to be acknowledged to
their brethern. The confeffion of the primitive Chri-
ftians were all voluntary, and not impofed on them
by any laws of the church; yet private cbnfeffion
was not only allowed, but encouraged.
The Romifh church requires confeffion not only as
a duty, but has advanced it to the dignity of a facra-
inent: this confeffion is made to the prieft, and is
private and auricular; and the prieft is not to reveal
them under pain of the higheft punifhment.
Confession of Faith, a lift of the feveral articles
of belief in any church.
Vol. III.
85 ] CON
CONFESSIONAL, or Confessionary, a place Confeili-
in churches under the great altar, where the bodies of onal
deceafed faints, martyrs and confefTors, were depofited. r j
This word is alfo ufed by the Romanifts for a defk
in the church where the confefTor takes the confef- ~ ■"
fions of the penitents.
CONFESSOR, in the Romifh church, a prieft \Vho
is impowered to receive the confeffion of penitents,
and to give them abfolution.
CONFIGURATION, the outward figure which
bounds bodies, and gives them their external appear¬
ance ; being that which, in a great meafure, confti-
tutes the fpecific difference between bodies.
CONFIRMATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
ratifying or rendering a title, claim, report, or the
like, more fure and indifputable.
Confirmation, in law, a conveyance ofaneftate,
or right in etfe, from one man to another, whereby a-
voidable eftate is made fure and unavoidable, or a
particular eftate is increafed, or a pofTeffion made
perfeft.
Confirmation, in theology, the ceremony of lay¬
ing on of hands, for the conveyance of the Holy Ghoft.
The antiquity of this ceremony is, by all ancient
writers, carried as high as the apoftles, and founded
upon their example and praftice. In the primitive
church, it ufed to be given to Chriftians immediately
after baptifm, if the bifltop happened to be prefent at
the folemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughout
the Eart, it ft ill accompanies baptifm : but the Roma-
nifts make it diftinft independent facrament. Seven
years is the ftated time for confirmation : however,
they are fometimes confirmed before, and fometimes
after that age. The perfon to be confirmed has a
god-father and god-mother appointed him, as in bap¬
tifm. The order of confirmation in the church of
England, does not determine the precife age of the
perfons to be confirmed.
CONFISCATION, in law, the adjudication of goods
or effefts to the public treafury; as the bodies and
effefts of criminals, traitors, ire.
CONFLAGRATION, the general burning of a
city, or other confiderable place.
This word is commonly applied to that grand pe¬
riod or cataftrophe of our world, when the face of na¬
ture is to be changed by fire, as formerly it was by
water. The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonifts, Epi¬
cureans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of
the conflagration: though whence they fliould derive
it, unlefs from the facred, books, is difficult to con¬
ceive ; except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, who
themfelves had it from the Jews. Seneca fays ex-
prefsly, Tempus advenerit quo fidera ftderibus incurrent,
ir onini flagrante materia uno igne, quicquid nunc ex
depofito, lucet, ardebit. This general diflolution the
Stoics call exB-vpaw?, eepyrofis. Mention of the con¬
flagration is alfo made in the books of the Sibyls, So¬
phocles, Hyftafpes, OviJ, Lucan, Jffc. Dr Burnet,
after F. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamefe
believe that the earth will at laft be parched up with
heat; the mountains melted down ; the earth’s whole
furface reduced to a level, and then confumed. with
fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold that
the world (hall be deftroyed by fire; but alfo, that a
12 X new
CON [ 2186 ] CON
Confluent new earth fliall be made out of the cindefs of the old.
H _ Various are the fentiments of authors ou the lubject
Confucius. 0f (he conflagration; the caufe whence it is to arile,
and the effects it is to produce. Divines ordinarily
account for it metaphylicaliy; and will have it take
its rife from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Phi-
lofophers contend for its being produced from natural
caul'es; and will have it effe&ed according to the laws
of mechanics. Some think an eruption of the central
fire fufficient for the purpofe; and add, that this may
be occafioned feveral ways, viz. either by having its
intenfion increafed; which, again, may be effected
either by being driven into lefs ipace by the encroach¬
ments of the fuperficial cold, or by an increafe of the
iiifla!nmability;;'of the fuel whereon it is fed : or by
having the refiftance of the imprifoning earth weak¬
ened ; which may happen, either from the diminu¬
tion (>f its matter, by the confumption of its central
parts, or by vyeakening the cohelion of the conftitu-
ent parts of the mafs by the excefs of the defedl of
moillure. Others look for the caufe of the conflagra¬
tion in the atmofphere; and fuppofe, that fome of the
meteors there engendered in unufual quantities, and
exploded with unufual vehemence, from the concur¬
rence of various circumftances, may effect it, with¬
out feeking any further. The aftrologers account for
it from a conjuntffion of all the planets in the fign
Cancer; as the deluge, fay they, was occafioned by
their conjunction in Capricorn. Laftly, others have
recourfe to a ftill more effectual and flaming machine,
and conclude the world is* to undergo its conflagration
from the near approach of a comet in its return from
the fun.
CONFLUENT, among phyficians, be. an appel¬
lation given to that kind of Small-pox wherein the
puftules run into each other.
CONFORMATION, the particular confiflence and
texture of the parts of any body, and their difpofition
to compofe a whole.
Conformation, in medicine, that make and con-
ftru&ion of the human body, which is peculiar to eve¬
ry individual.
Hence, a mala conformatio fignifies fome fault in
the firft rudiments; whereby a perfon comes into
the world crooked, or with fome of the vifeera or
cavities unduly framed or proportioned. Many are
fubjetS to incurable aftma’s, from a too fmall capacity
of the thorax, and the like vitions conformations.
CONFORMITY, in the fchools, is the congruency,
or relation of agreement between one thing and ano¬
ther : as between the meafure, and the thing mea-
fured ; the objedt, and the underftanding; the thing,
and the divifion thereof, be.
CONFRONTATION, the adt of bringing two
perfons in prefence of each other, to difeover the truth
of fome fadt which they relate differently.
The word is chiefly ufed in criminal matters?
where, the witnelfes are confronted with the accu-
fed ; the accufed with one anbther, or the witnelfes
with one another.
CONFUCIUS, a Chinefe philofopher, who lived
about 500 years before our Saviour’s birth, in the
kingdom of Lu, now called the provice of Xantung.
His wit and judgment got him a reputation from his
very youth ; aud being a mandarin, and employed m Confucius
the government of the kingdom of Lu, his profound II
knowledge of morals and politics made him be greatly Confu^orl-
admired. Notwithftanding his care, his prince’s court
was much dilbrdered, and Confucius finding the king
would not liften to his advice, quitted the court and
taught moral philofophy with luch applaufe that he
foon had above 3000 fcholars, whereof 72 furpalfed
the reit in learning and virtue, for whom the Chinefe
have flill a particular veneration. He divided his
doctrine into four parts, and his fcholars into four
clafles : the Ist order was of thole who Itudied to ac¬
quire virtue ; the 2d, thofe who learned the art of
reafoning well; the 3d Itudied the government of the
Hate, aud the duty of magiltrates ; the 4th were
wholly taken up in noble difeourfes of all that concern¬
ed morals. In fpite of all his pains to eltablilh pure
morality and religion, he was neverthelefs the inno¬
cent caufe of their corruption. It is faid, that when
he \vas complimented upon the excellency of his phi-
lofophy, he replied, that he fell greatly Ihort of the
perfect degree of virtue; but that in the weft, the
moft holy was to be found. This made a ftrong im-
preffion on the learned ; and in the 66th year after
Chrift’s birth, the emperor Mun-ti lent ambaftadors
toward the weft to feek this holy man. They Hop¬
ped at an ifland near the Red-fea, and found a famous
idol named Fold, reprefenting a philofopher that lived
500 years before Confucius. They carried this idol
back with them, with inftruCtions concerning the
worlhip rendered to it; and fo introduced a fuperfti-
tion that abolilhed in feveral places the maxims of
Confucius. His tomb is in the academy where he
taught, near the town Xio-fu, upon the banks of the
river Xu. This philofopher has been in great venera¬
tion in China above 2000 years; and is ftill fo efteem-
ed, that each town has a palace confecrated to his
memory. There was one of his delcendants who was
very confiderable in the kingdom in 1646, whom
Xanchi king of Tartary, who then conquered China,
received with a great deal of honour. All thofe of
his family are mandarins by birth ; and have a privi¬
lege common with the princes of the blood, not to,
pay any tribute.
CONFUSION, in a' general fenfe, is oppofed to
order; in a perturbation whereof, cotifujioti confifts
e. gr. when things prior in nature do not precede ;
or pofterior do not follow, £sV.
In a logical fenfe, confufion is oppofed to diftinCt-
nefs, or perfpicuity ; and may happen, either in
words, as when mifeonftrued or mifapplied ; or in
ideas, as when the idea of any thing prelents fome-
thing along with it, which does not properly belong
to that thing. See Idea, and Notion.
In a phylical fenfe, confufion is a fort of union or
mixture by mere contiguity.—Such is that between
fluids of contrary nature, as oil and vinegar, be.
Confusion, in Scots law, is a^nethod of fufpend-
ing andextinguilhingobligations. See Law, Part III.
N° clxxvi. 8.
Co Nt usion of Tongues. By this phrafe is general¬
ly underftood that miraculous interpolition of the Deity
mentioned in the book of Genetis, to caufe mankind
defift from their attempt to build the tower of Babel,.
and.
CON [ '2187 ] CON
jjjConfufion. and to make them feparate, and divide themfelves
  into different nations.
It hath been much difputed whether there were
more languages than one before the flood; and many
[arguments have been adduced by learned men on both
lides. This queftion, however, it is eafy to fee, can
never be determined ; but whether it was fo or not,
it is plain there muff have been but one for fome
time after the flood, as all mankind were defcended
from one family. As to the confulion of tongues and
difperfion of mankind, it is an event mentioned by
* Univerfal profane as well as the facred hiftorians *. They
lit ft orj, write that mankind ufed one and the fame language
V°247 tdl the overthrow of the tower of Babylon; at which
P’ 3 " time a multiplicity of tongues was introduced by the
gods; whereupon wars enfued, and thofe whofe
fpeech happened to be intelligible to one another,
joined company, and feized the countries they chanced
to light upon.
With regard to the manner, however, in which
this confulion was eflfedted, there is a great variety of
fentiments. Several learned men, prepofiefled with
an opinion that all the different idioms now in the
world did at firft arife from one primitive language to
which they may be reduced, and that the variety
which we find among them is no other than what
muft naturally have taken place in fo long courfe of
time, have thence been induced to believe that there
were no new languages formed at the confufion, but
that the moft that was done at that time was only to fet
the builders of Babel at variance with one another by
creating a mifunderftanding among them. This fome
imagine to have been effedled without any immediate
influence on their language; which feems contrary to
the words and obvious intention of the facred hillo-
rian. Others have imagined it brought about by a
temporary confulion of their fpeech, or rather of their
apprehenlions, cauling them, while they continued to¬
gether, and fpake the fame language, yet to under-
ftand the words dilferently. A third opinion is, that
a variety of inflexions was introduced, and perhaps
fome new words, which difturbed and perverted the
former manner of expreflion. But this, though it
might occafion different dialects, yet could not create
new languages; and feems not to anfwer the inten¬
tion of Mofes, which was to inform us not only how
' mankind were at firll difperfed into fo many nations,
but to account for their different languages; a thing
very difficult if not impofiible to be done, without ha¬
ving recourfe to the immediate interpolition of divine
power. For though time, intercourfe with foreign
nations, commerce, the invention and improvement
of arts and fciences, and the difference of climates,
caufe very confiderable alterations in languages; yet
the utmoft effedt we can imagine them to have will
not come up to the point in queftion. Upon the
whole, therefore, it feems moft probable, that on the
confufion at Babel there were new languages formed;
and that thefe languages were the roots of all others
that are, that have been, or that will be fpoken while
the world remains.
In what manner thefe new languages were formed,
is a matter not eafy to be determined. From the
manner in which this event is related by Mofes, fome
have concluded that God effected it by immediately
inducing an oblivion of their former tongue, and in-
llantaneoufly infufing others into their minds. The
Jews imagined this to be done by the miniftry of an- .
gels, 70 of whom defcended with God, and were
each of them fet over a nation, to whom they taught
a peculiar language ; but that the anceftors of the
Jewifli nation retained the primitive language. Others
have fuppofed, that God did no more than caufe them
to forget their old language, leaving them to form new
ones in the beft manner they could : but this muft have
taken up fome time, and could but ill have anfwered
the neceffities of mankind ; and the way in which
Mofes expreffes himfelf feems to imply that it was
done inftantaneoufly.
As to the number of different languages formed at
this time, we are no lefs in the dark than as to the
manner in which they were formed. It is moft pro¬
bable, that the languages of the chief families were
fundamentally different from each other, and that the
fub-languages or dialects within each branch, for the
fake of immediate intercourfe, had a mutual affinity,
fome more, and fome lefs, according as they fettled
nearer or farther from each other ; which was fuffi-
cient to bring about the defigns of God, divide man¬
kind into diftindt focieties, and open a new fcene of
Providence, by which his wifdom might difplay itfelf
in the government of the world.
CONGE', in the French law, a licence, or permif-
fion, granted by a fuperior to an inferior, which gives
him a difpenfation from fome duty to which he was
before obliged. A woman cannot obligate herfelf
without the conge or licence of her hufband; a monk
cannot go out of his convent, without the conge of his
fuperiors.
Conge' d'lire, in ecclefiaftical-polity, the king’s
permiffion royal to a dean and chapter in the time of
a vacancy, to chufe a bilhop ; or to an abbey, or
priory, of his own foundation, to chufe their abbot or
prior.
The king of England, as fovereign patron of all
archbilhoprics, bilhoprics, and other ecclefiaftical be¬
nefices, had of ancient time free appointment of all
ecclefiaftical dignities, whenfoever they chanced to be
void ; inverting them firft per bacculum ir annulumy
and afterwards by his letters-patent; and in courfe of
time he made the eledlion over to others, under cer¬
tain forms and limitations, as that they fhould at
every vacation, before they chufe, demand the king’s
conge d’iire, and after the eledlion crave his royal af-
fent, ire.
Conge', in architedlure, a mould in form of a quar¬
ter round, or a cavetto, which ferves to feparate two
members from one another ; fuch as that which joins
the (haft of the column to the cindture, called alfo apo-
phyge.
Conges are alfo rings or ferrels formerly ufed in
the extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them from
fplitting, afterwards imitated in ftone-work.
CONGELATION, or Freezing, is a term ufed to
denote the tranlition of certain-fubftances from a fluid
to a folid form. Though equally applicable to the
hardening of melted metals, it is feldom ufed in this
cafe; as their confolidation, though attended with a
12 X 2 certain
Conge'*
Congela-
COM [ 2188 ] COM
Congela- certain degree of cold, yet leaves them poffefled of an
non. jntenfe heat; and therefore, the term which is ufed to
exprefs the hardening of water, ire. which is attend¬
ed with a very great degree of fenfible cold, feems
r not fo proper in common language.
Different Various degrees of cold are required for the con-
degrees of gelation of different fluids. Water congeals when
edd requi- Fahrenheit's thermometer ftands at 320 above o; vine-
freeze d"f w^en t0 27° ; wine, when it finks to 20° ;
ferentli-" ^ut brandy cannot be frozen till it has funk to 7° be-
quors. low o, and weak fpirit of wine does not confolidate
till it has funk to 330. Mercury requires a ftill greater
degree of cold, fuch as in this country we can have ho
conception of. In faff, this fubftance having been
found to retain its fluidity under the greateft degrees
of cold, known not only in this country, but in every
other, it was till very lately confidered as effentially
Oui kfl- fiobb Mr Brawn, however, at Peterfburg, where
ver frozen. ver7 fevere frofts are often felt, thought of making an
experiment how far the quickfilver in the thermome¬
ter might be made to fink, by plunging it into a free¬
zing mixture, while the cold was at its moft extreme
degree in that rigorous climate. Accordingly, one
day while the froft was fo intenfe that the thermome¬
ter flood at 40° below o, he plunged it into a mixture
of fnow and fpirit of nitre ; upon which the quickfilver
defeended to 352°, and then became ftationary. Upon
removing the thermometer into a warm room, he ob-
ferved, that it remained there 12 minutes before it be¬
gan to rife ; which made him fufpetfl that the mercury
had actually been frozen. To be convinced whether
or not this was the cafe, he repeated the experiment,
and when the quickfilver had again become flation¬
ary, he broke the glafs, and found that it had really
affumed a folid form, was perfectly flexible, and bore
feveral flrokes of a hammer.
In making this experiment he remarked, that the
quickfilver defeended regularly to 148°, after which
it remained ftationary for a little, and then would fud-
denly defeend too0 at once. From this Dr Black con-
jedhires, that 148° below o is the freezing point of
quickfilver. The fubfequent irregular defeent of the
mercury he attributes to the contraction of the folid
metal in the aCt of congelation ; for after it had de¬
feended this length, it would fuddenly defeend by
ftarts, a great number of degrees at once. In this he
is the more confirmed, that Mr Brawn had one ther¬
mometer, the quickfilver of which did not become fo¬
lid ; notwithftanding which, it would oot defeend be¬
low 148®.
Though every known fubftance, and water as well
2 as others, fuffers a remarkable diminution in bulk on
Phenomena being expofed to a cold air; yet after water is arrived
exhibited at the freezing point, the confolidation which then in-
by water ftantly takes place in fome part of it, makes it fud-
during its ^en]y eXpand about i of its original bulk ; which ex-
on_ panfion is found to be owing to an innumerable quan¬
tity of fmall bubbles with which the ice is filled. On
thawing a piece of ice under an exhaufted receiver,
thefe bubbles rife to the top of the liquid, and then
break ; but do not affect the mercurial gage of the air-
pump in the leaft. What is more remarkable, though
water will freeze when the thermometer finks as low
as 32°, yet if it is fuffered to remain abfolutelyat reft.
it may be cooled to a confiderable degree below this ;
but the moment it is touched or fhaken, part of it is
converted into ice ; and what is ftiil more itrange, it'
now becomes warmer than before, the thermometer
rifing immediately to 32 degrees.
The aCtion of congelation is always inflantaneous,
and appears very fimilar to the cryftallization of fairs.
It is greatly promoted by plunging the liquor to be
frozen into a mixture of fnow and fait, fpirit of nitre,
or marine acid, and fait, ire.; and no fubftances have
been found to retain their fluidity when expofed to the
intenfe cold produced by thefe mixtures, except fpirit
of wine in its ftrongeft ftate, ether, and the bituminous
oil called naphtha. (See Cold,) -
Concerning the manner in which the congelation of
water is produced, there have been various fuppofi-
tions ; fome reckoning it to be occafioned merely by
the deprivation of a certain quantity of fenfible heat;
others by the introduction of fome extraneous matter,
which they diftinguilhed by the name of frigorific
par tides, and fuppofed them to be of a faline, acid, or
nitrous nature.
This laft hypothefis hath been adopted by Mr Mu-
fchenbroek ; who is of opinion that thefe particles in-
finuate tbemfelves between the parts of the water,
and thus flop their motion, by which means the water
lofes its fluidity. His reafons are as follow.
1. All bodies contraCI, or are condenfed, on becom¬
ing folid : but water, when frozen, is expanded to a-
bout l of its bulk; which {hews that fomething extra¬
neous has been introduced into it.
2. It hath been obferved by Reamur in France,
Huxham at Plymouth, ire. that the thermometer
would fomerimes ftand at 36° all the time of a fevere
froft.
3. He has obferved {bowers of fleet when the ther¬
mometer flood at 30°; which indicates the exiftence
of frigorific particles in the air; and which being at¬
tracted by the water contained in it, froze the va¬
pour.
4. He has often feen hoar-froft upon vegetables, as
trees and the leaves of plants, when no ice was to be
feen upon lakes and ponds, by which he imagines the
fame attraction of frigorific particles to be fliown.
, 5. He has often feen a frofty night in March, April,
or even June, after a warm clear day, and a good
breeze of wind. He could not fee how this wind
could fo much cool the ground ; he rather fuppofes
that it brought frigorific particles along with it.
6. It has been obferved to freeze hard in fome
parts, when there was but a little flight froft in others
fituated as far north.
7. Ice-water is extremely hard : he therefore fup¬
pofes, that it contains fome matter which communicates
this hardnefs to it ; and this he cannot imagine to be
any thing elfe than the frigorific particles imbibed from
the air, and by which it was frozen.
8. The quicknefs of the production of ice on ftagna-
ting water, is not in proportion to the coldnefs, as
may be fliown by a thermometer ; fo he fuppofes it
muft depend on fome other circumftances.
9. Water may be made to retain its fluidity, though
cooled below its ordinary freezing point, provided it
is kept in perfeCi reft and tranquillity, and in a fmall
veffel;
Congela¬
tion-.
Accounted
for by Mr
Mufchen- -
brock. 1
CON [21
veflel ■, bat if it is difturbed in that ftate, it freezes in>
itantiy.
to. A wet cloth fometimes freezes when hung in
the air, when there is no ice elfewhere. This does
not always fucceed ; and when it does, Mr Mufchen-
broek thinks it depends on the prefence, or the attrac¬
tion, oi congealing or frigorific particles.
ix. If a mixture of fait and fnow is put over a fire,
and a bowl with fome water placed in the middle of
it ; .while the fait and fnow are melted into a liquid,
the water will be frozen into a mafs of ice. This he
confiders as a plain proof that the fire drives the con¬
gealing particles from the mixture into the bowl that
contains the water : and he thinks it very abfurd that
the congelation fltould depend merely on the diminu¬
tion of heat; for how can the heat of the fire, by en¬
tering the Ihow, produce any diminution -of heat in
the water ?
All thefe reafons are anfwered, and moft of them
very fatisfaftorily, by Dr Black. Indeed, if we except
the Ist, the 9th, and the 11th, there is none of them
from which any conclufion can reafonably be formed
concerning the caufe of congelation either by frigorific
particles, or any thing elfe. Mr Mufchenbroek’s laft
reafon is fhewn by the doctor to be a mere juggle ;
for placing the apparatus on the fire is by no means
conducive to the fqccefs of the experiment, but the
contrary. The fait and fnow would congeal the wa¬
ter, though kept at a diftance from the fire ; and the
power of this mixture to produce cold is fo great, that
even the letting it over the fire does not binder the
water'from being frozen.
The molt puzzling circumftance attending the con¬
gelation of water, is its expanfion. This, however,
is now explained by Dr Black in a fatisfaftory man¬
ner, who proves that it is owing to an extrication of
air from the water. His experiment in proof of this
is, to freeze water in Florence flafks. The thinnefs
of the glafs of which thole veffels are formed, gives
them a degree of flexibility, by which they fometimes
yield fo much to the expanfive power of water in the
act of congelation, that a Florence flafk full of water
may be completely frozen without being broke. When
this is the cafe, and the veflfel is inverted, and fet in a
warm place, the bubbles, to which the water owed
its expanfion when congealed, will afcend to the top,
where they manifeltly difcover themfelves to be air
by forming one large bubble, which after fome time
is abforbed by the water. Their not affecting the
mercurial gage of the air-pump, he thinks is owing to
the Imall quantities of liquid that have been made ufe
of in thefe experiments.
The doctor’s theory, by which he accounts for the
congelation of water, as well as the converlion of it
into fteam, is very ingenious and fatisfadfory. See
Evaporation. He is of opinion, that all fluidity
depends, not upon that quantity of heat contained in
any fubftance which makes it fenfibly warm to the
touch, or by which it a fleets a thermometer, but on a
certain quantity taken into the inmoft elfence or com-
pofition of the body, fo as to become an eflentiai part
of itl’elf.
The eafieft method of conceiving thefe two difler-
ent Bates of the element of fire or heat, is by mixing
89 ]
CON
a quantity of powdered falts with water. For fome Congela.
time the fait will remain undiflblved, and render the fr011,
fluid opaque when Ihaken. In that Bate it reprefents
fenlible hear, or the element of fire combined with
the fluid in fuch a manner as to affect a thermometer,
or to make it fenfibly warm; When the fait is dilfol-
ved, the fluid then becomes tranfparent, and the fait
invifible ; fo that it cannot be known by the eye,
whether any fait exifls there or not. In like manner,
when the element of fire enters into the folid ice, fo
as to render it fluid, it becomes imperceptible to the
touch, and only difeovers it (elf by communicating a
part of its own fubtilty and fluidity to the ice.
That this adlually is the cafe, he proves from its be¬
ing poflible to cool water below the freezing pointy
provided it is fuffered to remain at refl ; and from its
railing the thermometer to 32°, immediately upon the
congelation taking place. Indeed the fudden increafe
of heat cannot be accounted for on any other iiippo-
lition whatever. The water having more of its len-
fible heat carried off than is fufficient to keep the la¬
tent heat from breaking out, it inffantly leaves fome
part of the water wherewith it was conjoined, and
heats the whole to a certain degree. g
From fome experiments made by Dr Black, men- Water moft
tioned in a letter from him to Sir John Pringle, and eafily fro-
publiihed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, water ’s
ftiewn to freeze fooner after it has been boiled than
when it has not. The difference, however, he fup-
pofes to confiff in this, that the unboiled water may
be cooled down to a few degrees below the freezing
point without lofing. its fluidity, provided it is fuffered
to remain perfedily at reft ; but the unboiled water
begins to freeze as foon as it is cooled down to 32®.
If unboiled water, however, is kept continually ftir-
ring, he thinks it would begin to freeze full as foon :
for though a confiderable quantity of ice was form¬
ed on the boiled water, while the other remained per-
feiftly fluid ; yet, upon ftirring the latter, it immedi¬
ately froze, and the ice was formed on it in as great
quantity as the former.
The reafon of this difference appears to the do&or
to be as follows. The congelation of common water
is haftened by difturbing it; and as in boiling wa¬
ter the air is expelled from it, (fee Air), it begins
to imbibe the air which it has loft, as foon as it
is expofed to it. By this abforption the boiled wa¬
ter is continually expofed to the aeftion of a difturbing
caufe, viz. the entrance of the air into it, to which
the other is not; and, therefore, it is impoflible to
make boiled water in the lealt colder than 32°, with¬
out fome part of it being formed into ice. In this
opinion he is confirmed by fome experiments of Fa¬
hrenheit’s ; who having put fome water purged of its
air into little glafs globes, and fealed them up, he was
furprized to find them continue much longer unfrozen
than he expected ; but the moment they were open¬
ed, or the glafs Ihaken in the leaft, the congelation
took place. 7
The force with which ice expands in, the a eft. of Prodigious
congelation is prodigious. Huygens, in order to try expanfive
it, filled a cannon, whofe Tides were an inch thick,.
with water ; and then clofed the mouth and touch- watcr1>nii’
hole, fo that none could efcape. The inftrument thus
filled
CON [2190] CON
Congela- filled was then expofed to a firong freezing air. In
tlon- lels than 12 hours the water was frozen, and expand¬
ed with fuch violence as to burft the piece in two dif¬
ferent places. At Peterlburgh, in the winter of 1749,
an iron bomb was burft by water turned into ice.
Various other attempts have been made to calculate
the expanfive force of ice. A ftrong cylindrical box
of metal was filled with water, well purged of its air
by boiling and the air-pump. Being then fitted ex¬
actly with a metalline cover, between which and the
water a wet leather was interpofed, it was ftrongjy
prefled down with four iron-fcrews. The box being
then placed in a freezing mixture, the water was fro¬
zen into a fplid mals in lefs than half an hour ; and
as its bulk increafed, three of the fcrews were forced
off by the violence of the preffure, and the cover
was railed up on one fide about a quarter of an inch
above the rim. This experiment having proved in-
efFeiftual to determine the power of expanfion by
froft, it was repeated in a different form. The cover
of the box, inftead of being fcrewed down, was pref-
fed upon by the Ihorter arm of a very ftrong lever,
which was compounded with two others, in fuch a
manner that when a weight of 28 lb. was hung on the
extremity of the moft remote lever, the Ihort arm of
the firft preffed upon the cover of the box with a
force equal to 2296 lb. The water in the box being
then made to freeze, it overcame the whole ftrength
of the machine. The Florentine academicians have
been the only perfons who fucceeded in their endea¬
vours to overcome this expanfive power. Being de-
firous of knowing what degree of ftrength was re-
quifite to overcome the expanfive power of a fpherule
of ice one inch in diameter, they procured a hollow
fphere of brafs, the fides of which were an inch thick,
which was exadftly the diameter of the hollow within.
Having filled this with water, and foldered up the
fmallhole by which it was introduced, they expofed
it to the cold of a freezing mixture, but the globe did
not burft. They then gave it to a turner, who pared
off fomething from the thicknefs. Having again ex¬
pofed it to the cold, it ftill continued whole ; but, on
paring it a fecond time, and then expofing it to the
fevere cold of a freezing mixture, it bu»ft, notwith-
ftanding it ftill continued fo thick as to require a force
(according to Mr Mufchenbroek’s calculation) of 27,720
pounds, near 14 tons, to tear it afunder : and, even
here, a doubt may be fuggefted, whether the great
thicknefs of the fides did not prevent the adlion of the
freezing mixture from congealing the water contained
in the globe, till it was pared down fufficiently to let
the cold have an effedt. It is alfo to be confidered,
that cold diminifhes the toughnefs of metallic fubftan-
ces, rendering them much more brittle ; and confe-
quently the brafs globe could not, when expofed to
the cold of a freezing mixture, require fo much force
to burft it, as it would have done in a moderate
warmth.
Freezing is much more expeditioufly carried on
where the liquor is little difturbed, than if it is greatly
fo ; though an abfolute tranquillity, as we have al¬
ready feen, is prejudicial to this operation. In fuch a
cafe, if the water is difturbed, though by a warm air,
it will be congealed in an inftant.
In general, the ice of northern countries is much Congela'
harder than that of the more fouthern climates. The tion-
reafon of this probably is, that though a great quantity jj
of the latent heat is exhaled by fuch a degree of cold Hardnefs of
as is neceffary to produce ice, yet it is not wholly fo ; *ce ‘n d16 ;
in confequence of which, the ice ftill Ihows, by its no^["s j
foftnefs, fome difpofuion to fluidity, which gradually ‘ * .j
lellens as the cold expels more of the latent heat; and
the ice grows ftill harder by being more and more
expofed to fevere froft.
During the fevere froft of 1740, a palace of ice
was built at Peterlburgh after the moft elegant model,
and the jufteft proportions of Auguftan architecture.
It was 52 feet long, and 20 feet high. The materials
were quarried from the furface of the river Neva;
and the whole flood gliftering againft the fun with a
brilliancy almoft equal to his own. Six cannons of
ice, two bombs and mortars, all of the fame mate¬
rials, were planted before this extraordinary edifice.
The cannon were three pounders; they were charged
with gun-powder, and fired off. The ball of one of
them pierced an oak plank two inches thick, at 60
paces diftance, and the piece did not burft with the
explofion. g
In melting of ice, if it be laid upon fome fubftances Melts more
it melts fafter than upon others. It melts fooner in a eafily on
filver plate than on the palm of the hand, and fooner j°me
upon copper than any other metal whatever. It melts others.1 ^
fooner in water than in air of an equal temperature ;
fooner in water a little warm, than in air near' the
fire where it is hotter. It is fooner diffolved in vacuo
than in the atmofphere. If it takes 20 minutes to dif-
folve in the open air, only four will be requifite to
melt it in vacuo. J0 1
Where the fummer heats are great, ice becomes an is eafily
article of luxury ; and is indeed exceedingly falutary, preferred,
by preventing, in fome meafure, the bad effeCls of
thefe heats on the human body. A ready way of ma¬
king ice where none is naturally formed, or of pre-
ferving it in fummer where it is formed in fmall quan¬
tity in the winter time, is, in fome countries, eagerly
fought after. The llownefs with which ice melts fur-
nilhes an eafy method of preferving it. Water, con¬
gealed in fix minutes, will not refume its fluidity in fome
hours: (See Fluidity.) Nothing more then is requi¬
fite to preferve ice, than to bury it to a fmall depth in
the ground, and cover it with a fufficient quantity of
thatch to keep out the external hear. Though water
placed in fuch a fituation would, always retain its flui¬
dity, yet the great quantity of heat abforbed by ice
in thawing prevents the diffolution of any confiderable
quantity of it, where large mafles are put together.
If fnow or pounded ice (but fnow is preferable) be Artificial
mixed with any fait, fuch as copperas, alum, falt-petre, freezing
or common fait, in the proportion of four pounds of mixtures,
fnow to one of fait, the mixture will foon melt; but
at the fame time grow fo much colder, that if a fmall
bafon of water is fet into it, it will foon be frozen.
In this cafe the congelation begins from the bottom
upwards, which is contrary to what happens when
water is frozen in the open air. Of all the different
kinds of falls, fal-ammoniac is found to be moft effica¬
cious in producing ice ; but it is faid that water may
be frozen without any fait whatever. For this pur-
pofe
CON
[ 2191 ] CON
^ongela-
* ioer-
riod of ma-
j ling ice.
Method of
he Eaft
ndies.
pofe we need only to fill a fmall deep pewter-difti with
water; and upon that place aeommon pewter-plate fil¬
led, but not heaped, with fnow, fo that the bottom of
the pewter-plate may be in contact with the water.
Bring this fmall apparatus near the fire, and as the fnow
melts on being ftirred, the water will be frozen on the
back of the plate. This experiment deferves well to be
confidered, as it would ftrongly indicate an a6lual ex-
pulfion of coldas a fubftance from fnow, upon its melt-
ing by the heat of the fire. It is fimilar to one of
Geoffrey’s, which fhews that cold is produced by
throwing burning coals into water. See Cold, n° j.
Though any kind of fait produces a great degree
of cold on being mixed with fnow, yet the pure acids
of nitre and fea-falt have been found more efficacious
in this refpedl than any known fubflances. Of thefe,
fpirit of nitre produces the moll violent degree of cold,
and fpirit of fea-falt the moft lafting.
But by methods of this kind ice can only be made
from being in pofTeffion of fome quantity of it, or of
fnow, already. In thofe countries, therefore, where
no ice is ever formed naturally, it could never be pro¬
cured, and in thofe it is moft defireable. Boerhaave
■ gives a method of making ice without either ice or
• fnow. He directs, at whatever feafon of the year
this is attempted, to procure the coldeft water that can
be got. This is to be mixed with fait in the propor¬
tion of three ounces to a quart. Of all faline fubftan-
ces, fal-ammoniac is found to anfwer bed. Another
quart of water is to be prepared in the fame manner.
The folntion of the fait will make the water in each
much coldqr than before. They are then to be mixed
together. Other two quarts of water prepared and
mixed in the fame manner are to be added to thefe.
The whole of this operation is to be carried on in a
cold cellar; and a glafs of common water is then to
be placed in the veftel of liquor thus artificially cooled,
which will be turned into ice in the fpace of 12 hours.
A procefs for making ice in the Eaft Indies, without
the affiftance of fnow or fait of any kind, has been
communicated to the Royal Society by Sir Robert
Barker, F. R. S. The places where this method is
followed lie between 2Jf and 23c. degrees of north
latitude, where natural ice is feldom or never feen.
The following method is ufed in freezing the water.
On a large open plain three or four excavations are
made, each about 30 feet fquare and two feet deep.
The bottoms are ftrewed about eight inches or a foot
deep with fugar-cane, or the Items of the large Indian
corn dried. Upon this bed are placed in rows, near
to each other, a number of fmall fhallow earthen pans,
for containing the water to be frozen. Thefe are un¬
glazed ; fcarce a quarter of an inch thick ; and fo po¬
rous, that the water vilibly penetrates them. To¬
wards the dufk of the evening they are filled with foft
water which has been boiled, and then left in the
aforefaid fituation. The ice-makers ufually attend the
pits before the fun is above the horizon. They col¬
lect in b lkets what is frozen by pouring the whole
contents of the pans into them, and thereby retain¬
ing the ice, which is daily conveyed to the grand
receptacle or place of prefervation. This is generally
prepared on fome high dry fituation, by finking a pit
of 14 or J J feet deep, lined firft with ftraw, and then
with a coarfe kind of blanketing, where it is beftt
down with rammers, till at length its own accumulated
cold again freezes and forms it into one folid mals. ~
The mouth of the pit is well fecured with ftraw and
blankets from the external air, and a thatched roof
is thrown over the whole.
The quantity of ice depends materially on the wea¬
ther ; and coni'equently it fometimes happens that no
congelation takes places at other times perhaps half
the quantity will be frozen, and often the whole con¬
tents will be formed into a folid cake. The more
clear and ferene the weather, and the lighter the at-
mofphere, the more favourable it is for congelation.
A frequent change of winds and clouds are certain
preventatives; fo that in a very fharp cold night, fcarce
any ice will often be formed, while the whole contents-
will be frozen through when the night has been fien-
fibly warmer.
The author of this account is of opinion, that w^ater
by being placed in fuch a fituation, free from receiv¬
ing any heat from other bodies, may be made to freeze
in a pretty warm air, by having large furfaces ex-
pofe-d to it. The reafon of this feems to be, that
fome part of its fenfibie heat is perpetually flying off
by its infenfible evaporation. The fpungy fubftances
on which the pans are fet are but ill adapted to fur-
nifii it with a new fupply ; for, of all others, either
heat or cold is moft difficultly tranfmitted through bo¬
dies of this kind. The evaporation of the liquid which
tranfudes through the pores of the earthen veffels,
undoubtedly ferves alfo to increafe the cold ; and this
the more, on account of the extreme thinnefs with
which it is fpread over them.
That ice is capable of multiplying itfelf, feems very
probable from an obfervation of Sir Robert Barker’s ;
namely, that when it is colltedled by the Eaft Indians,
in the manner above deferibed, it becomes capable, by
being mixed with fait, of freezing more water, or
other kinds of fluids, and that during the fevere heats
of the fummer feafon. The flier-bets, creams, or
whatever other fluids are intended to be frozen in this
manner, are inclofed in filver cups containing about a
pint having their covers well luted on with pafte,
and placed in a large veffel filled with ice, falt-petre,
and common fait ; of the two laft an equal quantity,
and a little water is added to diffolve the whole. By
this compofition the contents of the cups are immedi¬
ately frozen to the confiftence of the ice creams in
Europe; but plain water will become fo hard as to re¬
quire a mallet and knife to break it. Upon applying
a thermometer to one of thefe lumps of ice, it has
been known to fink two or three degrees below the
freezing point; which fliows, that even in the warmeft
climates a very great degree of cold may be produ¬
ced : for the hardnels of ice is always in proportion to
the degree of cold to which it is expofed ; and if it is
internally cooled to 2 or 3 degrees below the freezing
point, we are fure that a violent degree of cold has
been exerted upon it externally.; for the ufual tem¬
perature of ice when firft frozen, is 32 degrees.
CONGER, in zoology. See Muhina.
CONGERIES, a confteliation or aggregate of fe-
veral particles or bodies united into one mafs.
CONGESTION,, in medicine, a mafs, or colletftion
o£
Congcla-
CON [ 2192 ] CON
Congius of humours, crowded together and hardened in any
i part of the body, and there forming a preternatural
Coilg0, tumor.
Congeftion is effected by little and little ; in which
it differs from defluxion, which is more hidden.
CONGIUS, a liquid meafure of the ancient Ro¬
mans, containiug the eighth part of the amphora, or
the fourth of the urna, or fix fextarii. The congius
in Englifh meafure contains 2,070,676 folid inches;
that is, feven pints, 4,942 folid inches.
CONGLOBATE gland. See Anatomy, n° 391.
CONGLOMERATE gland. Ibid.
Conglomerate Flowers, are thofe growing on a
branching foot-flalk, to which they are irregularly
but clofely conneifled. This rpode of infiorefcence,
as Linnseus terms it, is oppofed to that in which the
flowers are irregularly and loofely fupported on their
* See foot-ftalks, hence termed a diffufe panicle *. The
Panicle. term is exemplified in feveral of the grafles, particu¬
larly in fome fpecies of the poa, fefcue grafs, and
agroftis.
CONGLUTINATION, the gluing or faftening any
two bodies together by the intromilfion of a third,
whofe parts are undtuous and tenacious, in the nature
of glue. See Glue.
CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by the river Zair, or Zarah, which divides it
from Loanga ; on the fouth by the river Danda, which
feparates it from Angola; on the call by the king¬
doms of Fungono and Metamba, and the burnt moun¬
tains of the fun, thofe of cryffal or falt-petre and fii-
ver, or (according to Anthony Cavazzi, a late travel¬
ler into thofe parts) by the mountains of Coanza Ber-
bela, and the great mountain of Chilandia or Aqui-
londa; and on the weft by that parr of the Atlantic
1 ocean called the Ethiopic fea, or the fea of Congo. Ac-
Extent. cording to thefe limits, Congo Proper extends about
three degrees from north to fouth ; lying between
6° and 90 S. Lat. ; but widens in its breadth inland)
by the courfe of the river Zair, which runs winding
above two degrees more to the north. Its length
from eaft to weft is very uncertain, as no obfervations
have been taken of the exaft lituation of thofe moun-
2 tains which bound it.
Hiftory un- The hiftory of this kingdom affords but few inte-
certain and refting particulars. Before its difcovery by the Por-
fabulous. tuguele, the hiftory is altogether uncertain and fabu¬
lous, as the inhabitants were totally unacquainted with
letters and learning. So little were they acquainted
with chronology, that it is faid they did not even
diftinguifh between day and night; much lefs could
they compute their time by moons or years; and there¬
fore could remember palt tranfadtions only by faying
3 they happened in fuch a king’s reign.
The coun- The country was difcovered by the Portuguefe in
try difcove-1484. The difcoverer was named Diego Cam, an
red by the eXpert and bold failor. He was very well received
Portuguefe. by ^
natives, and fent fome of his men with pre-
fents to the king ; but they being detained by un ex¬
pected accidents beyond the promifed time of their re¬
turn, Com was obliged to fail away without them,
and took with him four young Congoefe, as ho-
ftages for the fafety of his countrymen. Thefe he
taught the Portuguefe language, in which they made
fuch pfogrefs that king John was highly pleafed, and Congo,
fent them back next year to Congo with rich pre- |
fents ; charging them to exhort their monarch, in his
name, to become a convert to the Chriftian religion,
and to permit it to be propagated through his domi¬
nions. A firm alliance was concluded between the
two monarchs, which continues to this day, though not
without fome interruptions, to which the Portuguefe
themfelves have given occafion more than the natives. 4
Any particular account we have of this kingdom, CavazziV
refts almoft entirely on the credit of Anthony Cavaz- account of
zi, the traveller above-mentioned. He was a capu- Cong°- ;
chte-friar, a native of the duchy of Modena, and was
fent miflionary into thofe parts de propaganda fide, in
the year 1654, and arrived at Congo the fame year.
During his ftay there, his zeal to make converts made
him travel through all thefe different kingdoms ; and
the credit he gained, as well as the great employments
he was intrufted with, gave -him an opportunity of in¬
forming himfelf of everything relating to them with
great exa&nefs. The extent and fituation, however,
he could not poffibly afcertain, for want of inftruments; 5 :
nor hath this defeat been fince fppplied. According gxtent J
to him, the dominions of Congo extended a great deal fened fmc
further eaftward and fouthward before the introduc- the intro-j
tion of Chriftianity than afterwards; a great number
of the ftates that were under the Congoefe monarchs, Chn ian,l|
either as fubjedls, or tributary, having withdrawn
their allegiance out of dillike to them on that account.
Not content with oppofing the officers and troops
that came annually to raile the tribute impofed by
the king, they made fuch frequent and powerful in-
curfions info his dominions, that they obliged him to
draw his forces nearer the centre of Congo -to pre¬
vent an invafion ; by which means, the kingdom, from
an extent of 600 leagues, was reduced to lefs than one
half. 6
Congo Proper being fituated within the torrid zone, Account cf
is liable to exceflive heats ; as it lies on the fouthern the climab
fide of the equinoctial, the feafons are of courfe oppo- andfeafoiii
lire to ours. They reckon only two principal feafons,
the furnmer and winter; the former begins in October,
and continues till February or March ; during which
time the fun’s rays dart with fuch force, that the at-
mofphere appears to an European to be in a flame.
The exceflive heat, however, is mitigated by the
equal length of the days and nights, as well as by the
winds, breezes, rains and dews- The winter takes
up the other part of the year ; and .is laid by the na¬
tives to be proportionally cold, though to an Euro¬
pean it would appear hot. Thefe two feafons they
divide into fix leffer ones, viz. Maflanza, Neafu,
Ecundi, Quitombo, Quibifo, and Quibangela.
Maffanza begins with the month of OCfober, which
is the beginning of their fpring. The rains begin to
fall at that time, and continue during the next two,
and fometimes three, months. When they do fo, the
low lands are commonly overflowed by the extraor¬
dinary floods, and all their corn carried off. A dif-
after of this kind is commonly followed by a famine;
for the lazy inhabitants take no care to lay up any
provifions, although fuch misfortunes happen very
frequently. This firft feafon they reckon commences
at the time the plants begin to fpring.
The
CON [21
Congo. The fecond feafon, Neafu, begins abont the end of
“ January, when the produce of their lands has arrived
at its full height,, and wants but a few days of being
ripened for harveit. This firft crop is no fooner ga¬
thered in, than they fow their fields afrefli, their land
commonly yielding them two harvelts.
The third and fourth feafons, called Ecundi and
Quitombo, are frequently blended together towards
tiie middle of March, when the more gentle rains be¬
gin to fall, and continue to do fo till the month of
May. Thefe two feafons are diftinguilhed by the
greater or lefler quantity of rain that falls during that
interval. During the reft of the time, the air is either
very clear, hot, and dry ; or the clouds being over¬
charged with eledtric matter, burft out into the molt
terrible thunders and lightenings, without yielding the
leafl drop of rain, though they feem loaded with it.
The two laft, viz. the Quibifo and Quibangala,
make up their fhort winter, which confiits not in
froil or fnow, but in dry, blafting winds, which ftrip
the earth of all its verdure, till the next Maffanza be¬
gins to reftore them to their former bloom.
They now divide their year into twelve lunar-
months, and begin it in September. They have alfo
weeks confifting of four days only, the laft of which
is their fabbath; and on it they religioufly abftain from
every kind of work. This practice, the compilers.of
the Univerfal Hiftory conjecture to have arifen from
Natives ex- the extreme lazinefs for which this people, and in-
ftceflivelyin- deed all the African nations, are fo remarkable. To
il dolent. this fhameful indolence alfo is to be afcribed the little
produce they reap from their lands, while the Portu-
guefe fettled among them, who are at more pains in
Ithe cultivation of theirs, enjoy all manner of plenty.
The natives, however, had rather run the rifk of the
moll terrible famines, than be at the tenth part of the
* labour they fee the Portuguefe take. They feem to
think it below them to ufe any other excrcifes than
thofe of dancing, leaping, hunting, fhooting, ire. ; the
reft of their time they fpend in fmoking, and down¬
right idlenefs, committing the laborious part of their
houfehold affairs to their flaves, or, in want of them,
to their wives. Nothing is more common than to fee
thefe poor creatures roiling in the fields and woods
with a child tied to their backs, and fainting under
their exceflive labour and heavy burdens, or (which
is ftill worfe) hunger and thirft. What is yet more
furprifingly lhameful is, that though they have plenty
of domeftic animals which they might ealily make ufe
of for cultivating their grounds, and for other labori¬
ous fervices, and though they fee the Portuguefe do it
every day to great -advantage ; yet they will rather
fee their tender females fink under their toil and la¬
bour, than be at the trouble of breeding up any of
g thefe ufeful creatures to their aflifiance.
Vegetables The ground produces variety of grain, but no corn
| produced in or rice except what is cultivated by the Portuguefe.
, Congo. Their maize, or Indian wheat, grows very ftrong, and
is well laden. This, being well ground, they make
into bread, or boil with water into a kind of pap.
Of this they have four kinds; one of which refembling
what we call French wheat, is produced in plenty,
and makes fome amends for the want of induftry in
the people. They cultivate alfo a variety of the peafe
V01.III.
93 ] CON
and bean kind : but what they chiefly live upon, as Congo,
molt fnitable to their lazy dilpolirion, is a kind of nut,
like our filberds, which fall to the ground of them-
felves, and are to be found every where; every nut
that falls to the ground, producing a new fhrub next
year. They have fcarcely any fruit-trees, but what
have been brought thither by the Portuguefe. They
have various forts of palm-trees, ufeful both by their
fruit, leaves, and their juice, which is eafily convened
into wine ; alfo by affording a kind of oil with which
they drefs their vi<5tuals, though the Europeans ufe it
only to burn in their lamps. They have alfo a vaft
number of plants and fhrubs, which it would be itn-
poffible to deferibe or enumerate. Wheat is the only
thing that the ground will not produce. It puflies
forth, indeed, the firaw and the ear ; the former of
which grows high enough, we are told, to hide a man
on horleback, but the latter is empty, without one grain
fit for ufe. Father Labat, however, who had lived a
confiderable time in fome of the American if land?,
where he had obferved the fame thing, tells us, that
he had the curiofity to examine thofe ears more care¬
fully, and had found fome few grains ; and that, ha¬
ving fowed them afrefh, they produced very long ears,
full of large heavy grain. Whence he conjectures,
that if the Portuguefe had tried the fame experiment
in their African fcttlements, it might perhaps have
been attended with the fame fuccefs. ^
In the low lands the grafs grows fo high, rank, Hazardous
and thick, that it becomes one of the moft dangerous travelling,
receptacles for wild beafts, ferpents, and other vene-
mous infedls : on this account travelling is exceeding¬
ly hazardous, as they have few beaten roads in the
whole country, and travellers are obliged to march
over it through vaft plains, in continual danger of be¬
ing devoured or flung to death; to fay nothing of
the manifold difeafes produced by the unwholelbifie
dews with which the grafs is covered during fome
part of the day. The only method of guarding a-
gainfl all thefe evils effedlually, is by letting fire to
the grafs in the hot weather, when it is quite parched
by the heat of the fun : but even this cannot be don'e
without the greateft danger ; becaufe both the wild
beafts and venemous reptiles, being roufed out of their
places of retirement, will fly furioufly at thofe who
happen to be in the way. In this cafe there is no
poffibility of efcapiug, but by climbing up the higheft
trees, or defending one’s felf by fire-arms or other
weapons. In fuch emergencies, the natives have a
much better chance than the Europeans; the former
being able to climb trees with furprifing fwiftnefs;
while the latter muft be affifled with rope-ladders,
which they commonly caufe their blacks to carry about
with them, and to go up and faften to one of the
branches. * 10
The flowers are here exceedingly beautiful and nu- Great va¬
in erous. Almoft every field and grove yields a much r!ety of
nobler profpedt than the European gardens can boaft flowers"
of, notwithftanding the pains bellowed on their culti¬
vation. The flowers are remarkable, not only for
the prodigious variety of their colours, but the vaft
quantity of heads which grow upon one flalk. In
the day-time, indeed, they feem to have loft their na¬
tural fragrancy ; that being in fome meafure exhaled
12 Y by
CON [ 2194 ] CON
Congo, by the heat of the fun : but this is amply compenfated
— “ after its fetting, and more efpecially a little before its
riling, when their fweetnefs is again condenfed, and
revived by the coldnefs and dews of the night, after
which they exhale their various refrelhing fcents in a
much higher degree than ours. The lilies, which there
grow naturally in the fields, valleys, and woods, excel
thole of opr gardens, not only in their extreme white-
nefs, but much more in a delightful fragrancy, without
offending the head, as the European lilies do by their
faintifii fweetnefs. The tulips which there grow wild,
though generally called Perjic, have fomething fo fur-
prifingly charming in the variety and combination of
their colours, that they dazzle the eyes of an intenfe
beholder : neither do their flowers grow fingly as
with us, but ten or twelve upon one (talk ; and with
this double advantage, that they difful'e a very revi¬
ving and agreeable fweetnefs, and continue much long¬
er in their full bloom. Of the fame nature are their
tuberofes, hyacinths, and other native flowers ; which
fpring up in vail groups of t oo and 200 from one
root, though fomewhat fmaller than ours ; fome of
them finely variegated, and all of them yielding an
agreeable fmell. The rofes, jeflamines, and other
exotics brought thither from Europe or America, come
up likewife in great perfection; but require a con-
ftant fiupply of water, and diligent attendance to pre¬
vent them from degenerating. The American jelfa-
mine, in particular, inftead of Angle flowers, will grow
up by dozens in a bunch ; fome of them of an exqui-
fite white, and others of the colour of the moll vivid
„ fire.
Annuals of A vail variety of animals of different kinds are
different found in the kingdom of Congo ; the chief of which
kind.. are t]ie elephant. This creature is mollly found in the
province of Bamba, which abounds with woods, pa-
llure, and plenty of water ; the elephants delighting
much to bathe themfelves-during the heat of the day.
They commonly go in troops of an hundred or more ;
and fome of them are of fuch a monllrous fize, that
we are told the print of their hoof hath meafured
four, nay /even, fpans in diameter. From the hair of
their tails, and that of fome other animals, the na¬
tives, efpecially the women, wedve themfelves col¬
lars, bracelets, girdles, ire. with variety of devices
and figures, which denote their' quality ; and are in
fuch efteem, that the hair of two elephants tails is
fufficient to buy a flave. The reafon of this is, that
the natives have not the art of taming them, but are
obliged to fend fome of their bravell and ftouteft men
to hunt them in the woods; which is not done with¬
out great labour and danger, they being here ex¬
ceedingly fierce. The moll common way of hunting
them is by digging deep holes in the ground, the top
of which they cover with branches and leaves, as is
pradtifed in moll parts of Afia.
Lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, and other bealls of
prey, abound here in great plenty, and do much da¬
mage. Here are alfo a vail variety of monkies of all
fizes and lhapes. The zebra, well known for its ex¬
treme beauty and fwiftnefs, is alfo met with in this coun¬
try. They have alfo a variety of buffaloes and wild
alfes ; but the dante feems to be an animal peculiar to
this kingdom. It is fliaped and coloured much like an
ox, though not fo large. Its ikin is commonly bought Congo,
by the Portuguefe, and fent into Germany to be tanned
and made into targets, which are then called dantes.
The natives make ufe of their raw hide dried, to
make their Ihields; which are fo tough that no arrow
or dart can pierce them ; and they are alfo large
enough to cover the whole body. The creature
is vallly fvvift ; and when wounded, will follow the
feent or fmokeof the gunpowder with fuch fury, that
the hunter is obliged to climb up a tree with all pof-
fible (peed ; and this retreat he always takes care to
fecure before he ventures to fire. The wounded bead
finding its enemy out of its reach, flays for him at the
foot of the tree, and will not flir from it; of which the
hunter taking the advantage, difpatches it with repeat¬
ed fhots. The forefts of Congo alfo fwarm with
wild dogs, who, like the wolves, prey upon the tame
cattle, and are fo fierce that they will attack armed
men. Their teeth are exceeding keen and fharp;
they never bark, but make a dreadful howling when
famifhed or in purfuit of their prey. 13
This country allb abounds with all the different Birds,
kinds of birds that are to be found in other warm cli¬
mates. One fort, which they call birds of mujic, is
greatly efleemed, infomuch that perfons of the higheft
rank have from time immemorial taken the greatefl
delight in keeping them in cages and aviaries for the
fake of their furprifing melody. On the other hand, as
the Congoefe are fuperftitious to the lafl degree, there,
are feveral kinds of birds which they look upon as
ominous, and are fo terrified at the fight or hearing
of them, that if they were going to enter upon ever fo
momentous an expedition, if they were met in coun¬
cil, or going to engage an enemy with ever fo great
an advantage, the night.or cry of fuch birds would
throw them into a general panic, and difperfe them in
the utmofl hade and confulion. The mod dreadful of
the ominous kind are the crows, ravens, bats, and
owls. The-great owl is the mod terrible of all, and
to him they give the name of kariam pewba, by
which words they likewife denote the devih
Fifli of different kinds abound on the coads of Con¬
go in great numbers. But the inland parts are infef-
ted with fuch numbers of ferpents, fcorpions, and
other venomous infe<5ls, as are perhaps fufficient, to
overbalance every natural advantage we have yet ^
mentioned. The mod pernicious and dangerous kind Ants very-
are the ants ; of which they reckon no lefs than fix fe- dangerous,
veral fpeciesof different colours and fizes; all of them
formidable, on account of their prodigious numbers,
and the mifehief they do not only,to the fruits of the
earth, but to men and beads ; whom they will fur-
round in the night time, and devour even to the very
bone. It is a common practice, we are told, to con¬
demn perfons guilty of fome atrocious crimes, to be
dripped naked, tied hand and foot, and thrown in¬
to a hole where thefe infedts fwarm ; where they are
fure to be devoured by them in lefs than 24 hours to
the very bones. But criminals are not the only per¬
fons who are in danger from the jaws of thefe little
devouring infedls. People may be attacked by them,
as we have already hinted, in the night time, and
while they are fleeping in their beds. This obliges
the natives to be careful where they lie down, and to
kindle
CON
[ 2195 ]
CON
kindle a fmall fire, or at lead to have a circle of hurn-
- ing hot embers round their beds. This caution is (Hll
more neceflary in the country villages and hamlets,
where perfons are otherwife in danger of being at¬
tacked by millions of them in the dead of the night.
In fuch a cafe the only expedient to fave one’s felf is
t-o jump up as foon as one feels the bite, to bruflt them
olf with all poffible fpeed, and then at once to fet the
houle on fire. The danger is ftill greater in travel¬
ling through the country, where a perfon is often ob-
pofite to thefe. They found the country for the mofi Congo,
part covered with towns and villages, and thefe ———
fwarming with inhabitants; the cities well filled with
people, particularly the metropolis, which is faid to
contain above 50,000 fouls. The provinces, though
not equally populous, yet in the whole, make up fuch
an amount, as plainly proves, that what is wanting in
the one is amply made up by another. We are told
that the duchy of Bamba is ftill able to raife 200,000
^ w fighting men, and was formerly in a condition to raife
liged to take up his lodging on the bare ground ; and double that number ; and that the army of the king of
may be overtaken during the heat of the day with Congo, in the year 1665, confifted of 900,000 fighting
fuch profound deep, as not to be awaked by thefe di- men, who were attended by an infinite number of
minutive animals till they have made their way through women, children, and Haves. The numbers of the
the Ikin; and in fuch a cafe nothing will prevent their Congoefe v/ill appear the more credible, when we
devouring a man alive, though there were ever fo confider the extreme fecundity of their women, the
many hands to affift him : in fuch incredible quantities hardinefs with which they bring up their children, and
do thefe creatures abound, notwithftanding the great the ftoutnefs and healthinefs of their men. In fome
numbers of monkeys who are continually ferreting the villages, if the miflionaries are to be credited, the
ants out of their retreats, and feed upon them with number of children is fo great, that a father will part
the utmoft avidity.. This can only be afcribed to the with one or two, for any commodity he wants, or
natural lazinefs and indolence of the inhabitants ; even for fome trifling bawble he fancies ; fo that the
whichis fuch, that they not only negletfl to rid their number of flaves they fell abroad, feldom amounts,
lands of them by proper cultivation, but will fuffer their communibus atwis, to lefs than 15 or 16,000. , ^
houfes, nay even their very churches, to be undermined There is fcarce a nation on earth that have a higher Congoefe
by them. Another kind of thefe deftruftive vermin lie opinion of themfelves or their country, than the Con- have a high,
fo thick upon the paths and highways, that a perfon goefe, or that is more hardened againft: all convidtion opinion of
cannot walk without treading upon, and having his to the contrary, from reafon, experience, or the moft: t':ieni‘elve?-
impartial comparifon with other countries in Europe
or Afia. Indeed, it is impoffible they fhould think
otherwife, when it is one of the fundamentals of their
belief, that the reft of the world was the work of an¬
gels, but that the Idngdom of Congo, in its full and
ancient extent, was the handy-work of the fupreme
Architedl; and muft of courfe have vaft prerogatives
legs and thighs almoft devoured by them. A third fort
of a white and red colour, but very fmall, will gnaw
their way through the hardeft wood, penetrate into a
ftrong cheft, and in a little while devour all the
clothes, linen, and every thing that is in it. A fourth
fort, ftnall and black, leave a moft: intolerable ftench
upon every thing they touch or crawl over, whe¬
ther clothes or houfehold-ftuff; which are npt eafiiy and advantages over all others. When told of the
Iweetened again t or if they pafs over vidluals, they
are entirely fpoiled. A fifth fort harbour chiefly on
the leaves and branches of trees; and if a man chance
to climb up thither to fave himfelf from a wild beaft,
he is fo tormented by them, that nothing but the fear
of the jaws of the one could make him endure the
flings of the other. A fixth fort is of the flying kind,
and is probably one of the former kinds, that live
wholly under ground, till nature furniflies them with
wings. After this, they rife in fuch fwarms as darken
the air, and would make terrible havock among all
kinds of vegetables, did not the natives come out a-
gainft them in whole companies, and by dint of flaps,
and other flat weapons, knock them down by myriads,
ignificence of the European and Afiatic courts, their
itnmenfe revenues, the grandeur of their palaces and
edifices, the riches and happinefs of their fubjedls, the
great progrefs they have made in the arts and fciences
to which their country is wholly a ftranger, they cool¬
ly anfwer, that all this comes vaftly fhort of the dig¬
nity and fplendor of the kings and kingdom of Congo ;
and that there can be but one Congo in the world, to
the happinefs of whofe monarch and people all the
reft were created to contribute, and to whofe treafury
the fea and rivers pay their conftant tribute of ’zim-
bis, (or fhells, which are their current coin); whilft other
princes mull condefcend to enrich themfelves by dig¬
ging through rocks and mountains, to come at the ex-
and then laying them in heaps, fet fire to their wings, crements of the earth, for fo they ftyle gold and filver
which half broils them for food. Amidft all this va¬
riety of pernicious infedls, however, they have one
fpecies of a more friendly and profitable kind, viz.
the induftrious bee, which fur nifties the inhabitants
with honey and wax in fuch plenty, that there is
Icarce a hollow tree, clift of a rock, or chop of the
earth, in which their combs are not found in great
quantities.
C 14 v With refpedl to the populoufnefs of the kingdom of
populous. Congo, fome authors writing either from mere conjec¬
ture, or at beft precarious inferences, have reprefent-
which are in fuch requeft among other nations. Ac¬
cordingly, they imagine, that the nations which come
to traffic with them, are forced to that fervile employ¬
ment by their poverty and the badnefs of their coun¬
try, rather than induced to it by luxury or avarice ; j6
whilft they themfelves can indulge their natural indo- Their in-
lence or floth, though attended with the moft pinching tolerable
poverty, rather than difgrace the dignity of their blood floth> pride,
by the leaft effort of induftry, which, how laudable ^c*
and beneficial foever, is looked upon by them as only
a leffer degree of flavery. But though they general-
ed it as thinly peopled. The accounts of the miflio- ly efteem it fo much below their dignity to apply to
naries and Portuguefe, however, are dire&ly op- any ufeful work, they think it no dilgrace to beg or
12 Y 2 Ileal.
Congo
17
Complexi-
ter, cuf-^
toms, &c.
18
Religion.
19
Govern-
CON [ *196 ] CON
fteal. With refpecTt to the firfr, they are faid to be
■ the moft lhamelefs and importunate beggars in the
world. They will take no denial, fpare no crouching,
lying, prayers, to obtain what they want, nor curies
and ill language when Tent away without it. With
regard to the laft, they deem no theft unlawful or
fcandalous, except it be committed in a private man¬
ner, without the knowledge of the perfon wronged.
It is efteemed a piece of bravery and gallantry to
wrench any thing from another by violence; and this
kind of theft is lb common, not only among the vul¬
gar, but alfo among the great ones, that they make no
fcruple, in their travels from place to place, to feize
not only upon all the provifions they meet with in
towns and villages, but upon everything elfe that falls
in their way. Thefe violences oblige the poor people
to conceal the few valuables they have, in fome fecret
place out of the knowledge and reach of thofe harpies;
and they think themfelves well off, if they can efcape
a fevere baltonading, or other cruel ufaga frequently
inflicted upon them in order to make them difcover
the place of their concealment.
The complexion of the natives, both men and wo-
■ men, is black, though not in the fame degree ; fome
being of a much deeper black than others. Their
haif is black and finely curled ; fome have it alfo of a
dark fandy colour : their eyes are moftly of a fine
lively black; but fome are of a dark fea-colour. They
have neither flat nofes nor thick lips like the Nubians
and other negroes. Their flature is moftly of the
middle fize ; and, excepting their black complexion,
they much referable the Portuguefe. In their temper
they are miftmftful, envious, jealous, and treacherous;
and where they once take a diftafte or affront, will
fpare no pains, nor ftick at any means however bafe,
to be avenged of, and crufh their enemy under their
feet. There is no fuch thing among them as natural
affection. A hulband, if an heathen, may take as
many wives as he pleafes; and if a Chriftian, may have
any number of concubines, whom he may divorce at
pleafure, or even fell them though with child. So
little regard have they for their children, that there is
fcarce one among them who will not fell a fon or a
daughter, or perhaps both, for a piece of cloth, a col¬
lar or girdle of coral or beads, and often for a bottle
of wine or brandy.
The religion of the Congoefe in many parts is down¬
right idolatry, accompanied with the moft ridiculous
fuperftitions, and the moft abfurd and deteftable rites
invented by their gangas or priefts; and even in thofe
parts where Chriftianity is profeffed, it is fo darkened
by fuperftitions of one kind or other, that we may
jnftly queftion whether the people are any gainers by
the exchange.
The government of this kingdom is monarchical,
and as defpotic as any in Alia or Africa. The kings
are the foie proprietors of all the lands within their
dominions ; and thefe they can difpofe of to whom
they pleafe, upon condition they pay a certain tribute
out of them ; upon failure of the payment of which,
or any other negleft, they turn them out. Even the
princes of the blood are fubjetfted to the fame law ; fo
that there is no perfon of any rank or quality what¬
ever, that can bequeath a foot of land to his heirs or
fucceffors ; and when thefe owners under the crown
die, the lands immediately return to it again, whether
they were in their poffelfion, or had been let to ever
fo many tenants under them ; fo that it entirely de¬
pends on the prince whether thefe lands fhall be conti¬
nued in the fame, or be difpofed into other hands.
The Portuguefe, however, fince their fettling in thefe
parts, have prevailed upon the monarchs to permit the
heirs and i’ucceffors to continue in the quiet poffeflion
of fuch lands, in order to avoid the confufions, or even
rebellions, which the alienation and deprival of them
frequently occafioned, and to oblige the tenants of
them to pay their tribute more exatStly and readily
than they did before.
In Congo there are only three offences deemed ca¬
pital, viz. treafon, murder, and forcery. In the for¬
mer the offender’s punilhment chiefly depends on the
prince’s will, who commonly condemns him to the lols
of his head and eftate, the latter being confifcated for
the king’s ufe. A murderer is immediately beheaded,
unlefs forne atrocious circumftancesvfeem to require,
or the relations of the deceafed petition for, am ore
fevere death ; in which laft cafe, he is ufuaily deliver¬
ed up to them, to fuffer fuch punifhment as they think
proper to infli<Sl on him, and which is generally put
in execution immediately after fentence is pronoun¬
ced. Magic or-forcery, a crime very common in the
unconverted provinces, is, on that account, more Ce~
verely punilhed by the Chriftians ; and the perfon con-
vidted of it is immediately burned alive ; which pu¬
nilhment feems to have been introduced by the Portu¬
guefe. Other punifliments for leffer crimes are the
baftinado, whipping, fines, and iniprifonment. The
Portuguefe are allowed a judge of their own nation,
not only for their law-fuits among themfelves, but be¬
tween thenrand'the natives, who decides all contro-
verfies according to the laws of Portugal; a privilege
granted to no other Europeans.
St Salvador is the chief place of traffic the Portu¬
guefe and other Europeans have in this country.
There are thought to be about 4000 of them fettled
here, who trade with moft parts of the kingdom.
The chief commodities they bring thither are either
the product of Brazil, or European manufactures.
The former confift chiefly of grains, fruits, plants, ire.;
the latter of Tnrky carpets, Englifh cloth, and other
fluffs ; copper, brafs veffels, fome kinds of blue ear¬
then ware, rings, and ornaments of gold, filver, and
other bafer metals; coral, glafs-beads, bugles, and
other trinkets ; light fluffs made of cotton, woolen,
and linen, for cloathing ; and a great variety of tools
and other utenfxls. In return for thefe, they carry off
a great number of flaves, amounting to 15 or x 6,000
annually, as we have already obferved. Formerly
they ufed alfo to carry away elephants teeth, furs,
and other commodities of the country; but thefe
branches of commerce are now greatly decayed ;
and the flave-trade is what the Portuguefe merchants
principally depend on.
CONGREGATION, an affembly of feveral eccle-
fiaftics united, fo as to conftitute one body ; as an af¬
fembly of cardinals, in the conftitution of the pope’s
court, met for the difpatch of fome particular bufi-
nefs.
Congi) b
r 1 1
Congreg?. t
ticn. M
Thefe
CON
Thefe affemblies, being 16 in number,
bated into feveral chambers, after the manner of our
offices and courts: the firft whereof is the pope’s con-
2197 ] CON
diftri- Congreve, though he was but 19 years old at the time
of his writing it, became now confidered as a prop to '
the declining ftage, and a rifing genius in dramatic.
o-tiigfeve. gregationj whofe bufinefs it is to prepare the moll: poetry. The next year he produced the Double.
difficult beneficiary matters to be afterward debated Dealer s which, for what reafon is not obvious, did not.
‘ i the confiftory : the fecond is the congregation of meet with fo much fuccefs as the former. The me-
the holy office, or the inquifitidh i the third is the con¬
gregation de propaganda fide : the fourth is the con--
gregation for explaining the council of Trent: the fifth
rit of his firlt play, however, had obtained him the-
favour and patronage of lord Halifax, and fome pecu¬
liar marks of diliinction from queen Mary ; on whole
is the congregation of the index, deputed to examine death, which happened in the clofe of this year, he
into pernicious and' heretical books : - the fixth is the
congregation of immunities, eftablifhed to obviate the when Betterton opened the
difficulties that arife in the judgments of fuch fuits as FW-M* Mr
are carried on againft churchmen : the fevehth is the
congregation of biffiops and regulars : the eighth is
the congregation for the examination of bifhops, ire.
It is alfo ufed for a company or fociety of religious,
cantoned out of any order, fo as to make a fubdivi-
fion of the order itfelf; as the congregation of Cluny,
ixc. among the Benedictines. 'It is like wife tifed for
affemblies of pious perfons, in manner of fraternities.
CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-hifldry, a
fedt of Proteftants who reject all church-government,
except that of a Angle congregation under the direc¬
tion of one pallor.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an aflembly of com-
miflioners, envoys, deputies,' ire. from feveral courts
meeting to concert matters for their common good.
Congress, in a judicial fenfe, the trial made by
appointment of a judge, before furgeons and matrons,
in order to prove whether of no a man be impotent,
before fentence is palled for the dilfolution of a mar¬
riage folicited upon fuch at complaint.
Neither the civil nor canon law makes any mention
of the trial of virility by cohgrefs: it had its origin in
France, from the boldnefs of a young fellow, who, in
open court, having been hard prelfed by his wife, de¬
manded t\ie congrefs. The judge, furprifed with the
novelty of the demand, found it could not be denied,
as being the fureft evidence that cafe could admit of.
In time it became a branch in' the French jurifpru-
dence, and was authorized by decreets and arrets.
It obtained for about 120 years; and was annulled by
an arret of parliament in 1677, as being found pre¬
carious ; fome having failed under the experiment out
of mere modelty and lhame, which is found to have
the fame effedt with aftual impotency.
wrote a very elegant elegiac paftoral. In 1695,
when Betterton opened the new houfe in Lincoln’s-
inn Fields, Mr Congreve joining with him, gave him
his comedy of Love for Love, with which the company
opened their campaign ; and which met with fuch fuc¬
cefs, that they immediately offered the author a lhare
in the management of the houfe, on condition of his
furniffiing them with one play yearly. This offer.he
accepted j but whether through indolence, or that cor-
re&nefs which he looked upon as necelfary to his
works, his Mourning Bride did not come cut till 1697,
nor his IVay of the IVor Id till two years after that.
The indifferent fuccefs this lalt mentioned play, though
an exceeding good one, met with from the public,
completed that difguft to the theatre, which a long
contefl with Jeremy Collier, who had attacked the
immoralities of the Engliffi ftage, and more efpecially
fome’ of his pieces, had begun, and he determined ne¬
ver more to write for the ftage. However, though
he quitted dramatic writings, he did not lay down the:
pen entirely ; but oecafionally wrote many little pie¬
ces both in profe and verfe, all of which ftand on the
records of literary fame. It is very poffibie, however,
that he might not fo foon have given way to this dif-
guft, had not the eaftnefs of his circumftances render¬
ed any fubfervience to the opinions and caprice of the
town abfolutely unncceffary to him. For his abilities
having very early in life raifed him to the acquaint¬
ance of the earl of Halifax, who was then the Maece¬
nas of the age, that nobleman, defirous of railing fo
promifing a genius above the neceffity of too hafty
productions, made him one of the commiflioners for
licenfing hackney-coaches, or, according to Coxetery
a commiflion of the wine-licenfe. He foon after be¬
llowed on him a place in the pipe-office ; and not long
after gave him a poll in the cuftoms worth 6001. per
annum. In the year 1718, he was appointed fecre-
CONGREVE (William), a younger brother of an tary of Jamaica ; fothat, with all together, his income
ancient family in Sta^Fordfhire. His father was em¬
ployed in the ftewardfhip of the great eftate of the
earl of Burlington in Ireland, where he refided many
years; and our author was born there in 16*72. Mr
Congreve entered into the Middle-Temple when he
towards the latter part of his life was upwards of
1200I. a-year.
The greateft part of. the laft 20 years of his life
was fpent in eafe and retirement ; and he either did
not, or affeCled not to give himfelf any trouble about
came to England, and began to ftudy the law ; but reputation. Yet fome part of that conduft might
his bias was toward polite literature and poetry. His
firft performance was a novel, intituled, Incognita,
or. Love and Duty reconciled. He foon after began
his comedy of the Old Bachelor ; which was the amufe-
ment of fome leifure hours during a flow recovery
from a fit of illnefs foon after his return to England
proceed from a degree of pride ; to which purpofe,
T. Cibber, in his lives of the poets, vol. IV. p. 93, re¬
lates the following anecdote of him: “ When the ce¬
lebrated Voltaire Was in England, he waited upon Mr
Congreve, and paffed fome compliments upon the me-:
rit and reputation of bis works. Congreve thanked
and was in itfelf fo perfeft, that Mr Dryden, on its him ; but at the fame time told that ingenious fo-
being fhewn to him, declared he had never in his life reigner, that he did nof chufe to be confidered as an^
feen fuch a firft play. When brought on the ftage in author, but only as a private gentleman, and in that
1693, it met with fuch univerfal approbation, that Mr light expefted to be vifited. Voltaire anfwered, that
if
Congreve.
CON l 2198 ] CON
Congruity. if he had never been any thing but a private gentle-
  man, in all probability he had never been troubled
with .that vilit. He obferves, in his own account of
the tranfaflion, that he was not a little difgulted with
lb unfealbnable a piece of vanity.”
Towards the clofe of his life he was much afflicted
with the gout; and making a tour to Bath for the be¬
nefit of the waters, was unfortunately overturned in
Iris chariot; by which, it is fuppofed, he got fome in¬
ward bruife, as he ever after complained of a pain in
Iris fide ; and, on his return to London, continued gra¬
dually declining in his health, till the 19th of January
1729, when he died, aged 57 ; and, on the 26th fol¬
lowing, was buried in Weftminfter Abbey, the pall
being i'upported by perfons of the firft diftincVion.
CONGRUJTY, a fuitablenefs or relation of agree¬
ment between things.
The terms congruity and propriety are not applicable
to any Angle object : they imply a plurality, and ob-
vioufly fignify a particular relation between different
objects. Thus we currently fay, that a decent garb
is luitable or proper for a judge; modeft behaviour for
a young woman ; and a lofty ftyle for an epic poem :
and, on the other hand, that it is unfuitable or incon¬
gruous to fee a little woman funk in an overgrown
farthingale, a coat richly embroidered covering coarfe
and dirty linen, a mean fubjeit in an elevated ftyle,
an elevated fubjedt in a mean ftyle, a firft minifter
darning his wife’s ftocking, or a reverend prelate in
lawn fleeves dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which
feems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other
caufe, but from a fenfe of congruity or propriety ; for,
liippofing us deftitute of that fenie, the terms would
be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬
priety, where-ever perceived, is agreeable ; and that
incongruity or impropriety, where-ever perceived, is
difagreeable. The only difficulty is, to afcertain what
are the particular objects that in conjunction fuggeft
thefe relations ; for there are many objedls that do
not : the fea, for example, viewed in conjunction
with a pidfure, or a man viewed in conjnndlion with
a mountain, fuggeft not either congruity or incongrui¬
ty. It feems natural to infer, what will be found true
by indudtion, that we never perceive congruity nor
incongruity but among things that are connected to¬
gether by fome relation ; fuch as a man and his ac¬
tions, a principal and its acceffories, a fubject and its
ornaments. We are indeed Co framed by nature, as,
among things fo connedied, to require a certain fuit¬
ablenefs or cdrrefpondence, termed congruity or pro¬
priety ; and to be difpleafed when we find the oppo-
fite relation of incongruity or impropriety.
If Brings connedted be the fubjedt of congruity, it is
reafonable before-hand to expect, that a degree of
congruity fhould be required proportioned to the de¬
gree of the connedtion. And upon examination we
find this to hold in fadi : where the relation is intimate,
as between a caufe and its eft’edl, a whole and its parts,
we require the ftridteft congruity ; but where the re¬
lation is flight, or accidental, as among things jumbled
together in the fame place, we require little or no
congruity.t the ftridteft propriety is required in beha¬
viour and manner of living ; becaufe a man is con¬
nedted with thefe by the relation of caufe and effiedt :
the relation between an edifice and the ground it ftands
upon, is of the molt intimate kind; and therefore the
fituation of a great houie ought to be lofty ; its relation
to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains, being that of pro¬
pinquity only, demands but a fmall ffiare of congruity;
among members of the fame club,.the congruity ought
to be confiderable, as well as among things placed for
ffiow in the fame niche : among palfengers in a ftage-
coach, we require very little congruity ; anti lefs Itill
at a public fpedtacle.
Congruity is fo nearly allied to beauty, as common¬
ly to be held a fpecies of it ; and yet they differ fo
elfemially, as never ,to coincide : beauty, like colour,
is placed upon a fingle fubjedt ; congruity upon a plu¬
rality : further, a thing beautiful in itfelf, may, with
relation to other things, produce the ftrongeft fenfe of
incongruity.
Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned
fynonymous terms ; but they are diftinguifhable ; and
the precife meaning of each mult be afcertained. Con¬
gruity is the genus, of which propriety is a fpecies ;
for we call nothing propriety, but that cftngruity or
fuitablenefs which ought to fublift between feniible
beings and their thoughts, words, and adtions.
In order to give a full view of thefe fecondary re¬
lations, we fliall trace them through fome of the molt
confiderable primary relations. The relation of a part
to the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the
utmoft degree of congruity ; even the flighteft devia¬
tion is difguftful.
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furnifli-
ed in plenty by the relation between a lubjejft and its
ornaments. A literary performance intended merely
for amufement, is fufceptible of much ornament, as
well as a mufic-room or a play-houfe ; for in gaiety,
the mind hath a peculiar relifli for fliow and decora¬
tion. The moft gorgeous apparel, however improper
in tragedy, is not unfuitable to opera-adtors : the
truth is, an opera, in its prefent form, is a mighty
line thing; but as it deviates from nature in its capital
circumftances, we look not for nature nor propriety
in thofe which are acceflbry. On other hand, a fe-
rious and important fubjedt admits not much orna¬
ment ; nor a fubjedt that of itfelf is extremely beauti¬
ful : and a fubjedt that fills the mind with its loftinefs
and grandeur, appears belt in a drefs altogether plain.
To a perfon of a mean appearance, gorgeous ap¬
parel is unfuitable ; which, befides the incongruity,
has a bad effedt; for by contrail it Ihows the mean-
nefs of appearance in the ftrongeft light. Sweetnefs
of look and manner, requires fimplicity of drefs, joined
with the greateft elegance. A ftately and majeftic
air requires fumptuous apparel, which ought not to be
gaudy, nor crowded with little ornaments. A woman
of confummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned,
and yet ihows belt in a plain drefs:
   For lovelinefs
Needs not the foreign aid of ornament.
But is when unadorn’d, adorn’d the moft.
Thonifon’s Autumn, 208.
Congruity regulates not only the quantity of orna¬
ment, but alfo the kind. The ornaments that embel-
lifli
Congruity.J
CON [ 2199 ] CON
lift a dancing-room ought to he all of them gay., No
picture is proper for a church, but what has religion
for its fubjedt. All the ornaments upon a fliield ought
to relate to war ; and Virgil, with great judgment,
confines the carvings upon the Ihield of dEneas to the
military hillory of the Romans : but this beauty is
overlooked by Homer ; for the bulk of the fculpture
upon the ftield of Achilles, is of the arts of peace in
general, and of joy and feftivity in particular t the
author of Telemachus betrays the fame inattention, in
defcribing the fhield of that young hero.
In judging of propriety with regard to ornaments,
we mult attend, not only to the nature of the fubjedt
that is to be adorned, but alfo to the circumftances in
which it is placed : the ornaments that are proper for
a ball, will appear not altogether fo decent at public
worlhip; and the fame perfon ought to drels different¬
ly for a marriage-feaft and for a burial.
Nothing is more intimately related to a man, than
his fentiments, words, and adlions ; and therefore we
require here the llridleft conformity. When we find
what we thus require, we have a lively fenfe of pro¬
priety : when we find the contrary, our fenfe of im¬
propriety is not lefs lively. Hence the uriiverfal dif-
tafte of affedtation, which confifts in making a fliew of
greater delicacy and refinement than is fuited either
to the charadter or circumftances of the perfon.
Congrutty and propriety, w'here-ever perceived,
appear agreeable ; and every agreeable objedl pro-
duceth in the mind a pleafant emotion : incongruity
and impropriety, on the other hand, are difagreeable;
and of courfe produce painful emotions. Thefe emo¬
tions, whether pleafant or painful, fometimes vanifh
without any confequence ; but more frequently occa-
lion other emotions, which we proceed to exemplify.
When any flight incongruity is perceived, in an ac¬
cidental combination of perfons or things, as of paf-
fengers in a ftage-coach, or of individuals dining at an
ordinary ; the painful emotion of incongruity, after a
momentary exiftence, vanifteth without producing
any effedt. But this is not the cafe of propriety and
impropriety : voluntary adts, whether words or deeds,
are imputed to the author ; when proper, we reward
him with our efteem ; when improper, we punifh him
with our contempt. Let us fuppofe, for example, a
generous adfion fuited to the charadter of the author,
which raifes in him and in every fpedlator the plea¬
fant emotion of propriety : this emotion generates in
the author both felf-efteem and joy ; the former when
he confiders his relation to the adtion, and the latter
when he confiders the good opinion that others will
entertain of him ; the fame emotion of propriety pro-
duceth in the fpedlators efteem for the author of the
adfion ; and when they think of themfelves, it alfo
produceth, by means of contrail, an emotion of humi¬
lity. To difeover the effedfs of an unfuitable adfion,
we muft invert each of thefe circumftances : the pain¬
ful emotion -of impropriety generates in the author of
the adfion both humility and fhame ;<*he former when
he confiders his relation to the adfion, and the latter
when he confiders what others will think of him : the
fame emotion of impropriety produceth in the fpedfa-
tors contempt for the author of the adfion ; and it alfo
produceth, by means of contraft, when they think of
themfelves, an emotion of felf-efteem. Here then Congruity.
are many different emotions, derived from the fame
adtion confidered in different views by different per-
fbns ; a machine provided with many fprings, and not
a little complicated. Propriety of adtion, it would
feem, i; a chief favourite of nature, when fuch care
and fblicitude is bellowed upon it. It is not. left to
our own choice ; but, like juftice, is required at our
hands; and, like juftice, is enforced by natural rewards
and punifhments : a man cannot, with impunity, do
any thing unbecoming or improper ; he f'uffers the
chaflifement of contempt inflidfed by others, and of
fhame inffidted by himlelf. An apparatus fo compli¬
cated, and fo lingular, ought to roufe our attention :
for nature doth nothing in vain ; and we may con¬
clude with great certainty, that this curious branch of
the human conftitution is intended for feme valuable
purpofe.
A grofs impropriety is punifhed with contempt and
indignation, which are vented againft the oft’ender by
correfponding external expreffions:. nor is even the
flightefl impropriety fuffered to pals without lome de¬
gree of contempt. But there are improprieties, of
the flighter kind, that provoke laughter; of which
we have examples without end, in the blunders and
abfurdities of our own fpecies: f’uch improprieties re¬
ceive a different punifhraent, as will appear by what
follows. The emotions of contempt and of laughter
occafioned by an impropriety of this kind, uniting in¬
timately in the mind of the fpedlator, are exprdfed
externally by a peculiar fort of laugh, termed a laugh
of derijion or /corn. An impropriety that thus moves
not only contempt but laughter, is diftingnifhed by the
epithet of ridiculous ; and a laugh erf derifion or fcorn
is the punifhment provided for it by nature. Nor
ought it to efcape oblervation, that we are fo fond of
inflicting this punifhment, as fbmeiimes to exert it
even againft creatures of an inferior fpecies : witnefs
a turkycock iwelling with pride, and ftrutting with
difplayed feathers; a ridiculous objed, which in a gay
mood is apt to provoke a laugh of derifion.
We muft not exped, that thefe different impro¬
prieties are feparated by diftind boundaries: for of
improprieties, from the flighteft to the moll grols,
from the moft rifible to the moft ferious, there are
degrees without end. Hence it is, that in viewing
fome unbecoming adions, too rifible for anger, and
too ferious for derilion, the fpedator feels a fort of
mixt emotion, partaking both of derifion and of anger;
which accounts for an expreffion, common with re-
fped to the impropriety of fome adions, that we
know not whether to laugh or be angry.
It cannot fail to be obferved, that in the cafe of a
rifible impropriety, which is always flight, the con¬
tempt we have for the offender is extremely faint,
though derifion, its gratification, is extremely, plea¬
fant. Tins difproportion between a paflion and its
gratification, feems not conformable to the analogy
of nature. In looking ahont for a fblution, we muft
refled upon what is laid down above, that an impro¬
per adion not only moves our contempt for the author,,
but alfo, by means of contraft, fwells the good opi¬
nion we have of ourfelves. This contributes, more than-
any other article, to the pleafure we have in ridiculing.
follies
CON
Congruity. follies and abfurdities j and accordingly, it is well
known, that they who put the greatelt value upon
themfelves are the nioft prone to laugh at others,.
Pride, which is a vivid paflion, pleafant in it tel t, and
not lefs fo in its. gratification, would fingly be fuffi,-
cient to account for the pleaf’ure of ridicule, without
borrowing any aid from contempt. Hence appears
the reaf'on of a noted obfervation. That we are the
molt difpoled to ridicule the blunders and ablurdities
of others, when we are in high (pints; for in high
fpirits, felf-conceit difplays itf'elf with more than or¬
dinary vigour.
With regard to the final caufes of congruity and
impropriety ; one, regarding congruity, is pretty ob¬
vious, that the ienf'e of congruity, as one principle of
the fine arts, contributes in a remarkable degree to
our entertainment. Congruity, indeed, with refpect
to quantity, coincides with proportion: when the
parts of a building are nicely adjufted to each other,
it may be faid indifferently, that it is agreeable by the
congruity ofits parts, or by the propot tion of its parts.
But propriety, which regards voluntary agents only,
can never be the fame with proportion: a vqry long
nofe is difproportioned, but cannot be termed impro¬
per. In fome inflances, it is true, impropriety coin¬
cides with difproportion in the fame fubjedt, but never
irl the fame refpedt; for example, a very little man
buckled to a long toledo: confidering the man and the
fword with refpedt to fize, we perceive a difpropor¬
tion ; confidering the fword as the choice of the man,
we perceive an impropriety.
The fenfe of impropriety with refpedl to miftakes,
blunders, and abfurdities, is happily contrived for the
good of mankind. In the fpedtators, it is produdlive
of mirth and laughter, excellent recreation in an in¬
terval from bufineis. But this is a trifle in rei'pedl of
what follows. It is painful to be the fuUject of ridi¬
cule; and to punifh with ridicule the, man who is
guilty of an abfurdity, tends to put him more upon his
guard in time coming. Titus even the moft innocent
blunder is not committed with impunity.; becaufe,
were errors licenfed where they do no hurt, inatten¬
tion would grow into a habit, and be the occafion of
much hurt.
The final caufe of propriety as to moral duties, is
of all the moft illuftrious. To have a juft notion of
it, the moral duties that refpedl others muft be dif-
tinguifhed from thofe that refpedl ourlelves. Fideli¬
ty, gratitude, and the forbearing injury, are examples
of the firft fort; temperance, modefty, firmnefs of
mind, are examples of the other: the former are
made duties by the fenfe of juftice ; the latter by the
fenfe of propriety. Here is a final caufe of the fenfe
of propriety, that muft roufe our attention. It is un¬
doubtedly the intereft of every man, to fuit bis be¬
haviour to the dignity of his nature, and to the fta-
tion allotted him by Providence; for fuch rational
condudt contributes in every refpedl to happinefs, by
prelerving health, by procuring plenty, by gaining
CONIC S
ARE curve lines formed by the interfedlions of a
cone and plane.
CON
the efteem of others, and, which of afi i? the greateft Con
blefting, by gaining a juftly-founded felf-efteem. But
in a matter fo efi'ential to pur well-being, even lelft
intereft is trot reliyffon : the powerful authority of du¬
ty is Ibpei rCfldecI ro the motive of intereft. The God
of nature, in all things effential to our happinefs, hath
obferved one uniform method: to keep us fteady in
our conduct, he hath fortified us with natural'laws
and principles, which prevent many aberrations, that
would daily happen were we totally furrendered to
ib fallible a guide as is, human reafon. Propriety can¬
not rightly be cpnfidered in another light, than as the
natural law that regulates^our condudt with refpedl to
ourfelves; as juftice is tlje natural law that regulates
our conduct with refpedl to others. We call proprie¬
ty a law, not lefs than juftice; becaufe both are e-
qually rules of condudt that ought to be obeyed : pro¬
priety includes this obligation ; for to fay an, adtion is
proper, is, in other words, to fay, that it ought to be
performed; and to fay it is improper, is, in other
words, to fay that it ought to be forborne. It is this
very charadter of pught een&Jhould that makes juftice a
law' to us;, and thp fame charadler is applicable to pro¬
priety, though perhaps more faintly than to juftice:
but the difference is in degree only, not in kind ; and
we ought, without hefitation or reludiance, tq fubmit
equally to the government of both.
But it muft, in the next place, be obferved, that
to the fenfe of propriety, as well as of juftice, are an¬
nexed the fandlions of rewards and punifhments;
wljich evidently prove the one to be a law as well as
the other. The latisfadiion a man hath in doing his
duty, joined with the efteem and good will of others,
is the reward that belongs to both equally. The pu¬
nifhments alfo, though not the fame, are nearly al¬
lied ; and differ in degree more than in quality. Dif-
pbedience to the. law of juftice, is punifhed with re-
morie; difobedience to the law of propriety, with
flume, which is remorfe in a lower degree. Every
trangrefiion of the law of juftice raifes indignation in
the beholder ; and fo doth every flagrant tranfgref-
fion of the law of propriety. Slighter improprieties
receive a milder punifhment: they are always re-
buked with fome degree of contempt, and frequently
with derifion. In general, it is true, that the rewards
and punifhments annexed to the fenfe of propriety,
are flighter in degree than thofe annexed to the fenfe
of juftice: which is wifely ordered, becaufe duty to
others is ftill more ellential to fociety, than duty to
ourfelves; for fociefy could not fublift a moment,
were individuals not protedled from the headftrong
and turbulent paffion of their neighbours.
CONI, a ftrong town of Italy, in Piedmont, and
capital of a territory of that name, with a good cita¬
del. This town being divided into two factions, it
furrendered to the French in 1641; but was reftored
to the duke of Savoy foon after. It is feated at the
confluence of the rivers Greffe and Sture. E. Long.
7. 29. N. Lat. 44. 23.
E C T I O N S
If a cone be cut by a plane through the vertex, the
fedlion will be a triangle ABC, Plate LXXIV. fig. 1.
[ 2200 ]
lea. I.
late
■XXXIV.
CONIC S
If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its bafe, the
fecfion will be a circle. If it be cut by a plane DEF,
fig. i. in fucb a diredlion, that the fide AC of a tri¬
angle palling through the vertex, and having its bafe
BC perpendicular to EF, may be parallel to DP, the
fedtion is a parabola; if it be cut by a plane DR,
fig. 2. meeting AC, the fediion is an ellipfe; and if it
be cut by a plane DMO, fig. 3. which would meet AC
extended beyond A, it is an hyperbola.
If any line HG, fig. 1. be drawn in a parabola per¬
pendicular to DP, the fquare of IIG will be to the
fquare of EP, as DG to DP; for let LHK be a fee-
tier! parallel to the bafe, and therefore a circle, the
redlangle LGK, will be equal to the fquare of HG,
and the redtangle BPC equal to the fquare of EP;
therefore thefe fquares will be to each other as their
redtangles; that is, as BP to LG, that is DP to DG.
Sect. I. Dcfcripthn of Conic SeCiioni on a Plans.
1. PARABOLA.
“ Let AB, fig. 4. be any right line, and C any point
“ without it, and DKF a ruler, which let be placed
“ in fame plane in which the right line and point are,
u in fuch a manner that one fide of it, as DK, be ap-
tl plied to the right line AB, and the other fide KF
(f coincide with the point C; and at F, the extremi-
<f ty of the fide KF, let be fixed one end of the thread
<( FNC, whofe length is equal to KF, and the other
tc extremity of it at the point C, and let part of the
“ thread, as FG, be brought clofe to the fide KF by
“ a fmall pin G ; then let the fquare DKF be moved
ti from B towards A, fo that all the while its fide DK
“ be applied clofe to the line BA, and in the mean
“ time the thread being extended will always be ap-
“ plied to the fide KF, being ftopt from going from
(t it by means of the fmall pin ; and by the motion of
“ the fmall pin N there will be deferibed a certain
“ curve, which is called a femi-parabda.
“ And if the Iquare be brought to its firli given po-
“ fition, and in the fame manner be moved along the
“ line AB, from B towards H, the other femi-para-
“ bola will be deferibed.”
The line AB is called the direflix; C, the focus;
any line perpendicular to AB, a diameter; the point
where it meets the curve, its vertex; and four times
the diftance of the vertex from the directrix, its latus
re Bum or parameter.
2. ELLIPSE.
“ If any two points, as A and B, fig. 5. be taken
“ in any plane, and in them are fixed the extremities
“ of a thread, whofe length is greater than the dif-
<( tance between the points, and the thread extended
“ by means of a fmall pin C, and if the pin be moved
“ round from any point until it return to the place
“ from whence it began to move, the thread being
“ extended during the whole time of the revolution,
“ the figure which the fmall pin by this revolution
u deferibes is called an ellipfe.,'
The points AB are called the foci; D, the centre;
EF, the tranfverfe axis; GH, the lejfer axis; and
any other line palling through D, a diameter.
3. HYPERBOLA.
“ If to the point A, fig. 6. in any plane, one end
Vol. III.
E C T I O N S, 2201
“ of the rule AB be placed, in fuch a manner, that Plate
“ about that point, as a centre, it may freely move; LXXXtv.
“ and if to the other end B, of the rule AB, be fixed
“ the extremity of the thread BDC, whofe length is
“ fmaller than the rule AB, and the other end of the
“ thread being fixed in the point C, coinciding with
u the fide of the rule AB, which is in the fame plane
“ with the given point A ; and let part of the thread,
“ as BD, be brought clofe to the fide of the rule AB,
<f by means of a fmall pin D; then let the rule be
“ moved about the point A, from C towards T, the
“ thread all the while being extended, and the re-
“ maining part coinciding with the fide of the rule be-
“ ing ftopt from going from it by means of the fmall
“ pin, and by the motion of the fmall pin D, a certain
“ figure is described which is called the ferni-hypsrbda."
The other femi-hyperbola is deferibed in the fame
way, and the oppofite HKF, by fixing the ruler to
C, and the thread to A, and deferibing it in the fame
manner. A and C are called foci; the point G, which
bifeels AC, the centre ; KE, the tranfverfe axis; a line
drawn through the centre meeting the hyperbolas, a
tranfverfe diameter; a line drawn through the centre,
perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis, and cut off by
the circle MN, whofe centre is E, and radius equal to
CG, is called the fecond axis.
If a line be drawn through the vertex E, equal and
parallel to the fecond axis GP and GO be joined, they
are called asymptotes. Any line drawn through the
centre, not meeting the hyperbolas, and equal in
length to the part of a tangent parallel to it, and in¬
tercepted betwixt the affymptotes, is called a fecoud
diameter.
An ordinate to any feiftion is a line bifetfted by a
diameter and the abfeiffa, the part of the diameter cut
off by the ordinate.
Conjugate diameters in the ellipfe and hyperbola
are fuch as mutually bifedt lines parallel to the other ;
and a third proportional to two conjugate diameters
is called the latus reBum of that diameter, which is
the firft in the proportion.
In the parabola, the lines drawn from any point to
the focus are equal to perpendiculars to the diredtrix;
being both equal to the part of the thread feparated
from the ruler.
In the ellipfe, the two lines drawn from any point
in the curve to the foci are equal to each other, being
equal to the length of the thread ; they are alfo equal
to the tranverfe axis. In the hyperbola the difference
of the lines drawn from any point to the foci is equal,
being equal to the difference of the lengths of the ru¬
ler and thread, and is equal to the tranverfe axis.
From thefe fundamental properties all the others
are derived.
The ellipfe returns into itfelf. The parabola and
hyperbola may be extended without limit.
Every line perpendicular to the diredlrix of a pa¬
rabola meets it in one point, and falls afterwards
within it; and every line drawn from the focus meets
it in one point, and falls afterwards without it. And
every line that paffes through a parabola, not perpen¬
dicular to the diredlrix, will meet it again, but only
once.
Every line paffing through the centre of an ellipfe
12 2 is
2202
Plate
lxxxiv.
CONIC SECTIONS. Sea. IV.
denotes the relation betwixt the ordinate and abfcifla; Plate
the abfciffa being equal to x, and the ordinate equal LXXXIV
to
If p be the parameter of a parabola, then y2 zzpx }
which is an equation for all parabolas.
If a be the diameter of an ellipfe, /> its parameter;
p I »   
then^2 : ax—xx : : p : a; an&y2——X ax—xxi an-
equation for all ellipfes.
If be a tranfverfe diameter of a hyperbola, p its
parameter; then y - \ a x+xx :: p : a, and y2 —
If « be a fecond diameter of an hyperbola, then y2 —
aa+xx :: p : a; and y2 zz—Xaa+xx ; which are
r a
equations for all hyperbolas.
As all thefe equations are exprefled by the fecond
powers of x and j, all conic fedtions are curves of the
fecond order ; and converfely, the locus of every
quadratic equation is a conic fedlion, and is a parabola,
ellipfe, or hyperbola, according as the form of the
equation correfponds with the above ones, or with
fome other deduced from lines drawn in a different
manner with refpeft to the fedlion.
is bifedled by it; the tranfverfe axis is the greateft of
all thefe lines; the leffer axis the leaft; and thefe
nearer the tranfverfe axis greater than thole more re¬
mote.
In the hyperbola, every line palling through the
centre, is bife£ted by the oppolite hyperbola, and the
tranverfe axis is the leal! of all thefe lines; alfo the
fecond axis is the leaft of all the fecond diameters.
Every line drawn from the centre within the angle
contained by the allymptotes, meets at once, and falls
afterwards within it; and every line drawn through
the centre without that angle never meets its,; and a
line which cuts one of the allymptotes, and cuts the
ether extended beyond the centre, will meet both the
oppofite hyperbolas in one point.
If a line GM, fig. 4. be drawn from a point in a
parabola perpendicular to the axis, it wi^l be an ordi¬
nate to the axis, and its fquare will be equal to the
redlangle under the abfcilfa Ml and latus r&<ftum; for,
becanfe GMC is a right angle, GMs is equal to the
difference of GCt and CM?; but GC is equal to GE,
which is equal to MB; therefore GM? is equal to
BM?—CM?; which, becaufe Cl and IB are equal, is
(8 Euc. 2.) equal to four times the retftangie under MI
and IB, or equal to the rectangle under MI and the
latus reiftum.
Hence it follows, that if different ordinates be
drawn to the axis, their fquares being each equal to
the re&angle under the abfcilfa and latus redhim, will
be to each other in the proportion of the abfeiffas,
which is the fame property as was Ihewn before to
take place in the parabola cut from the cone, and
proves thofe curves to be the fame.
This property is extended allb to the ordinates of
pther diameters, whole fquares are equal to the rec¬
tangle under the abfeiffas and parameters of their re-
fpeclive diameters.
In the ellipfe, the fquare of the ordinate is to the
reftangle under the fegments of the diameter, as the
fquare of the diameter parallel to the ordinate to the
fquare of the diameter to which it is drawn, or as the
firft diameter to its latus re£tum ; that is, LK? fig. 5.
is to EKF as EF? to GH?.
In the'hyperbola, the fquare of the ordinate is to
the rectangle contained under the fegments of the dia¬
meters betwixt its vertices, as the Iquare of the dia¬
meter parallel to the ordinate to the fquare of the dia¬
meter to which it is drawn, or as the firft diameter
to its latus redtum ; that is, SX? is to EXK as MN? to
KEs.
Or if an ordinate be drawn to a fecond diameter,
its fquare will be to the fum of the fquares of the fe¬
cond diameter, and of the line intercepted betwixt
the ordinate and centre, in the fame proportion; that
is, RZ? fig. 6. is to ZG? added to GM?, asXE? to
MN?. Thefe are the mod important properties of
the conic fedlions : and, by means of thefe, it is de-
monftrated, that the figures are the fame deferibed
on a plane as cut from the cone; which we have de-
monftrated in the cafe of the parabola.
Sect. II. Equations of the Conic SeCions
Are derived from the above properties. The equa¬
tion of any curve, is an algebraic expreflion, which
Sect. III. General Properties of Conic SeCions.
A tangent to a parabola bifedts the angle contain¬
ed by the lines drawn to the focus and diredlrix ; in
an ellipfe and hyperbola, it bifed!s the angle contained
by the lines drawn to the foci.
In all the fedlions, lines parallel to the tangent are
ordinates to the diameter palling through the point of
contadl; and in the ellipfe and hyperbola, the diame¬
ters parallel to the tangent, and thofe palling through
the points of contadl, are mutually conjugate to each
other. If an ordinate be drawn from a point to a di¬
ameter, and a tangent from the fame point which
meets the diameter produced; in the parabola, the
part of the diameter betwixt the ordinate and tan¬
gent will !>e bifedied in the vertex ; and in the ellipfe
and hyperbola, the femi-diameter will be a mean pro¬
portion betwixt the fegments of the diameter betwixt
the centre and ordinate, and betwixt the centre and
tangent.
The parallelogram formed by tangents drawn
through the vertices of any conjugate diameters, in
the fame ellipfe or hyperbola, will be equal to each
other.
Sect. IV. Properties peculiar to the Hyperbola.
As the hyperbola has fome curious properties ari-
ling from its affymptotes, which appear at firft view
almoft incredible, we lhall briefly demonftrate them.
t. The hyperbola and its affymptotes never meet:
if not, let them meet in S, fig. 6. ; then by the pro¬
perty of the curve the redtangle KXE is to SX? as
GE? toGM? or EP?; that is, as GX? to SX? ; where¬
fore, KXE will be equal to the fquare of GX ; but
the redtangle KXE, together with the fquare of GE,
is alfo equal to the fquare of GX ; which is abfurd.
2. If a line be drawn through a hyperbola parallel
to its fecond axis, the redtangle, by the fegments of
that
ea.V. CONICS
that line, betwixt the point in the hyperbola and the
asymptotes, will be equal to the fquare of the fecond
axis.
For if SZ, fig. 6. be drawn perpendicular to the fe¬
cond axis, by the property of the curve, the fquare of
MG, that is, the fquare of PE, is to the fquare of GE,
as the fquares of ZG and the fquare of MG together,
to the fquare of SZ or GX : and the fquares of RX
and GX are in the fame proportion, becaufe the tri¬
angles RXG, PEG are equiangular; therefore the
fquares ZG and MG are equal to the fquare of RX ;
from which, taking the equal fquares of SX and ZG,
there remains the retiiangle RSV, equal to the fquare
of MG.
3. Hence, if right lines be drawn parallel to the fe-
<cond axis, cutting an hyperbola and its aSymptotes,
the rectangles contained betwixt the hyperbola and
points where the lines cut the affymptotes will be e-
qual to each other; for they are feverally equal to
the fquare of the fecond axis.
4. If from any points, d and S, in a hyperbola, there
be drawn lines parallel to the affymptotes da SQ^ and
dc, the re&angle under da and dc will be equal to
the rectangle under QS and S b ; alfo the parallelo¬
grams da, Gc, and SQG b, which are equiangular,
and conl'equently proportional to the rectangles, are
equal.
For draw YW RV parallel to the fecond axis, the
reCtangle Y W is equal to the reCtangle RSV;
wheretbre, WD is to SV as RS is to dY. But be¬
caufe the triangles RQS, AYD, and GSV cdW, are
equiangular, W ^ is to SV as c d to S£, and RS is to
DY as SQ^to da ; wherefore, dc is to S^ as SQ^ to
da : and the rectangle dc, da, is equal to the reCt-
angle QS, S b.
5. The aflymptotes always approach nearer the hy¬
perbola.
For, becaufe the reCtangle under S^), and or
QG, is equal to the reCtangle under da and dc, or
AG, and QG is greater than a G ; therefore a d is
greater than fXS.
6. The affymptotes come nearer the hyperbola than
any aflignable diflance.
Let X be any fmall line. Take any point, as d, in
the hyperbola, and draw da, dc, parallel to the af¬
fymptotes ; and as X is to a, fo let ^G be to GQ.
Draw QS parallel to ad, meeting the hyperbola in S,
then QS will be equal to X. For the reCtangle SQG
will be equal to the reCtangle daG and confequently
SQ^ is to da as AG to GQ.
If any point be taken in the affytnptote below Q^,
it can eafxly be fhown that its diftance is lefs than the
line X.
Sect. V. Areas contained by Conic Sefiions.
The area of a parabola is equal to | the area of a
circumfcribed parallelogram.
The area of an ellipfe is equal to the area of a circle
E C T I O N S. 2203
whofe diameter is a mean proportional betwixt its Plate
greater and leffer axes. I.XXXIV.
If two lines, a d and QS, be drawn parallel to one
of the affymptotes of an hyperbola, the fpace a QSt/,
bounded by thefe parallel lines, the affymptotes and
the hypeYbola will be equal to the logarithm of «Q,,
whofe module is ad, fuppofing a G equal to unity.
Sect. VI. Curvature of Conic Seftions.
The curvature of any conic feCtion, at the vertices
of its axis, is equal to the curvature of a circle whofe
diameter is equal to the parameter .of its axis.
If a tangent be drawn from any other point of a
conic fe&ion, the curvature of the feCiion in that point
will be equal to the curvature of a circle to which the
fame line is a tangent, and which cuts off from the
diameter of the feCtion, drawn through the point, a
part equal to its parameter.
Sect. VII. Ufes of Conic Sections.
Any body, projected from the furface of the earth,
defcribes a parabola, to which the direction wherein
it is projected is a tangent; and the diftance of the
directrix is equal to the height from which a body
mult fall to acquire the velocity wherewith it is pro¬
jected : hence the properties of the parabola are the
foundation of gunnery.
All bodies aCted on by a central force, which de-
ci eales as the fquare of the diltances increafes, and
impreffed with any projeCtile motion, making any
angle with the direction of the central force, mult de-
fcribe conic feCtions, having the central force in one
of the foci, and will defcribe parabolas, ellipfes, and
hyperbolas, according to the proportion betwixt the
central and projeCtile force. This is proved by direCt
demonftration.
The great principle of gravitation aCts in this man¬
ner; and all the heavenly bodies defcribe conic lec¬
tions having the fun in one of the foci ; the orbits of
the planets are ellipfes, whofe tranfverfe and lelfer
diameters are nearly equal; it is uncertain whether
the comets defcribe ellipfes with very unequal axes,
and fo return after a great number of years ; or whe¬
ther they defcribe parabolas and hyperbolas, in which
cafe they will never return.
Sect. VIII. Ufes of Conic Sefiions in the Solution of
Geometrical Problems.
Many problems can be folved by conic feCiionsthat
cannot be folved by right lines and circles. The fol¬
lowing theorems, which follow from the fimpler pro¬
perties of the feCtions, will give a fpecimen of this.
A point equally difiant from a given point and a gi¬
ven line, is fituated in a given parabola.
A point, the fum of whofe diltances from two given
points is given, is fituated in a given ellipfe.
A point, the difference of whofe diftances from two
given points is given, is lituated in a given hyperbola.
CON
CONICHTHYODONTES, or Plectronitie, in
natural hiftory, one of the three names the foffile teeth
of fifties are known by.
CON
CONIFERAl, in botany, an order of plants in the
fragtnenta method's generalis of Linnseus, containing the
following genera, viz. cuprelfus, ephedra, equifetum,
12 Z 2 juniperus,
CON [ 2204 ] CON
Coniferous juniperus, pinus, taxus, thuja.
II CONIFEROUS trees, iuch as bear hard dry feed-
Comum. veffeis 0f a Conical figure ; confifting of feveral woody
parts, being molHy Icaly, adhering clofely together,
and feparating when ripe.
CONINGSECK, a town of Suabia in Germany, and
capital of a county of the lame name. E. Long. 9. 23.
N. Lat. 47. 50.
CONJOINT, in'a general fenfe, fignifies, united or
connected.
Conjoint Degrees, in mufic, two notes which fol¬
low each other immediately in the order of the leak*,
as ut and re.
Conjoint Tetrachurds, two tetrachords,or fourths,
where the fame chord is the highelt of one, and the
lowed of the other.
CONISSALiE, in natural hiftory, a clafs of foflils
naturally and effentially compounded, not inflammable,
nor foluble in water, found in detached malfes, and
formed of cryftalline matter debafed by earth.
Of this clafs there are two orders, and of each of
thefe only one genus. Conilfalse of the fir ft order are
found in form of a naturally regular and uniform pow¬
der ; all the genuine particles of which are nearly of
one determinate lhape, appearing regularly concreted,
and not fragments of others once larger. Coniflalae of
the fecond order are found in form of a rude, irregu¬
lar, and lhapelefs powder, the particles of which are
never of any determinate figure, but feem broken
fragments of once larger malRs.
To the former genus belong the different kinds of
fand j and to the latter the faburrx, or gritts.
CONJUGATE diameter, or Axis, of an EUipfs,
the Ihorteft of the two diameters, or that bifedling
the axis.
Conjugate Hyperbolas. See Conic Sections,
fefl.'i. 3.
CONJUGATION, in grammar, a regular diftribu-
tion of the feveral inflexions of verbs in their different
voices, moods, tenfes, numbers and perfons, fo as to
diftinguilh them from one another. See Grammar,
n0 25. and Language, n° 10, Ire.
CONIUM, hemlock, a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. The
fpecies are three ; 1. The maculatuin, ox greater hevi'
lock, grows naturally on the Tides of banks and roads
in many parts of Britain. It is a biennial plant which
perilhes after it has ripened its feeds. It hath a long
taper .root like a parfnip, but fmaller. The ftalk is
fmooth, fpotted with purple, and rifes from four to
upwards of fix feet high ; branching out toward the
top into feveral fmaller ftalks, garnilhed with decom¬
pounded leaves, whofe lobes are cut at the top into
three parts ; thefe are of a lucid green, and have a
difagreeable fmell. The ftalks are terminated by
umbels of white flowers, each being compofed of about
10 rays or fmall umbels, and have a great number of
flowers, which fpread open, each fitting upon a diftindl
footftalk ; the feeds are fmall and channelled, and like
thofe of annifeed. It flowers in June, and the feeds
ripen in autumn. 2. The tenu folium, with ftriated
feeds, differs from the firft in having taller ftalks,
which are not fo much fpotted. The leaves are much
narrower, and of a paler green ; and this difference
is conftant. It is a biennial plant, and grows natu* ConjunA
rally in Germany. 3. The africanum, with prickly ||
feeds, is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. The Cowwught.
plant rarely grows above nine inches high ; the lower
leaves are divided like thofe of the imall wild rue,
and are of a greyilh colour; thofe upon the ftalk are
narrower, but of the fame colour ; thele are termi¬
nated by umbels of white flowers, each of the larger
umbels being compofed of three fmall ones; the invo-
lucrum hath three narrow leaves fituated under the
umbel. This flowers in July, and ripens feed in au¬
tumn,-Icon after which the plants decay.
Medicinal Ufes. The firft fpecies is ibmetimes ufed
as a difeutient; and for this purpofe is an ingredient
in fotne plalters. It has generally been accounted
poifonous when taken internally ; and certainly is fo
when taken in a large quantity. Dr Stork, however,
found, that in fmall doles it may be taken with great
fafety ; and that without difordering the conftitution,
or even producing any fenlible operation, it fometimes
proves a powerful refolvent in many obftinate difor-
ders.
CONJUNCT, in a general fenfe, fignifies conjoin¬
ed, concurrent, or united.
Conjunct Rights,in Scots law. See Law, Part III.
n° clxxx. 15, ire.
Conjunct, or Confident Perfons, in Scots law.
Ibid. n° clxxxiii. 8.
CONJUNCTION, in aftronomy, the meeting of
two or more ftars or planets in the fame degree of the
zodiac.
Conjunction, in grammar, an indeclinable word
or particle, which ferves to join words and fentences
together, and thereby Ihews their relation or depen¬
dence upon one another. See Grammar, n° 70.
CONJUNCTIVA, in anatomy. See there n° 406. b.
CONJURATION, magic words, chara&ers, or ce¬
remonies, whereby evil fpirits, tempefts, ire. are fup-
pofed to be railed, or driven away. The Romilh
priefts pretend to expel devils, by preparing holy wa¬
ter in a particular manner, and fprinkling it over the
poffefled, with a number of conjurations, and exor-
cifms. See Exorcism.
Some authors make the difference between conju¬
ration and witchcraft to confift in this; that the for¬
mer effedts its end by prayers, and invocation of God's
name, ire. to compel the devil to do what is defired;
fo that the conjurer is fuppofed to be at war with the
devil, and that evil fpirit to adt merely out of con-
ftraint: whereas the latter attains its end by an im¬
mediate application to the devil himfelf; and the
devil’s complaifance is fuppofed to be the confequcnce
of fome compadt between them, fo that the devil
and the witch have a good underftanding together.
Both thefe, again, differ from enchantment and for-
cery ; in that thefe latter operate fecretly, and flow-
ly, by fpells, charms, ire. without ever calling on the
devil, or having any conference with him.
CONNAUGHT, one of the four provinces of Ire¬
land, bounded on the eaft by that of Leinfter, on the
weft by the ocean, on the north and north-weft by
part of the ocean and province of Ulfter, and on the
fouth and eaft by Munfter. It is about 130 miles in
length, and 84 in breadth. It has no rivers of any
great
Connarus
Connor-
CON [ 2205 ] CON
great note, befides the Shannon. It has feveral con- Antrim and province of Ulfter. W. Long. 6. 30. Conocarpus
venient bays and creeks, and is fertile in many places. N. Lat. 54. 50. II
t It had feveral dangerous bogs, over-run with woods, CONOCARPUS, button-wood ; a genus of the opra
which are now in fome meafure cleared away. This monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
province produces abundance of cattle, Iheep, deer, plants. There are two fpecies, the ereeta and pro¬
hawks and honey ; but the inhabitants being lazy, it is cumbens, both natives of the Welt Indies. They rife
the lead cultivated of all the four provinces. It con- to the height of about 16 feet, but are trees of no
tains one archbilhopric, 5 bilhoprics, 6 counties, 7 beauty, nor is the Wood of them ufed for any mecha-
niarket-towns, 8 places of trade, 10 boroughs that fend nic purpofe in the countries wheretheygrownatu-
members to parliament, 47,2j6 houfes, 24 old cadles, rally. They are, however, preferved in fome bo-
befides fortreffes that have been eredted of late, and tanic gardens in Britain, for the lake of variety.
330 parilhes. The principal town is Galway. CONOID, in geometry, a folid body, generated by
CONNARUS,Ceylon sumach; agenusof thede- the revolution of a conic fedtion about its axis. See
candria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of Conic Sections.
plants. There is but one fpecies, viz. the monocar- CONOIDES, in anatomy, a gland found in the
pus. This is a native of India, and rifes with a ligne- third ventricle of the brain, called puieal'n, from its re-
ous ftalk eight or ten feet high, which is hard, rigid, femblance to a pine-apple. See Anatomy, n° 397, c.
and covered with a black bark, and divides upward CONON, the renowned Athenian general and ad-
into two or three branches garnilhed with trifoliate miral, flourifhed 394years before Chrilt. See Attica,
leaves, having long footftalks placed alternate. It is n° 162, 163. After his defeat by Lyfander, he fled
propagated by cuttings, and is to be treated in the to Evagoras king of Cyprus: after which he put him-
fame manner with other tender exotics. felf under the protection of Artaxerxes king of Per-
CONNECTION, or Connexion, the relation or fia; with whole army he delivered Athens from the
dependence of one thing upon another. oppreffion of Grangers, and rebuilt its walls. In the
Connection, qv Continuityt in the drama, confifts 360th year of Rome, he beat the Lacedemonians in a
in the joining of the feveral fcenes together. fea-fight near Cnidus upon the coaft of Afia, deprived
The connexion is faid to be obferved, when the them of the fovereign rule they had on fea ever fince
fcenes of an a6t fucceed one another immediately, the raking of Athens, and had fome other confiderable
and are fo joined as that the ftage is never left advantages over them: but falling into the hands of
empty. Teribazus a Perfian, who envied his glory, he was put
CONNECTIVES, in grammar. See Grammar, to death.
n° 69. CONQUEST, in a general lenfe ; acqnifition by
CONNIVENT valves, in anatomy, thofe wrin- victory; any thing gained,
kies, cellules and vafcules, which are found in the in- Con quest, in Scots law. See Law, Partlll.
fide of the two inteftines ileum and jejunum. See n° clxxx. 6.
Anatomy, n° 334, g, h, CONRAD II. elected emperor of Germany in 1004.
CONNOISSEUR, a French Word much ufed of late He was obliged to take the field agaitrft moll of theGer-
in Englilh, to fignify a perfon well fkilled in any thing: man dukes who had revolted from him ; and he put
whence it is ufed for a critic, or one who is a thorough Ernell duke of Suabia under the ban of the empire. This
judge upon any fubje<5l. being one of the earliell inftances of fueh a proscription,
CONNOR (Bernard), a learned phylician, was th6 formula is infected here for its Angularity. u We
born in the county of Kerry, in Ireland, about the year declare thy wife a widow, thy children orphans; and
1666. Having determined to apply himfelf to the we fend thee, in the name of the devil, to the four
lludy of phyfic, he went to France, and refided fome corners of the world.” It was in the reign of this
time in the univerfity of Montpellier. Afterwards he prince that the the German fiefs became hereditary,
went to Paris ; where he obtained great Ikill in He died in 1039.
medicine, anatomy, and chemiftry. From thence Conrad HI. emperor of Germany in 1138. The
he travelled to Venice, with the two fons of the duke of Bavaria oppofed his election, and being put
high-chancellor of Poland ; and then taking a tour under the ban of the empire, and deprived of his du-
through great part of Germany, went to Warfaw, chy, he could not lurvive his difgrace. The margrave
where he was made phylician to king John Sobielki. of Aullria was ordered by the emperor to take polfef-
In 1695, he came to England, read a courfe of lec- lion of Bavaria ; but Wellli, uncle to the deceafed
tures in London and Oxford, and became member of duke, attacked him, and was defeated near the callle
the Royal Society and College of Phyficians; after- of Winlburgh : the battle fought upon this occalion is
wards, being invited to Cambridge, he read public famous in hiltory, as having given rife to the party-
ledlures there, and made various experiments in che- names of Guelphs and Gibbelines, afterwards alfumed’
millry. He has rendered himfelf memorable for a in Italy. The parole of the day with the Bavarians
philofophical and medical treatife in Latin, entitled, was Welfti, from the name of their general ; that of
Evangelium Medici, i. e. “ the Phylician’s Gofpelthe Imperialifls Werblingen, from a fmall village where
tending to explain the miracles performed by Chrill, Frederic duke of Suabia, their commander, had been
as natural events, upon the principles of natural philo- nurfed : by degrees thefe names ferved to diftinguiflt
fophy. He wrote alfo a hillory of Poland ; and died the two parties ; and the Italians, who could not ac-
in 1698, aged 32. cullom themfelves to fuch rough words, formed from
Connor, a city of Ireland, in the county of them their Guelphs and Gibbelines. He died in n^.
Conrad
Conrad
Confangui
nity-
CON I 2206 ] CON
Conrad of Lichtenau, or Abbas Ufpergenfis, was
author of an univerfal Chronology from the creation to
1229, continued by an anonymous writer to Charles V.
. He collected a fine library, and died about the year
1240.
CONRADIN, or Conrad junior, fon of Conrad IV.
•was acknowledged emperor by the Gibbelines, who
received him in triumph at Rome : but pope Alexan¬
der IV. had publifhed a crufade againft this orphan ;
and Urban VII. his fuccelfor, gave the empire to
Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX. king of France;
and the unfortunate youth, though powerfully fup-
ported, even by the Turks,-loft a battle, in which he
was taken prifoner, and was beheaded, by order of
his bafe opponent, publicly, at Naples in 1229, in the
18th year of his age. In him ended the race of the
dukes of Suabia, which had produced feveral kings
and emperors.
CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, is defined by
the writers on thefe fubjedls to be, vinculum per-
fonarum ab eodciu flipite defcendsntium; <e the connec¬
tion or relation of perfons defcended from the fame
flock or common anceftor.” This confanguinity is ei¬
ther lineal or collateral.
Lineal confanguinity is that which fubfifts between
perfons of whom one is defcended in a direft line from
the other ; as between John Stiles (the propofitus in
the table of confanguinity) and his father, grandfather,
great-grandfather, and fo upwards in the direct afcen-
ding line; or between John Stiles and his fon, grand-
fon, great-grandfon, and fo, downwards in the direct
elefcending line. Every generation, in this diredt lineal
confanguinity, conftitutes a different degree, reckoning
either upwards or downwards : the father of John
Stiles is related to him in the firft degree, and fo like-
wife is his fen ; his grandfire and grandfon, in the
fecond; his great-grandfire and great-grandfon, in the
third. This is the only natural way of reckoning the
degrees in the diredl line ; and therefore univerfally
obtains, as well in the civil and canon, as in the com¬
mon law.
The doctrine of lineal confanguinity is fufficiently Confangui-
plain and obvious; but it is, at the firft view, aftonifhing nity.
to confider the number of lineal anceftors which every
man has, within no very great number of degrees :
and fo many different bloods is a man faid to contain
in his veins, as he hath lineal ancettors. Of thefe he
hath two in the firft afcending degree ; his own pa¬
rents : he hath four in the fecond ; the parents of his
father, and the parents of his mother : he hath eight
in the third, the parents of his two grandfathers, and
of his two grandmothers : and, by the fame rule of
progreffion, he hath 128 in the feventh ; 1024 in the
tenth ; and at the 20th degree, or the diftance of 20
generations, every man hath above a million of an¬
ceftors, as common arithmetic will demonftrate *.
This lineal confanguinity, we may obferve, falls ftritft-
ly within the definition of “ vinculum perfonarum ab
eodem ftipite defcendentium fince lineal relations
are fuch as defcend one from the other, and both of
courfe from the fame common anceftor.
Collateral kindred anfwers to the fame defcription :
collateral relations agreeing with the lineal in this,
that they defcend from the fame flock or anceftor ;
but differing in this, that they do not defcend the one
from the other. Collateral kinfmen, then, are fuch as
lineally fpring from one and the fame anceftor, who is
the ftirps, or “ root,” the jlipes, “trunk,” or common
flock, from whence thefe relations are branched out.
As if John Stiles hath two fens, who have each a nu¬
merous iffue : both thefe iffues are lineally defcended
from John Stiles as their common anceftor ; and they
are collateral kinfmen to each other, becaufe they are
all defcended from this common anceftor, and all have
a portion of his blood in their veins, which denomi¬
nates them confanguineous.
We muft be careful to remember, that the very be¬
ing of collateral confangninity confifts in this defcent
from one and the fame common anceftor. Thus Ti-
tius and his brother are related ; why ? becaufe both
are derived from one father : Titius and his firft cou-
fin are related ; why ? becaufe both defcend from the
fame
* This will feem furprifing to thofe who are unacquainted with the increafing power of progreffive numbers ; but is palpably
•evident from the following table of a geometrical progreflion, in which the firft term is 2, and the denominator alfo 2 : or, to
fpeak more intelligibly, it is evident, for that each of us has two anceftors in the firft degree, the number of whom is doubled at
every remove ; becaufe each of our anceftors has alfo two immediate anceftors of his own.
8 256
9 5i2
10 1024
11 2048
12 4096
13 8192
14 16384
15 32768
16 65536
17 131072
18 262144
19 524288
20 1048576
A fhorter way of finding the number of anceftors at any -even degree, is by fquaring the number of anceftors at half that number of
degrees. Thus, 16, the number of anceftors at 4 degrees, is the fquare of 4. the number of anceftors at two ; 256 is the fquare
of 16 ; 65,536 of 256; and the number of anceftors at 40 degrees would be the fquare of 1,048,576, or upwards of a million of
millions.
CON
1 enfangui. fame grandfather; and his fecond cotifin’s claim to
“ luty' confanguinity is this, that they are both derived from.
one and the fame great-grandfather. In fiiort, as
many anceftors as a man has, fo many common ftocks
he has, from which collateral kinfmen may be derived.
And as we are taught by holy writ, that there is one
couple of common anceitors belonging to us all, from
whom the whole race of mankind is defcended, the
obvious and undeniable confequence is, that all men
are in feme degree related to one another. For, in¬
deed, if we only fuppofe each couple of our anceftors
to have left, one with another, two children ; and
each of thofe children to have left, on an average,
two more ; (and, without fuch a fuppofition, the hu¬
man fpecies muft be daily diminiftiing) ; we lhall find
that all of us have now fubfifting near 270 millions of
kindred in the 15th degree, at the fame diftance from
the feveral common anceftors as we ourfelves are;
befides thofe that are one or two degrees nearer to
or farther from the common ftock, who may amount
to as many more *. And if this calculation fhould ap¬
pear incompatible with the number of inhabitants on
the earth, it is becaufe, by intermarriages among the
feveral dependents from the fame anceftor, a hundred,
or a thoufand modes of confanguinity may be confo-
lidated in one perfon ; or he may be related to us a
hundred, or a thoufand different ways.
The method of computing thefe degrees in the ca¬
non law, which we have adopted, is as follows. We
begin at the common anceftor, and reckon downwards;
and in whatfoever degree the two perfons, or the
moft remote of them is diftant from the common an¬
ceftor, that is the degree in which they are related to
each other. Thus, Titius and his brother are related
in the firlt degree ; for from the father to each of
CON
them is counted only one : Titius and his nephew are Confangui.
related in the fecond degree ; for the nephew is two
degrees removed from the common anceftor, viz. hts
own grandfather, the father of Titius : or (to give
a more illuftrious inftance from the* Englilh annals)
king Henry VII. who flew Richard III. in the battle
of Bofworth, was related to that prince in the fifth
degree. Let the propofitus therefore, in the table of
confanguinity, reprefent king Richard III. and the clafs
mafked e, king Henry VII. Now their common ftock
or anceftor was king Edward III. the abavus in the
fame table : from him to Edmund duke of York, the
proavus is one degree ; to Richard earl of Cambridge,
the avus, two ; to Richard duke of York, the pater,
three ; to king Richard 111. the propofitus, four; and
from king Edward 111. to John of Gant (a) is one de¬
gree ; to John Earl of Somerfet (b) two ; to John,,
duke of Somerfet (c) three ; to Margaret countefs-
of Richmond (d) four ; to king Henry VII. (e) five.
Which laft mentioned prince, being the fartheft re¬
moved from the common ftock, gives the denomination
to the degree of kindred in the canon and municipal
law. Though according to the computation of the
civilians (who count upwards from either of the per¬
fons related, to the common ftock, and then down¬
wards again to the other; reckoning a degree for each
perfon both afcendipg and depending) thefe two
princes were related in the ninth degree : for from
king Richard III. to Richard duke of York, is one
degree ; to Richard earl of Cambridge, two ; to Ed¬
mund duke of York, three ; to king Edward III. the
common anceftor, four; to John of Gant, five ; to
John earl of Somerfet, fix ; to John duke of Somer¬
fet, feven ; to Margaret countefs of Richmond, eight;
to king Henry VII. nine. See the Table of Confan¬
guinity,
* This will {well more confiderably than the former calculationfor Here, though the firfl term is but 1, the denominator is 4 ;
that is, there is one kinfman (a brother) in the firft degree, who makes, together with the propofitus, the two dependents from
the firft couple of anceftors ; and in every other degree, the number of kindred muft-be the quadruple of thofe in the degree which
immediately precedes it. For, fince each couple of anceltors has two dependents who increaP in a duplicate ratio, it will follow
that the ratio in which all the dependents increafe downwards, muft be double to that in which the anceftors increafe upwards:
but we have feen that the anceftors increafe in a duplicate ratio : therefore the dependents muft increafe in a double duplicate;-,
that is, in a quadruple ratio.
Collateral Degrees. Number of Kindred.
[ 2207 ]
3. 16
4 64
5 256
6 1024
7 4096
8 16384
9 65536
jo 262144
11 1048576
12 4I943M
*3- 16777216-
14 67108864
15 268435456
16 1073741824
17 4294967296
18 17179869184
19 68719476736
20 274877906944
This ealsulation may alfo be formed by a more compendious procefs, viz; by fquaring the couples, or half the number of an-
ebftors at any given degree; which will furnifh us v'ith the number of kindred we have in the fame degree, at equal diftance with
ourPlves from the common ftock, befides thofe at unequal diftances. Thus, in the tenth lineal degree, the number of anceftbrs
is 1024; its half, or the couples, amount to 512 ; the number of kindred in the tenth collateral degree amounts therefore to
262144, or the fquare of 512. And if we will be at the trouble to recollect the ftate of the feveral families within our own know*
ledge, and obferve how far they agree with this account; that is, whether, on an average, every man has not one brother or
lifter, four firft-ccufins, fixteen fecond-coufins, andfoon; we lhall find that the prefent.calculation is very far from being over-
kharged.
CON i 2208 ] CON
Confangul- guin'tyj (Plate LXXVIII. fig. 10.) wherein all the
nity degrees of collateral kindred to the propofitus are com-
!l puted, as far as the tenth of the civilians, and the
Confcnt. {'eventii 0f the Canonifts inclufive ; the former being
dilUnguiflied by the numeral letters, the latter by the
common ciphers.
Consanguinity and Affinity, (degreesof) forbid¬
den in marriage. See Marriage ; and Law, Part
III. N°clx. 4.
Consanguinity and Affinity, an objection againft
a judge. See La w. Part III. N° clvi. 12. Again it a
witnefs, ibid, clxxxiv. 12.
CONSCIENCE, a fecret teftimony of the foul,
whereby it gives its approbation to things that are
naturally good, and condemns thofe that are evil. See
Moral Philofophy, N° 85, 86.
Courts of Conscience, are courts for recovery of
fmall debts, conftituted by aft of parliament in Lon¬
don, Weitminfter, tec. and other populous and trading
diitrifts.
CONSCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to thefenators of Rome, who were called co7i-
fcript fathers, on account of their names being all en¬
tered in one regiiter.
CONSECRATION, the aft of devoting any thing
to the fervice and worihip of God. The Mofaical
law ordained, that all the firit-born, both of man and
bead, ihould be fanftified or confecrated to God. We
find alfo, that Jofhua confecrated the Gibeonites, as
Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the fervice
of the temple ; and that the Hebrews fometimes con¬
fecrated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which
they were no longer in their power.
Among the ancient Chriftians, the confecration of
churches was performed with a great deal of pious
folemnity. In what manner it was done for the three
firft ages, is uncertain ; the authentic accounts reach¬
ing no higher than the fourth, when, in the peaceable
reign of Conftantine, churches were every where built,
and dedicated with great folemnity. Some think the
confecration confided in fetting up the fign of the
crofs, or in placing a communion-table in the church ;
and others, that no more was done than preaching a
panegyrical fermon in commemoration of the founder,
and that then they proceeded to prayers, one of which
was compofed on purpofe for the church to be confe¬
crated. The Romanids have a great deal of pious
foppery in the ceremonies of confecration ; which
they bedow on almod every thing, as bells, candles,
books, water, oil, alhes, palms, fwords, banners, pic¬
tures, erodes, agnus-dei’s, rofes, childrens clouts, ($c.
In England, churches have been always confecrated
with particular ceremonies, the form of which was
left to the diferetion of the bifhop. That obferved
by bifliop Laud, in confecrating St Catherine Creed
church, in London, gave great offence.
Consecration is particularly ufed for the bene-
diftion of the elements in the eucharid.
CONSENT, in a general fenfe, denotes much the
fame with Assent.
Consent of Parts, in the animal oeconomy, an
agreement or fympathy, whereby when one part is
immediately affefted, another at a didance becomes
affefted in the fame manner. See Sympathy.
CONSEQUENCE, in logic, the conclufion, or Confe- I
what refults from rcafon or argument. See Con- quence 'I
CLUSION. _ 'Confill 1
The confequence is that other propofition in which Con 1 ory-
the extremes or premifes of a fyllogiffn are joined, or
feparated ; and is gained from what was afferted in
the premifes.
This word, in a more redrained fenfe, is ufed for
the relation or conneftion between two propofitions,
whereof one is inferred from the other.
CONSEQUENT, fomething deduced or gathered
from a former argumentation. But, in a more pre-
cife fenfe, it is ufed for the propofition which contains
the conclufion, confidered in itfelf, without any regard
to the antecedent: in which fenle the confequent may
be true, though the confequence be falfe. See the
preceding article.
CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the fe-
curity and prefervation of the privileges of fome cities
and communities, having a commiffion to judge of and
determine the differences among them.
CONSERVATORY, a term fometimes ufed for a
green-houfe or ice-houfe.
CONSERVE, in pharmacy, a form of medicine con¬
trived to preferve the flowers, herbs, roots, or fruits
of feveraJ fimples, as near as poffible to what they
are when freffi gathered. See Pharmacy, n°4J4,
ire.
CONSIGNMENT, in law, the depofiting any fum
of money, bills, papers, or commodities, in good
hands ; either by appointment of a court of juftice, in
order to be delivered to the perfons to whom they are
adjktdged ; or voluntarily, in order to their being re¬
mitted to the perfons they belong to, or fent to the
places they are defigned for.
Consignment of Goods, in commerce, is the de¬
livering or making them over to another: thus, goods
are laid to be configned to a faftor, when they are
fent to him to be fold, ire. ; or when a faftor fends
back goods to his principal, they are laid to be con¬
figned to him.
CONSISTENCE, in phyfics, that ftate of a body
wherein its component particles are fo connected or
entangled among themfelves, as not to feparate or
recede from each other. It differs from continuity in
this, that it implies a regard to motion or reft, which
continuity does not, it being fufficient to denominate
a thing continuous that its parts are contiguous to each
other.
CONSISTENTES, in church-hiftory, a kind of
penitents who were allowed to affift at prayers, but
who could not be admitted to receive the facrament.
CONSISTORY (Confftorium), fignifies as much as
preetorium, a tribunal: it is commonly ufed for a coun-
cil-houfe of ecclefiaftical perfons, or place of juftice in
the fpiritual court ; a leffion or alfembly of prelates.
And every archbifliop and biffiop of every diocefe hath
a confiftory court held before his chancellor or com-
miffary in his cathedral church, or other convenient
place of his diocefe, for ecclefiaftical caufes. The bi-
fliop’s chancellor is the judge of this court, fuppofed
to he Ikilled in the civil and canon law ; and in places
of the diocefe far remote from the bifhop’s confiftory,
the bifliop appoints a commiffary to judge in all caufes
within . I
CON [ 2209 ] CON
mfiftory within a certain diftridl, and a regifter to enter his
II decrees, ire.
jnftablc. CONSISTORY, at Rome, is an ecclefiaftical aflem-
bly held in the prei’ence of the pope, for the reception
of princes or their ambaffadors, for the canonization
of faints, for the promotion of cardinals, and other
important affairs.
CONSOLE, in architediure, an ornament cut upon
the key of an arch, which has a projedture, and, on
occafion, ferves to fupport little corniches, figures,
buffs, and vales.
CONSOLIDATION, in law, the combining and
uniting two benefices into one. The term is borrowed
from the civil law; where it properly fignifies an union
of the poffeflion, or occupation, with the property.
Thus, if a man have by legacy ufitm fruCium fundi,
and afterwards buy the property, or fee-fimple, of the
heir ; this is' called a confolidation.
Consolidation, in medicine, the adlion of uni¬
ting broken bones, or the lips of wounds, by means
of confolidating remedies, as they are called ; which
cleanfing with a moderate heat and force, taking cor¬
ruption out of the wounds, and preferving the tem¬
perature of the parts, caufe the nourilhment to be fitly
applied to the part affedfed.
Among the many inftances of the confolidating
power of blood and raw flelh, We have a very re¬
markable one in Bartholine’s Medical Obfervations.
A man being condemned to have his nofe cut off by
the hand of the common executioner, the friends, who
were to be prefent, provided a new loaf of warm
bread, which was cut in the middle, and the nofe re¬
ceived in it as it fell from the face : the nofe was
after this nicely placed, on the face again ; and, being
fewed on, the whole in time confolidated, and left
no other marks of the ignominy than the fear round
the whole nofe, and the traces of the flitches.
CONSONANCE, in mufic. See Interval.
CONSONANT, a letter that cannot be founded
without fome Angle or double vowel before or after
; it; as b, c, d, 8cc.
CONSPIRACY, in law, fignifies an agreement be¬
tween two or more, falfely to indift, or procure to
be indicted, an innocent perfon, of felony.
CONSPIRATORS are, by flatute, defined to be
fuch as bind themfelves by oath, covenant, or other
alliance, to affift one, another falfely and malicioufly
to indict perfons, or falfely to maintain pleas.
Confpirators in treafon, are thofe that plot againft
the king and the government.
CONSTABLE, according to fome, is a Saxon word,
compounded of coning, “ king,” and Jiaple, which fig¬
nifies the “ flay or fupport of the king.” But as we
borrowed the name as well as the office of conjlable
from the French, Sir William Blackflone is rather in¬
clined to deduce it,.with Sir Henry Spelman and Dr
Cowel, from that language; wherein it is plainly de¬
rived from the Latin comes Jiabuli, an officer well
known in the empire ; fo called, becaufe, like the
great •cohftable of France, as well as the lord high
con liable of England, he was to regulate all matters
of chivalry, tilts, tournaments, and feats of arms,
which were performed on horfeback. This great
office of Lord High Conftable hath been difufed in
Vol. III.
England, except only on great and folemn occafions,
as the king’s coronation, and the like, ever lince the
attainder of Stafford duke of Buckingham under king
Henry VIII.; as in France it was fuppreffed about a
century after by an edidt of Lewis XIII : but from
his office, fays Lambard, this lower conflablefliip was
at firft drawn and fetched, and is, as it were, a very
finger of that hand. For the ffatute of Winchelter,
which firfl appoints them, directs, that for the better
keeping of the peace, two conftables, in every hun¬
dred and franchife, fhall infpedt all matters relating
to arms and armour.
Conftables are of two forts ; high conftables, and
petty conftables. The former were firft ordained by
the ftatute of Winchefter as before mentioned ; and
are appointed at the court-leets of the franchife or
hundred over which they prefide ; or, in default of
that, by thejuftices at their quarter-feffions and are.
removeable by the fame authority that appoints them.
The petty conftables are inferior officers in every town
and parifh, fubordinate to the high coriftahle of the
hundred, firft inftituted about the reign of Edward III.
Thefe petty conftables have two offices united in them,
the one ancient, and the other modern. Their an¬
cient office is that of head-borough, tithing-man, or
borfholder ; who are as ancient as the time of king
Alfred : their more modern office is that of con¬
ftable merely ; which was appointed fo lately as the
reign of Edward III. in order to affift the high con¬
ftable. And in general the ancient head-boroughs,
tithing-men, and borlholders, were made ufe of to
ferve as petty conftables ; though not fo generally, but
that in many places they ftill continue diftindt officers
from the conftables. They are all chofen by the jury
at the court-leet f or if no Court-leer be held, are ap¬
pointed by two juftices of the peace.
The general duty of all conftables, both high and
petty, as well as of the other officers, is to keep the
king’s peace in their feveral diftri&s; and to that pur-
pofe they are armed with very large powers of ar-
refting, and imprifoning, of breaking open houfes, and
the like : of the extent of which powers, confidering
what manner of men are for the moft part put upon
thefe offices, it is perhaps very well that they are ge¬
nerally kept in ignorance. One of their principal
duties arifing from the ftatute of Winchefter, which
appoints them, is to keep watch and ward in their re-
fpedlive jurifdidiions. Ward, guard, or cuftodia, is
chiefly intended of the day-time, in order to appre¬
hend rioters, and robbers on the highways ; the man¬
ner of doing which is left to the diferefion of thejuf¬
tices of the peace, and the conftable : the hundred be¬
ing, however, liable for all the robberies committed
therein by day-light, for having kept negligent guard.
Watch is properly applicable to the night only, (being
called among the Saxons wach't or wa(iu) ; and it be¬
gins when ward ends, and ends when that begiijs:
for, by the ftatute of Winchefter, in walled towns the
gates fhall be clofed from fun-fetting to fun-rifing;
and watch fhall be kept in every borough and town,
efpecially in the fummer feafon, to apprehend all
rogues, vagabonds and night-walkers, and make them
give an account of themfelves. The conftable may
appoint watchmen at his diferetion, regulated by the
13 ^ cuftom
Conftable.
CON
[ 2210 ],
CON
Conftables cuftotn of the place ; and thefe, being his deputies, abdication of Diocletian, he fliared the Roman empire c
,, J . have, for the time being, the authority of their prin- with Galerius Maximinus in 305, and was at that time ~
omtantine cjpa|_ at where he died in 306 ; having firft caufed
There are alfo conftables denominated from parti- his fon Conftantine the Great to be proclaimed empe-
cular places, as conftable of the Tower, of Dover ror by his army, and by the Englilh. Galerius at firft
caftle, of Windfor caftle, of the caftle of Caernarvon, refufed to admit Conftantine to.his father’s fliare in the
and many other of the caftles of Wales ; whofe office imperial throne ; but after having loft feveral battles,
;s the fame with that of the caftellani, or governors of . he confented in 308. Maxentius, who lucceeded Ga-
caftles.
Constabx-e ef Scotland. See Law, Part III.
clviii. 15.
Constables to Juft ices of the Peace, in Scots law,
are the proper officers for executing their orders.
They have powers to fupprefs tumults, and to appre-
lerius, oppofed him : but was defeated, and drowned
himfelf in the Tyber. The fenate then declared
Conftantine, chief or firft auguftus, and Licinius his fe-
cond aflociate in the empire in 313. Thefe princes
publiffied an editft, in their joint names, in favour of
the Chriftians; but foon after Licinius, jealous of Con-
hend delinquents and thofe who can give no good ftantine’s renown, conceived an implacable hatred a-
account of themfelves, and carry them to the next
juftice.
CONSTANCE, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, with a biffiop’s fee, whofe biffiop is a
prince of the empire. It has a handfome bridge, and
feveral fine ftrutftures, as well facred as profane. It
carries on a great trade, and is well fortified; and
though it pretends to be an imperial town, the Auf-
trians keep a garrifon here. It is famous for a coun¬
cil held here in 1 $14, when there were three popes;
but tfiey were all depofed, and Martin V. was elected
in their room. The council caufed Jerom of Prague to
be burnt, though the emperor Sigifmund had given
him a fafe conduct; in purfuance of this maxim, “ that
no faith is to be kept with heretics.” They likewife
condemned the dotftrine of Wickliff, and ordered his
bones to be burned 40 years after he was dead.
However, the inhabitants now are Proteftants. It is
fcated. on a lake of the fame name. E. Long. 9. 12.
N. Lat. 47. 35.
Constance, a great lake of Germany, between
Suabia and Swifferland. It is 30 miles in length, and
8 in breadth. It is croifed by the river Rhine; and
there are feveral towns on its banks.
CONSTANTINA, a ftrong and confiderable town
of Africa, in. the kingdom of Algiers, and capital of a
territory of the fame name. It is the largeft and
ftrongeft place in all the eaftern parts ; and it is feated
on the top of a great rock. There is no way to it but
by fteps cut out of the rock ; and the ufual way of pu-
nilhing criminals here is to throw them down the cliff.
Here are a great many Roman antiquities, particularly
a triumphal arch. E. Long. 7. 12. N. Lat. 36. 4.
Constantina, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, and
capital of a fmall territory of the fame name, with
a caftle feated on a mountain. W. Long. 5. 35.
N. Lat. 37. 40.
CONSTANTINE, a kingdom of Barbary of that
name, in Africa. It is bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean, on the eaft by the kingdom of Tunis,
on the fouth by Bildnlgerid, and on the weft by the
river Sufegmar, which feparates it from the kingdom
of Bugia. The country is the new Numidia of the an¬
cients, and had its own king ; but it is now a province
to Algiers.
Constantine the Great, the firft emperor of the
Romans who embraced Chriftianity. His father, Con-
ftantius Chlorus, rendered himfelf famous by his vic¬
torious expeditions to Germany and Britain : upon the
gainft him, and renewed the perfecutions againft the
Chriftians. This brought on a rupture between the
emperors; ^nd a battle, in which Conftantine was
viftorious. A fhort peace enfued : but Licinius ha¬
ving ffiamefully violated the treaty, the war was re¬
newed ; when Conftantine totally defeating him, he
fled to Nicomedia, where he was taken prifoner and
ftrangled in 323. Conftantine, now become foie ma-
fter of the weftern and eaftern empires, immediately
formed the plan of eftablifhing Chriftianity as the reli¬
gion of the ftate ; for which purpofe, he convocked
feveral ecclefialtical councils: but finding he was like¬
ly to meet with great oppofition from the Pagan in-
tereft at Rome, he conceived the defign of founding a
new city, to be the capital of his Chriftian empire ; fee
Constantinople. The glory Conftantine had ac¬
quired by eftablilhing the Chriftian religion, was tar-
nilhed by the part he took in the perfecutions carried
on by the Arians, towards the clofe of his reign, a-
gainft their Chriftian brethren who differed from
them: feduced by Eufebius of Nicomedia, he banilhed
feveral eminent prelates; foon after which, he died
in 337, the 66,h year of his age, and 31’* of his
reign.
As to the charadler of Conftantine, he was chafte,
pious, laborious and indefatigable ; .a great general,
fuccefsful in war, and deferving Ids fuccefs by his
finning valour and by the brightnefs of his genius; a
protestor of arts, and an encourager of them by his
beneficence. If we compare him with Auguftus, we
ffiall find that he ruined idolatry, by the fame precau¬
tions and the fame addrefs that the other ufed to de-
ftroy liberty. Like Auguftus, he laid the foundation
of a new empire ; but lefs Ikilful, and lefs polite, he
could not give it the fame liability : he weakened the
body of the ftate by adding to it, in fome meafure, a
fecond head in the foundation of Conftantinople; and
tranfporting the centre of motion and ftrength too
near the eaftern extremity, he left without heat, and
almoft without life, the v/eftern parts, which foon be¬
came a prey to the barbarians. The Pagans were
too much his enemies to do him juftice. Eutropius
fays, that in the former part of his reign he was equal
to the moft accompliflied princes, and in the latter to
the meaneft. The younger Vi£lor, who makes him
to have reigned more than 31 years, pretends that in
the"firft 10 years he was a hero; in the 12 fucceeding
ones a robber ; and in the 10 laft a fpendthrift. It is
eafy to perceive, with refpeft to thefe two reproaches
of
lemoving
he imperi-
1 feat to
his city the
aufe of the
lecline of
he weftern
:mpire.
2
'onftantine
Jefeats the
ioths,
Is highly
refpefted.
CON [22
of Vigor’s, that the one relates to the riches which
Conltantine took from idolatry, and the other to thofe
with which he loaded the church.
Constantine emperor of the Eaft in 1002, left
the care of the empire to his wife Helena, who load¬
ed the people with taxes, and fold all the offices in
church and ftate to the higheft bidders; while the
emperor employed himfelf in reading, writing, and
the fine arts, till he became as good an architect and
painter, as he was a bad prince : he wrote feveral
biographical and geographical works, which would
have done honour to his name, if he had not neglec¬
ted his duty to compofe them. He died in 959.
Constantine (Dracofes), the fon of Emmanuel
Paleologus, was placed on the throne by fultan Amu-
rath in 1448. But Mahomet II. his fuccelfor, refol-
ving to dethrone him, laid fiege to Conftantinople by
fea and land, and took it by alTault in 1453, after it
had held out 58 days. The unfortunate emperor fee¬
ing the Turks enter the breaches, threw himfelf into
the niidft of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the
children of the imperial houfe were maflacred by the
foldiers ; and the women referved to gratify the lull
of the conqueror : and thus terminated the dynafty of
the Conftantines, 1123 years after its eftabliffiment at
Conftantinople.
Constantine (Robert), a learned phylician born
at Caen, taught polite literature in that city ; and ac¬
quired great reputation by his (kill in the Greek lan¬
guage, in hiftory, and in medicine. He died in 1603,
aged 103. He wrote a didtionary in Greek and Latin,
and other works, which are efteemed.
CONSTANTINOPLE, the modern name of the
city of Byzantium in Thrace. It was enlarged and
beautified by the Roman emperor Conftantine the
Great, in the year 330. At the fame time he tranf-
ferred thither the feat of the empire ; and this remo¬
val is generally thought to have been one of the prin¬
cipal caufes of the fudden decline of the weftern em¬
pire after this period.
In the year 332, the Sarmatians implored Conftan¬
tine Vaffiftance againft the Goths, who had made an
irruption into their territories, and deftroyed every
thing with fire and fword. The emperor readily gran¬
ted their requeft, and gained a complete vidtory.
Near rop,ooo of the enemy perilhed, either in the
battle, or after it with hunger and cold. In confe-
quence of this overthrow, the Goths were obliged to
file for peace ; but the ungrateful Sarmatians no foon-
er found themfelves delivered from their enemies,
than they turned their arms againft their benefadlor,
and ravaged the provinces of Moefia and Thrace. The
emperor, receiving intelligence of this treachery, re¬
turned with incredible expedition, cut great numbers
of them in pieces, and obliged the reft to fubmit to
what terms he was pleafed to impofe.
Conftantine feems to have been a prince very highly
refpedled, even by far diftant nations. In 333, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, ambaffadors arrived at Conftanti¬
nople from the Blemyes, Indians, Ethiopians, andPer-
fians, courting his friendlhip. They were received in
a moft obliging manner; and learning from the ambaf¬
fadors qf Sapor king of Perfta, that there were great
numbers of Chfiftians in their mafter’s dominions,
ii ] CON
Conftantine wrote a letter in their behalf to the Per- Conflanti-
fian monarch. nopTitan
Next year, the Sarmatians being again attacked by tnftory^
the Goths, found themfelves obliged to fet at liberty
and arm their flaves againft them. By this means
they indeed overcame the Goths; but the victorious
flaves turning their arms againft their mailers, drove
them out of the country. This misfortune obliged 5
them to the number of 300,000 to apply for relief to He takes a
the Roman emperor, who incorporated with his le- number of
gions fuch as were capable of fervice; and gave fettle-
ments to the reft in Thrace, Scythia, Macedon, and lS ar*
Italy. This was the laft remarkable aCtion of Con- 6
ftantine the Great. He died on May 25^h 337, having His death,
divided the empire among his children and nephews, and divi-
in the following manner. Conftantine, his eldeft fon, fion of the
had Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Conftantius, the fe- cmPire-
cond, had Alia, Syria, and Egypt ; and Conftans, the
youngeft, Illyricum, Italy, and Africa. To his ne¬
phew Dalmatius, he gave Thrace, Macedon, and
Achaia; and to king Annibalianus, his other nephew,
Armenia Minor, Ponrus, Cappadocia, and the city of
Caefarea, which he deftred might be the capital of his
kingdom. ‘ 7
After the death of Conftantine, the army and All his rela-
fenate proclaimed his three fons emperors, without dons mur-
taking any notice of his two nephews, who were foon
after murdered, with Julius Conftantius the late em- (i*ns
peror’s brother, and all their friends and adherents. and two
Thus the family of Conftantine was at once reduced nephews,
to his three fons, and two nephews, Gallus and Julian,
the fons of Julius Conftantius: and of thefe the former
owed his life to a malady, from which no one thought
he could recover; and the latter to his infancy, being
then at moft about feven years of age. The three
brothers divided aipong themfelves the dominions of the
deceafed princes; but did not long agree together. In g
340, Conftantine having in vain folicited Couftans to Conftantine
yield part of Italy to him, railed a confiderable army ; invades the
and under pretence of marching to the affiftance of his dominions
brother Conftantius, who was then at war with the Con"
Perfians, made himfelf mafter of feveral places in Italy. ans*
Hereupon, Conftans detached part of his army againft:
him ; and Conftantine, being drawn into an ambuf- ^
cade near Aquileia, was cut off with his whole forces. is defeated
His body was thrown into the river Anfa ; but bging and killed,
afterwards difeovered, was fent to Conftantinople, and
intered there near the tomb of his father. IO
By the defeat and death of his brother, Conftans re- Conftans
mained foie mafter of all the weftern part of the em- foie mafter
pire, in the quiet poffefiion of which he continued till
the year 350. This year, Magnentius, the fon of one e
Magnus, a native of Germany, finding Conftans de- jviaanentitis
fpiled by the army on account of his indolence and in- revolts a-
adlivity, refolved to murder him, and fet up for him- gainft him.
felf. Having found means to gain over the chief of¬
ficers of the army to his defigns, he feized on the Im¬
perial palace at Autun, and diftributed among the po¬
pulace what fums he found there; which induced not
only the city, but the neighbouring country, to efpoufe
his caufe. But Conftans being informed of what had
palled, and finding himfelf unable to refill the ufurp-
er, fled towards Spain. He was overtaken, however,
by Gaifo whom Magnentius had fent after him with a
13 A 2 chofen
Conftanti-
nopolitan
hiftory.
13
Three pre¬
tenders to
the empire.
Nepotianus
makes him-
feif mafter
of Rome.
He is de¬
feated and
killed.
Tyranny of
Magm
Sends pro-
pofals of
CON [22
chofen body of troops, who difpatched with many
wounds'the unhappy prince at Helena, a fmall village
, fituated near the foot of the Pyrenees.
Thus Conftantius acquired a right to the whole Ro¬
man empire ; though one half of it was feized by Mag-
nentius after the murder of Conftans. The former
had been engaged in a war with the Perfians, in
which little advantage was gained on either fide ; but
the Perfians now giving no more difturbance, the em¬
peror marched again!! the ufurpers in the weft. Be-
fides Magnentius, there were at this time two other
pretenders to the weftern empire. Veteranio, gene¬
ral of the foot in Pannoriia, had, on the firlf news of
the death qf Conftans, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed
emperor by the legions under his command. He was
a native of Upper Media, and advanced in years when
he ufurped the fovereignty ; but fo illiterate, that he
then firft learned to read. The third pretender was
Flavius Popilius Nepotianus, fon of Eutropia the filler
of Conflantine the Great. Having aflembled a com¬
pany of gladiators and men of delperate fortunes, he
affumed the purple on the third of June 350, and in
that attire prefented himfelf before the gates of Rome.
The prefed Anicetus, who commanded there for Mag¬
nentius, fallied out againft him with a body of Ro¬
mans ; who were foon driven back into the city. Soon
after Nepotianus made himfelf mafter of the city it-
felf, which he filled with blood and flaughter. Mag¬
nentius being informed of what had happened, fent
againft this new competitor his chief favourite and
prime minifter Marcellinus. Nepotianus received him
with great refolution ; a bloody battle enfued between
the foldiers of Magnentius and the Romans who had
efponfed the caufe of Nepotianus; but the latter being
betrayed by a fenator, named Heraclitus, his men were
put to flight, and he himfelf killed, after having enjoy,
ed the fovereignty only 28 days. Marcellinus ordered
his head to be carried on the point of a lance through
the principal ftreets of the city ; put to death all thofe
who had declared for him ; and under pretence of pre¬
venting difturbances, commanded a general maflacre
of all the relations of Conftantine. Soon after, Mag¬
nentius himfelf came to Rome to make the neceflary
preparations for refilling Conftantius, who was exert¬
ing himfelf to the utmoft in order to revenge the
death of his brother. In the city he behaved moft
tyrannically, putting to death many perfons of dif-
tin&ion, in order to feize their eftates; and obliged
the reft to contribute half of what they were worth
towards the expence of the war. Having by this
means railed great fums, he affembled a mighty ar¬
my compofed of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks,
Britons, Spaniards, ire. At the fame time, however,
dreading the uncertain ilfues of war, he difpatched
ambafladors to Conftantius with propofals of accom¬
modation. Conftantius fet out from Antioch about the
beginning of autumn ; and, palling through Conftanti-
nople, arrived at Heraclea, where he was met by the
deputies from Magnentius, and others from Veteranio,
who had agreed to fupport each other in cafe the em¬
peror would hearken to no terms. The deputies of
Magnentius propofed in his name a match between him
and Conftantia, or rather Conftantina, the filler of
Conftantius, and widow of Annibalianus; ofleririg, at
12 ] CON
the fame time, to Conftantius the fifter of Magnentius. c0nflantl.
At firft the emperor would hearken to no terms ; but nopolitan
afterwards, that he might not have to oppofe two hiftory. •'
enemies at once, concluded a feparate treaty with
Veteranio, by which he agreed to take him for his
partner in the empire. But when Veteranio afeend-
ed the tribunal along with Conftantius, the foldiers
pulled him down from thence, crying out that they
would acknowledge no other emperor than Conftan¬
tius alone. On this Veteranio threw himfelf at the
emperor’s feet, and implored his mercy. Conftantius
received him with great kindnefs, and fent him to
Prufia in Bithynia, where he allowed him a main¬
tenance fuitable to his quality.
Conftantius, now mafter of all Illyricum, and of
the army commanded by Veteranio, refolved to march jg
againft Magnentius without delay. In the mean time, Gallus fen
however, on advice that the Perfians were pre- againft thd
paring to invade the Eallern provinces, he married PerfianSi
his fifter Conftantina to his coufin-german Gallus;
created him Caefar on the 15 th of March ; and allot-
ed him for his lhare not only all the Eaft, but like-
wife Thrace and Conftantinople. About the fame
time Magnentius gave the tittle of Csefar to his bro¬
ther Decentius, whom he difpatched into Gaul to de¬
fend that country againft the Barbarians who had in-
vaded it; for Conftantius had not only ftirred up the Conftanthi
Franks and Saxons to break into that province by pro- ftirs up ths
mifing to relinquilh to them all the places they fliould ?r^es ta
conquer, but had fent them large fupplies of men and Gaui,6
arms for that purpofe. On this encouragement the
barbarians invaded Gaul with a mighty army, over¬
threw Decentius in a pitched battle, committed every
where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to
a moft deplorable fituation. In the mean time Mag¬
nentius having aflembled a numerous army, left Italy,
and crofling the Alps, advanced into the plains of
Pannonia, where Conftantius, whole main ftrength
confifted in cavalry, was waiting for him. Magnen¬
tius, hearing that his competitor was encamped at a
fmall diftance, invited him by a meflenger to the ex- 20
tenfive plains of Scifcia on the Save, there to decide Is defeated
which of them had the bell title to the empire. This by Mag-
challenge was by Conftantius received with great nentius.
joy ; but as his troops marched towards Scifcia in dif-
order, they fell into an ambufeade, and were put to
flight with great flaughter. With this fuccefs, Mag¬
nentius was fo elated, that he rejected all terms of
peace which were now oflered by Conftantius ; but
after fome time, a general engagement enfued at 21
Murfa, in which Magnentius was entirely defeated, Magnentiusj
with the lofs of 24,000 men. Conftantius, thoughat
vitftor, is faid to have loft 30,000, which feems im- ur2a2
probable. All authors, however, agree, that the battle This battle
of Murfa proved fatal to the weftern empire, and fatal to the
greatly contributed to its fpeedy decline.
After his defeat at Murfa, Magnentius retired into
Italy, where he recruited his fhattered forces as well
as he could. But the beginning of the following year
352, Conftantius, having alfembled his troops, furpri-
fed and took a ftrong caftle on the Julian Alps, belong¬
ing to Magnentius, without the lofs of a man. After
this the emperor advanced in order to force the reft;
upon which Magnentius was ftruck with fuch terror,
that
CON
[ 2213 ] CON
HConflanti-
JEnopolitan
I hiftory.
23
; ^agnentius
A Utempts to
I; get Gallus
ir murdered.
24
Vlagnentius
defeated a
fecond
kills
all his fa¬
mily and
himfelf.
Many grie-
cala¬
mities.
that he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered
the troops that guarded the other paffes of the Alps to
follow him. Thus Conllantius entering Italy without
oppofition, made himfelf mailer of Aquileia. From
thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gain¬
ed a conliderable advantage over him. Notwith-
ftanding this lofs, however, Conllantius reduced the
whole country bordering on the Po, and Magnentius’s
men deferted to him in whole troops, delivering up
to him the places they had garrifoned ; by which the
tyrant was lb dilheartened, that he left Italy, and reti¬
red with all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, Afri¬
ca, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Conftantius ; upon
which Magnentius fent a fenator, and after him fome
bilhops, to treat of a peace ; but the emperor treated
the fenator as a fpy, and fent back the bilhops with¬
out any anfwer.—Magnentius now finding his affairs
defperate, and that there were no hopes of pardon,
recruited his army in the belt manner he could, and
difpatched an affaffin into the E'alt to murder Gallus
Caefar; hoping that his death would oblige the empe¬
ror to withdraw his forces from Gaul, and march in
perfon to the defence of the Ealtern provinces, which
Were threatened by the Perfians. The alfaflin gained
over fome of Callus’s guards; but the plot being dif-
covered before it could be put in execution, they were
all feized and executed as traitors.
In 353, the war again!! Magnentius was carried
on with more vigour than ever, and at lalt happily
ended by a battle fought in the higher Dauphiny.
Magnentius, being defeated, took ftielter in Lyons;
but the few foldiers who attended him, defpairing of
any further fuccels, refolved to purchafe the emperor’s
favour by delivering up to him his rival, the author
of fo calamitous a war. Accordingly they fur-
rounded the houfe where he lodged ; upon which the
tyrant, in defpair, flew with his own hand his mo¬
ther, his brother Defiderius whom he had created
Casfar, and fuch of his friends and relations as were
with him ; and then, fixing his fword in a wall, threw
himfeif upon it, in order to avoid a more lhameful
death which he had reafon to apprehend.
After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decen-
tius Cedar, who was marching to his alfillance, and
had already reached Sens, finding himfelf furrounded
on all fides by the emperor’s forces, chofe rather to
Itrangle himfelf than fall alive into the hands of his
enemies. Thus Conllantius was left foie mailer of
the Roman empire. His panegyrills tell us, that after
his vi(5lory he behaved with the greatell humanity,
forgiving and receiving into favour his greatell ene¬
mies; but other hillorians differ confiderably from
them, and tell us that Conllantius now became haugh¬
ty, imperious, and cruel, of which many inltances are
given.
This year the empire was fubjefted to very grie¬
vous calamities. Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians
beyond the Rhine, and the dilbanded troops of Mag¬
nentius. At Rome, the populace role on account of
a fcarcity of • provifions. In Afia, the Ifaurian rob¬
bers over-ran Lycaonia and Pamphylia; and even laid
fiege to Seleucia, a city of great llrength; which, how¬
ever, they were not able to make themfelves mailers
of. At the fame time, the Saracens committed dread¬
ful ravages in Mefopotamia, the Pcrlians alfo invaded Conflanti-
the province of Anthemufia on the Euphrates. But ^?P°lltan
the Ealtern provinces were not fo much haraffed by ^ ’
the barbarians as by Gallus Ctefar himfelf, who ought 27
to have protected them. That prince was naturally Tyt-anny
of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical dilpofition ; but ot Ga us*
being elated with his luccelfes againft the Perfians, he
at lait behaved more like a tyrant and a madman than
a governor. His natural cruelty is laid to have been
heightened by the inlligations of his wife Conllantina,
who is by Ammianus ftyled the Megara, or “ fury of
her fex and he adds, that her ambition was equal to
her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the
Ealt were filled with blood and flaughter. No man,
however innocent, was litre to live or enjoy his ellate
a whole day ;/or Callus’s temper being equally fufpi-
cious and cruel, thole who had any private enemies
took care to accufe them of crimes again!! the Hate,
and with Gallus it was the fame thing to, be accufed
and condemned. At lait the emperor being informed
from all quarters of the evil conduct of his brother-in-
law, and being at the lame time told that he afpired
to the fovereignty, refolved upon his ruin. For this
end he wrote letters to Gallus and Conllantina, invit¬
ing them both into Italy. Though they had both fuf-
ficient reafon to fear the worll, yet they durlt not
venture to difobey the emperor’s exprefs command.
Conllantina, who was well acquainted with her bro¬
ther’s temper, and hoped to pacify him by her artful
infinuations, let out firll, leaving Gallus at Antioch:
but Ihe had Icarce entered the province of Bithynia,.
when (lie was feized with a fever which put an end
to her life. Gallus now defpairing of being able to
appeafe his fovereign, thought of openly revolting;
but moll of his friends deferted him on account of his
inconllant and cruel temper, fo that he was at lall ol>
liged to fubmit to the pleafure of Conllantius. He ad¬
vanced therefore, according to his orders; but at Pe-
tavium was arrelted, and dripped of all the enfigns of
his dignity. From thence he was carried to Flanonay
now Ftatione in Dalmatia, where he was examined
by two of his molt inveterate enemies. He confelfed
moll of the crimes laid to his charge ; but urged as an
excufe the evil counfels of his wife Conllantina. The 28
emperor, provoked at this plea which reflected on his He is put
filler, and inlligated by the enemies of Gallus, figned to death*
a warrant for his execution, which was performed ac¬
cordingly.
All this time the emperor had been engaged in a "War with
war with the Germans: he had marched againft them the Ger-
in perlbn ; and though he gained no advantage, the mans-
barbarians thought proper to make peace with him.
This, however, was but Ihort-lived. No fooner was
the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to
make new inroads into the empire. Againll them
Conllantius difpatched Arbetio with the flower of the
army ; but he fell into an ambufeade, and was put to
flight with the lofe of a great number of men. This
lols, however, v/as foon retrieved by the valour of Arin-
theus, who became famous in the reign of Valens, and
of two other officers, who falling upon the Germans,
without waiting the orders of their general, put them to
flight, and obliged them to leave the Roman territories.
The tranquillity of the empire, which enfued on
this
CON
He is for¬
ced to re¬
volt.
t 22
Conftanti- this repulfe of the Germans, was foon interrupted by
nopolitan a pretended confpiracy, by which in the end a true
hiftory. one was produced. Sylvanus, a leading man among
g0 the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there per-
Sylvanus formed great exploits againli the barbarians. He had
betrayed by been railed to this poft by Arbetio; but only with a
Arbetio. defign to remove him from the emperor's prefence,
in order to accomplilh his ruin, which he did in the
following manner. One Dynames, keeper of the
emperor’s mules, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus
letters of recommendation to his friends at court ;
which being granted, the traitor erafed all but the
fubfcription. He then inlerted directions to the friends
of Sylvanus for the carrying on a confpiracy ; and de¬
livering thefe forged letters to the prefect Lampri-
dius, they were by him fliewed to the emperor. Thus
Sylvanus was forced to revolt, and caufe himfelf to be
proclaimed emperor by the troops under his command.
In the mean time, however, Bynames having thought
proper to forge another letter, the fraud was dilco-
vered, and an inquiry fet on foot, which brought to
light the whole matter. Sylvanus was now declared
innocent, and letters fent to him by the emperor con¬
firming him in his poll ; but thefe were fcarce gone,
when certain news arrived at court of Sylvanus ha¬
ving revolted, and caufed himfelf be proclaimed em¬
peror. Conllantius, thunderllruck at this news, dif-
patched againft him Urficinus, an officer of great in-,
tegrity, as well as valour and experience in war;
who forgetting his former character, pretended to
be Sylvanus’s friend, and thus found means to cut
him olf by treachery,
ed- The barbarians, who had been hitherto kept quiet
„ ,32 by the brave Sylvanus, no fooner heard of his death,
ged by the t^an t“ey mto Gaul with greater lury than
barbarians, ever. They took and pillaged above forty cities, and
among the relt .Cologne, which they levelled with
the ground. At the fame time the Oiiadi and Sar-
matians enteringPannonia, deltroyed every thing with
fire and fword. The Perfians alfo, taking advantage
of the abfence of Urlicinus, over-ran, without oppo-
fition, Armenia and Mefopotamia ; Profper and Mau-
fbnianus, who had fucceeded that brave commander in
the government of the Eall, being more intent upon
pillaging than defending the provinces committed to
their care. Conllantius, not thinking it advifable to
~~ leave Italy himl’elf, refolved at lall to raife his coufin
Julian ere- Julian, the brother of Callus, to the dignity of Caefar.
ated Cssfar. Julian feems to have been a man of very extraordi¬
nary talents ; for though before this time he had been
entirely buried in obfeurity, and converfed only with
books, no fooner was he put at the head of an army
than he behaved with the fame bravery, condtuft and
experience, as if he had been all his life bred up to
the art of war. He was appointed governor of Gaul;
but before he fet out, Conltantius gave him in marri¬
age his fifler Helena, and made him many valuable
prefents. At the fame time, however, the jealous
emperqr greatly limited his authority ; gave him writ¬
ten inllrudlions how to behave ; ordered the generals
who ferved under him to watch all his aflions no lefs
than thofe of the enemy ; and llribtly enjoined Julian
himfelf not to give any largefles to the foldiery.
Julian fet out from Milan on the Ist of December
4 ]
CON
355, the emperor himfelf accompanying him as fir as Conftanti-
Pavia, from whence he purfued his journey to the nopolitan
Alps, attended only by 360 foldiers. On his arrival hiftoty.
at Turin he was firfl acquainted with the lofs of Co-
rat
[] 1
•der- ]
logne, which had been kept concealed from the em- He fetsout
peror. He arrived at Vienne before the end of the for Gawk -
year, and was received by the people of that city and
the neighbourhood with extraordinary joy.
In 356, the barbarians belieged Autun; to relieve
which place, Julian marched with what forces he
could raife. When he came there he found the fiege
railed ; on which he went in purfitit of the barbarians
to Auxerre, croffing with no fmall danger thick woods
and forefts, from Auxerre to Troies. On his march
he was furrounded on all lides by the barbarians, who
moved about the country in great bodies ; but he put
them to flight with an handful of men, cut great num- Defeats th<
hers of them in pieces, and took fome prifoners. barbariansJ
From Troies hef haliened to Rheims, where the main
body of the army, commanded by Marcellus, waited
his arrival. Leaving Rheims, he took his route to¬
wards Decempagi, now Dieuze, on the Seille in Lor-
rain, with a defign to oppofe the Germans who were
bnfy in ravaging that province. But the enemy at¬
tacking his rear unexpectedly, would have cut off two
legions, had not the reft of the army, alarmed at the
hidden noife, turned back to their alfiftance. A few
days afterwards he defeated the Germans, though with
great lofs to his own army ; the victory, however,
opened him a way to Cologne. This city he found
abandoned by the barbarians. They had negleCted 36
to fortify it: but Julian commanded the,ancient for- Repairs th^
tifications to be repaired with all poffible expedition, fortificati- :
and the houfes to be rebuilt; after which he retired ?ns °f Co’"
to. Sens, and there took up his winter-quarters. This 10Sne*
year alio Conftantius entered Germany on the fide of
Rhsetia, laid walle the country far and wide; and
obliged the barbarians to fue for peace, which was
readily granted. The fame year he enaCted two ^
laws ; by one of which it was declared capital to fa- Idolatry
crifice, or pay any kind of worfltip, to idols; the other, declaredca-
granting the effeCls of condemned perfons to belong Pltal.by
to their children and relations within the third degree, us°n anl
except in cafes of magic and treafon ; but this laft one
lie revoked two years after.
In the begihningof the year 357, the barbarians be-
fieged Julian a whole month in Sens; Marcellos, the
commander in chief, never once offering to affift him.
Julian, however, fo valiantly defended himfelf with
the few forces he had, that the barbarians at laft re¬
tired. After this, Conftantius declared Julian com¬
mander in chief of all the forces in Gaul; appointing
under him one Sever-us, an officer of great experience,
and of a quite different difpofition from Marcellus.
On his arrival in Gaul, Julian received him with great
joy, raifed new troops, and fupplied them with afms
which he luckily found in an old arfenal. The em¬
peror, refolved at all events to put a flop to the ter¬
rible devaftations committed by the barbarous nations,
chiefly by the Alemans, wrote to Julian to march di-
retftly againft them. At the fame time he fent Bar-
batio, who had been appointed general in place of Syl¬
vanus, with a body of 25 or 30,000 men, out of Italy,
in order to inclofe the enemy between two armies.
The
CON [22
iftanti- The Leti, however, a German nation, paffing between
ofolkan the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to d'ur-
,.rt wealthy city ; but meeting with a warmer
reception than they expected, contented themfelves
with ravaging the country all round it. On the firft
notice of this expedition, Julian detached Itrong par¬
ties to guard the paflages through which he knew the
barbarians muft return. . Thus they were all cut off
except thole who marched near the camp of Barbatio;
who was fo far from cutting off their retreat, that he
complained by a letter to Conllantius of fome officers
for attempting it. Thefe officers, among whom was
Valentinian afterwards emperor of the Well, were,
by the orders of Conllantius, calhiered for their dif-
obedience. The other barbarians either fortified
theml'elves in the countries which they had feized,
Hopping up all the avenues with huge trees, or took
ffielter in the iffands formed by the Rhine. Julian re-
folved firft to attack the latter ; and with this view
demanded fome boats of Barbatio : but he, inftead of
complying with his juft requeft, immediately burnt all
his boats, as he did on another occafion the provifions
which had been fent to both armies, after he had plen¬
tifully fupplied his own. Julian, not in the leaft dif-
heartened with this unaccountable conduct, perfua-
ded fome of the moll refolute of his men to wade over
to one of the illands. Here they killed all the Ger-
le forces mans who had taken Ihelter in it. They then feized
he barba- their boats, and purfued the daughter in feveral other
illands, till the enemy abandoned them all, and retired
to their refpe&ive countries with their wives and
what booty they could carry. On their departure,
Barbatio attempted to lay a bridge of boats over the
Rhine ; but the enemy, apprifed of his intention,
threw a great number of huge trees into the river,
which being carried by the itream againll the boats,
funk feveral of them, and parted the reft. The Ro¬
man general then thought proper to retire ; but the
barbarians falling unexpedlediy upon him in his re¬
treat, cut great numbers of his men in pieces, took
molt of his baggage, laid wafte the neighbouring coun¬
try, and returned in triumph loaded with booty. E-
lated with this fuccefs, they affembled in great num¬
bers under the command of Chtmdomarius, a prince of
great renown among them, and fix other kings. They
encamped in the neighbourhood of Stralbourg. Here
they were encountered by Julian ; who put them to
flight, with the lofs of 6 or 8000 of their men flain in
Strafboure t^le anc' a va^'y greater number drowned in the
river ; while Julian himfelf loft only 243 private
men, and 4 tribunes. In this aiftion Chnodomarius
was taken, and fent to Rome, where he foon after
died.
After the battle, Julian advanced with all his army
to Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine
jHe enters and entered Germany, having with difficulty prevailed
upon his army to follow him. Here he ravaged the
country till the time of the autumnal equinox, when
truce with heing prevented by fnow from advancing any further,
the barbari- he began to repair the fort of Trajan, by fome fuppo-
fed to be the caftle of Cromburgh, about three or four
leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians were now
fo much alarmed, that they fent deputies to treat of a
peace; but this Julian refufed to grant them upon
>5 1
CON
i Entirely
1 lefcats
hhem at
any terms. He confented, however, to a truce for Conftanti-
feven months, upon their promifing to ftore with pro- nop^itan
vifions the fort he was building in their country. This 1 or^' ..
year Conftantius made fome remarkable laws. By 42
one he puniflied with confifcation fuch as renounced RemarWa-
the Chriltian for the Jewilh religion ; and, by another
addreffed to Felix biihop of Rome, he exempted all us
merchandizing ecclefiaftics, with their wives, children,
and domeftics, from every impofition ordinary and
extraordinary ; fuppofing the gains they made to be
applied by them to the relief of the poor. 43
In 358, as foon as the feafon was fit for action, Ju- Julian con-
lian took the field againft the Franks, with a defign to quers the
conquer them before the truce he had concluded with Franks*
the Alemans was expired. The Franks were at that
time divided into feveral tribes, the moll powerful of
which were the Salii and Chamavi. The firft of thefe
fent deputies, intreating that he would fuffer them to
remain as friends to the empire in the country they
poffelfed. But Julian, without paying any regard to
this deputation, entered their country, and obliged
them to fubmit; after which he alloted them lands in
Gaul, incorporating great numbers of them into his
cavalry. He next marched againft the Chamavi,
whom he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the
Rhine. Afterwards he rebuilt three forts on the river
Meufe, which had been deftroyed by the barbarians;
but wanting provifions in a country fo often ravaged,
he ordered 6 or 800 yeifels to be built in Britain for
the conveying corn from thence into Gaul. Julian
continued in the country of the Chamavi till the expi¬
ration of his truce with the Alemans ; and then lay¬
ing a bridge of boats over the Rhine, he entered their
country, putting all to fire and fword. At laft two 44
of their kings came in perfon to him to fue for peace : Grants a
which Julian granted, upon their promifing to fet at Peace to ft®
liberty the captives they had taken ; to fupply a cer- Germans‘
tain quantity of corn when required ; and to furnilh
wood, iron, and carriages, for repairing the cities they
had ruined. The prifoners whom he at this time re¬
leafed, amounted to upwards of 20,000. 45
Soon after the vernal equinox of this year 358, Con- Expedition
ftkntius marched in perfon againft the Quadi and Sar- °/Conftan-
matians, whofe country lay beyond the Danube. Ha- fc’* *
ving crofted that river on a bridge of boats, he laid man na_
wafte the territories of the Sarmatians; who thereupon tions.
came in great numbers,, together with the Qbadi, pre¬
tending to fue for peace. Their true defign was to
fiirprife the Romans; but the latter fufpefting it, fell
upon them fword in hand, and cut them all in pieces.
This obliged the reft to fue for peace in good eameft,
which was granted on the delivery of hoftages. The
emperor then marched againft: the Limigantcs, that is,
the flaves who, in 334, had driven the Sarmatians out
of their country, and feized it for themfelves *. They * See n® 5.
ufed the fame artifice as the Sarmatians and Qtiadi had
done, coming in great numbers under pretence of fub-
mitting, but prepared to fall upon him unexpedtedly if
opportunity offered. The emperor, obferving their
furly looks, and diftrufting them, caufed his troops fur-
round them infenfibly while he was fpeaking. The Li-
migantes then difpleafed with the conditions he offered
them, laid their hands on their fwords ; on which
they were attacked by the Roman foldiers. Finding
CON [ 2216 ] CON
Conftanti- it impoffible to make their efcape, they made with
nopohtan great: fUI-y towards the tribunal, but were repulfed by
' the guards forming themfelves into a wedge, and
46 every one of them cut in pieces. After this, the em-
He expels peror ravaged their country to fuch a degree, that they
the Limi- were in the end obliged to. fubmit to the only condi-
gaates. tion he thought proper to allow them, which was to
quit their country and retire to a more diltant place.
The country was then reltored to the Sarmatians who
were its original pofleffors.
Haughty This year is alfo remarkable for a very haughty
embaffy embally from Sapor king of Perfia. The ambada-
from Sapor dor, named Narfes, brought a letter, in which the Per-
pirL0f flan monarch Ityled himfelf “ king of kings, brother
of the fun and moon,” &c. He acquainted the em¬
peror that he might lawfully inlift on having all the
countries beyond the river Strymon in Macedon deli¬
vered up to him ; but left his demands Ihould feem
unreafonable, he would be contented with Armenia
and Mefopotamia, which had been moft unjuftly taken
from his grandfather Narfes. He added, that unlefs
juftice was done him, he was refolved to aflert his
right by force of arms. This letter was prelented to
Conftantius wrapped up in a piece of white lilk ; but
he, without entering into any negociation with the
ambaffador, wrote a letter to Sapor, in which he told
him, that as he had maintained the Roman dominions
in their full extent, when he was poflefled only of the
Eaft, he could not fuffer them to be curtailed now
when he was mailer of the whole empire. In a few
days, however, he Pent another letter with rich pre-
fents; being very defirous at leaft to put oft’ the war
till he had fecured the northern provinces againft the
incurfions of the barbarians, that he might then employ
all the forces of the empire againft fo formidable an
enemy. This embafly proved unfuccefsful, as did al¬
fo another which was fent foon after. The laft am-
43 baftadors were imprifoned as fpies, but afterwards
A law e- difmifted unhurt. By a law of Conftantius dated in
gainftma- 358, all magicians, augurs, altrologers, and pretenders
gicians, ire. t:0 t[ie art; Gf divination, were declared enemies to
mankind ; and fuch of them as were found in the
court either of the emperor or of Julian, he com¬
manded to be put to the torture, and fpecified what
torments they were to undergo.
In 359, Julian continued his endeavours for relie¬
ving the province of Gaul, which had fuffered fo much
from the incurfions of the barbarians. He eredted
magazines in difterent places, vilited the cities which
had fuffered moft, and gave orders for repairing their
walls and fortifications properly. He then crofted the
49 Rhine, and purfued the war in Germany with great
Treachery fuccefs, infomuch that the barbarians fubmitted to fuch
of the Li- terms as he pleafed to impofe. In the mean time the
nugantes. emperor, having received intelligence that the Limi-
gantes had quitted the country in which he had placed
them, haftened to the banks of the Danube, in order
to prevent their entering Pannonia. On his arrival
he fent deputies defiring to know what had induced
them to abandon the country which had been alloted
them. The Limigantes anfwered, in appearance
with the greateft fubmiflion' imaginable, that they
were willing to live as true lubjedls of the empire in
any other place; but that the country he had alloted
them was quite uninhabitable, as they could demonftrate Confhnti*
if they were but allowed to crols the river, and lay uopolitan
their complaints before him. This requeft was grant- hiftory. .
ed; but wlple he afeended his tribunal, the barbarians
unexpecftedly fell upon his guards fword in hand, kil¬
led leveral of them, and the emperor with difficulty
laved himfelf. by flight. The reft of the troops, how- 50 ;
ever, foon took the alarm, and furrounding the Limi- They are ;
gantes, cut them all off to a man. This year Con- cut off.S
ilantius inllituted a court of inquifition againft all Tile5lirea n
thofe who confulred heathen oracles. Paulus Catena, the^s C1a^ s
a noted and cruel informer, was dilpatched into the Eaft eliy perfe-
to profecute them ; and Modeftus, then count of the cuted.
Eaft, and equally remarkable for his cruelty, was ap¬
pointed judge. His tribunal was erected at Scytho-
polis in Paleltine, whither perfons of both fexes, and
of every rank and condition, were daily dragged in
crowds from all parts, and either confined in dun¬
geons, or torn in pieces in a moft cruel and barba¬
rous manner by racks, or publicly executed. s2
In 359, £apor king of Perfia began hoflilities, be- The Perfi-1
ing encouraged thereto by the ablence of Urficinus, ans .bfgin
whom the emperor had recalled, and appointed in his h^dities. j
room one Sabinianus, a perfon very unfit for fuch an
office. During this campaign, however, he made
very little progrefs ; having only taken two Roman
forts, and deftroyed the city of Amida, the fiege of
which is laid to have cofl him 30,000 men. On the
firft news of the Perfian invafion, Conftantius had
thought proper to fend Urficinus into the Eaft; but his
enemies prevented him from receiving the fupplies
neceflary for carrying on the war, fb that he found
it impoffible to take any effedlual means for flopping
the progreis of the Perfians. On his return, he was
unexpectedly charged with the lofs of Amida, and all
the difafters that had happened during the campaign.
Two judges were appointed to inquire into his con¬
duit ; but they, being creatures of his enemies, left
the matter doubtful. On this Urficinus was fo much
exafperated, that he appealed to the emperor, and in
the heat of paffion, let fall fome unguarded expref-
fions, which being immediately carried to the em¬
peror, the general was deprived of all his employ¬
ments. ^ w
Conftantius refolved to march next year in perfon Conftantius |j’
againft the Perfians; but in the mean time, dreading marches in J*
to encounter fo formidable an enemy, he applied him- Fc.rf<in
felf wholly to the aflembling of a mighty army, by ^am 'em"; j
which he might be able fully to cope with them. For
this purpole he wrote to Julian to fend him part of
his forces, without confidering that by fo doing he
left the province of Gaul expoied to the ravages of
the barbarians. Julian refolved immediately to com¬
ply with the emperor’s orders ; but at the fame time
to abdicate the dignity of Ctefar, that he might not
be blamed for the lofs of the province. Accordingly
he fuffered the bell foldiers to be draughted out of his ^
army. They were, however, very unwilling to.leave Julian prb-: i
him, and at laft proclaimed him emperor. Whether claimed em- ^
this was done abfolutely againft Julian’s confent or not is perdr. ^
uncertain ; but he wrote to the emperor, and perlh^-
dell.the whole army alfo to fend a letter along with his,
in which they acquainted Conftantius with what had
happened, and entreated him to acknowledge Julian as
his
C O N
[ 2217 ]
C O N
n'KConftand-
q nopolitan
ligior
his partner in the empire. But this was pofitively re-
ful'ed by Conftantius, who began to prepare for war.
Julian then, defigning to be before-hand with the em¬
peror, caufed his troops take an oath of allegiance to
himfelf, and with (brprifing expedition made himfelf
f matter of the whole country of Illyricum, and the
important pafs feparating that country from Thrace.
55 Conftantius was'thunder-ttruck with this news; but
'onftantius hearing that the Perttans had retired, he marched
n^r<o en-a* w*tk f°rces against his competitor. On his ar-
»»<• dies.1”1’ rival at Tar‘'us in Cilicia, he was feized with a feve-
rifh diftemper, occattorted chiefly by the uneafinefsand
perplexity of his mind. He purfued his march, how¬
ever, to Mopfucrene, -a. place on the borders of Cili¬
cia, at the foot of Mount Taurus. Here he was obli¬
ged to flop by the violence of his diforder, which in-
. creafed every day, and at laft carried him off on the
56 13th of November 3.61, in the 45th year of his age.
ifujulian re- By the death of Conftantius, Julian now became
tores the matter of the whole Roman empire without a rival,
“leathen re- j_je jia{j peen educated in the Chrirtian religion ; but
fecretly apottatized from it long before, and as fpon as
he faw himfelf matter of Illyricum, openly avowed
his apoftafy, and caufed the temples of the gods to be
opened. When the mettengers arrived at Naiffus in
Illyricum, where he then was, to acquaint him with
his being foie matter of the empire, they found him
confulting the entrails of vuftims concerning the event
of his journey. As the omens were uncertain j he was
at that time very much embarraffed and perplexed ;
but the arrival of the mettengers put an end to all his
fears, and he immediately fet out for Conftantinople.
At Heraclea he was met by almott all the inhabitants
of this metropolis, into which he made his public en¬
try on the 11th of December 361, being attended by
- the whole fenate in a body, by all the magittrates, and
by the nobility magnificently dreffed, every one tetti-
fying the utmoft joy at feeing fuch a promifmg young
prince raifed to the empire without bloodflied. He
was again declared emperor by the fenate of Con-
llantinople.; and as foon as that ceremony was over*,
he caufed the obfequies of Conftantius to be perform¬
ed with great pomp.
Condemns The firft care of Julian was to inquire into the con-
fome of the dmft of the late emperor’s minifters. Several of thefe,
late empe- having been found guilty of enormous crimes, were
tor s mini- con(jemne(] an4 executed ; particularly the noted in¬
former Paulus Catena, and another named Apodamus,
were fentenced to be burnt alive. Along with thefe,
however, was put to death one Urfufa, a man of un¬
exceptionable character, and to whom Julian himfeff
was highly indebted. He had been fupplied with mo--
ney by Urfula unknown to the emperor, at the time
when he was fent into Gaul with the title of Caefar,
but without the money neceffary for the fupport of
that dignity. For what reafon he was now put to
death, hiftorians do not acquaint us. Julian himfelf
tells us that he was executed without his knowledge.
The emperor next fet about reforming the court.
As the vaft number of offices was in his time become
an intolerable burden, he difcharged all thofe whom
he thought ufelefs. He reduced, among the reft, the
officers called agentes in rebus, from 10,000 to 17;
and difcharged thoufands of cooks, barbers, \Ac. who
Vol. III.
by their large falaries drained the exchequer. The Conftanti-
curioji, whole office it was to inform the emperor of nopolitan
what had patted in the different provinces, were all lllltory'
difcharged, andfhat employment entirely fupprefled.
Thus he was enabled to eal’e the people of the heavy
taxes with which they were Joaded : and this he did
by abating a fifth part of all taxes and impotts through¬
out the kingdom. ^
As to religious matters, Julian, as before obferved. Recalls the
Was a Pagan, and immediately on his acceflion to the philofo-
throne, reftored the heathen religion. He invited to P-'cj”’s
court, the philofophers, magicians, tfc. from all parts ; ^lcla"s’ c'
neverthelefs he did not raife any perfecution againft
the Chriftians. On the contrary, he recalled from ba-
nilhment all the orthodox bilhops who had been fent
into exile during the former reign ; but with a de-
lign, as is obferved both by the Chriftian and Pagan
writers, to raife difturbances and low diflenfions in the
church. 60
As the Perfians were now preparing to carry on Marches a-
the war with vigour, Julian found himfelf under a |ainft the
neceflity of marching againft them in perfon. But ^cr ianS*
before he fet out, he enriched the city of Conftanti¬
nople with many valuable gifts. He formed a large
harbour to Ihelter the Ihips from the fouth wind, built
a magnificent porch leading-to it, and in another porch
a ftately library, in which he lodged" all his books. In
the month of May, A. D. 362. he fet out for Antioch,
and on the firft of January renewed in that city the
facrifices to. Jupiter for the fafety of the empire, which
had been fo long oipitted. During his ftay in this ci¬
ty, he continued his preparations for the Perfian war,
erecfting magazines, making new levies, and above all
confulting the oracles, arufpices, magicians, &c. The
oracles of Delphi, Delos, and Dodona, aflured him of
victory. The arufpices, indeed, and moft of his cour¬
tiers and officers, did all that lay in their power to di¬
vert him from his intended expedition ; but the de¬
ceitful anfwers of the oracles and magicians, and the
defire of adding the Perfian monarch to the many
kings he had already feen humbled at his feet, prevail¬
ed over all other confiderations. Many nations fent
deputies to him offering their affiftance, but thefe of¬
fers he rejected, telling them that the Romans were to
aflift their allies, but ttood in no need of any aflift-
ance from them. He likewife rejected, and in a very
difobliging manner, the offers of the Saracens; an-
fwering them, when they complained of his flopping
the penlion paid them by other emperors, that a war¬
like prince had fteel, but no gold; which they refent-
ing, joined the Perfians, and continued faithful to them
to the laft. However, he wrote to Arfaces king of
Armenia, enjoining him to keep his troops in readinefs
to execute the orders he ffiould foon tranfmit to him. 61
Having made the necettary preparations for fo im- Croffes the
portant an enterprife, Julian fent orders to his troops Euphrates,
to crofs the Euphrates, defigning to enter the enemy’s
country before they had the leaft notice of his march ;
for which purpofe he had placed guards on all the
roads. From Antioch he proceeded to Litarba, a place
about 15 leagues dittant, which he reached the fame
day. From thence he went to Bersea, where he halted
a day, and exhorted the council to reftore the worlhip
of the gods; but this exhortation, it feems, was com-
13 B plied
CON
[ 22
CON
Conftantt-
nopolitan
hiftory.
67
Lays wafte
AfTyria.
plied with but by few. From Beraea he proceeded to
Batnae ; and was better pleafed with the inhabitants of
the latter, becaufe they had, before his arrival, re-
ftored the worfliip of the gods. There he offered fa-
crifices; and having immolated a great number of vic¬
tims, he purfued the next day his journey to Hiera-
polis, the capital of the province of Euphratefiana,
which he reached on the 9th of March. Here he
lodged in the houfe of one for whom he had a parti¬
cular efteem, chiefly becaufe neither Conftantius nor
Gallus, who had both lodged in his houfe, had been
able to make him renounce the worfhip of his idols.
As he entered this city 50 of his foldiers were killed
by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapolis on the 13th
of March; and having pafled the Euphrates on a bridge
of boats, came to Batnae a fmall city of Ofrhoene,
about 10 leagues from Hierapolis ; and here 50 more
of his foldiers were killed by the fall of a ftack of
ftraw. From Batnae he proceeded to Carrhae ; where,
in the famous temple of the moon, it is laid he facri-
ficed a woman to that planet.
While Julian continued in this city, he received ad¬
vice that a party of the enemies horfe had broke into
the Roman territories. On this he refolved to leave
an army in Mefopotamia, to guard the frontiers of the
empire on that fide, while he advanced on the other
into the heart of the Perlian dominions. This army
confided, according to fome, of 20,000, according to
others, of 30,000 chofen troops. It was commanded
by Procopius, and Sebaftian a famous manichean who
had been governor of Egypt, and had perfecuted
there, with the utmoft cruelty, the orthodox Chriftians.
Thefe two were to join, if poffible, Arfaces king of
Armenia, to lay walte the fruitful plains of Media,
and meet the emperor in Aflyria. To Arfaces Julian
himfelf wrote, but in the moft difobliging manner ima¬
ginable, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did
not execute, with the utmoft pumftuality, the orders
given him ; and at the conclufion told him, that the
God he adored would not be able to fcreen him from
his indignation.
There were two roads leading from Carrhae to Per-
fia ; the one to the left by Nifibis; the other to the
right through the province of Aflyria, along the banks
of the Euphrates. Julian chofe the latter, but caufed
magazines to be creeled on both roads; and, after
having viewed his army, fet out on the 25 th of March.
He pafled the Abora, which feparated the Roman and
Perfian dominions, near its conflux with the Euphra¬
tes ; after which he broke down the bridge, that his
troops might not be tempted to defert, feeing they
could not return home. As he proceeded on his march,
a foldier and two horfes were ftruck dead by a flafh
of lightning; and a lion of an extraordinary fize pre-
fenting himfelf to the army, was in a moment dif-
patched by the foldiers with a Ihower of darts. Thefe
omens occafioned great difpures between the philofo-
phers and aurifpices: the latter looking upon them as
inaufpicious, advifed the emperor to return ; but the
former refuted their arguments with others more
agreeable to Julian’s temper.
Having pafled the Abora, Julian entered Aflyria,
which he found very populous, and abounding with
all the neceflaries of life ; but he laid it wafte far and
18 ]
near, deftroying the magazines and provifions which
he could not carry along with him ; and thus he put
it out of his power to return the fame way he came,
a ftep which was judged very impolitic. As he met
with no army in the held to oppofe him, he advanced
to the walls of Ctefiphon, the metropolis of the Per¬
fian empire ; having reduced all the ftrong holds that
lay in his way. Here, having caufed ,fhe canal to be
cleared, which was formerly dug by Trajan between
thefe two rivers, he conveyed his fleet from the for¬
mer to the latter. On the banks of the Tigris he was
oppofed by the enemy. But Julian pafled that river
in fpite of their utmoft efforts, and drove them into
the city with the lofs of a great number of their men,
he himfelf, in the mean time, lofing only 70 or 75.
Julian had now advanced fo far into the enemy’s
country, that he found it neceflary to think of a re¬
treat, as it was impoflible for him to winter in Per-
fia. For this reafon he made no attempt on Ctefi¬
phon, but began to march back along the banks of
the Tigris, foon after he had pafled that river. In
the mean time the king of Perfia was aflembling a
formidable army, with a defign to fall upon the Ro¬
mans in their march; but being defirous of putting an
end to fo deftrudlive a war, he fent very advantage¬
ous propofals of peace to Julian. Thefe the Roman
emperor very imprudently rejected ; and foon after,
deceived by treacherous guides, he quitted the river,
and entered into an unknown country totally laid wafte
by the enemy, and where he was continually harafled
by ftrong parties, who in a manner furrounded his ar¬
my, and attacked him fometimes in the front, and
fometimes in the rear. A ftill worfe ftep he was per-
fuaded to take by the treacherous guides already men¬
tioned ; and this was to burn his fleet, left it fhould fall
into the hands of the enemy. As foon as the fleet was
fet on fire, the whole army cried out, that the emperor
was betrayed, and that the guides were traitors em¬
ployed by the enemy. Julian ordered them immedi¬
ately to be put to the rack, upon which they confefled
the treafon ; but it was too late. The fleet was al¬
ready in flames; they could by no means be extin-
guiflied; and no part was faved except 12 veflels,
which were defigned to be made ufe of in the building
of bridges, and for this purpofe were conveyed over
land in waggons.
The emperor thus finding himfelf in a ftrange coun¬
try, and his army greatly difpirited, called a council
of his chief oflicers, in which it was refolved to pro¬
ceed to Corduetie, which lay fouth of Armenia, and
belonged to the Romans. With this view, they had
not proceeded far when they were met by the king
of Perfia, at the head of a very numerous army, at¬
tended by his two fons, and all the principal nobility
of the kingdom. Several {harp encounters happened,
in which though the Perfians were" always defeated,
yet the Romans reaped no advantages from their vic¬
tories, but were reduced to the laft extremity for want
of provifions. In one of thefe Ikirmifhes, when the
Romans were fuddenly attacked, the emperor, eager
to repulfe the enemy, haftened to the field of battle
without his armour, when he received a mortal wound
by a dart, which, through his arm and fide, pierced
his very liver. Of this wound he died the fame night,
the
Conftami'
nopolitan
hiftory.
Advances
to Ctefi-
69 •
Begins his 4
retreat, but
is diftrefled
provilions.
70
Is mortally
wounded ?"
a hidden
attack by
the Per-
CON
t
peac«
'ith the
i ’erfians.
the 26‘h of Jure 363, in the 33d year of his age, after
having reigned i’carce 20 months from the time he be¬
came 1’ole mailer of the Roman empire.
As Julian had declined naming any fucceffor, the
choice of a new emperor devolved on the army. They
unanimoufly choie Jovian, a very able commander,
s e empire. wj10j|g father had lately refigned the poll of comes do-
inefticorum, ip order to lead a retired life. The va¬
lour and experience of Jovian, however, were not
fufficient to extricate the Roman army from the diffi¬
culties in which they had been plunged by the impru¬
dence of his predeteifor. The famine raged in the camp
to fuch a degree, that not a iingle man would have been
left alive, had not the Perlians unexpectedly fent pro-
pofals of peace. Thefe were now received with the
utmoil joy. A peace was concluded for 30 years ; the
terms of which were, that Jovian ffiould reilore to
the Perlians the five provinces which had been taken
from them in the reign of Dioclelian, with feveral
eailles, and the cities of Nifibis and Singara. After
the conclufion of the treaty, Jovian purfued his march
without molellation. When he arrived at Antioch,
he revoked all the laws that had been made in the
former reign againil Chriilianity and in favour of pa-
ganifm. He elpoufed alfo the caufe of the orthodox
Chriilians againil the Arians ; and recalled all thofe
who had been formerly baniihed, particularly Athana-
fms, to whom he wrote a very obliging letter with
his own hand. It is generally believed alfo that Atha-
nafms, at the defire of Jovian, now compofed the
creed which ilill goes by his name, and is fubfcribed
by all the biihops in Europe. But this emperor did
not live to make any great alterations, or even to
vifit his capital as emperor ; for in his way to Con-
llis death, ilantinople he was found dead in his bed, on the lb'*1
or 17th of February 364, after he had lived 33 years,
and reigned feven months and 40 days.
Valentinian After the death of Jovian, Valentinian was chofen
.hofen em- emperor. Immediately on his acceffion the foldiers
choofes Va anc' with great clamour required him to
lens for his choofe a partner in the fovereignty. Though he did
partner. not inilantly comply with their demand, yet in a few
days he chofe his brother Valens for his partner; and,
as the empire was threatened on all fides with an in-
vafion of the barbarous nations, he thought proper to
divide it. This famous partition was made at Mediana
in Dacia ; when Valens had for his ffiare the whole of
Afia, Egypt, and Thrace ; and Valentinian all the
Weft ; that is, IHyrkum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain,
and Africa.
After this partition, Valens returned to Conftanti-
nople, where the beginning of his reign was difturbed
by the revolt of Procopius, a relation of Julian. On
the death of that emperor, he had fled into Taurica
Cherfonefus for fear of Jovian ; but not trufting the
barbarians who Inhabited that country, he returned in
difguife into the Roman territories, where having
gained over an eunuch of great wealth, by name Eu-
genius, lately dilgraced by Valens, and fome officers
who commanded the troops fent againft the Goths,
he got himfelf proclaimed emperor. At firft he was
joined only by the loweft of the people, but at length
he was acknowledged by the whole city of Conftanti-
nople. On the news of this revolt, Valens would
19 ] CON
have abdicated the fovereignty, had he not been pre- Conltami-
vented by the importunities of his friends. He there- nopohtau
fore difpatched Pome troops againft the ufurper; but u ory'
thefe were gained over, and Procopius continued for
fome time to gain ground. It is probable he would
finally have fucceeded, had he not become fo much
elated with his good fortune, that he grew tyranni¬
cal and infupportable to his own party. In confe-
quence of this alteration in his difpofition, he was firft T , Z6 ,
abandoned by fome of his principal officers; and foon andput to
after defeated in battle, taken prifoner, and put to death,
death. ^
This revolt produced a war betwixt Valens and the War with
Goths. The latter, having been lolicited by Proco- the Goths,
pius, had fent 30CXD men to his affiftance. On hear¬
ing the news of the ufurper’s death, they marched
back; but Valens detached againft them a body of
troops, who took them all priibners notwithftanding
the vigorous refiftance they made. Athanaric, king
of the Goths, expoftulated on this proceeding with
Valens; but that emperor proving obftinate, both
parties prepared for war. In 367 and 369, Valens
gained great advantages over his enemies; and ob¬
liged them to fue for peace, which was concluded up¬
on terms very advantageous to the Romans. The
reft of this reign contains nothing remarkable, except
the cruelty with which Valens perfecuted the ortho- .y.
dox clergy. The latter fent 80 of their number to Eighty or-
him, in order to lay their complaints before him ; but thodox
he, inftead of giving them any relief, determined to clergy ec-
put them all to death. But the perfon who was or- c^a^!cs
dered to execute this fentence, fearing left the pub- deatb°
lie execution of fo many ecclefiaftics might raife dif-
turbances, ordered them all to be put on board a ffiip,
pretending that the emperor had ordered them only
to be fent into baniffiment; but when the veffel was
at fome diftance from land, the mariners fet fire to it,
and made their own efcape in the boat. The ffiip was
driven by a ftrong wind into an harbour, where it
was confumed and all that were in it. A perfecution Magicians
was alfo commenced againft magicians, or thofe who perfecuted,
had books of magic in their cuftody. This occafioned
the deftrudlion of many innocent perfons; for books
of this kind were often conveyed into libraries un¬
known to the owners of them, and this was certainly
followed by death and confilcation of goods. Here¬
upon perlbns of all ranks were feized with fuch terror
that they burnt their libraries, left books of magic ffiould
have been fecretly conveyed in amongft the others.
In 378, the Goths whom Valens had admitted into
Thrace, advanced from that province to Macedon
and Theffaly, where they committed dreadful ra¬
vages. They afterwards blocked up the city of Con-
ftantinople, plundered the fuburbs, and at laft totally Valens de-
defeated and killed the emperor himfelf. The day af- feated and
ter the battle, hearing that an immenfe treafure was killed by
lodged in Adrianople, the barbarians laid fiege to that the Goths‘
place: but being quite ftrangers to the art of befieging
towns, they were repulfed with great daughter; up¬
on which they dropped that enterprize, and returned
before Conftantinople. But here great numbers of
them were cut in pieces by the Saracens, whom Ma¬
ria their queen had fent to the afliftance of the Ro¬
mans ; fo that they were obliged to abandon this de-
13 B 2 fign
CON [ 3220 ] CON
Conftanti- fign Sikewife, and retire from the neighbourhood of
nopolitan that city.
hlftory' By the death of Valens, the empire once more fell
81 into the hands of a fingle perfon. This was Cratian,
Gratian who had held the empire of the Weft after the death of
dafiuTfor0' Valentinian. He repulfed many barbarous nations who
his partner, threatened the empire at that time with diffolution ;
but finding himfelf prefled on all fides, he foon refolv-
ed to take a colleague, in order to eafe him of fome
part of the burden. Accordingly, on the 19th of Ja¬
nuary 379, he declared Theodolius his partner in the
empire, and committed to his care all the provinces
which had been governed by Valens.
Theodofius is greatly extolled by the hiftorians
of thofe ages on account of his extraordinary valour
and piety; and for thefe qualifications has been
honoured with the furname of the Great. From the
many perfecuting laws, however, made in his time,
it would feem that his piety was at leaft very much
mifguided ; and that if he was naturally of a humane
and compaffionate difpofition, fuperftition and paffion
had often totally obfcured it. He certainly was a
man of great conducft and experience in war, and in-
82 deed the prefent ftate of the empire called for an ex-
Miftrable ertion of all his abilities. The provinces of Dacia,
ftate of the Thrace, and Illyricum, were already loft ; the Goths,
his acceffi- Taifali, Alans, and Hunns, were mafters of the great-
en. eft part of thefe provinces, and had ravaged and laid
wafte the reft. The Iberians, Armenians, and Per-
fians, were likewife up in arms, and ready to take ad¬
vantage of the diftratfted ftate of the empire. The
few foldiers, who had furvived the late defeat, kept
within the ftrong holds of Thrace, without daring fo
much as to look abroad, much lels face the victorious
enemy, who moved about the country in great bo¬
dies. But notwithftanding this critical fituation, the
hiftorians of thofe times give us no account of the
tranfadiions of the year 379. Many great battles in¬
deed are laid to have been fought, and as many vic¬
tories obtained by Theodofius ; but the accounts of
thefe are fo confided and contradictory, that no ftrefs
can be laid upon them.
In the month of February 380, Theodofius was
feized with a dangerous malady, fo that Gratian found
himfelf obliged to carry on the war alone. This em¬
peror, apprehending that the neighbouring barbarians
might break into fome of the provinces, concluded a
peace with the Goths, which was confirmed by Theo¬
dofius on his recovery. The treaty was very advan¬
tageous to the barbarians; but they, difregarding all
their engagements, no fooner heard that Gratian had
left Illyricum, than they palled the Danube, and
breaking into Thrace and Pannonia, advanced as far
83 as Macedon, deftroying all with fire and fvvord.
The Goths Theodofius, however, drawing together his forces,
defeated by marched againft them ; and, according to the moft re-
“o- fpeClable authorities, gained a complete victory ;
though Zofimus relates, that he was utterly defeated.
The following year, Athanaric, the moft powerful
of all the Gothic princes, being driven out by a faCtion
at home, recurred to Theodofius, by whom he was
received with great tokens of friendfiiip. The em¬
peror himfelf went out to meet hirrr> arid attended
him with his numerous retinue into the city. The
Gothic prince died the fame year; and Theodofius Condantj. ;
caufed him to be buried after the Roman manner with nopolitan ;
fuch pomp and folemnity, that the Goths, who attend-
ed him in his flight, returned home with a refolution
never to moleft the Romans any more. Nay, out of
gratitude to the emperor, they took upon them to
guard the banks of the Danube, and prevent the em¬
pire from being invaded on that fide. ^ 84
In 383, one Maximus revolted againft Gratian in Gratian
Britain ; and in the end, having got the unhappy em-
peror into his power, caufed him to be put to death, ^s axi’ ;!
and alfumed the empire of the Weft himfelf. Gra- '
tian had divided his dominions with his brother Va-
lentinian, whom he allowed to reign in Italy and Weft
Illyricum, referving the reft to himfelf. Maximus
therefore, immediately after his ufurpation, fent de- »
puties to Theodofius, affurihg him that he had no de-
figns on the dominions of Valentinian. As Theodofius
at that time found himfelf in danger from the barba¬
rians, he not only forbore to attack Maximus after
this declaration, but even acknowledged him for his g5
partner in tlie empire. It was not long, however, be- who in-
fbre the ambition of the ufurper prompted him to vades the
break his promife. In 387, he paffed the Alps on a dominions
fudden, and meeting with no oppofition marched to 0fValentl*
Milan where Valentinian ufually refided. The young
prince fled firft toAquileia; and from thence to Thef-
falonica, to implore the protection of Theodofius.
The latter, in anfwer to Valentinian’s letter; inform¬
ed him, that he was not at all furprifed at the pro-
grefs Maximus had made, becaufe the ufurper had
protected, and Valentinian had perfecuted, the ortho¬
dox Chriftians. At laft he prevailed on the young
prince to renounce the' Arian herefy which he had hi¬
therto, maintained ; after which Theodofius promifed
to afltft him with all the forces of the Ealt. At firft,
however, he lent mcflengers to Maximus, earneftly
exhorting him to reitore the provinces he had taken
from Valentinian, and content himfelf with Gaul,
Spain, and Britain. But the ufurper would hearken gg
to no terms. This very year he befieged and took His fuccefs.
Aquileia, Qiiaderna, Bononia, Mutina, Rhegium, Pla¬
centia, and many other cities in Italy. The following
year he was acknowledged in Rome, and in all the
provinces of Africa. Theodofius therefore, finding a
war inevitable, fpent the remaining months of this
and the beginning of the following year in making the
necellary preparations. His army confifted chiefly of
Goths, Hunns, Alans, and other barbarians, whom he
was glad to take into the fervice in order to prevent
their raifing difturbances on the frontiers. He defeat- Defeated
ed Maximus in two battles, took him prifoner, and put and put te
him to death. The ufurper had left his fon Victor,
whom he created Auguftus, in Gaul, to awe the in- 0*
habitants in his abfence. Againft him the emperor
difpatched Arbogaftes, who took him prifoner after
having difperfed the troops that attended him, and
put him to death. The vicftory was ufed afterwards
by Theodofins with great clemency and moderation. 88
In 389, Theodofius took a journey to Rome ; and. The tem-
according to Prudentius, at this time converted the ?•« m A-
fenate and people from idolatry to Chriftianity. The ^an na*
next year was remarkabl,e for the deftrinftion of the throughout
celebrated temple of Serapis in Alexandria ; which, all Egypt*
according deftroyed.
CON
[ 2221 ]
CON
gpnft'anti- according to the defcription of Ammianus Marcellinus,
ftpolitan furpaffed all others in the world, that of Jupiter Capi-
liftory- tolinus alone excepted. The reafon of its being now
dellroyed was as follows. Theophilus, bilhop of Alex-
hated as Eugenios was beloved by the gods, ire. But Conftantl-
though Eugenius feemed to favour the Pagans, yet in nopolitan
the very beginning of his reign he wrote ’ to St Am- hiftory-
brofe. The holy man did not anfwer his letter till
andria, having begged and obtained of the emperor he was prtfled by fome friends to recommend them to
an old.temple, formerly confecrated to Bacchus, but
then mined and forfaken, with a delign to convert it
into a church, the workmen found among the rubbifh
feveral obfeene figures, which the bilhop, to ridicule
the fuperftition of the heathens, caufed to be exppfed
to public view. This provoked the Pagans to Inch a
degree that they flew to arms; and falling unexpec¬
tedly upon the Chrillians, cut great numbers of them
in pieces. The latter, however, foon took arms in
their own defence ; and being fupported by the few
foldiers who were quartered in the city, began to re¬
pel force by force. Thus a civil war was kindled,
and no day paifed without fome encounter. The Pa¬
gans ufed to retire to the temple of Serapis ; and
thence fallying out unexpectedly feized on fuch Chrif-
tians as they met, and, dragging them into the tem¬
ple, either forced them by the molt exquifite torments
to facrifice to their idol, or, if they refufed, racked
them to death. As they foon expeCted to be attacked
by the emperor’s troops, they chofe a philofopher,
named Olympus, for their leader, with a defign to de¬
fend themfelves to the laft extremity. The emperor,
however, would not fuffer any punifhment to be inflic¬
ted upon them for the lives of thofe they had taken
away, but readily forgave them ; however, he order¬
ed all the temples of Alexandria to be immediately
pulled down, and commanded the bilhop to fee his or¬
ders put in execution. The Pagans no fooner heard
that the emperor was acquainted with their proceed¬
ings than they abandoned the temple, which was in a
Ihqrt time deftroyed by Theophilus; nothing being
left except the foundations, which could not be remo¬
ved on account of the extraordinary weight and fize
of the Hones. Not fatisfied with the dellruCtion of
the Alexandrian temples, the zealous bilhop encoura¬
ged the people to pull down all the other temples,
oratories, chapels, and places fet apart for the.wor-
the new prince ; and then he wrote to this infamous
ufurper with all the refpect due to an emperor. Soon
after his acceflion to the empire, Eugenius fent depu¬
ties to Theodofius; and they are faid to have been re¬
ceived by him in a very obliging manner. He did
not, however, intend to enter into any alliance with
this ufurper, but immediately began his military pre¬
parations. In 394, he fet out from Conllantinople,
and was at Adrianople on the i5‘h of June that year.
He bent his march through Dacia, and the other pro¬
vinces between Thrace and the Julian Alps, with a
defign to force the palfes of thefe mountains, and break
into Italy before the army of Eugenitis was in a con¬
dition to oppofe him. On his arrival at the Alps, he
found thefe pafles guarded by Flaviahus prefed. of Italy,
at the head of a confiderable body of Roman troops.
Thefe were utterly defeated by Theodofius, who
thereupon crolfed the Alps and advanced into Italy.
He was foon met by Eugenius; and a bloody battle
enfued, without any decilive advantage on either fide.
The next day.the emperor led his troops in pe'rfon
againft the enemy, utterly defeated them, and took
their camp. Eugenius was taken prifoner by his own Eugenius
men and brought to Theodofius, who reproached him defeated,
with the murder of Valentinian, with the calamities taken pri-
he had brought on the empire by his nnjufl ufur- foner’ aiul
pation, and with putting his confidence in Hercules,
and not in the true God ; for on his chief ftandand he
had difplayed the image of that fabulous hero. Euge¬
nius begged earneflly for his life; but while he lay pro-
ftrate at the emperor’s feet, his own foldiers cut oft*
his head, and carrying it about on the point of a fpear,
Ihewed it to thofe in the camp, who had not yet fubmit-
ted to Theodofius. At this they were all thunderftruck;
but being informed that Theodofius was ready to receive
them into favour, theythrew down their arms and fob- 9l
mitted. After this Arbogaftes defpairing of pardon fled Arbogaftes
flip of the heathen gods throughout Egypt, and the to the mountains; but being informed that diligent fearch lays vio-
llatues of the gods themfelves to be either burnt or ™— —J-' r~“ u:~ t'- 1 — t—J- - u:~rlent han<3&
melted down. Of the innumerable ftatues which at
that time were to be found in Egypt, he is faid to
have fpared but one, viz. that of an ape, in order to^ the opportunity of converting them to Chriftianity, re-
was made for him, he laid violent hands on himfelf.
His children, and thofe of Eugenius, took fanfluary in
churches: but the emperor not only pardoned, but took
expofe the Pagan religion to ridicule. On. his return
to Conftantinople, Theodofius ordered fuch temples as
were yet Handing to be thrown down, and the Arians
to be every where driven out of the cities,
i In 392, Valentinian, emperor of the Weft, was
treacheroufly murdered by ArbogaHes his general;
flored to them their paternal eflates, and raifed them
to confiderable employments in the Hate. Soon after
this Theodofius appointed his fon Honorius emperor of
the Wefl, affigninghim for his ftiare, Italy, Gaul, Spain,
Africa, and weft Illyricum. The next year, as he pre- Theodofius
pared for his return to Conftantinople, he was feized dies.
89 .
Valentiman
murdered    ,   j o o
by Aibo- who, though he might afterwards have eafily feized with a dropfy, owing to the great fatigues he had un-
gaftes wno   1 _ _ /-  .— *. ■.... i.^1 r ..1..«/"V. ... , ........ .1,...c .t...n... .1.0...A. J"..... .... 1... I 1.■.
raifes Eu
genius to
the empire.
* on the fovereignty himfelf, chofe to confer it upon
one Eugenius, and to reign in his name. This new
ufurper, though a Chriftian, was greatly favoured by
the Pagans, who were well apprifed that he only bore
the title of emperor, while the whole power lodged in
Arbogaftes, who pretended to be greatly attached to
their religion. The arufpices began to appear a-new,
and informed him that he was deftined to the em¬
pire of the whole world ; that he would foon gain
a complete victory over Theodofius, who was as much
dergone during the war. As foon as he perceived him¬
felf to be in danger, he made his will, by which he be¬
queathed the empire of the Eaft to Areadius, and con¬
firmed Honorius in the pofleflion of the Weft. He like-
wife confirmed the pardon which he bad granted to all
thofe who had borne arms againft him, and remitted a
tribute which had proved very burdenfome to the peo¬
ple ; and charged his two fons to fee thefe points of his
will executed. He died at Milan on the 1 yth of January
395, in the 16th of his reign, and 50th of his age.
From
CON
[ 2222 ]
CON
Conftanti- From the time of Theodofius to the time when the
nopolitan Roman empire, in the Weft was totally deftroyed by
hittory. tjie GothSj we find but very little remarkable in the
94 hiftory of Conftantinople. At this time the eaftern
Empire u- ' " ‘
furped by
Bafilifcus.
his partner Juftinian, revived in fome meafure the an¬
cient martial Ipirit which had originally railed the
Roman empire to its higheft pitch of grandeur.
Juftin afcended the throne in 518. In 521 he en-
l* empire was ufurped by Balilifcus, who had driven out gaged in a war with the Perfians, who had all along
Zeno the lawful emperor ; being affifted in his confpi-
racy by the emprefs Verina his lifter. Zeno fled in¬
to Ifauria, whither he was purfued by Ulus and Tre-
condrs, two of the ulurper’s. generals ; who having
eafily defeated the few troops he had with him, for¬
ced the unhappy prince to Ihut himfelf up in a caitle,
which they immediately invefted. But in a fhort
time Bafililcus having difobliged the people by his cru¬
elty, avarice, and other bad qualities, for which he was
no lefs remarkable than his predecelfor had been, his
generals joined with Zeno whom they reftored to the
throne. After his reftoration, Zeno having got Bafilif-
eus into his power, confined him in a caftle of Cappado-
95 cia together with his wife Zenonides, where they both
Is ftarved perilhed with hunger and cold. This happened in the
to death. year ^ ^ aftcl- Bafililcus had reigned about 20 months.
G ^ur*ng t*ie °f rt”8 ufurpation a dreadful fire hap-
a/conftan- pened at Conftantinople, which confumed great part
tinople. the city, with the library containing 120,000 vo¬
lumes ; among which were the works of Homer,
written as is faid on the great gut of a dragon 120
feet long.
The misfortunes which Zeno had undergone did
not work any reformation upon him. He ftill conti¬
nued the fame vicious courfes which had given occa-
fion to the ufurpation of Bafilifcus. Other confpira-
cies were formed againft him, but he had the good
fortune to efcape them. He engaged in a war with
the Oftrogoths, in which he proved unluccefsfui, and
was obliged to yield the provinces of Lower Dacia
and Moelia to them. In a Ihort time, however, Theo-
doric their king made an irruption into Thrace, and
advanced within 15 miles of Conftantinople, with a
delign to beliege that capital: but the following year
been very formidable enemies to the Roman name,
Againft them he employed the famous Belifarius; but
of him we hear nothing remarkable till after the ac-
eeflion of Juftinian. This prince was the nephew of
Juftin, and was by him taken as his partner in the em¬
pire in 527 ; and the fame year Juftin died, in the
77th year of his age and 9th of his reign. Juftinian
being now foie mailer of the empire, bent his whole
force againft the Perfians. The latter proved fuccelf-
ful in the firit engagement; but were foon after utterly
defeated by Belifarius on the frontiers of Perfia, and
likewife by another general named Dorotheus in Ar¬
menia. The war continued with various fuccefs du¬
ring the firft five years of Juftinian’s reign. In the
fixth year a peace was concluded upon the following
terms : r. That the Roman emperor Ihould pay to
Cofrhoes the king of Perfia, 1000 pounds weight of
gold. 2. That both princes Ihould reftore the places
they had taken during the wars. 3. That the com¬
mander of the Roman forces Ihould no longer refide
at Daras on the Perfian frontiers, but at a place called
Conftantina in Mefopotamia, as he had formerly done.
4. That the Iberians, who had fided with the Romans,
Ihould be at liberty to return to their own country, or
ftay at Conftantinople. This peace, concluded in 532,
was fly led eternal; but in the event proved of very
fhort duration.
About this time happened at Conftantinople the
greateft tumult mentioned in hiftory. It began among
the difl'erent fadlions in the circus, but ended in an
open rebellion. The multitude, highly diflatisfied with
the conduct of John the prefettus pratorio, and of Tre-
bonianus then queftor, forced Hypatius, nephew to the
emperor Anaftafius, to accept the empire, and pro-
Juftiniai
Great tu¬
mult in
Conftanti¬
nople.
485, they retired in order to attack Odoacer king of claimed him with great folemnity in the forum. As
Italy; of which country Theodoric was proclaimed
king in 493. The emperor Zeno died in the year
ijy 491, in the 65 th year of his age, and 17th of his reign,
dine of The Roman empire had now for a long time been
the Roman on the decline : the ancient valour and military difci-
” piine which had for fuch a long time rendered the Ro-
empire, !
what
ing.
the two above mentioned minifters were greatly ab¬
horred by the populace on account of their avarice,
Juftinian immediately difcharged them, hoping by
that means to appeafe the tumult: but this was fofar
from anfwering the 'purpofe, that the multitude only
grew the more outrageous upon it; and moll of the
mans fuperior to other nations, had greatly degenera- fenators joining them, the emperor was lb much alar
ted; fo that they were now by no means lb powerful as ed, that he had thoughts of abandoning the city and
formerly. The tumults and diforders which had hap- l';'- ~r-—- r-~ I - *u:- J;,~  
pened in the empire from time to time by the many
ulurpations, had contributed alfo to weaken it very
much. But what proved bf the greateft detriment
was the allowing vail fwarms of barbarians to fettle
in the different provinces, and to ferve in the Roman
empire in feparate and independent bodies. This had
proved the immediate caul’e of the diftblution of the
weftern empire ; but as it affedled the eaftern parts
lefs, the Conftantinopolitan empire continued for up¬
wards of 900 years after the weftern one was totally
diflblved. The weak and imprudent adminillration of confiderabie body of troops. Being then apprifed of
98 Zeno and Anaftafius who fucceeded him, had reduced the ufurpation of Hypatius, he marched llraight to the
widerTuf- tlie ea^ern empire ftill more ; and it might poflibly circus ; fell fword in hand upon the difarmed multi-
t'rnandjuf- liave expired in a Ihort time after the weftern one, tude ; and with the aflillanee of a band of Heruli,
tiiiian. had not the wife and vigorous condudl of Juftin, and headed by Mundus governor of Jllyricum, cut about
30,000
making his efcape by fea. In this dilemma the e
prefs Theodora encouraged and perfuaded him rather
to part with his life than the kingdom ; and he at laft
refolved to defend himfelf to the utmoft, with the few
fenators who had not yet abandoned him. In the
mean time the rebels having attempted in vain to
force the gates of the palace, carried Hypatius in tri¬
umph to the circus; where, while he was beholding
the fports from the imperial throne, amidft the Ihouts
and acclamations of the people, Belifarius, who had
been recalled from Perfia, entered the city with a
See Bar~
dry and
■oths.
ioi
.nother
ar with
le Perfi-
is.
102
?eace con-
tluded.
* See Belt-
farius.
CON [ 2223 ] CON
30,000 of them in pieces. Hypatius the ufurper, and
Pompeius another of the nephews of Anaftafius, were
taken prifoners and carried to the emperor, by whole
orders they were both beheaded, and their bodies caft
into the fea. Their eftates were confifcated, and like-
wife the ellates of fuch lenators as had joined with
them ; but the emperor caufed great part of their
lands and effects to be afterwards reltored, together
with their honours and dignities, to their children.
Juftinian having now no other enemy to contend
with, turned his arms againft the Vandals in Africa,
and the Goths in Italy ; both which provinces he re¬
covered out of the hands of the barbarians *. But be¬
fore his general Balifarius had time to eftablilh fully
the Roman power in Italy, he was recalled in order
to carry on the war againft Cofrhoes king of Per-
lia, who, in defiance of the treaty formerly concluded
in 540, entered the Roman dominions at the head of
a powerful army. The fame year, however, a peace
was concluded between the two nations upon the fol¬
lowing conditions : 1. That the Romans fhould, with¬
in two months, pay to the Perfian king 5000 pounds
weight of gold, and an annual penfion of 500. 2. That
the Perfians Ihould relinquilh all claim to the fortrefs
of Daras, and maintain a body of troops to guard the
Cafpian gates, and prevent the barbarians from break¬
ing into the empire. 3. That upon payment of the
above mentioned fum, Cofrhoes fhould immediately
withdraw his troops from the Roman dominions. The
treaty being figned, and the ftipulated fum paid, Cof¬
rhoes began to march back again but by the way
plundered feveral cities as if the war had ftill conti¬
nued. Hereupon Juftinian refolved to purfue the war
with the utmoft vigour ; and for that purpofe dif-
patched Belifarius into the Eaft. But foon after, he
was obliged to recal him in order to oppofe the Goths
who had gained great advantages in Italy after his de¬
parture. The Perfian war was then carried on with
indifferent fuccefs till the year 558, when a peace was
concluded upon the emperor again paying an immenfe
fum to the enemy. The fame year the Hunns, puf¬
fing the Danube in the depth of winter, marched in
two bodies dire<5tly for Conftantinople; and laying
wafte the countries through which they paffed, came,
without meeting the leaft oppofition, within 150 fur¬
longs of the city. But Belifarius marching out againft
them with an handful of men, put them to flight; the
emperor, however, to prevent them from invading
the empire anew, agreed to pay them an annual tri¬
bute, upon their promifing to defend the empire a-
gainft all other barbarians, and to ferve in the Roman
armies when required. This was the laft exploit per¬
formed by Belifarius, who on his return to Conftanti¬
nople was difgraced, ftripped of all his employments,
and confined to his houfe, on pretence of a confpiracy
againft the emperor *. In the year 565 a real con¬
fpiracy was formed againft Juftinian, which he happily
efcaped, and the confpirators were executed ; but the
emperor did not long furvive it, being earned off by
a natural death in 566, in the 39*h year of his reign.
During the reign of Juftinian, the majefty of the
Roman empire feemed to revive. He recovered the
provinces of Italy and Africa out of the hands of the
barbarians, by whom they had been held for a num¬
ber of years; but after his death they were foon loft> Conrtanri.
and the empire tended faft to diffolution. In 569 nopolitan
Italy was conquered by the Lombards, who held it for LiWy.
the fpace of 200 years. Some amends, however, 103
was made for this lofs by the acquifition of Perfar- Decline of
vienia; the inhabitants of which, being perfecuted by e^P‘1;e
the Perfians on account of the Chriftian religion which 1
they profefled, revolted to the Romans. This pro¬
duced a war between the two nations, who conti¬
nued to weaken each other, till at laft the Perfian mo¬
narchy was utterly overthrown, and that of the Ro¬
mans greatly reduced by the Saracensf. Thefe new t See^™-
enemies attacked the Romans in the year 632, and b,a%
purfued their conquefts with incredible rapidity. In
the fpace of four years they reduced the provinces of
Egypt, Syria, and Paleftine. In 648 they were alfo
mafters of Mefopotamia, Phoenicia, Africa, Cyprus, A-
radus, and Rhodes ; and having defeated the Roman
fleet, commanded by th'e emperor Conftans in perfon,
they concluded a peace on condition of keeping the
vaft extent of territory they had feized, and paying
for it 1000 nummi a-year. 104
An expedition againft the Lombards was about this Unfuccefs-
time undertaken, but with very little fuccefs, a body ^ expedi*
of 20,000 Romans being almoft entirely cut off by one
of the Lombard generals. In 671 the Saracens rava- bards,
ged feveral provinces, made a defeent in Sicily, took
and plundered the city of Syracufe, and over-ran the
whole ifland, deftroying every thing with fire and
fword. In like manner they laid wafte Cilicia ; and
having paifed the winter at Smyrna, they entered I0S
Thrace in the winter of the year 672, and laid fiege Conitanti-
to Conftantinople itfelf. Here, however, they were nople be-
repulled with great lofs: but next fpring they renew- fieged by
ed their attempt, in which they met with the fame ,he Sara*
bad fuccefs; many of their Ihips being burnt by the
fea-fire, as it was called, becaufe it burnt under wa¬
ter ; and in their return home their fleet was wreck¬
ed off the Scyllaean promontory. At laft a peace
was concluded for 30 years, on condition that the
Saracens fhould retain all the provinces they had fei¬
zed ; and that they fhould pay to the emperor and
his fucceffors 3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 Haves,
and as many choice horfes. 106
This peace was fcarce concluded, when the empire Empire in-
was invaded by a new enemy, who proved very vaded by
troublefome for a long time. Thefe were the Bulga- ga"
rians; who breaking into Thrace, defeated the Roman
army fent againft them, and ravaged the country far
and wide. The emperor confented to pay them an
annual penfion, rather than continue a doubtful War ;
and allowed them to fettle in Lower Moefia, which
from them was afterwards called Bulgaria. In 68 7,
they were attacked by Juftinian II. who entered
their country without provocation, or regarding the
treaties formerly concluded with them. But they fal¬
ling fuddenly upon him, drove him out of their coun¬
try, and obliged him to reftore the towns and captives
he had taken. In 697, this emperor was depofed ;
and in his exile fled to Trebelis king of the Bulga¬
rians, by whom he was kindly entertained, and by
whole means he was reftored to his throne j but foon
forgetting this favour, he invaded the country of the
Bulgarians, with a defign to wreft from them thofe
provinces
CON
[
CON
Conftatiti-
nopolitan
hiftory.
They de¬
feat Jufti-
108
Their coun-
ravaged by
hJicepho-
109
Who is cut
off with his
whole ar-
Their coun¬
try invaded
by Bafi-
lius II.
provinces which he had yielded to them. He was at¬
tended in this expedition by no better fuccefs than his
ingratitude deferved, his army being utterly defeated,
and he himfelf obliged to make his efcape in a light
veffel to Conltantinople. The Bulgarians continued
their inroads and ravages at different times, generally
defeating the Romans who ventured to oppofe them,
till the year 800, the feventh of the reign of Nicepho-
rus, when they furprifed the city of Sardica in Mcelia,
nnd put the whole garrifon conlifting of 6000 men to
the fword. The emperor marched againft them with
a confiderable army : but the enemy retired at his ap¬
proach ; and he, in Head of purfuing them, returned to
Conllantinople. Two years after, he entered Bulga¬
ria at the head of a powerful army, deflroying every
thing with fire and fword. The king offered to con¬
clude a peace with him upon honourable terms; but
Nicephorus, rejecting his propofals, continued to wafte
the country, deftroying the cities, and putting all the
inhabitants, without diltin&ion of fex or age, to the
fword. The king was fo much affected with thefe
cruelties which were exercifed on his fubjeccts, that he
fent a fecond embaffy to Nicephorus, offering to con¬
clude a peace with him upon any terms, provided he
would quit his country. But Nicephorus difmifling the
ambafladors w ith fcorn, the Bulgarian monarch attacked
unexpectedly the Roman camp, forced it, and cut off al*
molt the whole army, with the emperor himfelf, and a
great number of patricians. His fucceffor Michael like-
wife engaged in a war with the Bulgarians; but being
utterly defeated, he was fo grieved that he refigned the
empire. After this the Bulgarians continued to be very
formidable enemies to the empire, till the year 979,
when they were attacked by Bafilius II. The Bulga¬
rians were at that time governed by a king named
2224 ]
From this danger he was relieved by, the arrival of Conftam
Nicephorus Xiphias, governor of Phtlippopolis, with a nopohts
conliderabld body of troops ; who falling upon the _ hlftoi'y‘
enemies rear, put them to flight. Bafilius purfued 1
them dole ; and having taken an incredible number of His r
captives, caufed their eyes to be pulled out, leaving to ft,1'011
every hundred a guide with one eye, that he might et^‘
conduCt them to Samuel. This Ihocking I'peClade io
affeCted the unhappy king, that he fell into a deep
fwoon, and died two days after. The Roman empe¬
ror purified his conquefts, and in the fpace of two
years made himfelf malter of molt of the enemies
Itrong holds. He defeated alfo the fuccellor of Sa¬
muel in feveral engagements; and having at lafl: j
killed him in battle, the Bulgarians fubmitted them-The conn*
felves without referve. The valt treafures of their try fubdu?
princes were by Bafilius diftributed among his foldiers ecl’
by way of donative. Soon after, the widow of the
late king, with her fix daughters and three of her
fons, liirrendered themfelves to the Roman emperor,
by whom they were received with the utmoft civility
and rel'peCf. This obliging behaviour encouraged the
three other fons of the late king, and moft of the
princes of the blood, who had taken Ihelter in the
mountains, to fubmit, and throw themfelves on the
emperor’s mercy.
IbatzeS, however, a perfon nearly allied to the Ibatzes a-||
royal family, who had diftinguilhed himfelf in a very lone
eminent manner during the whole courle of the war, out‘
refufed to fubmit, and fled to a fteep and craggy moun¬
tain, with a delign to defend himfelf there to the lafb
extremity. Bafilius endeavoured to caufe him fubmit
by fair means, but he equally defpifed both threats and ]
promifes. At laft Eullathius Daphnomelus, whom He is taker
Bafilius had lately appointed governor of Achridus, by a ftrataj
Samuel; who having ravaged the Roman territories the chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to fecure him by ®enu
as was the common praClice of his nation, Bafilius fent
againft him one Nicephorus Uranus at the head of a
moft defperate and improbable fcheme. Without
communicating his defign to any, he repaired, with
powerful army. Uranus, leaving his baggage at La- two perfons in whom he could confide, to the moun¬
tain on which Ibatzes had fortified himfelf. He hoped
to pafs undifcovered among the many ftrangers who
flocked thither to celebrate the approaching feaft of
rifla, reached by long marches the Sperchius, and
encamped with his whole army over againft the ene¬
my, who lay on the oppofite bank. As the river
was greatly fwelled with the heavy rains that had the Virgin Mary, for whom Ibatzes had a particular
lately fallen, Samuel, not imagining the Romans would - veneration. In this he found himfelf miftaken ; for
attempt to pals it, fuffered his troops to roam in large
parties about the country in queft of booty. But Ura-
s having at length found out a place where the river
laffed it in the dead of the night with-
was fordable, paf w
out being perceived. He then fell upon the Bulgari¬
ans who were left in the camp, and lay for the moft
part afleep; cut great numbers of them in pieces; took
a great number of prifoners, with all their baggage ;
and made himfelf mafter of their camp. Samuel
and his fon were dangeroufly wounded; and would
have been taken, had they not all that day conceal¬
ed themfelves among the dead. The next night
they ftole away to the mountains of iEtolia, and from
thence made their efcape into Bulgaria. The follow-
he was known by the guards, and carried before the
prince. To him he pretended to have fomething of
importance to communicate ; but as foon as Ibatzes
had retired with him into a remote place, Daphnome¬
lus threw himfelf fuddenly upon him, and with the af-
fiftance of the two men whom he had brought with
him, pulled out both his eyes, and got fafe to an aban¬
doned caftle on the top of the hill. Here they were
immediately furrounded by the troops of Ibatzes ; but
Daphnomelus exhorting them now to fubmit to the
emperor, by whom he aflured them they would be
well received, they congratulated Daphnomelus on his
fuccefs, and fuffered him to condutft the unhappy
Ibatzes a prifoner to Bafilius. The emperor was no
ing year the emperor entered Bulgaria at the head of lefs furprifed than pleafed at the fuccefs of this bold
a numerous and well-difciplined army; defeated Sa¬
muel in a pitched battle, and took feveral ftrong cities.
The emperor himfelf, however, at laft, narrowly efca-
ped being cut off with-his whole army ; being unex-
pefitedly attacked by the Bulgarians in a narrow pafs.
attempt; and rewarded Daphnomelus with the go¬
vernment of Dyrrhachium, and all the rich moveables
of his prifoner. After this, having accomplifhed the
entire reduction of Bulgaria, he returned to Conftan-
tinople with an incredible number of captives; where
he
CON
[ 2225 ]
CON
Conftanti-
Hnopolitan
ii hiftory.
he was received by the 1’enate and people with all gan to refledl on what he had told him. Soon after Conftanti-
poffible demonftiations of joy. he fent Afan his brother’s fon with an army of 20,000 nopolitan
Ail this time, the Saracens had at intervals inva- men to reduce Media. Puri'uant to his oiders the h’ftoiT-
ded the Roman dominions, and even attempted to young prince entered that country, and committed 118
make themfelves mailers of Conftantinople. Their every where dreadful ravages ; but being in the end A Turkifh.
internal div^iiions, however, rendered them now much drawn into an ambulh by the Roman generals, he a.rm.y en*
lefs formidable enemies than they had formerly been ; was cut off with his whole army. Tangrolipix, noway ^ ^ Cllt
lb that fome provinces were even recovered for a difcouraged by this misfortune, fent a new army into „
time out of their hands ; though the weak and dif- Media near 100,000 Itrong; who after having rava- They again
tradled Hate of the empire rendered it impoffible to ged the country without oppolition, laid liege to Artza invade the
a place of great trade, and therefore reckoned the empire,
moll wealthy in thofe parts. Not being able to re¬
duce it by any other means, they let it on fire; and thus
in a Ihort time it was utterly dellr.oyed: the buildings
„ , being reduced to alhes, and 150,poo of the inhabitants
ted their ancient habitations in the neighbourhood of perifhing either by the flames or the fword. After
_ mount Caucalhs, and palfed the Cafpian llreights, fet- this Abraham Halim, half-brother to Tangrolipix,
tied in Armenia Major, about the year 844. There hearing that the Romans, reinforced with a body of
they continued an unknown and defpicable people, till troops under the command of Liparites governor of
the intelline wars of the Saracens gave them an op- Iberia, had taken the field, marched againllthem, and 120
portunity of aggrandizing themfelves. About the year offered them battle; which they not declining, the two An obfti-
1030, Mohammed the fon of SambraeJ fultan of Per- armies engaged with incredible fury. The vi&ory nate cn-
fia, not finding himfelf a match for Pifaris fultan of continued long doubtful; but at length inclined.to the Eagcment•
Babylon, with whom he was at war, had recourfe to Romans ; who neverthelefs did not think proper to
purfue the fugitives, as their general Liparites was
taken prifoner. The emperor, greatly concerned for
the captivity of Liparites, difpatched ambaffadors with
rich prefents, and a large fum of money to redeem
him, and at the fame time to conclude an alliance with
Tangrolipix. The fultan received the prefents; but
generoufly returned them together with the money to
Liparites, whom he fet at liberty without any ranfom s
only requiring him, at his departure, never more to
bear arms againft the Turks. Not long after, Tan-
preferve fuch conquefls. But in 1041, the empire
was invaded by an enemy, not very powerful at that
S^urkf thC time indeed, but who by degrees gathered Hrength
ur s‘ fuificient to overthrow both the Roman and Saracen
[Account of empi1'es’ Thefe were the Turks; who having quit-
the Turks, who fent him 3000 men under the com¬
mand of one Tangrolipix a leading man among them.
By their afliltance Mohammed defeated his adverfary;
but when the Turks defired leave to return home, he
refufed to part with them. Upon this they withdrew
without his confent to a neighbouring defart; and be¬
ing there joined by feveraldifcontented Perfians, began
to make frequent inroads into the fultan’s territories.
Againll them Mohammed immediately difpatched an
army of 20,000 men ; who, being furprifed in the
night, were utterly defeated by Tangrolipix. The grolipix fent a perfon of great authority among the
fame of this victory drew multitudes to him from all Turks, with the charadler of ambaffador, to Conftan-
parts ; fo that in a Ihort time Tangrolipix faw himfelf tinople ; who having arrogantly exhorted the empe-
at the head of 50,000 men. Upon this Mohammed
marched againft them in perfon, but; was thrown from
his horfe in the beginning of the engagement and kil¬
led by the fall; upon which his men threw down their
arms, and fubmitted to Tangrolipix.
After this victory the Turkilh general made war upon
the fultan of Babylon ; whom he at length flew, and an¬
nexed his dominions to his own. He then fent his ne-
tI7 phew, named CW/«-MeyZ’j, againft the Arabians; butby
They de- them he was defeated, and forced to fly towards Media,
feat the Ro- Through this province he was denied a pafl’age by Ste-
fubmit to his mafter, and acknowledge himfelf
his tributary, was ignominioufly driven out of the city.
Tangrolipix,highly affronted at the reception his am¬
baffador had met with, entered Iberia while the em¬
peror Conftantine Monomachus was engaged in a
war with the Patzinaca, a Scythian nation. Having I2I
ravaged that country, he returned from thence to The Turks
Media ; and laid liege to Mantzichierta, a place de- befiege
fended by a numerous garrifon, and fortified with a Mantzichi-
triple wall and deep ditches. However, as it was crta‘
_ _ , „ . fituated in an open plain country, he hoped to be ma-
phen the Roman governor upon which Cut lu-Moles fter of .it in a lliort time. But finding the befieged
was obliged to force a paffage by encountering the Ro- determined to defend themfelves to the laft extremity,
man army. Thefe he put to flight, took the governor he refolved to raife the fiege, after he had continued
himfelf prifoner, and without any further oppofition it 30 days. One of his oflicers, however, named vf/-
reached the confines of Perlia, where he fold Stephen can, prevailed on him to continue it but one day long-
for a Have. Returning from thence to Tangrolipix, er, and to commit the management of the attacks to
he excufed, in the bell manner he could, his defeat him. This being granted, Alcan difpofed his men
by the Arabians; but at the fame time acquainted him with fuch Ikill, and fo encouraged them by his ex-
with his viftory over the Romans in Media, encou- ample, that, notwithftanding the vigorous oppofition
raging him to invade that fertile country, which he they met with, the place would have probably been
faid might be eafily conquered, as it was inhabited by taken, had not Alcan been flain as he was mounting
none but ■women, meaning the Romans. At that time the wall. The befieged, knowing him by the rich-
Tangrolipix did not hearken to his advice, but march- nefs of his armour, drew him by the hair into the ci-
ed againft the Arabians at the head of a numerous ty, and cutting off his head threw it over the wall 132
army. He was, however, attended with no better among the enemy ; which fo dilheartened them, that The fiege
fuccefs than his nephew had been ; and therefore be- they gave over the affault and retired. The next raired-
Vol. III. 13 C fpring
CON r 2226 1 CON
Conflanti- fpring Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged Iberia with
nopolitan the utmoft cruelty, fparing neither fex nor age. But
hiftory. on t)ie approach of the Roman army he retired to
Tauris, leaving 30,000 men behind him to infell the
frontiers of the empire. This they did with great
fuccefs, the borders being through the avarice of
Monomachus unguarded. Till the time of this em¬
peror, the provinces bordering on the countries of the
barbarians had maintained, at their own charge, forces
to defend them ; and were on that account exempted
from paying tribute : but as Monomachus exacted from
them the lame fums that were paid by others, they
were no longer in a condition to defend themfelves.
In 1063 died the« emperor Conftantine Ducas, ha-,
ving left the empire to his three fons, Michael, An-
jjg drohicus, and Conllantine : but as they were all
The em- very young, he appointed the emprefs Eudocia regent
prefs Eudo- during their minority, after having required of her
cia forced an oati) never to marry ; which oath was with great
thatfhiTwill folemnity lodged in the hands of the patriarch. He
never mar- likewife obliged the fenators folemnly to fwear that
ry. they would acknowledge none for their fovereign but
his three fons. No fooner, however, was he dead,
than the Turks, hearing that the empire was go¬
verned by a woman, broke into Mefopotamia^ Cili¬
cia, and Cappadocia, deftroying all with fire and
fword. The emprefs was no way in a condition to
oppofe them, the greater part of the army having
been dilbanded in her hulband’s life-time, and the
troops that were Hill on foot being undifciplined, and
altogether unfit for fervice. The concern which this
gave the emprefs, was aggravated by the feditious
fpeeches of a difcontented party at home, who re¬
peated, on all occafions, that the prefent Hate of af¬
fairs required a man of courage and addrefs at the
helm, inllead of 3 weak and helplefs woman ; and as
they imagined the emprefs would never think of mar¬
rying, in confequence of the oath Ihe had taken, they
J24 hoped by thefe fpeeches to induce the people to re-
The em- v°fi> -and chufe a new emperor. This Eudocia was
profs deter- aware of; and therefore determined to prevent the
mines to evils that threatened herfelf and her family, by mar-
break her ryjng fome perfon of merit who was capable of de-
a * feating her enemies both at home and abroad. At
this time one Romania Diogenes, a perfon of a moll
beautiful afpedl, extraordinary parts, and illuftrious
birth, being accufed of afpiring to the empire, tried
and convidled, was brought forth to receive fentence
of death. But the emprefs, touched with compaffion
at his appearance, gently upbraided him with his am¬
bition, let him at liberty, and foon after appointed
him commander in chief of all her forces. In this
I2 ftation he acquitted himfelf fo well, that the emprefs
She reco- refolved to marry him if flie could but recover the
vers the writing in which her oath was contained out of the
writing in hands of the patriarch. In order to this flie applied
which it tQ a favourite eunuch ; who going to the patriarch
tained>.n” tolc' him> that the emPref's was taken with his ne'
phew named Bardas, that flie was determined to mar¬
ry and raife him to the empire, provided the patri¬
arch abfolved her from the oath flie had taken, and
convinced the fenate of the lawfulnefs of her marriage.
The patriarch, dazzled with the profpetfl of his ne¬
phew’s promotion, readily undertook to perform both.
He firlt obtained the confent of the fenate by repre- Conflanti-
fenting to them the dangerous Hate.of the empire, "opolitan^
and exclaiming againft the rafli oath which the jea- 1111 01 ^
loufy of the late'emperor had extorted from the em¬
prefs. He then publicly difeharged her from it; re-
flored the writing to her; and exhorted her to marry
fome deferring perfon, who being entrulled with an
abfolute authority, might be capable of defending the I26
empire. The emprefs, thus difeharged from her oath. And mar- !
married a few days after, Romanus Diogenes; who rles Roma-
was thereupon proclaimed emperor, to the great dif- nus Diogw
appointment of the patriarch.
As the new emperor was a man of great activity
and experience in war, he no fooner law himfelf
veHed with the fovereign power, than he took Upon I27 .
him the command of the army, and palfed over into He pafles
Afia with the few forces he could affc mble, recruiting over into i
and inuring them on his march to military difeipline,
which had been utterly neglected in the preceding
reigns. On his arrival ii; this continent, he was in¬
formed that the Turks had furprifed and plundered
the city of Neocncfarea, -xnA were retiring with their I2g
booty. On this news he haHened after them at the He defeats,
head of a chofen body of light-armed troops, and die Turks^
came up with them on the third day. As the Turks
were marching in diforder, without the leaH appre-
henfion of an enemy, Romanus cut great numbers of
them in pieces, and eafily recovered the booty ; after
which he purfued his march to Aleppo, which he re¬
took from them, together with Hierapolis, where he
built a llrong callle.
As he was returning to join the forces he had left Gains a fe~
behind him, he was met by a numerous body of cond vifto-;
Turks, who attempted to cut off his retreat. At ry.
firlt he pretended to decline an engagement through
fear ; but attacked them afterwards with fuch vigour
when they leaft expelled it, that he put them to flight
at the firit onfet, and might have gained a complete
victory had he thought proper to purfue them. After
this, feveral towns fubmitted to him ; but the feafon
being noW far fpent, the emperor returned to Con-
Haminople. The following year he pafled over into
Afia early in the fpring ; and being informed that the
Turks had Hacked the rich city of Iconium, befides
gaining other confiderable advantages, he marched in l2(!>
perfon again!! them. But the Turks, not thinking it They are
advifeable to wait his coming, retired in great halle. again de-
The Armenians, however, encouraged by the ap- Hated,
proach of the emperor’s army, fell upon the enemy
in the plains of Tarfus, put them to flight, and Hrip-
ped them both of their baggage and the booty they
had taken. The fpring following the emperor once
more entered Afia at the head of a confiderable army
which he had raifed, and with incredible pains difei-
plined during the winter. When the two armies
drew near to each other, Axan, the Turkilh Sultan,
and fon of the famous Tangrolipix, fent propofals to
Romanus for a Jailing and honourable peace. Thefe 131
were imprudently rejected, and a defperate engage- The Ro.
ment enfued, when, in fpite of the utmoH efforts of mans de-
the emperor, his army was routed, and he hitufelf th^empe-
wounded and taken prifoner. When this news was ror taken,
brought to Axan, he could fcarcely believe it; but be¬
ing convinced by the appearance of the royal captive
ia
CON [ 2227 ] CON
hiftory.
132
:onfined
monafte-
ry.
Conftant!- in prefence, he tenderly embraced him, and ad-
nopolitan drefled him in an affedlionate manner: “ Grieve not,
laid he, moft noble emperor, at your misfortune ; for
fuch is the chance of war, fometimes overwhelming
one, and fometimes another : you lhall have no occa-
lion to complain of your captivity; for I will not ufe
you as my prifoner, but as an emperor.” The Turk
was as good as his word. He lodged the emperor in
a royal pavilion; afligned him attendants, with an
equipage- fuitable to his quality ; and difcharged Inch
prifoners as he defined. After he had for fome days
entertained his royal captive with extraordinary mag¬
nificence, a perpetual peace was concluded betwixt
them, and the emperor difmifled with the greateft
marks of honour imaginable. He then fet out with
the Turkilh atpbaflador for Conllantinople, where the
peace was to be ratified; but by the way he was in¬
formed that Eudocia had been driven from the throne
iFaidociade- by John the brother of Conftantine Ducas, and Pfellus
mofed, and a iea<jjng man in the fenate, who had confined her to
r»nfinpfi m ^ monaftery, and proclaimed her eldeft fon, Michael
Ducas, emperor. On this intelligence, .Romanus re¬
tired to a ftrong caftle near Theodofiopolis, where he
hoped in a Ihort time to be joined by great numbers of
his friends and adherents. But in the mean time
John, who had taken upon him to aft as guardian to
the young prince, difpatched Andronicus with a confi-
derable army againft him. Andronicus having eafily
defeated the fmall army which Romanus had with
him, obliged him to fly to Adana a city in Cilicia,
where he was clofely befieged, and at laft obliged to
furrender. Andronicus carried his prifoner into Phry¬
gia, where he fell dangeroully ill, being, as was fu-
Ipefted, fecretly poifoned. But the poifon being too
flow in its.operation, John ordered, his eyes to be put
out; which was done with fuch cruelty that he d.ied
foon after, in the year 1067, having reigned three
years and eight months.
Axan was no fooner informed of the tragical end of
his friend and ally, than he refolved to invade the
empire anew ; and that not with a defign only to plun¬
der as formerly, but to conquer, and keep what he
had once conquered. The emperor difpatched againfl:
him Ifaac Comnenus, with a confiderable army ; but
he was utterly defeated and taken prifoner by Axan.
Another army was quickly fent off under the com¬
mand of John Ducas the emperor’s uncle. He gained
at firft fome advantages, and would probably have
put a flop to their conquefts, had not one Riifdlius, or
Urplius, revolted with the troops he had under his
command, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed emperor,
and reduced feveral cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia.
Againft him John marched with all his forces, and fuf-
fering the Turks in the mean time to purfue their con¬
quefts ; but coming to an engagement with the rebels,
his army was entirely defeated, and himfelf taken pri-
They gain foner. Notwithftanding this viftory, Rufelius was fo
- fecond much alarmed at the progrefs of the Turks, that he not
only releafed his prifoner, but joined with him againft
the common enemy, by whom they were both defeat¬
ed and taken prifoners. Axan, however, was for fome
time prevented from purfuing his conquefts by Cutlu-
Mofes, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had re¬
volted againft his uncle ; but being defeated by him in
Romanus
put to
death.
empire.
135
They de¬
feat the
Romans.
J36
viftory.
a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence Conftanti-
he now returned at the head of a confiderable army, nopolitan
in order to difpute the fovereignty with Axan. But hiftory.
while the two armies were preparing to engage, the
kalif of Babylon, who was ftill looked upon as the fuc-
ceflbr of the great prophet, interpol'ed his authority.
He reprefented the dangers of their inteftine diflen-
fions; and by his mediation, an agreement was at laft
concluded, on condition that Axan Ihould enjoy undif-
turbed the monarchy lately left him by his father, and
Cutlu-Mofes Ihould poflefs fuch provinces of the Ro¬
man empire as he or his fons fliould in procefs of
time conquer.
After this agreement, both the Turkifli princes
turned their forces againft the empire ; and before the j,
year 1077, made themfelves mafters of all Media, They con-
Lycaonia, Cappadocia and Bithynia, fixing the capital quer feve-
city of their empire at Nice in the latter province. ra-} Pr°-
During all this time, the emperors of Conftantinople, vinces'
as well as their fubjefts, feemed to be in a manner
infatuated. No notice was taken of the great pro¬
grefs made by thefe barbarians. The generals were
ambitious only of feizing the tottering empire, which
feemed ready to fall a prey to the Turks ; and, after
it was obtained, fpent their time in oppreffing their
fubjefts, rather than in making any attempts to repulfe
the enemy. jgg
At laft Alexius Comnenus, having wrefted the em- Alexius
pire from Nicephoru, Botoniates in 1077, began to Comnenus
prepare for oppofing fo formidable an enemy. But ^°PS t*leir
before he fet out, as his foldiers had committed great ProSrefs*
outrages on his acceffion to the empire, he refolved
to make confeflion of his fins, and do open penance
for thofe he had fuffered his army to commit. Ac¬
cordingly he appeared in the attire of a penitent be¬
fore the patriarch and feveral other ecclefiaftics, ac- *-
knowledged himfelf guilty of the many diforders that
had been committed by his foldiers, and begged of
the patriarch to impofe upon him a penance fuitable
to the greatnefs of his crimes. The penance enjoined
him and his adherents by the patriarch was to faft, lie
upon the ground, andpraftife feveral other aufterities
for the fpace of 40 days. This command was religiouf-
ly obeyed, and the emperor then began to prepare for
war with fo much vigour, that Solyman, the Turkifli
fultan, fon and fucceflbr to Cultu-Mofes, difpatched
ambafladors to Alexius with propofals of peace. Thefe
were at firft rejefted; but the emperor was at laft
glad to accept them on certain advice, that Robert
Guifchard, duke of Puglia and Calabria, was making
great preparations againft him in the Weft.
To this expedition, Robert was incited by Michael
Ducas. That prince had been depofed by Nicepho¬
ru Botoniates, and towards the end of the ufurper’s
reign fled into the Weft, where he was received by
Robert, who.was prevailed upon to favour his caufe.
For this purpofe, Robert made great preparations;
and thefe were continued even after the dopofition of
Botoniates. He failed with all his forces from Brun-
dufium; and landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, made
himfelf mafter of that place, while his fo.n Bohemond
with part of the army reduced Anion, a celebrated
port and, city in the country now called Albania.
From thence they advanced to Dyrrhachium, which
13 C 2 they
139
Robert
Guifchard’s
expedition
againft the
emperor.
140
He paft'es.
over into
Epirus and
befieges
Dyrrha-
chium.
CON [ 2228 ] CON
Conflanti- inverted both by fea and land ; but met with a
nopolitan moll vigorous oppolition from George Paleologus,
hiftory. whom the emperor had entrurted with the defence of
that important place. .In fpite of the utmoft efforts of
the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival
of the Venetian fleet, by whom Robert’s navy com¬
manded by Bohemond was utterly defeated, the ad¬
miral himfelf having narrowly efcaped being taken
prifoner. After this victory, the Venetians landed
■without lofs of time, and being joined by Paleologus’s
men, fell upon Robert’s troops with fuch fury, that
they deftroyed their works, burnt their engines, and
forced them back to their camp in great diforder. As
the Venetians were now mafters at fea, the befieged
were fupplied with plenty of proviiions, while a fa¬
mine began to rage in the camp of the enemy; and
this calamity was f'oon followed by a plague, which in
the fpace of three months is laid to have deftroy¬
ed ten - thoufand men. Notwithftanding all thefe
dilafters, however, Robert did not abandon the
fiege : having found means to fupply his famifhed
troops with provifions, he continued it with fuch vi¬
gour, that the courage of the befoged began at laft
to fail them ; and Paleologus fent repeated meffages
to the emperor, acquainting him that he would be
obliged to furrender unlefs very fpeedily aflifted.
On this Alexiu- marched in perfon to the relief of
the city, but was defeated with great lofs by Ro¬
bert. The whole right wing of Alexius’s army,
finding themfelves hard prefied by the enemy, fled to
a church dedicated to St Michael, imagining they
would there find themfelves in a place of fafety ; but
the victorious army purfuing them, fet fire to the
church, which was burnt to afhes with all who were
in it. The emperor himfelf with great difficulty made
141 his efcape, leaving the enemy mafters of his camp and
The city all his baggage. Soon after this defeat, the city fur-
furrenders. rendered ; and Alexius being deftitnte of refources for
carrying on the war, feized on the wealth of churches
and monafteries,which gave much offence to the clergy,
and had like to have occafioned great difturbances in the
Imperial city. At the fame time, Alexius entering into
an alliance with Henry emperor of Germany, per-
fuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in Ita¬
ly. At firft, Henry met with great fuccefs ; but was
foon overcome, and driven out of that country by
Robert. Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced fe-
veral places in Ulyricum; and, having defeated Alexius
in two pitched battles, entered Theffaly, and fat down
before Larifla. This place, being defended by an of:
ficer of great courage and experience in war, held out
till the emperor came to its relief. Soon after his ar¬
rival, he found means to draw a ftrong party of Bohe-
mond’s men into an ambufcade, and cut them off almoft
entirely. However, in the battle which was fought
a few days after, Bohemond had the advantage ; but
his troops mutinying and refuftng to carry on the war,
he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexius taking ad¬
vantage of his abfence, recovered feveral cities;
and being informed that Robert was making great
preparations againft him, he had recourfe once more
to the Venetians. By them he was aflifted with a
powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two
engagements; but being foon after furprifed by him.
they were defeated with the lofs of almoft their whole Confhmtl-
navy. Robert is faid to have ufed his victory with noP' Ikan
great barbarity, putting many of his prifoners to death hlfior>’-
with unheard-of torments. The Venetians equipped
a fecond fleet; and joining that of the emperor, fell
unexpctitly upon Robert’s navy, who were riding
without the lealt apprehenfion in Buthrotum, funk
moft of his fhips, and took a great number of prifon¬
ers, his wife and younger fons having narrowly efca- ,42
ped falling into their hands. Robert made great pre- The war
parations to revenge this defeat; but was prevented ended by
by death from executing his deiigns: and, after his ‘^death^
deceafe, his fon Roger did not think proper to purfue
fo dangerous and expenftve a war. He therefore re¬
called his troops, and the places which had been con¬
quered by Robert and Bohemond fubmitted a-new
to the emperor. ,43 !
This war was fcarce ended, when the Scythians The Scy-
pafling the Danube, laid warte great part of Thrace, thianwat.
committing every where the greauft barbarities. A-
gainft them the emperor difpatched an army under
the command of Facurianus and Branas. The latter
infifted upon engaging the enemy contrary to the opi¬
nion of his colleague ; and his rafhnefs caufed the lofs
of the greater part of the army, who were cut off by
the Scythians, together with the two generals. Tali-
ciusy an officer who had fignalized himfelf on many
occafions, was appointed to command the army in
their room. He fell upon the enemy as they lay fe-
curely in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis, cut great
numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the reft to re¬
tire in great confufion. The following fpring, how¬
ever, they returned in fuch numbers, that the empe¬
ror refolved to march againft them in perfon. Ac¬
cordingly he fet out for Adrianople, and from thence l44
to a place called Lardea. Here, contrary to the ad- TheRo-
viCe of his beft, officers, he ventured a battle; in which mans «je-
he was utterly defeated with the lofs of vaft numbers feated.
of his men, he himfelf efcaping with the utmoft diffi¬
culty. The next year he was attended with no bet¬
ter fuccefs, his1 army being entirely defeated, with the l45
lofs of his camp and baggage. In the year following, They at
1084, the emperor retrieved his credit; and gave the laft defeat
Scythians fnch an overthrow, that very few efcaped ‘he Scy¬
the general daughter. Motwithftanding this difafter, tluans*
however, they again invaded the empire in • 1093.
To this they were encouraged by an impoftor called
Leo, who pretended to be the eldeft fon of Romanus
Diogenes. The young Prince had been flain in a
battle with the Turks; but as the Scythians only want¬
ed a pretence to renew the war, they received the
impoftor with joy. By a ftratagem, however, Leo
was murdered ; and the Scythians being afterwards
overthrown in two great battles, were obliged to fuo-
mit on the emperor’s own terms. ^
Since the year 1083, the war had been carried on Tiie Heiy
with the Turks with various fuccefs ; but now an af- War.
fociation was formed in the Weft againft thefe infidels,
which threatened the utter ruin of the Turkifh nation.
This was occafioned by the fuperftition of the Chrifti-
ans, who thought it a meritorious adlion to venture
their lives for the recovery of the Holy Land, poflef-
fed at that time by the Turks and Saracens. Had the
weftem princes been properly aflifted by the empe¬
rors
CON
[
CON
break of day till three in the afternoon, when they ConfUnti-
were forced to retire, after having lofl: fome of their n?£?'itan
engines, and a great number of men. The afl’ault >1lftory'
was neverthelefs renewed four days after; when, after , ^
a warm difpute, the French planted their ftandard on The city
o , one of the towers ; which the Venetians obferving, taken and
whom they originally belonged, but erected a number they quickly made themfelves mailers of four other plundered
Trooii v,,. towers, where they Hkewife dii'played their enfigns. La"
In the mean time three of the gates being broke dowm
by the battering rams, and thofe who had fealed the
walls having killed the guards, and opened the gates
between the towers they had taken, the whole army
entered, and drew up in battle array between the
walls. The Greeks fled up and down in the greateft
confufion; and federal parties were by the Latins dif-
2229
onfianti- rors of the Eaft in this undertaking, the Turks had
ipolitan undoubtedly been unable to refill them ; but fo far
‘ ory' from this, the Latins were looked upon by them as
no lei's enemies than the Turks : and indeed whatever
places they took from the infidels, they never thought
of reftoring to the emperors of Conftantlnople, to
whom they originally belonged, but erected a number
of fmall independent principalities ; which neither pa¬
ving fufficient ilrength to defend themfelves, nor be¬
ing properly Supported by one another, foon became
a prey to the Turks. But as thefe tranfadlions natu¬
rally fall to be confidered under the Hiftory of theTurks,
we refer to that article for a particular account of
them. Here we ihall only take notice of the taking
of Conftantinople by the Latins : an event of fuch im¬
portance as cannot be pailed over in filence. The oc- patched to fccur the ftreets, who put all they met
^ cafion of this revolution was as follows. In the year
Con- I2°3j happened a dreadful fire at Conftantinople, oc-
antinople. cafioned by I'ome Latin foldiers. Thefe had plundered
to the fword, without diftindlion of age or condition.
Night put a ttop to the dreadful flaughter, when the.
princes founding the retreat, placed their men in dif-
mofque, which the Turks refiding in Conftantinople ferent quarters of the city, with orders to be upon
had been fuffered to build there. For this reafon they their guard, not doubting but they fhould be attacked
  -*.4. 1—i 1 -I.„ • £j„ 1 _ . ...l„ i ... —        :  'tm  1' . -r 1 1
were attacked by the infidels; who being much fupe-
rior to them in number, the Latins found themfelves
obliged to fet fire to ibme houfes, in order to make
their efcape with fafety. The flame fpreading in.an
inftant from ftreet to ftreer, reduced in a fhort time
great part of the city to allies, with the capacious ftore-
houfes which had been built at a vaft expence on the
quay. The late emperor Ifaac Angelos, who had been
reftored to his throne by the Latins, died foon after
their departure from Conftantinople, leaving his fon
Alexius foie mafter of the empire. The young prince,
to difeharge the large fums he had promifed to the
French and Venetians for their affiftance, was obliged
to lay heavy taxes on his fubjedls ; and this, with the
great efteem and friendlhip (hewed to his deliverers,rai¬
led a general difeontent among the people of Conftan¬
tinople, who were fworn-enemies to the Latins. This
encouraged John Ducas, lurnamed Murtzuphlus, from
ihlus (Iran- pis joined and thick eye-brows, to attempt the fove-
rejgnty< Unhappily he found means to put his trea'
early next morning. They were lurprifed, however,
at that time by the entire fubmiflion of the Greeks; to
whom they promifed their lives, but at the fame time,,
ordering them to retire to their houfes, they gave up
the city to be plundered by the Ibldiers for that day.
They ftri&ly enjoined their men to abftain from
flaughter, to preferve the honour of the women, and
to bring the whole booty into one place, that a juft
diftribution might be made according to the rank and
merit of each individual. The Greeks had undoubt¬
edly concealed their mo ft valuable effects during the
night; many perfons of the firft rank had efcaped, and
carried along with them immenfe treafures; the fol¬
diers had probably, as is ufual in all fuch cafes, refer-
ved things of great value for Themfelves, notwithftand-
ing all prohibitions to the contrary; and yet the booty,
without the ftatues, pictures, and jewels, amounted to
a fum almoft incredible. As for Murtzuphlus, he made
his eicape in the night; embarking on a fmall velfel
with Euphrofyne, the wife of Alexius A/igelus a late
cherous defigns in execution; and ftrangled the young ufiirper, and her daughter Eudoxia, for whole fake he
prince with his own hands. After this he prefented
himfelf to the people ; told them what he had done,
which he pretended was in order to fecure their liber¬
ties ; and earneftly entreated them to choofe an em¬
peror who had courage enough to defend them againft
the Latins that were ready to opprefs and enflave
them. On this he was inftantly fainted emperor by
the inconftant multitude ; but this ufurpation proved
the ruin of the city. The Latins immediately refolved
had abandoned his lawful wife.
Conftantinople continued fubjedl to the Latins till The Latins
the year 1261, when they were expelled by one
Alexius Strategopulus. He was a perfon of an illuftri-
ous family ; and, for his eminent fer vices, diftinguifhed
with the title of C<xfar. He had been fent againft
Alexius Angelus tlefpot of Epirus, who V .\v attempted
to recover fome places in Theftaly and Greece from
Michael Paleologus, one of the Greek emperors, that,
to revenge the death of the young prince ; and, as fince the capture of Conftantinople, had kept their
they had been fo often betrayed and retarded in their court at Nice ; and to try whether he could on his
expeditions to the Holy Land by the emperors of Con- march fuprife the imperial city itfelf. Alexius, having
ftantinople, to make themfelves mafters of that city, palfed the ftreights, encamped at a place called Rhe-
and feize the empire for tbemfelves. In confequence gium, where he was informed by the natives that a
of thisrefolution they muftered all their forces in Afia, ftrong body of the Latins had been fent to the fiege
and having eroded the ftreights, laid fiege toConftanti- of Daphnufa, that the garrifon was in great want of
nople by fea and land. The tyrant, who was a man provifions, and that it would be no difficult matter to
of great courage and experience in war, made a vi- furprife the city. Hereupon the Greek general refol-
gorous defence. The Latins, however, after having ved at all events to attempt it ; in which he was en-
battered the walls for feveral days together with an couraged by fome of the inhabitants, who, coming pri-
incredible number of engines, gave a general aflault vately to his camp, offered themfelves to be his guides,
on the 8th-of April.1204. The attack lafted from He approached the walls in the dead of the night,
which
Conftanti-
nopolitan
hiftory.
ISI
Entry of
Michael
Paleologns
152
He refolves
to reftore
it to its for¬
mer gran-
C O N [ 2230 ] CON
which fome of his men fcaled without being obferved ;
and, killing the Gentries whom they found aileep, open¬
ed one of the gates to the reft of the army. The
Greeks rulhing in, put all they met to the fword ; and
at the fame time, to create more terror, fet fire to the
city in four different places. The Latins, concluding
from thence that the enemy’s forces were far more
numerous than they really were, did not fo much as
attempt either to drive them out, or to extinguifh the
flames. In this general confufron the emperor Baldwin,
quitting the enfigns of majefty, fled with Juftinian the
Latin patriarch, and fome of his intimate friends, to
the fea-fide ; and there, embarking on a fmall veffel,
failed firft to Euboea, and afterwards to Venice, leaving
the Greeks in full poflefiion of Conftantinople. When
news of this furprifing and altogether unexpe&ed fuc-
cefs of Alexius were firft brought to Paleologus, he
could fcarce give credit to it; but receiving foon after
letters from Alexius himfelf, with a particular account
of fo memorable an event, he ordered public thanks
to be returned in all the churches, appeared in public
in his imperial robes, attended by the nobility in their
beft apparel, and ordered couriers to be difpatched with
the agreeable news into all parts of the empire.
Soon after, having fettled his affairs at Nice, he fet
out for Conftantinople with the emprefs, his fon An-
dronicus, the fenate, and nobility, to take pofltffion
of the imperial city, and fix his refidence in that place
that had originally been defigned for the feat of the
eaftern empire. Having paffed the freights, he ad¬
vanced to the golden gate, and continued fome days
without the walls, while the citizens were bufied in
making the neceflary preparations to receive him with
a magnificence fuitable to the occafion. On the day
appointed, the golden gate, which had been long fhut
up, was opened, and the emperor entering it amidfl
the repeated acclamations of the multitude, marched
on foot to the great palace. He was preceded by the
bifhop of Cjzicus, who carried an image of the Virgin
Mary, fuppofed to have been done by S1 Luke, and
followed by all the great officers, nobility, and chief
citizens, pompoufly dreffed. Public thanks were again
returned in the church of Sl Sophia, at which the em¬
peror a fill (ted in perfon, with the clergy, the fenate,
and nobility. Thefe exercifes were fucceeded by all
forts of rejoicings; after which the emperor carefully
furveyed the imperial city. This furve'y greatly al¬
layed, his joy. He faw the (lately palaces and other
magnificent bhildings of the Roman emperors lying in
ruins ; the many capacious buildings that had been
erected by his predeceffors, at an immenfe charge,
deftroyed by fire, and other unavoidable accidents of
war ; feveral ftreets abandoned by the inhabitants, and
choaked up with rubbifh, ire. Thefe objects gave the
emperor no fmall concern, and kindled in him a defire
of reftoring the city to its former luftre. In the mean
time, looking upon Alexius as the reflorer of his coun¬
try, he caufed him to be clad in magnificent robes ;
placed with his own hand a crown on his head ; or¬
dered him to be conducted through the city, as it were
in triumph ; decreed that for a whole year the name
of Alexius fliould be joined in the public prayers with
his own ; and, to perpetuate the memory of fo great
and glorious an action, he commanded his ftatue to be
erected on a (lately pillar of marble before the church Conftanti
of the Apoflles. His next care was to re-people the nopolitan
city, many Greek families having withdrawn from it hlfloi'y'«
while it was held by the Latins, and the Latins
now preparing to return to their refpective countries.
The former were recalled home ; and the latter, in
regard of the great trade they carried on, were al¬
lowed many valuable privileges, which induced them
not to remove. The Greeks were allowed to live in
one of the mod beautiful quarters of the city, to be
governed by their own laws and magiflrates, and to
trade without paying cufloms or taxes of any kind.
Great privileges were likewife granted to the natives
of Venice and Pifa, which encouraged them to lay
afide all thoughts of removing, and the trade they
carried on proved afterwards highly advantageous to
the (late.
It was not long, however, before thefe regulations j
were altered.. The emperor being foon after informed
that Baldwin, lately expelled from Conflantinople, had
married his daughter to Charles king of Sicily, and
given him, by way of dowry, the imperial city itfelf,
he ordered the Genoefe, who were become very nu¬
merous, to remove firft to Heraclea, and afterwards
to Galata, where they continued. As for the Pifans
and Venetians, who were not fo numerous and weal¬
thy, they were allowed to continue in the city. Pa¬
leologus, though he had caufed himfelf to be proclaim¬
ed emperor, and was pofleffed of abfolute fovereignty,
was as yet only guardian to the young emperor John ^
Lafcaris, then about 12 years of age. But having now Great diA
fettled the date, and having gained the affections both turbances
of natives and foreigners, he began to think of fecu- occafioned,
ring himfelf and his pofterity in the full enjoyment of by tbe
the empire ; and for this reafon cruelly ordered the Jf PaleoloJ
eyes of the young prince to be put out, pretending gUS, '
that none but himfelf' had any right to the city or em¬
pire of Conftantinople, whjch he alone had recovered
out of the hand of the Latins.
This piece of treachery and in humanity involved liim
in great troubles. The patriarch immediately excom¬
municated him ; and he would in all probability have
been driven from the throne by a combination of the
weftern princes, had he not engaged pope Urban IV. I54
to efpoufe his cattle, by promifing to fubmit himfelf Union of
and his dominions to the Latin church. Thus, indeed, the Greek j
he diverted the prefent ftorm ; but this proceeding ai,d Latin ■
caufed the greateft difturbances, not only in Conftan- cburches> I
tinople, but throughout the whole empire, nor was
Paleologus able to reconcile his fubjeCls to this union. i;4 ^
In 1283 Michael died, and was fucceeded by his fon DilTolved.
Andronicus. His firft ftep was to reftore the ancient
Greek ceremonies, thinking he could not begin his
reign with a more popular a<5l. But thus he involved
himfelf in difficulties dill greater than before. Though
Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek
fubjedls to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in fome
degree accomplifiied his purpofe. The Latins had got
a confiderabie footing in the city, and defended their
ceremonies with great obftinacy ; fo that the empire
was again'thrown into a ferment by this imprudent flep. , 1
All this time the Turks had been continuing their War w;tj, ,
encroachments on the empire, which, had it not been the Turks,
for the crufades publiflied againft them by the Pope,
they
CON
[ 2231 ]
CON
nopplitan
hiftory.
they would in all probability have made themfelves were defeated; and being afterwards (hut up in the Conftanti-
maiters of before this time. They were now, how- Cherfonefus, they were all cut in pieces, or taken. no"n ,ta"
ever, very fuccefsfully oppofed by Conllantine the Soon after new commotions took place in this un¬
emperor’s brother : but his valour rendered him fuf- happy empire, of which the Turks did not fail to take
petited by'theemperor; inconfequence of whichhe was the advantage. In 1327 they made themfelves maf-
thrown into prifon, along with feveral perfons of great ters of molt of the cities on the Mteander j and, a-
difthxition. On the removal of this brave commander, mong the reft, of the ftrong and important city of
the Turks, under the famous Othoman, made them- Prula in Bithynia. The next year, however, Otho-
felves mafters of feveral places in Phrygia, Caria, and man, who may juftly be ftyled the founder of the
Bithynia; and, among the reft, of the city of Nice. Turkilh monarchy, being dead, the emperor laid hold
To put a ftop to their conquefts, the emperor difpatch- of that opportunity to recover Nice, and fome other
ed againft them Philauthropenus and Libadarius, two important places, from the infidels. But thefe were
officers of great experience in war. The former loft the year following, together w'ith Abydus and
gained fome advantages over the enemy ; but being Nicomedia; and in 1330 a peace was concluded upon
elated with his fuccels, caufed hjmfelf to be proclaim- condition that they ffiould keep all their conquefts.
ed emperor. This rebellion, however, was foon fup- This peace they obferved no longer than ferved their
own purpofes ; for new commotions breaking out in
the empire, they purfued their conquefts, and by the
year 13 5 7 had reduced all Afia. They next pafled the
Hellelpont under the conduct of Solyman the fon;
prefled, Philanthropenus being betrayed by his own
men : but the Turks taking advantage of thefe intef-
tine commotions, not only extended their dominions
in Afia, but conquered moft of the iflands in the Me¬
diterranean ; and, being niafters at fea, infefted the as others will have it, the brother of Orchanes, the fuc-
coafts of the empire, to the utter ruin of trade and ’
commerce.
From this time the Roman empire tended fall to
ceflbr of Othoman, and feized on a ftrong caftle
European fide. Soon after, the Turkilh fultan died, and
was fucceeded by Amurath. He extended the
159
Adrianople
diflblution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the queftsof his predeceflbrs, and in a ffiort time reduced all taken by
firft
earance
iuropc-
emperor could no longer truft his fubjetfts, and there¬
fore hired the Maftagetes to affift him : but they, be¬
having in <1 carelefs manner, were firft defeated by
their enemies, and afterwards turned their arms a-
gainft thofe they came to affift. He next applied to
the Catalans, who behaved in the fame manner ; and
having ravaged the few places left the emperor in
Afia, returned into Europe, and called the Turks to
their affiftance.
This happened in the year 1292, and was the firft
appearance of the Turks in Europe. This ehterprize,
however, was unfuccefsful. Having loaded themfelves
with booty, they offered to depart quietly if they were
allowed a fafe paflage, and {hips to tranfport them to
Alia. To this the emperor, willing to get rid of fuch
tronblefome guefts, readily confented, and ordered the
veffels to be got ready with all poffible expedition,
Thrace, making Adrianople the feat of his empire. A- the Turks,
murath was Haiti by treachery in a little time after, and
was fucceeded by his Ion Bajazet. This prince greatly
enlarged his dominions by new conquefts. In a Ihort
time he reduced the countries of Theffitly, Macedon,
Phocis, Peloponnefus, Myfia, and Bulgaria, driving,
out the defpots or petty princes who ruled there. E-
lated with, his frequent victories, lie began to look up¬
on the Greek emperor, to whom nothing was now
left but the city of Conftantinople and the neighbour¬
ing country, as his valfal. Accordingly he fent him
an arrogant and haughty melfage, commanding him to
pay a yearly tribute, and fend his fon Manuel to at¬
tend him in his military expeditions. This demand
the emperor was obliged to comply with, but died foon
after in the year 1392.
Manuel no fooner heard of his father’s death than
But the Greek officers obferving the immenfe booty he haftened to Conftantinople, without taking leave of
with which they were loaded, refolved to fall upon the fultan, or acquainting him with the reafons of his _160
them in the night, and cut them all off at once. This fudden departure. At this Bajazet was fo highly of-
\junq nnt manao-t-H with fnrh fecrerv fended, that he naded with oreat exnedition out of ^ ° • i_
fcheme, however, was not managed with fuch fecrecy
but that the Turks had notice of it, and therefore pre¬
fended, that he palfed with great expedition out of ftaut;nopie.
Bithynia into Thrace, ravaged the country adjoining
pared for their defence. They firft furprifed a ftrong to Conftantinople, and at laft inverted the city itfelf
caftle in the neighbourhood, and then found means to
acquaint their countrymen in Afia with their danger-
is fituation. Their brethren, enticed with the hopes
both by fea and land. In this extremity Manuel had
recourfe to the weftern princes; who font him an army
of 130,000 men, under the command of Sigifmund
of booty, were not long of coming to their affiftance 5 king of Hungary, and John count of Nevers. But
and having croffed the Hellefpont in great numbers,
ravaged the adjacent country, making excurfions to
the very gates of Conftantinople. At lart the empe¬
ror detefmined to root them out; and accordingly
though the weftern troops proved at firft fuceefsful,
they were in the end defeated with great daughter
by Bajazet, who then returned to the liege with .
greater vigour than ever. As he found, however.
marched againft them with all his forces, the country that the citizens were determined to hold out to the
people flocking to him from all quarters. The Turks laft, he applied to John, the fon of Manuel’s elder bro-
at firft gave themfelves over for loft; but finding the ther, who had a better title to the crown than Ma-
Greeks negligent of difcipline, they attacked their army w;.v. i,;m -a
texpetftedly, utterly defeated it, and made themfelves
mafters of the camp. After this unexpecled vidlory,
they continued for two years to ravage Thrace in
the moft terrible manner. At laft, however, they
nuel himfelf. With him he entered into a private
agreement, by virtue of which Bajazet was to place
John upon the throne of Conftantinople ; on the other
hand, John was to deliver up the city to the Turks,
and remove the imperial feat to Peloponnefus, which
the
Conftanti-
nopolitan
hiftory.
J6i
He is de¬
feated and
taken pri-
fbner by
Tamerlane.
162
Amurath
beficges
Conftanti-
nople.
163
The liege
raifed.
164
Succefs of
John Hun-
niades a-
gainft die
Turks.
CON [ 2232 ] CON
the fultan promifed to relinquilh to him and his pofte-
rity. At the fame time he fent deputies to the inha¬
bitants of Conftantinople, offering to withdraw his
army, and ceafe from further hoftilities, provided they
expelled Manuel and placed John upon the throne.
This propofal rent the city into two factions ; but
Manuel prevented the mifehiefs which were ready to
enfue, by a voluntary refignation, upon condition that
he fliould be allowed to retire to whatever place he
thought proper with his wife and children.
With this condition John readily complied ; and
Manuel having received him into the city, and con¬
ducted him to the palace, fet fail for Venice. From
thence he went to the courts of all the weltern prin¬
ces, to folicit their affiftance againfl the Turks, whofe
power was grown formidable to all Europe. He was
every where received with the greatell demonllra-
tions of eiteem, arid promifed large fupplies ; all Chri-
ftendom being now alarmed at the progrefs of the in¬
fidels.
In the mean time Bajazet did not fail to put John
in mind of his promife ; but the citizens refuting to
comply with fuch a fcandalous treaty, the fiege was
renewed, and the city affaulted with more fury than
ever. When it was already reduced to the laft ex¬
tremity, news were brought the fultan that Tamer¬
lane, the vidorious Tartar, having over-run all the
Eaft with incredible celerity, had now turned his
arms againft the Turks, and was preparing to break
into Syria. Bajazet alarmed at the danger that threa¬
tened him, raifed the fiege in great halte, and advan¬
ced againft Tamerlane with a very humerous and
well-difciplined army ; but the Tartar totally defeat¬
ed and took him prilbner, after having cut moft of his
men in pieces; and thus Conftantinople was prefer-
ved for the prefent.
But this relief was of fhort duration. In 1424 the
city was again befieged by Amurath II. The inha¬
bitants defended themfelves with great bravery ; but
muft in the end have fubmitted, had not the emperor
prevailed upon the prince of Caramania to counte¬
nance an impoftor and pretender to the Turkilh throne.
This obliged Amurath to raife the fiege, and march
with all his forces againft the ufiirper, whom he foon
reduced. Having then no other enemies to contend
w'ith, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful
army ; and having ravaged the country far and near,
he took and plundered Theflalonica, as he did alfo
moft of the cities of iEtolia, Phocis, and Boeotia.
From Greece he marched into Servia ; which coun¬
try he foon reduced. He next broke into the domi¬
nions of the king of Hungary, and belieged the ftrong
city of Belgrade ; but here he met with a vigorous
repulfe, no fewer than 1 j,ooo Turks being flain by
the Chriftians in one fally, which obliged the" fultan to
drop the enterprize and retire.
In his retreat he was attacked by the celebrated
John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men
in pieces, and obliged the reft to fly with precipita¬
tion. Not long after he gained a ftill more complete
viiftory over the enemy in the plains of Tranfylvania,
with the lofs of only 3000 of his own men, whereas
20,000 of the Turks were killed on the field of battle,
and almoft an equal number in the purfuit. Amurath,
who was then at Adrianople, fent an army into Tran- Confland
fylvania far more numerous than the former; but nopolitni
they were attended with no better fuccefs, being cut hiltory.
off almoft to a man by the brave Hungarian. He
gained feveral other victories no lefs remarkable ; 165
’but was at laft entirely defeated in 1448 ; and with He is at laftf
this defeat ended all hopes of preferving the Roman defeated,
empire. The unhappy emperor was now obliged to
pay an annual tribute of 300,000 afpers to the lultan ;
and to yield up to him fome ftrong holds which he
ftill held on the Euxine fea. However, as he doubt¬
ed not but Amurath would foon attempt to become
mafter of the city itfelf,he renewed the union between
the Greek and Latin churches, hoping that this would
induce the weftern princes to aflift him in the defence
of the city againft the Turks. This union produced
great difturbances, which the emperor did not long
furvive, but died in 1448, leaving the empire, now
confined within the wails of Conftantinople, to his bro¬
ther Conftantine.
Amurath the Turkilh fultan died in 1450, and was
fucceeded by his fon Mohammed. In the beginning
of his reign he entered into an alliance with Conftan¬
tine, and pretended a great defire to live in friend-
Ihip with him and the other Chriftian princes ; but no
fooner had he put an end to a war in which he was
engaged with Ibrahim king of Caramania, than he
built a ftrong fort on the European fide of the Bofpho-
rus, oppofite to another in Alia ; in both of which he
placed ftrong garrifons. Thefe two caftles command¬
ed the Straits; and the former being but five miles
from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This
foon produced a mifunderftanding between him and ,55
the emperor, which ended in the fiege of the city. Conftanth
The fiege commenced on the fixth of April 14J3. nople befi.
Mohammed’s numerous forces covering the plains be- gec* 'V
fore it on the land-fide, and a fleet of 30a fail block- amme
ing it up by lea. The emperor, however, had taken
care to fecure the haven, in which were three large
fliips, 20 fmall ones, and a great number of gal¬
leys, by means of a chain drawn crofs the entrance.
Mohammed began the fiege by planting batteries
as near the city as he could, and railing mounts
in feveral places as high as the walls themfelves,
whence the befieged were inceffantly galled with
Ihowers of arrows. He had in his camp a piece of
ordnance of prodigious fize, which is faid to have car¬
ried a ball of too pounds weight made of hard black
ftone brought from the Euxine fea. With this vaft
piece the enemy made feveral breaches in the walls ;
which, however, were repaired with incredible expe¬
dition by the befieged. But Mohammed, the better
to carry on the fiege, caufed new. levies to be made
throughout his extenfive dominions, by which bis ar¬
my was foon increafed to near 400,000 men, while
the garrifon conlifted only of 9000 regular troops, v/z.
6oco Greeks and 3000 Genoefe and Venetians. As
the enemy continued to batter the walls day and night
without intermiflion, a great part of them- was at laft
beaten down; but while the Turks were bufy in fil¬
ling up the ditch, in order to give the affault, a new
wall was built. This threw the tyrant into a pro¬
digious rage, which was greatly heightened when he
faw his whole fleet worfted by five Ihips, four of
which
rkifh
np.
CON
[ 2233 ] CON
which were laden with corn from Peloponnefus, and
the others with all manner of provilions from the Ifle
of Chios. Thefe opened themfelves a way through
' the whole Turkilh fleet; and, to the inexpreffible joy
of the Chriftians, at laft got fafe into the harbour.
The Turks attempted feveral times to force the ha¬
ven ; but all their efforts proving ineffectual, Moham¬
med formed a defign of conveying 80 gallies over land
for the fpace of eight miles into it. This he accom-
pliihed by means of certain engines, the contrivance of
a renegado ; and having then either taken or funk all
the fhips contained in it, he canted a bridge to be built
over it with furprifing expedition. By this means
the city was laid open to ati affault from that fide like-
wife. The place was now affaulted on all fides ; and
Conftantine being well apprifed that he could not long
hold out againft fuch a mighty fleet and fo numerous
an army, fent deputies to Mohammed, offering to ac¬
knowledge himfelf his vaffal, by paying him yearly
what tribute he fhould think proper to impofe, provi¬
ded he raifed the fiege and withdrew. The tyrant
anfwered that he was determined at all events to be¬
come mafter of the city : but if the emperor deliver¬
ed it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Pelopon¬
nefus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they
fhould enjoy peaceably as his friends and allies; but if
he held out to the laft ektremity, and fuffered it to be
taken by affault, he would put him and the whole no¬
bility to the fword, abandon tha city to be plundered
by his foldiers, and carry the inhabitants into capti¬
vity.
This condition was raftily rejeCled by the em¬
peror ; who thereby involved himfelf and all his
fubje&s in the mofl terrible calamity. The fiege
was renewed with more vigour than ever, and
continued till the 25th of May, when a report be¬
ing fpread in the Turkifh camp, that a mighty ar¬
my was advancing in full march to the relief of
the city, under the condudl of the celebrated John
Hunniades, the common foldiers, feized with a pa¬
nic, began to mutiny, and prefs Mohammed in a tu¬
multuous manner to break up the fiege. Nay, they
openly threatened him with death, if he did not imme¬
diately abandon the enterprize and retire from before
the city, Which they defpaired of being able to reduce
before the arrival of the fuppofed fuccours. Moham¬
med was upon the point of complying with their de¬
mand, when he was advifed by Zagati, a Turkifh of¬
ficer of great intrepidity, and an irreconcileable ene¬
my to the Chriftian name, to give without lofs of
time a general affault. To this he faid the foldiery,
however mutinous, would not be averfe, provided the
fultan folemnly promifed to abandon the city to be
plundered by them. As fuch an advice heft fuited the
humour of Mohammed, he readily embraced it, and
caufed a proclamation to be publilhed throughout the
camp, declaring, that he gave up to his foldiers all the
wealth of that opulent city, requiring for himfelf only
the empty houfes.
The defire of plunder foon got the better of that
fear which had feized the Turkifh army ; and they un-
animoufly defired to be led on to the attack. Here¬
upon Conftantine was fummoned for the laft time to
deliver up the city, with a promife of his life and li-
Vol. III.
berty : but to this he anfwered, that he was unalter- Confkmtl.
ably determined either to defend the city or to pel iih ropo'itan
with it. The attack began at three in the morning hiftory.
on Tuefday the 29 th of May ; fuch troops were firit ^9
employed as the luitan valued leaft, and defigned them A general
for no other purpofe than to tire the Chriftians, who affault gi-
made a prodigious havock of that diforderly multi- ven‘
tude. After the carnage had lafted fome hours, the
Janizaries and other frelh troops advanced in good or¬
der, and renewed the attack with incredible vigour.
The Chriftians, fummoning all their courage and refb-
lution, twice repulfed the enemy : but being in the
end quite fpent, they were no longer able to ftand
their ground ; fo that the enemy in feveral places
broke into the city. In the mean time Juftiniani, the
commander of the Genoefe and a feledl: body of
Greeks, having received two wounds, one in the
thigh and the other in the hand, was fo difheartened,
that he caufed himfelf to be conveyed toGalata, where
he foon after died of grief. His men, difmayed at
the fudden flight of their general, immediately quitted
their pofts and fled in the utmoft confufion. How- ,7t)
ever, the emperor, attended by a few of the moft re- Bravery of
folute among the nobility, ftill kept his poll, ftriving the empe-
with unparallelled refoltstion to oppofe the multitude ror*
of barbarians that now broke in from every quarter.
But being in the end overpowered with numbers, and
feeing all his friends lie dead on the ground, “ What!
(cried he aloud), is there no Chriftian left alive to ftrike
off my head ?” He had fcarce uttered thefe words,
when one of the enemy, not knowing him, gave him
a deep cut acrofs the face w ith his fabre ; and at the j^,,
fame time, another coming behind him, with a blow He is kil*
on the back part of his head, laid him dead on the led-
ground. After the death of the emperor, the few
.Chriftians that were left alive betook themfelves to I72
flight; and the Turks, meeting with no further oppo- The town
fition, entered the city, which they filled with blood plundered,
and flaughter. They gave no quarter, but put all they and the in-
met to the fword, without diltindlion. Many thou-
fands took refuge in the church of S* Sophia; but they
were all maffacred in their afylum by the enraged
barbarians, who, prompted by their natural cruelty,
the defire of revenge, and love of booty, fpared no
place nor perfon. Moft of the nobility were, by the
fultan’s orders, cut off, and the reft kept for purpofes
more grievous than death itfelf. Many of the inha¬
bitants, among whom were fome men of great learn¬
ing, found means to make their efcape, while the
Turks were bufied in plundering the city. Thefe
embarking on five Ihips then in the harbour, arrived
fafe in Italy ; where, with the ftudy of the Greek
tongue, they revived the liberal fciences, which had
long been negledted in the Weft. After the expira¬
tion of three days, Mohammed commanded his fol-
diers to forbear all further hoftilities on pain of death ;
and then put an end to as cruel a pillage and maf-
facre as any mentioned in hiftory. The next day he
made his public and triumphal entry into Conftanti-
nople, and chofe it for the feat of the Turkilh empire,
which it has continued to be ever fince.
This city is now called by the Turks Iftampol, and Prefent
by the Greeks Iflatnpoli or Stampoli. It is feated at fo-te of the
the eaftern extremity of Romania, on a fmall neck of Clty*
13 D land,
CON
Conftanti- land, which advances towards Natolia, from which: it
nopolitan is feparated by a channel of a mile in breadth. The
hiftory fea Qf Marmora walhes its walls on the (buth,. and a
Conftella- SU*P^ tl'e channel of Conllantinople does the fame
don. on fl'C north. It is delightfully fituated between the
 —■ Black-fea and the Archipelago, from whence it is fup-
plied with all necelfa ties. The grand Seignior’s pa¬
lace, called the Seraglio, is feated on the fea-hde, and
is furrounded with walls Hanked with.towers, and fe-
parared from the city by canals. It is faid the harbour
will eafily hold 1200 ftups. The, number of houfes
mull needs be prodigious, fince one fire has burnt
down 30,000 in a day, without greatly changings the
afpe<5l of the city. However, in general, they are
but mean, efpecially on the out-lide, where there are
few or no windows, and the llreets being narrow,
gives them a melancholy look. They reckon that
there are 3770 Ilreets, fmall.and great: hut they are
feldora or never clean » and: the people are infefted
with the plague almoft every; year. The inhabitants
afe half Turks, two thirds of the other half Chadians,
and the red Jews. Here are a great number of an¬
cient monuments dill remaining, and particularly the
ftiperb temple of Sophia, which is turned into a mofque,
and far furpafles all the red. The Ifreet: called A-
drianople,,is the longed and- broaded in the city ; and
the bazars* or bezelteins, are the markets for felling
all forts of merchandize. The old and. the new are
pretty near each other ; ami are large fquare buildings,
covered with domes, and fupported by arches and pi-
laders. The new is the belt, and contains all forts of
goods, which are there expofed to fale. The market
for flaves, of both fexes, is not: far off ; and the Jews
are the principal merchants, w-lio bring them here to
be. fold. There are a great number of young girls
brought from Hungary, Greene, Gandia, Ruflra, Min-,
grelia, and Georgia, for the 1'erv.ice of the Turks,
who generally buy them for their feragilios. The
great fquare, near the mofque of i’ultan Bajazet, is; the
place for public diverfions, where the jugglers and
mountebanks play a. great, variety of tricks. The cir¬
cumference of this city is by dime faid to be 1 5 miles,
and by Mr Tournefort 23 miles ; to which, if we add
the fuburbs, it may be. 34. miles in compafs. The fu-
hurb called Pera, is charmingly litnated ; and is the
place where the ambafladors of England, France, Ve¬
nice, and Holland, refide. This city is built in the
form of a triangle.; and as the ground rifes gradually,
there is a view of the whole town from the fea. The
public buildings, fuch as the palaces, the mofques,
bagnios, and caravanfaries for the entertainment of
ftrangers, are many of them very magnificent. E.
Long. 29. 20. N. Lat. 41. 4.
CONSTELLATION* in aftroraomy, a fyllem of
feveral Bars that are feen in the heavens, near to one
another. Aftronomers not only mark out the Bars,
but, that they may better bring them into order, they
diBinguilh them by their fituation and pofition in re-
fpedt to each other; and therefore they diBribnte
them into aBerilms, or conBellations, allowing feveral
CON
Bars to make up one confleliation : and for the better Conffip#.
diBinguilhing and obferving them, they reduce the t'°n
conBellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls, *
bears* ire., or to the images of fome things known, as °n tu"
of a crown, a. harp, a balance, 4r-Cl‘} or give them the_
names of thofe whofe memories, in. Conlideration of
fome notable exploit, they had a mind to tranfmit to
future ages.
The divifion of the Bars by images and figures is of
great antiquity, and feems to be as old as aBronomy
icleif: for in the moB. ancient book of Job, Orion,
ArtBurus, ami the Pleiades, are mentioned ; and we
meet with the names of many of the conBellations in
the writings of the firB poets, Homer and Hefiod.
The ancients, in their divifion of the firmament,
took in only fo much as came under their notice, dif-
tr.ibnting it into 48 conBellations ; but the modern af¬
tronomers comprehend- the whole Barry firmament,
dividing it into three regions. See Astronomy,
n° 203,. 6 c.
CONSTIPATION, in medicine, ahardnefs of the
bdly, with great coftivenefs. See Costkven-ess.
CONSTITUENT part, iq phyfioldgy, an effential
part in the compofition of any thing, differing little
from what is otherwife called element or principle.
CONSTITUTION* in matters of policy, fignifies
the form of government efiabliflied in any country or
kingdom.
Constitution alfo denotes an ordinance, decl-
fion, regulation, or law, made by authority of any
fuperior, ecclefi.iBical or civil.
Apcjhlical Constitutions, a collection of regu¬
lations attributed to the apoBles, and 1 up poled to have
been collected by St Clement, whofe name they like-
wile bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are
fpurious, and that St Clement-had no hand in them.
They appeared firB in the IVth age, but have been
much changed and corrupted fince that time. They
are divided into eight books, confiBing of a great*
number of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of
ChriBians, and particularly the ceremonies and clif-
cipline of the church. Mr WhiBon, in oppofition to
the general opinion, aflerts them to be a part of the
facred writings, dictated by the apoBles in their meei>
ings, and wrote down from their own month by St
Clement ; and intended as a fupplement to the New
TeBament* or rather as a fyftem of ChriBian. faith
and polity. The tea (bn why- the ConBitutions are
fufpecied by the orthodox, and perhaps the reafon
alfo why their genuinenefs is defended by Mr WhiBon,
is, that they feem to favour Arianifm.
Constitution, in a phylical fenfe, fignifies the
particular-temperature of the body.
It is curious to obferve, fays Dr Percival, the revo¬
lution which hath taken place, within this century, in
the conBitutions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflam¬
matory difeafes more rarely occur, and, in general,
are much left rapid and violent in their progreft than
formerly ** nor do they admit of the fame antiphlogiftic
method
[ 2254 ]
• The decreafe in the violence of inflammatory difeafes may perhaps in part be alcribed to the prefent improved method of
treating them. Moderate evacuations, cool air, aceftent diet, and the liberal uft of faline and antimonial medicines, are better
adapted to check, the-progrefs of fevers, than copious bleedings, flimulating purgatives, and profufe fweats, excited by theriaca
and mithridate.
CON [ 2235 ] CON
op Coaftitu- method of cure that was praiftifed with fuccefs 100
tion years ago. The experienced Sydenham makes 40
l* N ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the
j° tion aL'ute rheum at i I'm ; whereas this difeafe, as it now ap-
 1_ pears in the London hofpitals, will not bear above half
that evacuation. Vernai interaaittents are frequently
cured by a vomit and the bark, without venti'edUon;
which is a proof that at prefent they are accompanied
with fewer fymptoms of inflammation than they were
wont-to be. This advantageous change, however, is
more than counterbalanced by the introduction of a
numerous clafs of nervous ailments, in a great mea-
fure unknown to our anceftors; but which now prevail
univerfally, and are complicated with almoft every o-
ther diltemper. The bodies of men are enfeebled
and enervated; and it is not uncommon to obferve
very high degrees of irritability, under the external
appearance of great ftrength and robuftneis. The
hypochondria, palfies, cachexies, dropfies, and all thofe
difeafes which arife from laxity and debility, are in
our days endemic every where ; and the hyfterics,
which ufed to be peculiar to the women, as the name
itfelf indicates, now attack both fexes indifcriminate-
ly. It is evident that fo great a revolution could not be
effeCIed without a concurrence of many caufes ; but
amongft thefe, (according to Dr Percival), the pre-
;*See7Wt. lent general ufe of tea* holds the firft and principal
rank. The fecond place may perhaps be allowed to
excefs in fpirituous liquors. This pernicious cultom,
in many inltances at leaft, owes its rife to the former,
which, by the lownefs and depreffion of fpirits it oc-
cafions, renders it almoll neceffary to have recourle
to fomething cordial and exhilirating. And hence
proceed thofe odious and difgraceful habits of intem¬
perance, with which many of the fofter fex are now,
alas 1 chargeable.
CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given to feveral
mufcles, on account of their conftringing or doling
fotne of the orifices of the body.
CONSTRUCTION, in geometry, is the drawing
fuch lines, fuch a figure, ire. as are previoufly necel-
fary for making any demonftratkm appear more plain
and undeniable.
Construction of Equations. See Equations.
Construction, in grammar ; fyntax, or the ar¬
ranging and conneding the words of a fentence ac¬
cording to the rules of the language. See Grammar,
and Language.
The conftrudion is generally more Ample, eafy,
and dired, in the modern tongues than in the an¬
cient : we have very few of thole inverfions which oc-
cafion (b much embarraflment-and obfrurity in the La¬
tin ; our thoughts are ufually delivered in the fame order
wherein the imagination conceives them : the nomi¬
native cafe, for inftance, always precedes the verb,
and the verb goes before the oblique cafes it governs.
The Greeks and Latins, M. St Evremont obferves,
ufually end their periods, where, in good fenfe and
reafon, they Ihould have begun ; and the elegance of
their language confifts, in fome meafure, in this capri¬
cious arrangement, or rather in this tranfpofal and
diforder of the words. See Language.
Construction of Statutes among lawyers. See
Law, Part II. n°49.
CONSUALIA, feafts held among the ancients, in Confualiu
honour of the god Conlus, i. e. Neptune ; different 'll
from thofe other feafts of the fame deity called Neptu. '
nalia. They were introduced with a magnificent ca¬
valcade, or proceflion on horleback ; by reafon Nep¬
tune was reputeti to have firft taught men the ufe of
horfes; whence his liirname of equejiris.
Evander is find to have firtt inftituted this fea-ft : it
was re-eftablifhed by Romulus, under the name of
Confus ; in regard it was fome god under the deno¬
mination of Confus, who (he pretended) fuggefted to
him the rape of the Sabins. See Rome.
CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Luthe¬
ran church with regard to the manner of the change
made in the bread and wine in the euchrift. The di¬
vines of that profefliun maintain, that after confccra-
tion, the hotly and blood of otir Saviour are fubftan-
tially prefent, together with the fubflance of the bread
and wine, which is called confubftantiation, or impa-
nation.
CONSUL, the chief magiftrate of the Roman com¬
monwealth. They were two in number, chofeti
every year in the Campus Martius, by the people af-
fembled in the comitia centuriata. In the firft times
of the commonwealth, no man could pretend to this
dignity, but fuch as were of a patrician family ; but
afterwards the people obtained, that one of the confiils
fhould be chofen from among them. A conful was
commonly chofen at 45 years of age, but this was not
always obferved : befides, it was requifite he fhould
have exercifed other offices, as that of quaeftor, aedile,
and praetor : and yet this condition was no better ob¬
ferved than the firft ; for Pompey had never been
praetor nor quaeftor when he obtained the confulfhip.
Their authority and power was of very great extent,
fo long as the commonwealth fubfifted. They were
the head of the fenate : they commanded the armies,
and were fupreme judges of the differences between
the citzens; but as they had made fome abufe of this
power, it was allowed by the Valerian law for the
party aggrieved to appeal from their tribunal to the
people, efpecially in cafes where the life of a citizen
was concerned. Under the emperors, conful was
little more than an honourable title, and at laft it
became Rbfolutely extin<5l in the time of Juftinian.
Front the eftabliihment of the republic to the confu-
late of Bafil, that is, from the year of Rome 244, to
the year of Rome 1294, the years are accounted by
the confuls ; but after that peroid, the time was com¬
puted by the years of the emperors reigns and the in¬
dict ions. ,
Consul, at prefent, is an officer eftablifhed by vir¬
tue of a commiffion from the king and other princes,
in all foreign countries of any confiderable trade, to
facilitate and difpatch bufinefs, and protect the mer¬
chants of the nation. The confuls are to keep up a
correfpondence with the minifters of England refiding
in the courts whereon their confulate depends. They
are to lupport the Commerce and the intereft of the
nation ; to difpoie of the films given and the prelents
made to the lords and principals of places, To obtain
their protedlion, and prevent the inlults of the natives
on the merchants of the nation.
CONSUMMATION, the end, period, or completion
13 D 2 of
CON [ 2236 ] CON
Confump- of any work. Thus, we fay, the confummation of all
tion things, meaning the end of the world. By the incar-
J nation, all the prophecies are faid to be cwfumviated.
ontinent. gee pR0pHECY, and ACCOMPLISHMENT.
Confummation of marriage, denotes the laft a£l of
marriage, which makes its accomplilhment; or the
moll intimate union between the married pair, ire.
CONSUMPTION, in medicine, a word of very
extenfive fignilication, implies all dilbrders that bring
any decay or walte upon the conftitntion; but is moll
commonly ufed for the phthijis puimouahs. See (the
Jndex fubjoined to) Medicine.
Consumption, in farriery. See Farriery, §viii.
CONSUS, the pagan god of couniel. He had an
altar under ground in the great circus at Rome, to
Ihew that couniel ought to be kept i'ecret.
CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is
made to touch another; and the parts that do thus
touch are called the points or places of contatt.
CONTAGION, in phyfic, the communicating a
difeafe from one body to another. In fome difeafes
it is only effedted by an immediate contadl or touch,
as the venom of the pox ; in others, it is conveyed by
infedled deaths, as the itch ; and in others, it is tranf-
mitted through the air at a coniiderable dillance, by
means of fleams or effluvia exfpiring from the fick, as
in the plague and other pellilential diforders, in which
cafe the air is laid, to be contagious.
CONTEMPLATION, an act of the mind, where¬
by it applies itfelf to confider and refledt upon the
works of God, nature, is,c.
CONTEMPORARY, a perfon or thing that exilt-
ed in the fame age with another. Thus, Socrates,
Plato, and Ariltophanes, were contemporaries.
CONTEMPT, in a general fenfe, the adt of de-
fpifing, or the flate of being defpifed.
Contempt, in law, is a difobedtence to the rules
and orders of a court, which hath power to punilh fuch
offence ; and as this is fometimes a greater, and fpme-
times a lelfer offence, fo it is punilhed with greater
or lefs punilhment, by fine, and fometimes by impri-
f'onment.
CONTENT, in geometry, the area or quantity of
matter or fpace included in certain bounds.
CONTESSA, a port-town ofTnrky, in Europe,
in the province of Macedonia, fitnated on a bay of the
Archipelago, about 200 miles welt of Conltaminople.
E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 41. o.
CONTEXT, among divines and critics, that part
of feripture or of a writing that precedes and follows
the text.
CONTI, a town of Picardy in France, with the
title of a principality. It is feated on the river Seille,
in E. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 54.
CONTIGUITY, in geometry, is when the furface
of one body touches that of another.
CONTIGUOUS, a relative term underftood of
things difpofed fo near each other, that they join their
furfaces or touch. The houfes in ancient Rome were
not contiguous as ours are, but all infulated.
CONTINENT, in general, an appellation given to
things continued without interruption ; in which fenfe
we fay, continent fever, &c.
Continent, in geography, a great extent of land
not interrupted by feas, in contradifHndlion to illand Contingent
and penirifula, ire. See Geography.—Sicilyisfaid II
to have been anciently torn from the continent of Ita- ContQrfion>
ly; and it is an old tradition, which fome of our an¬
tiquaries Hill have a regard to, that Britain was for¬
merly a part of the continent of France.
The world is ufually divided into two great con¬
tinents, the old and the new. Whether there exills,
in the fonthern hemifpbere, another continent, or the
whole be only an immenfe watery region, is a quef-
tion that for near three centuries has engaged the at¬
tention of the learned as well as the commercial
world, and given rife to many interelling voyages
and difeovet ies; concerning which, fee the article
South Sea,
CONTINGENT, fomething cafual or unufual.
Hence future contingent, denotes a conditional event
which may or may not happen, according as circutn-
Itances fall out.
Contingent, is alfo a term of relation for the
quota that falls to any perfon upon a divifton. Thus
each prince of Germany in time of war is to furnifli
fo many men, fo much money, and munition, for his
contingent.
CONTINUED, or Continual, in a general fenfe,
means mceflant, or proceeding without interruption.
Continued Fever, is fuch a one as fometimes re¬
mits, but never intermits or goes entirely off till its
period.
Continued Bafs, in mufic, thus called, fays Rouf-
feau, becaufe it is continued through the whole piece.
Its principal ufe, belides that of regulating the harmo¬
ny, is to fupport the voice and preferve the tone.
They pretend that it was one Ludovico Viana, of whom
a treatife Hill remains, who towards the end of the
EH century firff put the continued bafs in practice..
See Music, Art. 204.
Continued Proportion, in arithmetic, is that where
the confequent of the fii'H ratio is the fame with the
antecedent of the fecond; as 4 : 8 :: 8 : 16 ; in con-
tradiHindlion to diferete proportion.
CONTINUITY, is defined by fome fchoolmen the
immediate cohelion of parts in the fame quantum; by
others, a mode of body, whereby its extremities be¬
come one; and by others, a Hate of body rcfulting
from the mutual implication of its parts. There are
two kinds of continuity, mathematical and phyficaK
The firff is merely inraginary, fince it fuppofes real
or phyfical parts where there are none. The other,
or phyfical continuity, is that Hate of two or more
particles, in which their parts are fo mutually impli¬
cated as to conflitute one uninterrupted quantity or
continuum.
CONTINUO, in mufic, fignifies the thorough bafs,
as bafo continuo is the continual or thorough bafs, which
is fometimes marked in mufic-books by the letters B. C.
CONTOR, Condor, or Cuntur, the American
name of a fpecies of Vultur.
CONTORSION, in general, fignifies the adtion of
twiffing or wreffing a member of the body out of
its natural fituation. Rope-dancers accuffom themfelves
to contorfions of their limbs from their youth, to ren¬
der the fibres of their articulations lax, and fupple to
all kinds of poflures.
Contorsion,
CON
[ 2237 ]
CON
‘ Contorsion, in medicine, has many fignifications.
i. It denotes the iliac paffion. 2. An incomplete dif-
_ location, when a bone is in part, but not entirely, for¬
ced from its articulation. 3. A diflocation of the ver¬
tebrae of the back fide-ways, or a crookednefs of thefe
vertebrae. And, 4. A diforder of the head, in which
it is drawn towards one fide, either by a fpafmodic
contra&ion of the mufcles on the fame fide, or" a
pally of the antagonilt mufcles on the other.
CONTORTAf, the name of the 30th order in Lin¬
ing, which ferves as a proof of the confent granted, Contradlile
and the obligation pafied between the parties. ||
Among the ancient Romans, contrails, and all vo- C°ntrart.
luntary acts, were wrote, either by the parties them-
felves, or by one of the witnefles, or by a domeltie
fecretary of one of the parties, whom they called a
notary, but who was no public perfon as among us.
The contract, when finilhed, was carried to the
magiftrate, who gave it a public authority by receiv¬
ing it inter afia, into the number ofatfts under his ju-
naeus’s Fragments of a natural method, confuting of rildiction ; giving each of the parties a copy thereof.
plants which have a fingle petal that is twilled or
bent to one fide. This order contains the following
genera, viz. echites, cerbera, gardenia, genipa, mi-
crocnemum, nerinm, periploca, rawolfia, tabernasmon-
tana, vinca, apocynum, afclepias, comeraria, cerope-
gia, cynanchum, plumeria, flapelia.
CONTOUR, in painting, the outline, or that
which defines a figure.
A great part of the fkill of the painter lies in mana¬
ging the contours well. Contour, with the Italian
painters, fignifies the lineaments of the face.
CONTOURNE, in heraldry, is ufed when a bead
is reprefented Handing or running with its face to the
finifter fide of the efcutcheon, they being always fup-
pofed to look to the right, if not otherwife exprefled.
CONTOURNIATED, a term among antiquaries
applied to medals, the edges of which appear as if another.
tranferibed by his clerks or domeftic regifters, and
fealed with his feal. Which practice palled into
France, where it obtained a long time.
CONTRACTILE Force, that property or power
inherent in certain bodies, whereby, when extended,
they are enabled to draw themfelves up again to their
former dimenlions.
CONTRACTION, in grammar, is'the reducing of
two fyllables into one, as catft for cannot, Jhould'ft
for JJ)ouldcft, &e.
Contraction, in phyfics, the diminifhing the ex¬
tent or dimenfions of a body, or the caufing its parts
to approach nearer to each other, in which fenfe it
Hands oppofed to dilatation or expan lion.
CONTRADICTION, a fpecies of diretH oppofirion,
wherein one thing is found diametrically oppofite to
turned in a lath. This fort of work feems to have
had its origin in Greece ; and to have been defigned
to perpetuate the memories of great men, particularly
thofe who had bore away the prize at the folemn
games. Such are thofe remaining of Homer, Solon,
Euclid, Pythagoras, Socrates, and 1'everal athletae.
CONTRABAND, in commerce, a prohibited com¬
modity, or merchandife bought or fold, imported or
exported, in prejudice to the laws and ordinances of a
Hate, or the public prohibitions of the fovereign. Con¬
traband goods are not only liable to confifcation them¬
felves, but alfo fubjedt all other allowed merchandife
found with them in the fame box, bale or parcel, to¬
gether with the horfes, waggons, ire. which conduct
them. There are contrabands likewife, which, be-
fides the forfeiture of the goods, are attended with
feveral penalties and difabilittes.
CONTRACT, in a general fenfe, a mutual confent
of two or more parties, who voluntarily prornife and
oblige themfelves to do fomething; pay a certain fum,
or the like. All donations, exchanges, leafes, &c. are
fo many different contracts.
Contract is particularly ufed in common law, for
CONTRADICTORY Propositions, are oppo-
lites, one of which imports a mere and naked denial
of the other.
Seeming contradictories is when the members of a
period quite difagree in appearance and found, but
perfe<5tly agree and are coniifient in fenfe : thus,
“ Cowards die many times before their death;
“ The valiajit never tafte of death but once.”
Sh AKESPEAR.
CONTRA-FISSURE, in forgery, a kind of frac¬
ture, or fiflure, in the cranhim, which fometimes hap¬
pens on the fide oppofite to that which received the
blow, or, at leafl, at feme diflance from it.
CONTRAR.IETY, an oppofition between, two
things, which imports their being contrary to one ano¬
ther ; and confifis in this, that one of the terms im¬
plies a negation of the other, either mediately or im¬
mediately ; fo that contrariety may be faid to be the
contraH, or oppofition of two things, one of which
imports the ablence of the other, as love and hatred.
CONTRARY, a pofitive oppofite, which, fubfifi-
ing by turns in the lame fubjeCt with its oppofite, is
as remote Horn it as polfible, expels it, and is mutual-
n agreement or covenant between two, with a law- Jy expelled by it. Blackncfs and whitenefs, cold and
ful confideration or caufe. Ay if I fell my horfe for heat, are fuch contraries.
money; or covenant, in confideration of L. 20, to CONTRAST; oppofition or diflimilitude of figures,
make you a leafe of a farm ; thefe are good contracts, by which one contributes to the vifibility or effect of
btcuni'e there \s quid pro quo. the others. See Resembi.ancb.
Vfurious Contract, is a contrail to pay more in- Contrast, in painting and fculpture, expreffes
terefi for money than the laws allow. See Usury.
Thofe contrails are faid to be null which the law
prohibits the making of; foch are all contrails be¬
tween perfons incapable of contracting, as minors,
religious, lunatics, wives without confent of their huf-
bands, ire.
Contract is alfo ufed for the infirument in writ-
an oppofition or difference of polition, attitude, ire.
of two or more figures, contrived to make variety in
a painting, ire. as where, in a groupe of three figures,
one is Ihewn before, another behind, and another fide-
ways, they are laid to be in contrail.
The contrafi is not only to be obferved in the pofi-
tion of feveral figures, but alfo in that of the feveral
members
CON [ 2238 ] CON
Contrail members of the fame figtfre : thus, if the right arm
II advance fartheit, the right leg is to be hindermoft; if
Controller. t^e eye one way, the arm to go the con¬
trary way, ire. The contrail mull be purfued even in
the drapery.
Contrast, in architedlure, is to avoid the repe¬
tition of the fame thing, in order to pleafe by va¬
riety.
CONTRATE-wheel, in watch-work, thatnextto
the crown, the teeth and hoop whereof lie contrary
to thofe of the other wheels, from whence it takes its
name. See KTCa-Makbig.
CONTRAVALLATION, or the Line Contra-
vaelation, in fortification, a trench guarded with
a parapet, and ufually cut round about a place by the
beliegers, to fecure themfelves on that fide, and to
Hop the fallies of the garrifon. See Fortification.
CONTRAVENTION, in law, a man’s failing to
difeharge his word, obligation, duty, or the laws or
cuftoms of the place.
CONTRAYERVA, in botany. See Dorstenia.
CONTRE, in heraldry, an appellation given to fe-
veral bearings, on account of their cutting the Ihield
contrary and oppofite ways : thus we meet with con-
tre-bend, contre-chevron, contre-pale, ire. when there
are two ordinaries of the fame nature oppofite to each
other, fo as colour may be oppofed to metal, and me¬
tal to colour.
CONTRIBUTION, the payment of each perfon’s
quota, or the part he is to bear in fome impofition, or
common expence. See Contingent, ire.—Contri¬
butions are either involuntary, as thole of taxes and
impofts ; or voluntary, as thofe of expences for car-
rying on fome undertaking for the interefi of the com¬
munity.
Contributions, in a military fenfe,-are impofi-
tions paid by frontier countries to fecure themfelves
from being plundered, and ruined by the enemy’s
army. The peafants till their ground under the faith
of contributions, as fecurely as in time of profound
peace.
CONTRITION, in theology, a forrow for our fins,
refulting from the reflection of having offended God,
from the foie confideration of his goodnefs, without
any regard to the punilhment due to the trefpafs, and
attended with a fincere refolution of reforming them.
The word is derived from the Latin contererei to break
or bruife.
CONTROL is properly a double regiffer kept of
aCts, iflues, ire. of the officers or commiflioners in the
revenue, army, ire. in order to perceive the true
Hate thereof, and to certify the truth, and the due
keeping of the aCls fubjeCl to the enregiflerment.
CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control
or overfee the accounts of other officers; and, on oc-
cafion, to certify whether or no things have been con¬
trolled or examined.
In Britain we have feveral officers of this name ;
as controller of the king’s houfe, controller of the
navy, controller of the cuftoms, controller of the
mint, ire.
Controller of the Hanaper, an officer that at¬
tends the lord chancellor daily, in term and in feal-
time, to take all things fealed in leathern bags frbm
the clerks of the hanaper, and- to make the number Controllei
and effeCt thereof, and enter them in a book, with U
all the duties belonging to the king and other officers Convei-gai
for the fame, and lb charge the clerk of the hanaper "
with them.
Controller of the Pipe, an officer of the exche¬
quer, that makes out a fummons twice every year,
to levy the farms and debts of the pipe. See Pipe,
and Exchequer.
Controllers Pells, two officers of the ex¬
chequer, who are the chamberlain’s clerks, and keep
a control of the pell of receipts, and goings out.
CONTUMACY, in law, a refufal to appear in
court when legally fummoned, or the difobedience to
the rules and orders of a court, having power to punifh
fuch offence.
CONTUSION, in medicine and furgery, any hurt
of the body that is inflicted by a blunt inflrument. See
Surgery.
CONVALLARIA, or Lily of the Valley, in bo¬
tany, a genus of the hexandria order, belonging to
the monogynia clafs of plants. The fpecies are eight,
three of which are natives of Britain, viz. the majalis,
or may-lily ; the multiflora, or folomon’s-feal ; and
the polygonatum, or fweet-fmelling folomon’s-feal.
They are plants of confiderable beauty, and may eafi-
ly be propagated by their creeping roots.
CONVENT, in church-hiftory. See Monastery.
CONVENTICLE, a private aflembly or meeting
for the exercife of religion. The word was firft at¬
tributed as an appellation of reproach to the religious
affemblies of Wickliffe in the reigns of Edward III.
and Richard II. There were feveral ftatutes made
in former reigns, for the fupprefiion of conventicles;
but, by 1 William and Mary, it is ordered, that dif-
fenters may aflemble for the performance of religious
worfhip, provided their doors be not locked, barred,
or bolted.
CONVENTION, a treaty, contratil, or agreement
between two or more parties.
Convention is alfo a name given to an extraor¬
dinary aflembly of parliament, or the eftates of the
realm, held without the king’s writ; as was the con¬
vention of eftates, who, upon the retreat of king
James II. came to a conclufion that he had abdicated
the throne, and that the right of fucceffion devolved
to king William and queen Mary ; whereupon their
aflembly expired as a convention, and was converted
into a parliament.
CONVENTUAL, fomething belonging to a con¬
vent or monaftery. See Monastery, and Coeno¬
bite.
Conventual is particularly ufed for a religious
who actually refides in a convent; in contradiftindlion
to thofe who are only guefts, or are entertained there,
or in pofleflion of benefices depending on the houfe.
See Monk.
CONVERGING, or Convergent Lines, in geo¬
metry, are fuch as continually approach nearer one
another, or wbofe diftances become ftill lefs and lefs.
Thefe are oppofed to divergent lines, the diftances of
which become continually greater : thofe lines which
converge one way, diverge the other.
Converging Rays, in optics, thofe rays that, if-
G O N [ 2239 ] CON
it ronvwle fuing from divers points of an object, incline towards
li _ anotiier, till, at lad, they meet and crofs, and then
* onvi^‘op» become diverging rays.
CONVERSE, in mathematics. One propofition is
called the ccnverfe of another, when, after a conclu-
fion is drawn from fomerhing fuppofed in the converfe
propofition, that, conclufion is liippofed ; and then,
that which in the other was fnppoled, is now drawn
as a conclufion from it: thus,, when two fides of a tri¬
angle are equal, the angles under thefe fides are equal;
and, on the converfe, if thefe angles are equal, the
two fides are equal.
CONVERSION, in a moral fenfe, implies a re¬
pentance for a temper and conduct unworthy our na¬
ture, and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and a refolution to aft a-wifer and a better part for
the future.
Conversion', in war, a military motion whereby
the front of a battalion is turned where the flank was,
in cafe tire battalion is attacked in the flank.
Conversion-of Equations, the fame with reduc¬
tion of equations by multiplication. See Algebra,
n° 17.
CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior
furface of gibbous or globular bodies; in oppofition to
the hollow inner furface of fuch bodies, which is called
concave : thus we fay, a convex frieze, lens, mirror,
fuperlicies, 13 c.
CONVEXITY, the exterior furface of a convex,
E <?. gibbous and globular thing ; in oppofition to con¬
cavity, or the inner furface, which is hollow or de-
preffed. See Concave.
The word is of particular import in catoptrics and
' dioptrics ; where it is applied to mirrours and
Ifenfeti
A convex mirrour reprefents its images fmaller than
the objefts; as a concave one reprefents them larger:
a convex mirrour reflefts the rays from it, diverging;
and therefore difperfes and weakens their effeft : as
a concave one reflefts them converging, fo as they
concur in a point, and have their effeft increafed : and
by how much the mirrour is a portion of a fmaller
fphere, by fo much does it diminifti the objefts, and
difperfe the rays the more. See Mirrour.
A convex lens is-either convex on both fides, called
a convexo-convex; or it is plain on one fide, and con¬
vex on the other, called a plano-convex : or concave
on one fide, and convex on the other, called a con¬
vexo-concave, or concavo-convex, as the one or the
other furface prevails, i. e. as this or that is a por¬
tion of a fmaller fphere. All convex lenfes infleft the
rays of light in their paffage, i. e. fend them out from
their convex furface converging, fo as that they con¬
cur in a point or focus. Hence all convex lenfes mag¬
nify, i. s. reprefent their images larger than their ob¬
jefts ; and this the more, as they are portions of fmai-
ler fpheres.
CONVEYANCE, in law, a deed or inflrument that
jtafles land, ire. from one perfon to another.
CONVICT, in common law, a perfon that is found
guilty of an offence by the verdift of a jury. See
the following article.
CONVICTION, in theology, exprefles the firft
degree of repentance, wherein the finner becomes
fenfible of his guilt, of the evil nature of fin, and of Conviction,
the danger of his own ways.
Conviction, in law. When a jury has given a
verdift upon trial, finding the prifoner guilty, he is
faid To be convicted of the crime whereof he fiands in-
difted. See Trial.
When tile offender is thus convifted, there are two
collateral chcumftances that immediately arife. 1. On
a conviftion in general for any felony, the reafonable
expences of profecution are by flature 25 Geo. II. c.
36. to be allowed the profecutor out of the county-
ffock, if he petitions the judge for that purpofe ; and
by Ifatute 27 Geo. II. c. 3. poor perfons, bound over
to give evidence, are likewife entitled to be paieftheir
charges, as well without conviftion as with it. 2. On
a conviftion of larciny in particular, the profecutor
fhall have reftitution of his goods by virtue of the
ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 11. For by the common law
there was no reffitution of goods upon an indift'ment;
becaufe it is at the foit of the king only ; and there¬
fore the party was enforced to bring an appeal of
robbery, in order to have his goods again. But, it
being confidered that the party prolecuting the offen¬
der by indiftmenr, deferves to the full as much en¬
couragement as he who profecutes by appeal, this fta-
tute was made, which enafts, that if any perfon be
convifted of larciny by the evidence of the party rob¬
bed, he fhall have full reftitmion of his money, goods
and chattels, or the value of them out of the offend¬
er’s goods, if he has any, by a writ to be granted by
thejuflices. And the conflruftion of this aft having
been in great meafure conformable ro the law of ap¬
peals, it has therefore in praftice fuperfeded the ufe
of appeals of larciny. For inflance, as formerly up¬
on appeals, fo now upon indiftments of larciny, this
writ of reftitution fhall reach the goods fo ftolen, not-
withftanding the property of them is endeavoured to
be altered by fale in market overt. And though this
may feem fomewhat hard upon the buyer, yet the
rule of law is, that fpoliatus debet ante ovinia reftitui,
efpecially when he has ufed all the diligence in his
power to convift the felon. And, fince the cafe is
reduced to this hard neceflity, that either the owner
or the buyer muft fuffer ; the law prefers the right
of the owner, who has done a meritorious aft by pur-
fuing a felon to condign punifhment, to the right of
the buyer, whofe merit is only negative, that he has
been guiity of no unfair trani'aftion, And it is now
ufual for the court, upon the conviftion of a felon, to
order, without any writ, immediate reftitution of fuch.
goods as are brought into court, to be made to the
feveral profecutors. Or elfie, fecondiy, without fuch
writ of reftitution, the party may peaceably retake
his goods, wherever he. happens to find them, unlefs a
new property be fairly acquired therein. Or laftly, if
the felon be convifted and pardoned, or be allowed
his clergy, the party robbed may bring his aftion of
trover againft him for his goods; and recover a fatis-
faftion in damages. But inch action lies not before
profecution ; for fo felonies would be made up and
healed : and alfo recaption is unlawful, if it be done
with intention to fmother and compound the larciny ;
it then becoming the heinous offence of theft-bote.
It is not uncommon, when a perfon is convifted of
a
Convoca-
Convolu-
C O N [ 2240 ] CON
a mifdemeanour, which principally and more immedi¬
ately alFefts fome individual, as a battery, imprifon-
ment, or the like, for the court to permit the defen-
dant to fpeak with the profecutor, before any judge¬
ment is pronounced ; and if the profecutDr declares
himfelf fatisfied, to inflict but a trivial punifliment.
This is done to reimburfe the profecutor his expences,
and make him fome private amends, without the
trouble and circuity of a civil action. But it is furely
a dangerous practice : and, though it may be entruft-
ed to the prudence and difcretion of the judges in the
1'uperior courts of record, it ought never to be allow¬
ed in local or inferior jurifdic'tions, fuch as the quar-
ter-feffions; where profecutions for affaults are by
this means too frequently commenced, rather for pri¬
vate lucre, than for the great ends of public juftice.
Above all, it ftiould never be fuffered, where the te-
ftimony of the profecutor himfelf is neceffary to con-
vi(5t the defendant: for by this means the rules of evi¬
dence are entirely fubverted ; the profecutor becomes
in effeiSt a plaintiff, and yet is fuffered to bear witnefs
for himfeif. Nay even a voluntary forgivenefs by the
q)arty injured, ought not, in true policy, to intercept
the ftroke of juftice. “ This, fays an elegant writer,
(who pleads with equal ftrength for the certainty, as
for the lenity of punifhment) may be an a<ft of good
nature and humanity, but it is contrary to the good of
the public. For, although a private citizen may dif-
penfe with fatisfa&ion for his private injury, he can¬
not remove the neceflity of public example. The
right of punifhing belongs not to any one individual
in particular, but to the fociety in general, or to the
fonereign who reprefents that fociety ; and a man
may renounce his own portion of this right, but he
cannot give up that of others.”
CONVOCATION, an affemhly of the clergy of
England, by their reprefentatives, to confult of eccle-
liaftical matters. It is held during the feffion of par¬
liament, and con fills of an upper and a lower houfe.
In the upper fit the bifhops, and in the lower the in¬
ferior clergy, who are reprefented by their proctors ;
confifting of all the deans and archdeacons, of one
proctor for every chapter, and two for the clergy of
every diocefe, in all 143 divines ; viz. 22 deans, 53
archdeacons, 24 prebendaries, and 44 prodtors of the
diocefan clergy. The lower houfe chufes its prolocu¬
tor ; whofe bufinefs it is to take care that the mem¬
bers attend, to colledl their debates and votes, and to
carry their refolutions to the upper houfe. The con¬
vocation is fummoned by the king’s writ, directed to
the archbifhop of each province, requiring him to fum-
mon all bifhops, deans, archdeacons, ire.
The power of the convocation is limited by a fta-
tute of Henry VIII. They are not to make any ca¬
nons or ecdeiiaftical laws, without the king’s licence r
nor, when permitted to make any, can they put them
in execution, but under feveral reftridtions. They have
the examining and cenfuring all heretical and fchifma-
tical books and perfons, ire.; but there lies an appeal to
the king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy
in convocation, and their fervants, have the fame pri¬
vileges as members of parliament.
COblVOLUTON, a winding motion, proper to the
trunks of fome plants, as the convolvulus, or bind¬
weed ; the clafpers of vines, bryony, &c. Convolva.5
CONVOLVULUS, bind-weed, a genus of the lus-
pentandria order belonging to the monogynia clafs of
plants. Of this there are 43 fpecies, the moft re¬
markable of which are the following.
1. The fepium, or large white bind-weed, is often
a troublefome weed in gardens, when its roots are in¬
terwoven with thofe of trees and fhrubs, or under
hedges, as every fmall piece of root is apt to grow.
It flourifhes under moifl hedges, and hath white or
purplilh blofloms. 2. The fcammonia, or Syrian bind¬
weed, grows naturally in Syria. The roots are thick,
run deep into the ground, and are covered with a
dark bark. The branches extend on every fide to
the diftance of 10 or 12 feet; they are flender, and
trail on the ground, and are garnifhed with narrow,
arrow-pointed leaves. The flowers are of a pale
yellow, and come out from the fide of the branches,
two fitting upon each long foot-flalk ; thefe are fuc-
ceeded by roundifh feed-veffels, having three ceils fil¬
led with feeds. 3. The purpureus, or convolvulus
major, is an annual plant growing naturally in Afia
and America, but has been long cultivated in the Bri-
tifh gardens. If thefe plants are properly fupported
they will rife 10.or 12 feet high in warm fummers.
There are three or four lafting varieties: the mofi:
common hath a purple flower; the others have a
white, a red, or a whitifh-blue flower, which lafl hath
white feeds. They flower in June, July, and Auguft,
and their feeds ripen in autumn. 4. The nil, or blue
bind-weed, rifes with a twining ftalk 8 or 1 o feet high,
garnifhed with heart-fhaped leaves, divided into three
lobes, which end in fharp points. Thefe are wooly, and
ftand upon long foot-flalks. The flowers alfo come out
on long foot-flalks, each fuftaining two flowers of a very
deep blue colour, whence their name of anil or indigo.
This is one of the moll beautiful plants of the genus:
it flowers all the latter part of the fummer ; and in
good feafons the feeds ripen very well in the open air.
5. The battatas, or Spanifli potatoes, hath efculent
roots, which are annually imported from Spain and
Portugal, where they are greatly cultivated for the
table ; but they are too tender to thrive in the open
air in Britain. Their roots are like the common po¬
tato, but require much more room : for they fend
out many trailing {talks, which extend fix or eight
feet every way; and at their joints fend out roots
which in warm countries grow to be very large bulbs;
fo that from a Angle root planted, 40 or jo large po¬
tatoes are produced. 6. The canarienfis, with foft
wooly leaves, is a native of the Canaries; but hath
long been preferred in the Britifh gardens. It hath a
ftrong fibrous root, from whence arife feveral twining
woody ftalks, which, where they have fupport, will
grow more than 20 feet high, garniflied with oblong
heart-fliaped leaves, which are foft and hairy. The
flowers are produced from the wings of the leaves,
feveral {landing upon one footflalk. They are for
the mofi part of a pale blue; but there is a variety*
with white flowers. They appear in June, July, and
Augufl, and fometimes ripen feeds here. 7. The tri¬
color, or convolvulus minor, is a native of Portugal; but
hath long been cultivated in the gardens of this coun¬
try. It is an annual plant, which hath feveral thick
herbaceous
CON [ 2241 ] CON
jjpnvolvu- herbaceous ftalks growing about two feet long, which
I his. do not twine like the other forts, but decline toward
"     the ground, upon which many of the lower branches
lie proltrate ; they are garnifhed with Ipear-fliaped
leaves, which (it clofe to the branches : the footltalks
of the flowers come out jull: above the leaves of the
fame joint, and at the fame fide of the ftalks. They
are about two inches long, each fuftaining one large
open bell-fliaped flower, which in fome is of a fine blue
colour with a white bottom ; in others they are pure
white, and fome are beautifully variegated with both
colours. The white flowers are fucceeded by white
feeds, and the blue by dark-coloured feeds; which
difference is pretty conflant. 8. The foldonella, or
fea-bindweed, ftyled alfo brajpca marina, grows natu-
fally on the fea-beaches in many parts of England, but
cannot be long preferved in gardens. It hath many
fmall white ftringy roots, which fpread wide and fend
out feveral weak trailing branches. Thefe twine about
the neighbouring plants like thofe of the common bind¬
weed, garnilhed with kidney-lhaped leaves like thofe of
the lefler celandine. The flowers are produced on the
fide of the branches at each joint. They are of » reddifli
purple colour, and appear in July, They are fucceeded
by round capfules, having three cells, each containing
one black feed. 9. The turpethum is a native of the
ifland of Ceylon. This hath fleflty thick roots, which
fpread far in the ground, and abound with a milky juice
that flows out when the roots are broken or wounded,
and foon hardens into a reiinous fubftance when expo-
fed to the fun and air. From the root ftioots forth many
twining branches, which twill about each other, or
the neighbouring plants, like the common bindweed.
They are garnilhed with heart-lhaped leaves that are
foft to the touch, like thofe of the marlhmallow. The
flowers are produced at the joints on the fide of the
Italics, feveral Handing together on the fame foot-
Italk : they are white, and lhaped like thofe of the
common great bindweed, and are fucceeded by round
capfnles, having three cells containing two feeds each.
10. Thejalapa, or jalap, ufed in medicine, is a native
of Haleppo in Spanilh America, fituated between La
Vera Cruz and Mexico. It hath a large root of an
oval form, which is full of a milky juice; from which
come out many herbaceous twining llalks rifing eight
or ten feet high, garnilhed with variable leaves; fome
of them being heart-lhaped, others angular, and forae
oblong and pointed. They are fmooth, and Hand up¬
on long footflalks: the flowers are lhaped like thofe
of the common greater bindweed, each footflalk fup-
porting only one flower.
Culture. The firfl and fecond forts are propaga¬
ted by feeds, which mufi be fown on a border of light
earth. The fecond fort mult have fome tall Hakes
placed near them for their branches to twine about,
otherwife they will fpread bn the ground and make a
bad appearance. The third fort is annual, and mull
be propagated by feeds fown on a hot-bed in the
fpring, and towards the end of May they Ihould be
planted out in warm borders,-and treated in the fame
manner with the former. The fourth fpecies is fome-
times propagated in this country. The roots mull be
planted on a hot-bed in the fpring; and if the plants
are covered in bad weather with elaffes, they will
Vox.. III.
produce flowers and fome fmall bulbs from the joints Convoy
ot the Halks: but if they are expofed to the open air II
they feldom grow to any fize. The fifth is propaga- Coolt<!'
ted by laying down the young {hoots in the fpring,
which generally put out roots in three or four months:
they may then be taken from the old plants, and each
placed in a feparate pot, which is to be fet in the lhade
till they have taken new root; after which they may
be placed with other hardy green-houfe plants till au¬
tumn, when they ftiould be removed into the green-
houfe, and afterwards treated in the fame manner as
myrtles and other green-houfe plants. The turbith
and jalap are too tender to live in this country, unlefs
they are conflantly kept in a Hove. The other fpe¬
cies require no particular directions for their cultiva¬
tion.
Ufes. The root of the firfi fort is a very acrid pur¬
gative to the human race, but is eaten by hogs in large
quantities without any detriment. The infpiflated
juice of this might probably anfwer the purpofes of
fcammony, which at prelent is imported from Aleppo
at a confiderable annual expence. The infpiflated
juice of the fecond fpecies is ufed in medicine as afe
acrid purgative; as are alfo the roots of Jalap and
Turpeth. The loldanella has like wife been ufed
with the fame intention. Half an ounce of the juice,
or a drachm of the powder, is an acrid purge. The
leaves applied externally are faid to diminflh dropfi-
cal fwellings of the feet.
CONVOY, in naval affairs, one or more {hips of
war, employed to accompany and protect merchant-
fliips, rand prevent their being infulted by pirates, or
the enemies of the Hate in time ef war.
Convoy, in military matters, a body of men that
guard any fupply of men, money, ammunition, or pro-
vifions, conveyed by land into a town, army, or the
like, in time of war.
CONUS, a cone, in botany ; a fpecies of fruit or
fcaly feed-veflel, fo termed by Tournefort and other
botaniHs. Linnseus has fubflituted strobieus in its
place.
CONVULSION, a preternatural and violent con-
traclion of the membranous and mufcular parts of the
body. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
CONWAY, a market-town of Carnarvonlhire in
North Wales, fituated near the month of a river of
the fame name, 15 miles wefi of Sr Afaph. W. Long.
3. so. N. Lat. 53. 20.
CONYZA, fleabane ; a genus of the order of
fyngenefia, belonging to the polygamia fuperflua clafs
of plants. There are 19 fpecies, none of which me¬
rit any particular defcription.
CONZA, a town of the kingdom of Naples in Italy,
fituated on the farther principate, on the river Offantor
50 miles fouth-eaH of the city of Naples. E. Long.
16. o. N. L. 41. o. It is the fee of an archbilhop.
COOKE (Sir Anthony), delcended from Sir Thomas
Cooke lord mayor of London, was born in 1506, and
fuppofed to have been educated at Cambridge. He
was fo eminent for his learning, piety, and prudence,
that the guardians of king Edward VI. appointed him
to be his chief inffru<5tor in learning, and to form his
manners. He had four daughters; and being refol-
ved to have fons by education, lefi -lie ftiould have
13 E none
COO [ 2242 ] coo
Coolers none t>)» birth, he taught his daughters thofe leflbns by
II night that he had infilled into the prince by day : lie
was happy in his endeavours, as they proved learned
in Greek and Latin, and equally dillinguilhed by vir¬
tue, piety, and good fortune. Mildred was married
to the great lord Burleigh ; Ann to Sir Nicholas Ba¬
con, lord keeper of the great feal; Elil’abeth to Sir
John Rufl’el, fon and heir of Francis earl of Bedford ;
and Catharine to Sir Henry Killigrew. He lived in
exile during the Marian perfecution ; and returning
on the acceflion of queen Elizabeth, fpent the relt of
his days in peace and honour, dying in 1576.
COOLERS, in,medicine, thofe remedies which pro¬
duce an immediate fenfe of cold, being fuch as have
their parts in lefs motion than thofe of the organs of
feeling.; as fruits, and all acid liquors. Or they are
fuch as by a particular vifcidity, or groffnefs of parts,
give the animal fluids a greater confiltency than they
bad before, and confequently retard their motion, ha¬
ving lefs of that intettine force on which their heat de¬
pends : of thig fort are cucumbers, and all fubitances
producing vifcidity.
M COOM, a term applied to the foot that gathers
over an oven’s mouth; alio for that black, grealy fub-
liance, which works out of the wheels of carriages.
COOMB, or Comb, of Corn, a dry meafure con¬
taining 4 bulhels, or half a quarter.
COOPER, on board a fhip, he that looks to the
calks and all other velfels for beer, water, or any o-
ther liquor. He hath a mate under him.
Cooper (Anthony-Alhley), firft earlof Shaftelbury,
a moft able llatefman, was the fon of Sir John Cooper,
Bart, of Rockborn in Hamplhire, and was born in 1621.
He was eleHed member for Tewkelbury at 19 years
of age, in the Ihort parliament that met April 13th
1640. He feems to have been well afledted to the
king’s fervice at the beginning of the civil wars; for
he repaired to the king at Oxford with oifers of af-
fiftance : but prince Maurice breaking articles to a
town in Dorfetlhire that he had got to receive him,
furnilhed him with a pretence for going over to the
parliament, from which he accepted a commilfion.
When Richard Cromwell was depofed, and the Rump
come again into power, they nominated Sir Anthony
one of their council of Hate, and a commiflioner for
managing the army. At that very time he had enga¬
ged in a fecret correfpondence for reltoring Charles II.
and, upon the king’s coming over, was fworn of his
privy council. He was one of the commiflioners for
the trial of the regicides ; was foon after made chan¬
cellor of the exchequer, then a commiflioner of the
treafury ; in 1672 was created earl of Shaftelbury ;
and foon after was railed to the poll of lord chancel¬
lor. He filled this office with great ability and inte¬
grity ; and though the Ihort time he was at the helm
was in a tempeltuous feafon, it is doing him juftice to
fay, nothing could either didratfl or affright him.
The great leal was taken from him in 1673,12 months
after his receiving it; but, though out of office, he frill
made a diftinguifhed figure in parliament, for it was
not in his nature to remain inaHive. He drew upon
himfelf the implacable hatred of the duke of York, by
Readily promoting, if not originally inventing, the fa¬
mous project of an exclufton-bill. When his enemies
came into power, he found it neceffary to eonfult his Cooper,
fafety by retiring into Holland, where he died fix  
weeks after his arrival, in 1683. While his great
abilities are confefred by all, it has been his misfortune
to have his hiftory recorded by his enemies, who flu-
died to render him odious. Butler has given a very
fevere character of him in his Hudibras.
Cooper (Anthony Afhley), earl of Shaftefbury, was
fon of Anthony earl of Shaftefbury, and grandl'on of
Anthony firlt earl of Shaftefbury, lord high chancellor
of England. He was born in 1671, at Exeter-froufe
in London, where his grandfather lived, who from the
time of his birth conceived fo great an affediion for
him, that he undertook the care of his education ; and
and he made fo good a progref s in learning, that he could
read with eafe both the Latin and Greek languages,when
only 11 years old. In 1683, his father carried him to the
fchool at Winchcfter, where he was often infulted on
his grandfather’s account, whofe memory was odious to
the zealots for defpotic power : he therefore prevailed
with his father to con feat to his defire of going a-
broad. After three years fray abroad, he returned to
Englanckin 1689, and was ofl’ered a feat in parliament
in fome of thofe boroughs where his fanply had an in-
tereft. But this offer he did not now accept, that he
might not be interrupted in the courfe of his ftudies,
which he p^ofecuted five yeiirs more, with great vi¬
gour and fuccefs j till, on Sir John Trencbard’s death, he
was elected burgefs for Pool. Soon after his coming in¬
to parliament, he had an opportunity given him of ex-
preffing that f'pirit of liberty by which he uniformly
directed his condtufl on all occafions. It was the
bringing in and promoting “ the a<51 for regulating
trials in cafes of high treafon.” But the fatigues of
attending the houfe of commons* in a few years fb
impaired his health, that he was obliged to decline
coming again into parliament after the difrfrlution in
1698. He then went to Holland, were the converfa-
tion of Mr Bayle, Mr le Gere,, and feviral other
learned and ingenious men, induced him to relide a
twelvemonth. Soon after he returned to England he
became ear! of Shaftefbury. But his own private af¬
fairs hindered him from attending the hi.ufe of lords
till the fecond year of his peerage, when he was very
earneft to fupjjort king William’s meafiu es, who was
at that time projecting the grand alliartce. So much
was he in favour with king William, that he had the
offer of fecretary of frate ; but his declining confritu-
tion would not allow him to accept it. Though he
was difabled from engaging in bufinefs, the king con-
fulted him on matters of very high importance ; and
it is pretty well known that he had the greatefr {hare
in compofing that celebrated lafr Iptech of king Wil¬
liam, December 31st 1701. On Queen Anne’s ac¬
ceflion to the throne, he returned to his retired man¬
ner of life, being no longer advifed with concerning
the public ; and was then removed from the vice ad¬
miralty of Dorfet, which had been in the family for
three generations. In 1703, he made a fecond jour¬
ney to Holland, and returned to England the year fol¬
lowing. The French prophets foon after this, having
by their enthufiaftic extravagancies made a great noife
throughout the nation, and, among different opinions,
fome advifing a prqfecution, the lord Shaftefbury ap¬
prehended
COO [ 224.3 ] COP
i£ Cooper, pfehended that fuch meaiures tended rather to inflame
-i ~ 1 ■ 'than to cure the dileafe, and this occafioned his letter
concerning Enthufiafm. In X7U, finding his health
ftill declining, he was advifed to leek afliftance from a
warmer climate, and accordingly fet out for Naples ;
where he lived near two years, and died there in
1713. In the three volumes of his charadteriftics, he
completed the whole of his writings which he intend¬
ed Ihould be made public, though we have feveral
pieces of his publilhed by other hands. His principal
ftudy was the writers of antiquity, from which he
l formed to himfelf the plan of his philofophy.
Cooper (Samuel), a very eminent Englilh minia¬
ture painter, born in 1609, and bred under the care of
his uncle John Holkins. He derived, however, his
principal excellence from a ftudy of the works of Van
Dyck, in whole time he lived; infomuch that he was
commonly ftyled “ Van Dyck in little.” His pencil was
chiefly confined to the head, in which, with all its de¬
pendences, efpecially the hair, he was inimitable; but
if he defcended lower, his incorredinefs was noto¬
rious. He died in 1672; and his pieces are univerfally
admired all over Europe, felling for incredible prices.
—He had a brother, Alexander, likewife a good mini¬
ature painter, who became limner to Chriftina queen
of Sweden.
Cooper (Thomas), a pious and learned prelate in
the reign of queen Elizabeth, was born at Oxford a-
bout the year 1517. He was educated in the Ichool
adjoining to Madalene college, of which he was a choi-
rifter; where allb, in 1539, he waS e'e<^ecl probation¬
er, and fellow in the following year. About the year
1546, quitting his fellowlhip, he applied himfelf to the
ftudy of phyfic, in 1556 took the degree of bachelor in
that faculty, and pradlifed as phyfician at Oxford. Be¬
ing inclined to the Proteftant religion, probably this was
only a prudent fufpenfion of his final intentions, during
the Popifli reign of queen Mary: for, on the acceflion
of Elizabeth, he refumed the ftudy of divinity ; be¬
came a celebrated preacher, was made dean of Chrift-
church and vice-chancellor of the univerfity, having
accumulated the degrees of bachelor and dodfor in
divinity. In 1569 he was made dean of Gloucefter ;
and, the year following, bilhop of Lincoln : whence,
in 1584, he was tranflated to the fee of Winchefter ;
in which city he died on the 29th of April 1594. and
was buried in the cathedral there, on the fouth fide of
the choir. The feveral writers who have mentioned
Dr Cooper, unanimoufly give him the character of an
eloquent preacher, a learned divine, and a good man.
He had the misfortune while at Oxford to marry a
lady whofe gallantries became notorious: neverthelefs
he would not be divorced from her ; knowing that he
could not live without a wife, he did not chufe “ to
charge his confcience with the fcandal of a fecond
marriage.”—He wrote, 1. the Epitome of Chronicles
from the 17th year after Chrift, to 154O, and thence
after to 1560, 2. Thefaurus linguae Romanae et Bri-
tannicse. This dictionary, which is an improvement
upon Elyot’s, was much admired by queen Elizabeth,
who thence forward determined to promote the au¬
thor. 3. A brief expofition of fuch chapters of the Old
Teftament, as ufually are read in the church, at
common prayer, on Sundays throughout the year.
4. An admonition to the people of England. 5. Ser- Co-ordinate
mons. * c ^ .
CO-ORDINATE, fomething of equal order, rank gen.1*'
or degree with another.    
COOT, in ornithology. See Fulica.
COOTW1CH (John), doCtor of laws, was born at
Utrecht, and 1’pent great part of his life in travelling.
He publilhed in Latin, in 1619, and account of his jour¬
ney from Jerufalem, and from Syria ; which is very
fcarce and in high efteem. Time of his death uncer¬
tain.
COPAIBA, or Balfam of Copaiba, a liquid refi-
nous juice, flowing from incifions made in the trunk
of the fera, a large tree which grows in the Spanifh
Weft Indies; and is ufed as a corroborating and deter¬
gent medicine.
COPAL, improperly called gum copal, is a gum of
the refinous kind brought from New Spain. It is the
concrete juice of a tree which grows in thefe parts ;
and comes to us in irregular inalfes, fome of which
are tranfparent, and of different fliades as to colour,
from a light yellow to a deep brown. Some pieces
are whitilh and femi-tranfparent. To the fmell it
is more agreeable than frankincenfe; but hath nei¬
ther the fduhility in water common to gums, nor in
fpirit of wine common to refins, at leaft in any con-
fiderable degree. By thefe properties it refembles
amber; which has induced fome to think it a mineral
bitumen refembling that fubftance. In diftillation it
yields an oil, which like mineral petrolea is indiffolu-
ble in fpirit of wine. Copal itfelf is foluble in the effen-
tial oils, particularly in that of lavender, but not eafily
in the exprefled ones. It may, however, be diffolved
in linfeed oil by digeftion, with a heat very little lefs
than is fufficient to boil or decompofe the oil. This
folution, diluted with fpirit of turpentine, forms a
beautiful tranfparent varnilh, which when properly
applied, and llowly dried, is very hard and durable.
This varnilh is applied to fnuff-boxes, tea-boards, and
other utenfils. It preferves and gives luftre to paint¬
ings, and greatly reftores the decayed colours of old
pictures, by filling up the cracks and rendering the
furfaces capable of reflecting light more uniformly.
COPE, an ecclefiaftical ornament, ufually worn by
chanters, and fub-chanters, when they officiate in fo-
lemnity. It reaches from the Ihoulders to the feet.
The ancients called it ptuviale.—The word is aMb ufed
for the roof or covering of a houfe, frc.
Cope is alfo the name of an ancient cuftom or tri¬
bute due to the king, or lord of the foil, out of the
lead-mines in fome part of Derbylhire ; of which
Manlove faith thus:
Egrefs and regrefs to the king’s highway,
The miners have; and lot and cope they pay :
The thirteenth dilli of ore within their mine,
To the lord, for /of, they pay at meafuring time ;
Sixpence a load for cope the lord demands,
And that is paid to the burgbmafier’s. hands.
This word by domefday-book, as Mr Hager hath in¬
terpreted it, fignifies a hill: and cope is taken for the
fupreme cover, as the cope of heaven,
COPENHAGEN, the capital of the kingdom of
Denmark, fituated on the eaftern ftiore of the ifland
of Zealand, upon a fine bay of the Baltic fea, not far
13 E 2 from
COP [ 2244 ] COP
Copenha- from the ftrait called the Sound: E. I^ong. 13.0.
gen. Lat. 55. 30.
Cop ** lean. ^lls c“7 neither very large nor very ancient.
The precife date of its foundation is difputed ; but the
tnoft probable account is, that it took its rife from a
caftle built on the fpot in the year 1168, by archbilhop
Wide, as a protection againilthe pirates which at that
time fwarmed in the Baltic. The conveniency of the
fituation, and the fecurity afforded by the caftle, foon
induced a number of the inhabitants of Zealand to
refort thither ; fo that at length it became a fine city,
and the capital of the kingdom. According to Molef-
worth, it approaches nearly to the lize of Briltol. The
walls in bis time inclofed a great deal more ground
than was occupied by the houles; but as in his time
they were daily increafing, it is probable that now
the vacant fpace is in a great meafure filled up. Its
advantageous fituation for trade, and the excellency of
its harbour, are not to be furpafied ; and were Copen¬
hagen a free port, there is no doubt but it would foon
become the emporium of the commerce into the Bal¬
tic. The harbour is furrounded by the fortifications
of the town; and the entrance is fo narrow, that only
one fliip can enter at a time. In the night-time this
entrance is {hut up by a ftrong boom laid acrofs. The
paflage is defended on the one fide by the cannon of
the citadel, and on the other by a ftrong block-houfe,
well mounted with heavy artillery. The whole haven
is capable of containing 300 fail of large fhips. It is
inclofed by a wooden gallery, clofe to which every fliip
has her appointed ftation ; a circumftance that adds
greatly to the beauty and conveniency of the feene,
than which nothing can be more rich and regular,
when a number of fhipping happen to lie in the port.
The city is ftrong both by nature and art; the fitua¬
tion being marfliy, deep canals cut all round, and the
fortifications executed agreeable to the beft modern
improvements; but the works are chiefly cotnpofed
of turf and earth. Experience has fhewn its ftrength ;
it having fuftained two remarkable fieges again ft a
fine Swedilh army, flufhed with victory, and headed by
the moft magnanimous princes of the age. It is pro¬
bable, indeed, from thefe inftances, that an enemy may
carry on their approaches more eafily in winter than in
fummer, the dykes being then covered over with ice,
upon which the Swedilh army marched. Its fecurity,
however, in this particular, confifts in the impoffibility
of an army’s keeping the field long amidft the rigorous
winters of all northen climates. The buildings of
the town are in general mean and defpicable: even
the king’s palace is furpafled by the houfes of private
gentlemen in other countries. There are, however,
a few good buildings, as the change, arfenal, and oh-
fervatory, eretfted by order of that excellent prince
Chriftian IV. to whom almoft all the decorations of
Copenhagen are owing. What adds greatly to the
conyeniency of the city is the neighbourhood of the
little ifland of Finack, or rather Amack, joined to it
by a bridge. From this place the markets of the city
are fupplied with fowl, beef, mutton, venifon, corn,
and culinary vegetables, which are produced here in
the greateft abundance.
COPERNICAN, in general, fomething belonging
to Copernicus. Hence,
Copernxcan Syfietn or Hypothejis, that fyftem of
the world, wherein the fun is liippofed to reft in the
centre, and the planets, with the earth, to move in
ellipfes round him. See Copernicus.
COPERNICUS (Nicolaus), an eminent aftronomer,
was born at Thorn in Prulfia, in the year 1472. He
was taught the Latin and Greek languages at home ;
and afterwards fent to Cracovia, where he ftudied
philofophy and phyfic. His genius in the mean time
was naturally turned to mathematics, which he pur-
fued through all its various branches. He fet out for
Italy when he was 23 years of age ; but ftaid at Bo-
nonia feme time, for the fake of being with the cele¬
brated aftronomer of that place, Dominicus Maria ;
whofeconverfation, however, and company, he affec¬
ted, not fo much as a learner, as an affilfant to him in
making his obfervations. From thence, he paffed to.
Rome, where he was no fooner arrived than he was
confidered as not inferior to the famous Regiomonta¬
nus ; and acquired in fhort fo great a reputation, that
he vyas chofen profeffor of mathematics, which he
taught for a long time with great applaufe. He alfo
made fome aftronomical obfervations there about the
year 1300. Returning to his own country fome years
after, he began to apply his vaft knowledge in mathe¬
matics to corretft the fyftem of aftronomy which then
prevailed. He fet himfelf to colletft all the books
which had been written by philofophers and aftrono-
mers, and to examine all the various hypothefes they
had invented for the folution of the celeftial pheno¬
mena ; to try if a more fymmetrical order and confti-
tution of the parts of the world could not be difeo-
vered, and a more juft and exquifite harmony in Its
motions eftablifhed, than what the aftronomers of thofe
times fo eafily admitted. But of all their hypothefes
none pleafed him lb well as the Pythagorean, which
made the fun to be the centre of the fyftem, and fup-
pofed the earth to move not only round the fun, but
round its own axis alfo. He thought he difeerned
much beautiful order and proportion in this ; and that
all that embarraffment and perplexity from epicycles,
and excentrjcs, which attended the Ptolemaic hy-
pothefis, would here be entirely removed.
This fyftem, then, he began to confider, and to write
upon, when he was about 33 years of age. He em¬
ployed himfelf in contemplating the phenomena care¬
fully ; in making mathematical calculations; in exa¬
mining the obfervations of the ancients, and in ma¬
king new ones of his own ; and after more than 20
years chiefly fpent in this manner, he brought his
fcheme to perfection, and eftablifhed that fyftem of
the world which goes by his name, and is now uni-
verfally received, (fee Astronomy, np 74.) His fy¬
ftem, however, was then looked upon as a moft dan¬
gerous herefy : for which he was thrown into prifon
by Pope Urban VIII. and not fuffered to come out till
he had recanted his opinion ; that is, till he had re¬
nounced the teftimony of his fenfes. He died the
24th of May 1453, in the 70th year of his age.
This extraordinary man had been made canon of
Worms by his mother’s brother, Lucas Wazelrodius,
who was bifhop of that place. He was not only the
greateft of aftronomers, but a perfeCf niafter of the
Greek and Latin tongues; to all which he joined the
greateft
Copernicaa
Coperpicus.
COP [ 2245 ] COP
opernictis greateft piety and innocence of manners,
|| Copernicus, the name of an agronomical inftru-
Copy. ment, invented by Mr Whifton, to exhibit the mp-
’ tion and phenomena of the planets, both primary and
fecondary. it is built upon the Copernican fyllem,
and ior that reafon called by his name.
COPHTS, Cophti, or Copts, a name given to
fuch of the Chriftians of Egypt as are of the fed of
Jacobites.
The Cophts have a patriarch, who is ftyled the pa¬
triarch of Alexandria, having 11 or 12 biftiops under
him, but no archbilhop. The reft of the clergy, whether
fecular or regular, are of the order of S* Anthony, S*
Paul, and S1 Macarius, each of whom have their mo-
nafteries. The Cophts have feven facraments, viz.
baptifm, the eucharift, confirmation, ordination, faith,
failing and prayer.
COPHT1C or Coptic Lcntguage, is thatfpoken by
the Cophts, being the ancient language of the Egyp¬
tians, intermixed with the Greek, and the charaders
of it being thole of the Greek.
The ancient Coptic is now a dead language, to be
met with no where but in books, and thole only tranf-
lations of the fcriptures, and of ecclefiaftical offices,
or others that have a relation thereto; the language
now ufed over all the country being that of the Arabic.
COPPtR conftitutes a diftind genus of metals, be¬
ing next to iron in fpecific gravity, but lighter than
gold, filver, or lead. See Chemistry, n° 141, 200,
241, 278, 332, 37°.
Fulminating Copper. See Chemistry, n9 333.
Poifon of Copper. See Poison.
COPPERAS, a name given to the faditions green
vitriol. See Chemistry, n°iio.
COPPICE, or Copse, a little wood, confiding of
under-woods, or fuch as maybe raifed either by low¬
ing or planting.
COPULATION, the ad of generation, or the con-
. grefs of the male and female, otherwife called coition.
See Generation.
COPY, in a law fenfe, a tranfcript of a writing or
inftrument, made for the ufe and fatisfadion of ibme
of the parties concerned, or in order to preferve the
memory thereof.
Copy is alfo ufed for an imitation of any original
work ; particularly a painting, draught, figure, be.
Copy, among printers, denotes the manufeript or
original of a book given to print from.
CoYY-Hold, a tenure for which a tenant has no¬
thing to (how but the copy of the rolls made by the
fteward of the lord’s court.
It is called a bafe tenure; becanfe the tenant holds
the land at the will of the lord. However, it is not
fimply at the will of the lord, but according to the cu-
ftom of the manor by which fuch eftate is defcendible,
and the tenants heirs may inherit it; and a copy-holder,
fo long as he does his fervices, and does not break the
cuitom, cannot be ejeded by the lord ; and if he be,
he (hall have trefpafs againft him.
Cow-Holder, one who is admitted tenant of lands
or tenements within a manor, which time out of mind,
by ufe and ctiftom of the manor, have been demifable,
and demifed to fuch as will take them in fee-fimple
or fee-tail, for life, years, or at will, according to the
cuftom of the manor by copy of court-roll ; but is ge- Copy.
nerally where the tenant has fuch eftate either in fee ~”
or for three lives.
Cov\-Right) the right which an author may be fup-
pofed to have, in his own original literary compofi-
tions ; fo that no other perfon, without his leave,,
may publiih or make profit of the copies. When a
man by the exertion of his rational powers has pro¬
duced an original work, he has clearly a right to
difpofe of that identical work as he pleafes; and any
attempt to take it from him, or vary the difpofition
he has made of it, is an invafion of his right of pro¬
perty. Now the identity of a literary compolition
confifts entirely in the fentimeut and the language ;
the fame conceptions, cloathed in the fame words, rnuil
necelfarily be the fame compofition: and whatever
method be taken of conveying that compofition to the
ear, or to the eye of another, by recital, by writing, or
by printing, in any number of copies, or at any pe¬
riod of time, it is always the identical work of the
author which is fo conveyed ; and no other man (it
hath been thought) can have a right to convey or
transfer it without his conlent, either tacitly or ex-
prefsly given. This confent may perhaps be tacitly
given when an author permits his work to be publifli-
ed without any referve of right, and without ftamp-
ing on it any marks of ownerihip; it is then a prefent
to the public, like the building of a.church, or the lay¬
ing out a new highway : but in cafe of a bargain for
a Jingle impreflion, or a total fale or gift of the copy¬
right ; in the one cafe the reverfion hath been thought
to continue in the original proprietor; in the other
the whole property, with its exclufive rights, to be
perpetually transferred to the grantee. On the other
hand it is urged, that though the exclufive right of the
manufeript,. and all which it contains, belongs un¬
doubtedly to the owner, before \x.h printed or pub-
liffied ; yet from the inftant of publication, the exclu¬
five right of an author or his affigns to the foie com¬
munication of his ideas immediately vanilhes and eva¬
porates ; as being a right of too fubtile and unfubftan-
tial a nature to become the fubjetft of property at the
common law, and only capable of being guarded by
pofitive ftatute and fpeciai provifions ofthe magiftrate.
The Roman law adjudged, that if one man wrote
any thing, though ever fo elegantly, on the paper or
parchment of another, the writing fhould belong to
the original owner of the materials on which it was
written : meaning certainly nothing more thereby
than the mere mechanical operation of writing, for
' which it directed the feribe to receive a fatisfaeftion ;
efpecially as, in works of genius and invention, fuch
as a piifture painted op another man’s tanvas, the
fame law gave the canvas to the painter. We find
no other mention in the law of any property in the
works of the underftanding, though, the fale of litera¬
ry copies, for the purpofes of recital or multiplication,
is certainly as ancient as the times of Terence, Mar¬
tial, and Statius. Neither with us in Britain hath
there been (till very lately) any final determination
upon the right of authors at the common law. It was
determined in the cafe of Miller v. Taylor in B. R.
Pafch. 9 Geo. III. 1769, that an exclufive copy-right
in authors fubfifted by the common.law. But after¬
ward?*.
COR [ 2246 ] COR
Coquimbo Wards, in the cafe of Donaldfon v. Bucket, before the
II _ houfe of lords, which was finally determined 22* Feh-
Corgllma.- r„ary 1774, it was held that no copy-right i'ubfilts in
authors, after the expiration of the feveral terms
created by the ftatute 8 Ann c. 19. This liatute de¬
clares, that the author and his afligns fliall have the
whole liberty of printing and reprinting his works for
the term of 14 years, and no longer; and alfo pro¬
tects that property by additional penalties and forfei¬
tures; directing farther, that if at the end of that
term the author himfelf be living, tlie right lhall then
return to him for another term of the fame duration.
COQU1MBO, a port-town of Chili, in South Ame¬
rica, limated at the mouth of a river of the lame
name, which difcharges itlelf into the pacific ocean.
W. Long. 75. 10. N. Lat. 30. o.
COR caroli, in aftronomy, an extraconftellated
ftar in the northern hemifphere, fituated between the
coma bertnicss, and nrfa major; fo called by Dr Hal¬
ley in honour of king Charles.
Cor Hydra, a fixed ftar of the firft magnitude, in
the conftellation of hydra.
Com. Leonis, orRECutus, in aftronomy, a fixed
ftar of the firft magnitude, in the conftellation Leo.
CORACO-brachialis, in anatomy, the name of
a mufcle in the arm, ferving toraife it upwards.
CORACOIDES, in anatomy, a fmall lharp procefs
of the fcapula. See Anatomy, n° 46.
CORACOMANTES, in antiquity, perfons who
foretold events from their obfervations on crows.
CORALLINA, or Coral, in zoology, a genus be-
longing to the order of vermes zoophyta. The trunk
is radicated, jointed, and calcarious. The fpecies are
eight, diftinguilhed by the form of their branches,
and are found in the ocean adhering to ftones, bones,
/hells, iff6'. The corals were formerly believed to be
vegetable fubftances hardened by the air; but are
now known to be compofed of congeries of animals,
which are even endued with the faculty of moving
fpontaneoufly.
The illands in the South-fea are moftly coral rocks co¬
vered over with earth. The little creatures, which have
fcarce fenfation enough todiftinguilh them from plants,
build up a rocky ftruifture from the bottom of that fea
too deep to be meafured by human art, till it reaches
the furface. Some of thefe coralline iflands appear to
be of a much older date than others; particularly the
Friendly iflands: and it is probable that as thefe fub-
marine works are continually going on, new iflands
may by that means frequently be produced.
When coral is newly taken up out of the fea, the
fmall protuberances on its furface are foft, and yield,
on being prefled, a milky juice which effervefces with
acids. The cortical part with which the coral is all
over covered is not near fo compact as the internal,
and may eafily be taken off whilftfrelh; and from
this part it is ufually freed before it comes to the mar¬
ket. The greateft coral trade is in Genoa and Leg¬
horn. The fmall fprigs unfit for ornamental ufes are
in the (hops levigated into a fubtile powder; which,
however, has no medicinal virtues fuperior to the com¬
mon teftacea. Coral is not unfrequently imitated by
artificial compofitions, fome of which are made to re¬
ferable it exactly; but the abufe may be difeovered
by fire, the counterfeit not" aftbrding the alkaline
earth which is afforded by the genuine coral. The
colouring ingredients in the artificial coral are cinna¬
bar and minum, both of which are eafily difeovered.
The natural coral feems to receive its colour from
iron ; for fpirit of vitriol acquires from it a ferrugineous
tafte ; and on calcining the coral, fome particles are
found among the allies that are attracted by the mag¬
net. Sixteen ounces of coral, according to Meuman,
when diftilled in an open fire, yield about fix fcruples
and an half of volatile alkaline fpirit, with two or three
grains of an empyreumatic oil: from the caput mor-
tuum calcined, five fcruples and a half of fixed fait
may be extracted. In former times, many extraor¬
dinary virtues were expelled from this fubftance, on
account of its fine red colour ; and therefore a great
number of methods were tried to extract this colour
by meahs of fpirit of wine. None of thefe, however,
fucceeded. A red colour was indeed fometimes ob¬
tained, but it turned out the fame whether any coral
was ufed in the operation or not. In fome of thefe
proceftes, however, the coral lofes its colour. One me¬
thod of making the tinbture is by diflblving a pound of
fugar in a little water, and then adding half a pound
of wax. A pound of coral boiled in this mixture lofes
its rednefs, but is found to be unaltered in other re-
fpedts. In order to prepare the timfture, the wax
and fugar muft be diflblved in fpirit of wine.
CORAL Fishery. Red coral is found in the Medi¬
terranean, on the Ihores of Provence, from Cape de
la Couronne to that of St Tropez ; about the ifles of
Majorca and Minorca ; on the fouth of Sicily; on the
coalls of Africa; and, laftly, in the Ethiopic ocean,
about cape Negro. The dyvers fays, that the little
branches are found only in the caverns whofe fitnation
is parallel to the earth’s furface, and open to the fouth.
The manner of fifhing being nearly the fame where-
ever coral is found, it will fuffice to inftanee the me¬
thod ufed at the baftion of France, under the direc¬
tion of the company eftablilhed at Marfeilles for that
fiftiery. Seven or eight men go in a boat commanded
by the patron or proprietor; arid when the net is
thrown by the carter, the reft work the veflel, and
help to draw the net in. The net is compofed of two
rafters of wood tied crofs-wife, with leads fixed to
them: to thefe they fallen a quantity of hemp twilled
loofely round, and intermingled with fome large net¬
ting. This inftrument is let down where they think
there is coral, and pulled up again when the coral is
ftrongly intangled in the hemp and netting. For this
purpofe, fix boats are fometimes required ; and if in
hauling in, the rope happens to break, the filhermen
run the hazard of being loft. Before the filhers go
to fea, they agree for the price of the coral, which is
fometimes more, fometimes lefs a pound; and they
engage, on pain of corporal punifhment, that neither
they nor their crew (hall embezzle any, but deliver
the whole to the proprietors. When the fifliery is
ended, which amounts one year with another to
twenty-five quintals for each boat, it is divided into
thirteen parts, of which the proprietor hath four, the
Carters two, and the other fix men-one each, the"thir¬
teenth belongs to the, company for payment of the
boat furnilhed them.
Cofah
CORALLODENDRON,
COR
nljCorallo- CORALLODENDRON, in botany.
■aa|denuron THRINA.
1 - " • u CORAM ^Captain Thomas), a gentlemen remark-
2 -'oranlC-l ably diiiinguifhed by his humanity, was born about
the year 1668, and fpent the early part of his life in
the Ration of mafter of a veifel trading to our colonies.
Afterwards refiding in the ealtern part of the metro¬
polis, among feafaring people, where bufinefs often
obliged him to come early into the city and return
late, he frequently faw young children expoled in the
ftreets through the indigence or cruelty of their pa¬
rents. This excited his compaffion, and induced him
to project the foundation of an hofpital for foundlings.
In this humane defign he laboured with indefatigable
diligence for feventeen years ; and by his application
procured a number of the nobility and gentry to pa¬
tronize and carry the Icheme into execution, and at
length obtained the royal charter for it. He was alfo
highly inftrumental in promoting the trade of Ameri¬
ca, by procuring a bounty upon naval ftores imported
from our colonies. *He was likewife eminently con¬
cerned in fetting on foot the colonies of Georgia and
Nova Scotia. His laft charitable defign, in which he
lived to make 1’ome progrefs, was a fcheme for uniting
the North American Indians more clofely to the Bri¬
tish intereft, by an eilablifhment for the education of
Indian girls. In fhort, he fpent the greatell part of
life in labouring for the public, and experienced a
fate too common in thofe who devote their talents to
fuch laudable purpofes; being at laft indebted for fub-
fiftence to the voluntary fubfcriptions of fome public-
fpirited perfons, at the head of whom was the late
I Frederic Prince of Wales. Captain Coram died in
1751: and was interred, at his own defire, in a
vault under the chapel of the Foundling Hofpital.
CORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran.
CORAX, in ornithology, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of Cor vus.
CORANICH, among the Scotch and Irilh, the cu-
ftom of finging at funerals, anciently prevalent in thofe
countries, and ftill pra<5lifed in feveral parts. Of this
cuftom Mr Pennant gives the following account. “ I
had not the fortune to be prefent at any in North
Britain ; but formerly affifted at one in the fouth of
Ireland, where it was performed in the fulnefs of
horror. The cries are called by the Irifli the ulogohne,
and hullulu ; two words very expreflSve of the found
uttered on thefe occafions ; and, being of Celtic ftock,
etymologifts would fwear to be the origin of the
lAoA'oy&ni of the Greeks, and ululatus of the Latins.
Virgil is very fond of ufing the laft, whenever any of
his females are diftrefled ; as are others of the Roman
poets, and generally on occafions fimilar to this. It
was my fortune to arrive at a certain town in Kerry
at the time that a perfon of fome diftin<5iion departed
this life : my cnriofity led me to the houfe, where the
funeral feemed conduced in the pureft claflical form.
Qnodeunque afpiceret Indus, gemitufqne fonabant,
Fortnaq'ue 7ion tac'fti funeris intus erat.
In fhort, the conciamatio was fet up by the friends in
the fame manner as Virgil defcribes that confequential
of Dido’s death ;
Lamettth gefuituqwe IS femineo uluiatu
Tefta fremttnt.
COR
Immediately after this followed another ceremony, Coranich
fully delcribed by Cambden in his account of the man- II
ners of the ancient Irifh ; the earneft expoftulations Corbet•
and reproaches given to the deceafed for quitting this
world, where fhe enjoyed fo many bleffings, lb good
a hufband, and Inch fine children. This cuftom is alfo
of great antiquity, for Euryalus’s mother makes the
fame addrefs to her dead ibn.
—— Tune ilia fcnsclee
Sera me requies ? potuijti relinquere folam
Crude Its ?
But when the time approached for carrying out the
corps, the cry was redoubled,
Tremulis ululatibus athera comp lent.
a numerous band of females waiting in the outer court
to attend the hearfe, and to pay in chorus the laft tri¬
bute of their ' voices. The habit of this forrowing
train, and the neglect of their perfons, were admirably
fuited to the occafion ; their robes were black and
flowing, refembling the ancient Palla : their feet na¬
ked, their hair long and difhevelled : I might truly;
fay,
Ut qui condudi plorant in funera, dicunt
Et faciunt prope plura de lentil us exanituo.
The corple was carried flowly along the verge of a
moft beautiful lake, the ululatus was continued, and
the whole procefiion ended among the venerable ruins
of an old abbey.”
COR BAN, in Jew ifh antiquity, were thofe offerings
which had life, in oppofition to the minchab, or thofe
which had not. It is derived from the word karab,
which fignifies “ to approach,” becaufe the victims
were brought to the door of the tabernacle. The corban
were always looked upon as the moft facred offerings.
The Jews are reproached with defeating, by means,
of the corhan, the precept of the fifth commandment,
which enjoins the refpect due to parents. For, when
a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father
or mother, he would fay to them, It is a gift (corban)
by wh-atfoever thou mightejl be profited by me, i. e. I
have devoted that to God, which you ajk of me, and ft
is no longer mine to give.
Corban is alfb a ceremony which the Mahometans
perform at the foot of mount Ararat, in Arabia, near
Mecca. It confifts in killing a great number of fheep,
and diftributing them among the poor.
CORBE1LS, in fortification. See Basket.
CORBEL, in architecture, a reprefentation of a
bafket, fometimes feen on the heads of the caryatides.
CORBET (Richard), bifhop of Norwich, and an
eminent poet, was born at Ewell in Surry, toward
the latter end of the 16th century ; and educated at
Oxford, where he was efteemed one of the moft ce¬
lebrated wits of the univerfity. Entering into holy
orders, he became a popular preacher, and was made
chaplain to king James I. : when, after feveral pre¬
ferments in the church, he was, in 1629, made bifhop
of Oxford ; and, in 1632, was tranffated to the fee
of Norwich. He was very hofpitable, and always a
generous encourager of public defigns. He died in
1635. There have been feveral editions of his poems
publifhed under the title of Poemdta Stromata.
CORBEY, a town of Picardy in France, with a fa¬
mous abbey of BenediCtine monks. It is feated on the
river
t 2247 1
See Ery-
COH 1 2248 ] COR
Corcelet. river Somme, xo miles eaft of Amiens, and 75 north
 of Paris. E. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 49. 55.
CORCELET, in natural hillory, that part of the
■fly-clafs, which is analogous in its fituation to the breaft
in other animals. Many have called it the breait in
thefe allb, but improperly; becaufe the breaft of other
animals is the place of the lungs and trachea, but
thefe organs are in the fly-clafs diftributed through the
■whole body. The wings are affixed to this part of
the fly-clafs ; and there are fome difthnftions of great
confequence in regard to the arrangement and diftri-
-bution of thofe animals into genera. Some flies have
a double corcelet, or one divided into two parts; and
this is the cafe of the fly produced from the formica
leo, which therefore does not carry its only diftindlion
in the figure of its antennae. One pair of the legs of
this fly are attached to the firft or anterior corcelet,
which is alfo capable of moving on the other.
The corcelets of fome flies are alfo much more ele¬
vated than thofe of others; and in fome this elevation
is carried fo far, that the head is forced by it to be
bent downward, and the creature is plainly made
hump-backed by it. The great kind, and the tipulce,
furnifli inftances of this elevated and hump-backed
torcelet.
A feries of flies of two wings are known by a very
particular armament which they carry on the corcelet,
ufually called their breajl. This confifts of two long,
flender, fliarp-pointed prickles, which are immoveable
in their infections, and feem meant as offenfive or de-
fenfive weapons ; but in what manner they are ufed
is not eafily to be determined.
All thefe flies are produced from long water-worms
with open and funnel-fafliioned tails, or furniflied with
their aperture for refpiration at the hinder extremity.
Thefe tails are bordered with hairs, which the crea¬
ture makes to diverge from their infertion, and form
a kind of funnel at the fwface of the water, when it
throws up its tail for air.
There are three known fpecies of this fort of fly,
with armed corcelets, which differ much in fize, but
are all produced of worms of this kind. The largeft
of thefe flies is produced from the largeft and longeft
worm, and are fomething longer than the bee. The
fmalleft are produced of worms very fmall and flender,
and are themfelves extremely minute : and the third
kind is of a middle iize between thefe, and produced
from a proportionably fmaller worm than that of the
firft, and proportionably larger than that of the fecond
fpecies.
All thefe fpecies have their wings but little diftin-
guiihable at their firft prodtuftion from the ftiell; they
appear indeed only like two flender filaments laid acrofs
their bodies: but they quickly fliew that in this ftate they
were only very nicely folded together ; and foon ex¬
pand, and fliew their full extent and proportion.
When firft produced from the ffiell, thefe fljes are
of a pale green colour. The under part of their belly
in many continues green, but in the greater number
it becomes of a pale dead brown. Some of them have
the outfide of their bodies of a deep brown, approach¬
ing to black, with lines of a dead brown between the
commiffures of the rings. The back of fome others
has only a blackiflt brown band, which runs ftrait
down from the corcelet to the end of the body, the Comjhu*
whole body beiide being of a dead brown. The cor- II
celet in thefe flies is brown, and the prickles are yel- Gt)r<lag<!-
lowiflx near their infertions, but nearly black at their I
points. They have three of the fmall glofly eyes dif-
pofed in the fliape of a triangle on the back part of
their head ; and their reticular eyes are brown, and
at fome dirtance from one another.
CORCULU M, a diminutive from cor “ the heart,”
little heart; the effence of a feed, and principle of
life of the future plant, attached to and contained
within the lobes. It confifts of two parts, termed by
Linnaeus Plumula and Rostellum. The former
is the radicula of Grew and other naturalifts. The
corculum is in fa<5t the embryo of the future vegetable;
and is attached by two trunks of veflels to the lobes
at their union. The firft of its two parts mounts up¬
ward, and becomes the trunk. The other ftrikes into
the ground, and is the rudiment of the root. The
lobes and heart ef the feed are diftindlly vifible in the
bean, and other feeds of that clafs, efpecially after re¬
maining fome time in water or earth. See Cotyle¬
don, Germination, and Vegetation.
The principle of life is feated either at the fummit
or bafe of the feed. From this circumftance are con-
ftrucfted the two firft claffes in Ccefalpinus’s method,
containing trees and fltrubs only.
CORD, or Chord, an alfemblage of feveral threads
of hemp, cabled or twifted together by means of a
wheel. See Cordage. The word comes from the
Greek which properly fignifies an inteftine or
gut, of which cords may be made. See Chord.
Magical Cord, an inftrument in great ufe among
the Laplanders, and by them fuppofed to be endued
with a number of virtues. It is a cord or rope with
three knots tied in it. They ufe many magical rites
and ceremonies in the tying of this cord ; and, where
thus prepared, it is fuppofed to have power over the
winds; and they will fell, by means of it, a good wind,
or at leaft the promife of one, to a fliip. If they untie
only one of thefe knots, a moderate gale fucceeds; if
two, it is much ftronger; and if three, a ftorm is
fure to follow.
Cord qfWood, a certain quantity of wood for burn¬
ing, fo called becaufe formerly meafured with a cord.
The dimenfions of a ftatute cord of wood are eight
feet long, four feet high, and four feet broad..
CoRT>-Wood} is new wood, and Inch as, when
brought by water, comes on board a veflel, in oppo-
fition to that which is floated.
CORDAGE, a term ufed in general for all forts of
cord, whether fmall, middling, or great. See Rope.
The naval cordage of the earlier ages was in all
probability only thongs of leather. Thefe primitive
ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third
century. The nations to the north of the Baltic had
them in the ninth, or tenth centuries. And the inha¬
bitants of the weftern ifles" of Scotland make ule of
them at prefent: cutting the Ikin of a feal, or the raw
and falted hide of a cow into long pieces, and faften-
ing the plough to their horfes with them, or even twill¬
ing them into ftrong ropes of 20 or 30 fathoms length.
But thefe, in the fouth of our ifland, «nd on the con¬
tinent, were early fuperfeded by the ufe of iron chains.
The
o Cordage
j Cordial.
C O U [ 2249 ] COR
The very maritime and commercial nation of the Ve-
neti, that was fo intimately connected with the Belgte
of Britain, ufed iron chains for their cables in the days
of Ctefar. But in the more diliant and refined coun¬
tries of the fouth, both thongs and thefe had long
given place to the ufe of vegetable threads, and the
arts of combining them into ftrength. In this manner
the Greeks appear to have ufed the common rufhes of
their country, and the Carthaginians the fpartum, or
broom of Spain. And as all the cordage of the Ro¬
mans was made of thefe materials, at their laft defcent
on our ifland, fo the art of manufa&uring them would
neceflarily be introduced with the Roman lettlements
among the Britons. Under the direction of Roman
ardfts their thongs of leather would naturally be laid
afide, and the junci, or rufhes of the plains, worked
up into cordage. And what remarkably coincides with
this opinion is, that the remains of old cables and ropes
are ftill diftinguifhed among the Britifh failors by the
name of aid junk.
The nations of Roman Britain, and the tribes of
Caledonia and Ireland, had inherited, from their ear-
lieft anceftors, many of the ruder arts of navigation.
Their fhips were large open boats, framed of light
timbers ribbed with hurdles, and lined with hides.
Thefe were furnifhed with marts and fails. The lat¬
ter were formed of hides, as the tackle was of thongs.
They were actually of hides among the Veneti as late
as the days of Cscfar. And they were never furled,
but only bound to the mart. But thefe flight fea-boats,
and their rude furniture, would foon'be difmifTed by
the provincials for the more fubftantial veffels and
more artificial fails of the Romans. The Roman fails,
which were compofed of flax in the days of Agricola,
were afterwards made of hemp; and our own are
therefore denominated cannabis, or canvafs, by our
mariners at prefent. And about the fame period af-
furedly did the junk of the Britifh cordage give way
to the fame materials; the ufe of hempen ropes upon
land, and of hempen nets for hunting, being very com¬
mon among the Romans in the firft century.
CORDATED, an appellation frequently given by
naturalifts to things fomewhat refembling a heart.
CORDED, in heraldry. A crofs corded, fome au¬
thors take for a crofs wound or wrenched about with
cords: others, with more probability, take it for a
crofs made of two pieces of cord.
CORDELERAS, mountains of South America, o-
therwife called Andes.
CORDELIER, in church-hiftory, a Francifcan, or
religious of the order of S' Francis.
CORDEMOI (Geral de), a learned philofopher and
hiftorian, born at Paris, made himfelf known to M.
BofTuet, who placed him about the dauphin in the qua¬
lity of reader. He inrtrutrted that young prince with
great affiduity ; and in 1675 was received into the
French academy. He wrote a general hiftory of
France during the firft races of the French kings, in
2 vols.; , and fix Difcourfes on the Diftintrtion be¬
tween Body and Soul, which were printed together
in 1702, in quarto. He died in 1684. M. Cordemoi
followed the principles of Defcartes.
CORDIAL, in medicine, whatever raifes the fpirits,
and gives them a fudden ftrength and cheerfulnefs; as
VOL. Ill
wine, fpirits, the effluvia of flowers, fruit, and many
other fubflances.
CORDON, in fortification, a row of ftones, made
round on the outfide, and fet between the wall of the .
fortrefs which lies aflope, and the parapet which ftands
perpendicular, after fuch a manner, that this differ¬
ence may not be offenfive to the eye ; whence the
cordons ferve only as an ornament, ranging round a-
bout the place, being only ufed in fortification of ftone-
work. For in thole made with earth, the void fpace
is filled up with pointed ftakes.
CORDOUA, or Cordova, a city of Andalufia in
Spain, fituated on the river Guadaiquiver, in a very
extenfive plain. The circumference is large; but it is
not peopled in proportion to its extent, for there are
a great many orchards and gardens within the walls.
There are many fuperb ftruHures, palaces, churches,
and religious houfes ; particularly the cathedral, which
is very magnificent: it was formerly a mofque when
the Moors pofleffed the town ; for which realbn it ftill
retains the name of Mczquita, which has the fame
meaning. The fquare called the Plaza Major is fur-
rounded with very fine houfes, under which are
piazzas. The trade is flonrilhing on account of the
river ; and confifts of wine, filk, and Cordovian lea¬
ther. In the neighbourhood of this place are a vaft
number of orange and lemon trees, which renders
their fruits exceeding cheap. The beft horfes in Spain
come from hence. W. Long. 3. 47. N. Lat. 37. 42.
New Cordua, a confiderable town of South Ame¬
rica, in the province of Tucuman, with a bifhop’s fee,
IIS miles from S* Jago. W. Long. 62. y. S. Lat.
Corilcu
Cordwain-
32. IO.
CORDUAN, a famous pharos or light-houfe of
France, in Guienne, at the mouth of the river Girond.
The archite&ure is extremely fine ; and is placed there
to hinder veftels from running on the fand-banks at
the mouth of the river. W. Long. 1. 9. N. Lat. 45. 36.
CORDUS (Valerius), a learned botanift, was the
fon of Ericius Cordus, a phyfician and poet of Ger¬
many. Having learnt the languages, he applied him-
lelf to the ftudy of botany: in the profecution of
which, he examined the mountains of Germany, and
travelled into Italy; but, being wounded in the leg
by the kick of a horfe, died at Rome in 1544. He
wrote Remarks on Diofcorides, and other works.
CORDWAINERS, or cordiners, the term
whereby the ftatutes iemmlnaxe* jhoetnakers. The
word is formed from the French cordonnisr, which
Menage derives from cordouan, a kind of leather
brought from Cordoua, whereof they formerly made
the upper-leathers of their Ihoes. Others derive it
from cords, “ rope,” becaufe anciently ftioes were
made of cords; as they ftill are in fome parts of Spain,
under the name of alpargates. But the former ety¬
mology is better warranted : for, in effect, the French
workmen who prepare the corduas are ftill called cor-
douanniers.
In Paris they have two pious focieties under the
titles of freres cordonniers, “ brothers Ihoemakers,”
eftablilhed by authority towards the middle of the 17th
century ; the one under the protection of S' Crifpin,
the other of S' Crifpianus, two laints who had formerly
honoured the profeflion. They live in community,
13 F and
COR [ 2250 ] COR
Corea and under fixed ftatutes and officers; by which they
II are directed both in their fpiritual and fecular con-
Core^’• cerns. The produce of their ffioes goes into a com¬
mon flock, to furnifh necefTaries for their fupport;
the refl to be diftributed among the poor.
COREA, a peninfula lying to the north-eaft of
China, between 99 and 109 degrees of E. Long, and
between 32 and 46 of N. Lat. It is divided into 8
provinces, which contain 40 cities of the Ist rank, 51
of the ad, and 70 of the 3d. The capital of the whole
is Hanching, where the king refides. The Jefuifs
fay, the people are well-made, of a fweet and trac¬
table difpofxtion, and fond of learning, mufic, and dan¬
cing, and in general referable the Chinefe. Their
houfes are mean, being covered with thatch ; and they
have no beds, but lie on the floor. They have little
filk, and therefore make ufe of linen-cloth in its room.
Their arms are crofs-bows, and very long fabres or
fwords. Their trade confifls in white paper, pencils,
gingfeng, gold, filver, iron, yellow varhifh, fowls
whole tails are three feet long, horfes no more than
three feet in height, fable-fkins, caflor, and mineral
fait. In general it is a fertile country, though abound¬
ing in mountains. They never bury their dead till
three years after their deceafe, but keep them clofe
Ihut Dp in coffins for that time. It is tributary to
China.
COREIA, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of Pro-
ferpine.
CORELLI (Arcangelo), the famous Italian mufician
and compofer, a native of Fufignano, in the territory
of Bologna, was born in 1653. He entertained an
early propenfity to the violin; and, as he advanced
in years, laboured inceffantl^ in the practice of that
inflrument. About the year 1672, his curiofity led
him to vilit Paris, probably with a view to attend the
improvements which were making in rnulic under the
influence of cardinal Mazarine, and in confequence of
the efiablifhment of a royal academy ; but, notw'ith-
llanding the character wrhich he brought with him, he
was driven back to Rome by Lully, whofe jealous tem¬
per could not brook fo formidable a rival as this illu-
itrious Italian. In the year 1680 he vifited Germany,
and met with a reception fuitable to his merit from
mofl of the German princes, particularly the elector
of Bavaria ; in whofe fervice he was retained, and
continued for fome time. After about five years flay
abroad, he returned again to Rome, and there pur-
fued his fludies with great afliduity.
The proficiency of Corelli on his favourite inflru¬
ment the violin was fo great, that the fame of it reach¬
ed throughout Europe. The flyle of his performance
was learned, elegant, and pathetic ; and his tone firm
and even. Mr Geminiani, who was well acquainted
with, and had ftudied it, was ufed to referable it to a
fweet trumpet. A perfon who had heard him per¬
form fays, that, w'hilft he was playing on the violin,
it was ufual for his countenance to be diftorted, his
1 eyes to become as red as fire, and his eye-balls to roll
as in an agony.
Corelli was highly favoured by that great patron
of poetry and mulic, cardinal Ottoboni. Crefcembini
fays, that he regulated the mufical academy held at
the palace of his eminence every Monday afternoon.
Here it was that Mr Handel became acquainted with Corelli.
him ; and in this academy a ferenata of Mr Handel,  
intitled, 11 Triorfo del Tempo, was performed, the
overture to which was in a ityle fo new and lingular,
that Corelli was confounded in his fiidt attempt to
play it.
During the refidence of Corelli at Rome, befides
thofe of his own country, many perfons were ambi¬
tious of becoming his difciples, and learning the prac¬
tice on the violin from the greateft mafter of that in¬
flrument the world had then heard of. Of thefe it is
laid the late lord Edgecumbe was one; and that the
fine mezzotinto print of Corelli by Smith, was fcraped
from a picture painted by Mr Hugh Howard at Rome
for that nobleman.
Corelli died at Rome in 1713; and was buried ia
the church of the Rotunda, otherwife called the Pan¬
theon, in the firft chapel, on the left hand of the en¬
trance. Over the place of his interment is a fepul-
chral monument to his honour, with a marble buft
thereon, eredted at the expence of Philip-Wiiliam,
count palatine of the Rhine, under the care and direc¬
tion of cardinal Ottoboni.
For many years after his deceafe, this excellent mu¬
fician was commemorated by a folemn mufical per¬
formance in the Pantheon, on the anniverfary of his
death. In the year 1730 an eminent mafter, now li¬
ving, was prefent at that folemnity, who relates that
at it the third and eighth of his concertos were per¬
formed by a numerous band, among whom were many
Who had been the pupils of the author. He adds, that
thefe two pieces were performed in a flow, diftindl,
and firm manner, without graces, and juft as they are
wrote ; and from hence concludes, that this was the
manner in which they were played by the author
himfelf.
He died poflefled of about 6000 1. fterling. He
was a paflionate admirer of pidlures, and lived in an
uninterrupted friendfliip with Carlo Cignani and Carlo
Marat : thefe two eminent painters were rivals for
his favour ; and for a feries of years prefented him at
times with pictures, as well of other mafters as of their
own painting. The confequence was, that Corelli be¬
came poflefled of a large and valuable collection of ori¬
ginal paintings ; all which, together with the fum a-
bove-mentioned, he bequeathed to his dear friend and
patron cardinal Ottoboni, who, referving the pictures
to himfelf, generoufly diftributed the refl of the ef-
feCts among the relations of the teflator.
Corelli is faid to have been remarkable for the
mildnefs of his temper and the modefty of his deport¬
ment : neVerthelefs he was not infenfible of the re-
fpeCt due to his fkill and exquilite performance. Cib¬
ber, in the Apology for his Life, p. 340. relates, that
when he was playing a folo at cardinal Ottoboni’s, he
difcovered the cardinal and another perfon engaged
in difeourfe, upon which he laid down his inftrument;
and being a iked the reafon, gave for anfwer, that he
feared the mufic interrupted their converfatiqn.
The compofitions of Corelli are celebrated for the
harmony refuking from the union of all the parts ;
but the finenefs of the airs is another diftinguifliing
charaCteriftic of them : the ailemand in the 10th folo
is as remarkable for fpirit and force, as that in the
11th
Coreopfis
Corfu.
COR [ 2251 ] COR
IIth is for its enchanting delicacy : his jigs are in a
ftyle peculiarly his own ; and that in the 5th folo was
never equalled. In the gavot-movements in the ad
and 4‘h operas, the melody is diltributed with great
judgment among the ieveral parts. In his minuets
alone he feems to fail; Bononcini, Mr Handel, and
Giufeppe Martini, have excelled him in this kind of
airs.
It is faid there is in every nation a ftyle both in
(peaking and writing, which never becomes obfolete ;
a certain mode of phrafeology, fo confonant and con¬
genial to the analogy and principles of its refpeftive
language, as to remain fettled and unaltered. This,
but with much greater latitude, may be faid of mufic;
and accordingly it may be obferved of the compofi-
tions of Corelli, not only that they are equally intelli¬
gible to the learned and unlearned, but that the im-
preffions made by them have been found to be as du¬
rable in general. His mufic is the language of na¬
ture ; and, for a feries of years, all that heard it be¬
came fenfible of its effe<5ls : of this there cannot be a
ftronger proof than that, amidft all the innovations
which the love of change had introduced, it continued
to be performed, and was heard with delight in
churches, in theatres, at public folemnities and fefti-
vities, in all the cities of Europe for near 40 years.
Men remembered, and would refer to paflages in it as
to a clalfic author ; and even at this day, the mailers
of the fcience do not helitate to pronounce of the com-
politions of Corelli, that, of fine harmony and elegant
modulation, they are the moft perfedl exemplars.
COREOPSIS, tickseeded sunflower; a genus
of the fyngenefia order, belonging to the polygamia
fruftanea clafs of plants. There are 11 fpecies, moft
of them herbaceous perennials. They are very flow¬
ery, and rife from three to eight feet ftature ; termi¬
nated by clufters of compound radiated flowers of a
yellow colour. They have all perennial fibrous roots
and annual ftalks, which rile in the fpring, flower from
July to Odtober, and decay to the root in November.
The flowers are all lhaped like fun-flowers, but fmal-
ler, and are very ornamental. They are eafiiy pro¬
pagated by flipping or dividing the roots in autumn,
when the ftalks decay ; planting the flips at once
where they are to remain ; after which they will re¬
quire no farther trouble than to be kept free from
weeds, and have the decayed ftalks cut annually in au¬
tumn.
CORFE-castle, a borough-town in Dorfetfliire in
England. It takes its name from a ftrong caftle, be¬
longing to the crown, that ftood there, but is now
ruined. W. Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. 50. 33.
CORFU, an ifland in the Ionian lea, at the mouth
of the gulf of Venice, formerly called Corcyra and
Phteacia, famous for the gardens of Alcinous. It be¬
longs at prefent to the Venetians; and forms the bul¬
wark of Chriftendom againft the Turks, who have
often attempted to reduce it but without fuccefs. It
is well fortified, and has 50 caftles; and the number
of the inhabitants is faid to be about 50,000. The
inhabitants are of the Greek church ; and the Vene¬
tians fend them a governor and magiftrates, which are
changed every two years. The foil is very fruitful,
and produces a great deal of wine, olives, and feveral
other fruits, particularly fig<, which are exceedingly Corfu
good. The chief city is likewiie called Corfu ; lee ||
the following article. r°ri°r‘a
Corfu, a city of the ifland of that name, belong-
ing to the Venetians. It is a large place; and is well
fortified with walls to the fouth, where there are two
fortrefles, one to the eaft, and another to the well.
There are no fortifications on the fide of the haven,
nor are they neceflary. Here the Venetian general
of the Levant relides, under whom are the provedi-
tors of Zante, Cephalonia, i3c. The inhabitants of
this city are faid to be very revengeful, never forgi¬
ving an injury ; and hence quarrels among them are
hereditary. There is always a garrifon here of 4000
men. E. Long. 19. 48. N. Lat. 39. 50.
CORIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon
and province of Eftremadura, towards the confines of
Portugal, with a bilhop’s fee. It is feated on a little
river called flagon, in a very fertile plain. There is
nothing remarkable but the cathedral church, except
at a little diftance a river without a bridge, and a
bridge without a river. This was caufed by an earth¬
quake, which turned the river another way. W.
Long. 6. 46. N. Lat. 39. 59.
CORIANDRUM, coriander ; a genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.'
There are only two ipecies, both of them herbaceous
annuals, the leaves of which are ufeful for the kitchen,
and the feeds for medicine. Both fpecies have divid¬
ed fmall leaves, fomewhat refembling parfley : but
there is but one fpecies generally cultivated; namely,
the fativum. This hath a fmall, fibrous white root,
crowned'by many parted leaves, having broadilh feg-
mentsand in the centre an upright, round, branchy
ftalk, two feet high, having all the branches termina¬
ted by umbels of flowers, which are fucceeded by glo¬
bular fruit. It is propagated by feed, which when a
good crop is wanted, ought to be fown in March
either in drills a foot afunder, or by broad-caft, and
then raked in. When the plants are an inch or two
high, they fliould be hoed to fix or eight inches dif¬
tance. The feeds when frelh have a ftrong difagree-
able fmell, which improves by drying, and becomes fuf-
ficiently grateful: they are recommended as carmina¬
tive and ftomachic. The leaves are fometimes ufed for
culinary purpofes in foups, and as an ingredient in fa-
lads ; but as they are of a fetid fmell, they are held in
jio great efteem in this country.
CORIARIA, the Tanner’s, or Myrtle-leafed su¬
mach ; a genus of the decandria order, belonging to
the dicecia clafs of plants. There are two fpecies, the
myrtifolia and the fcemina. They are both natives
of the fouth of France, but the former is moft com¬
monly cultivated in this country. It is a pretty orna¬
mental plant, with a flirubby, pithy brown Item,
clofely branching from the bottom, and forms a bufliy
head three or four feet over, thickly garnifhed with
oblong, pointed, bright green leaves, having fmall
fpikes of whitifli flowers at the ends of the branches.
It is eafiiy propagated by fuckers from the root, which
it affords plentifully, and may be taken off with fibres
every autumn or winter. It may be alfo propagated
by layers in autumn, which will take root in a year.
It is much ufed in the fouth of France, where it natu-
13 F 2 rally
COR [ 2252 ] COR
Corinna rally grows, for tanning of leather, whence its name
| of tanner’s fumach. It alfo dyes a beautiful black co-
onnt ' lour. The berries are dangerous, and when eaten
generally occafion vertigoes and epileplies. The old
leaves have the fame eftetH: upon cattle that eat them,
but the young leaves are innocent.
CORINNA, a Grecian lady, celebrated for her
beauty and poetic talents, was born at ThelTu a city
of Boeotia, and was the dilciple of Myrtis another Gre¬
cian lady. Her verfes were fo efteemed by the
Greeks, that they gave her the name of the lyric
mufe. She lived in the time of Pindar, about 495
years before Chrift ; and is faid to have gained the
prize of lyric poetry from that poet: but Paufanias
obferves that her beauty made the judges partial.
CORINTH, a celebrated city of antiquity, for fome
time the moft illuftrious of all the Greek cities. It is
laid to have been founded 1514 years before Chrift,
by Sifyphus the fon of Eolus, and grandfather of
Ulyfles. Various reafons are given for its name,
but moft authors derive it from Corinthas the fon of
Pelops. It was fituated in the fouth part of the Ifth-
mus which joins the Peloponnei us, now the Morea, to
the continent. It confifted of a citadel built upon an
eminence, and thence named dcrocorinthus; befides
which it had two maritime towns fubjetft to it, named
Lecheuvt arid Cduchrea. The whole ftate extended
fcarce half a degree in length or breadth ; but fo ad-
vantageoufly were the above-mentioned ports fitua-
ted, that they might have gained the Corinthians a
fuperiority, if not a command, over all Greece, had
not their advantageous fituation inclined them to com¬
merce rather than war. For their citadel was almoft
impregnable ; and, commanding both the Ionian and
Easgan leas, they could eafily cut off all communica¬
tion from one half of Greece with the other ; for
which reafon this city was called, one of the fetters of
Greece.
But as the genius of the Corinthians led them to
commerce rather than martial exploits, their city be¬
came the fineft in all Greece. It was adorned with the
moft fumptuous buildings, as temples, palaces, theatres,
porticoes, ire. all of them enriched with a beautiful kind
of columns, which from the city were called Corinthian;
But though the Corinthians feldom or never engaged
in a war with a view of enlarging, but rather of de¬
fending, their little ftate, they did not forget to culti¬
vate a good difeipline both in time of peace and of,
war. Hence many brave and experienced generals
have been furnilhed by Corinth to the other Grecian
cities, and it was not uncommon for the latter to pre¬
fer a Corinthian general to any of their own.
This city continued to preferve its liberty till the
year before Chrift 146, when it was pillaged and burnt
by the Romans. It was at that time the ftrongeft place
in the world ; but the inhabitants were fo dilhearttned
by a preceding defeat, and the death of their general,
that they had not pre fence of mind enough even to
Ihut their gates. The Roman conful, Mummius, was
fo much furprifed at this, that at firft he could fcarce
believe it ; but afterwards fearing an ambufeade, he
advanced with all poffible caution. As he met with
no reftftance, his foldiers had nothing to do but de-
ftroy the few inhabitants who had not fled, and plun¬
der the city. Such of the men as had ftaid, were all Corinth,
put to the iword, and the women were fold for Haves.
After this the cjty was ranfacked .by the greedy fol¬
diers, and the fpoils of it are faid to have been im-
menfe. There were more velfels of all forts of me¬
tal, more fine pictures, and ftatues done by the great-
eft mafters, in Corinth, than in any other city in the
world. All the princes of Europe and Afia, who had
any tafte in painting and fculpture, furnifhed them-
felves here, with their richeft moveables : here were
caft the fineft ftatues for temples and palaces, and all
the liberal arts brought to their greateft perfection.
Many ineftimable pieces of the moft famous painters
and ftatuaries fell into the hands of the ignorant fol¬
diers, who either deftroyed them or parted with them
for a trifle. Polybius the hiftorian was an eye-witnefs
to this barbarifm of the Romans. He had the morti¬
fication to fee two of them playing at dice on a famous
picture of Ariftides, which was accounted one of the
wonders of the world. The piece was a Bacchus, fb
exquifttely done, that it was proverbially faid of any
extraordinary performance, “ it is as well done as the
Bacchus of Arif ides." This mafterly piece of paint¬
ing, however, the foldiers willingly exchanged for a
more convenient table to play upon : but when the
fpoils of Corinth were put up to fale, Attains king of
Pergamus offered for it.600,000 fefterces, near 50001.
of our money. Mummius was furprifed, at fuch a high
price offered for a picture, and imagined there muft be
fome magical virtue in it. He therefore interpofed
his authority, and carried it to Rome, notvvithftanding
the complaints of Attains. Here this famous pufture
was lodged in the temple of .Ceres, where it was at
laft deftroyed by fire, together with the temple. Ano¬
ther extraordinary tnftattce of the ftupidity of Mum¬
mius is, that when the pkftures were put on board the
tranfports, he told the mafters of the vellels very fe-
rioufly, that if any of the things were either loft or
fpoiled, he would oblige them to find others at their
own coll ; as if any other pieces could have fupplied
the lofs of thofe ineftimable originals, done by the
greateft mafters in Greece. When the city was
thoroughly pillaged, fire was fet to all the corners of
it at the fame time. The flames grew more violent
as they drew near the centre, and at laft uniting there
made one prodigious conflagration. At this time the
famous metalline mixture is faid to have been made,
which could never afterwards be imitated by art.
The gold, ftlver, and brafs, which the Corinthians had
concealed, were melted, and ran down the ftreets in
ftreams, and when the flames were extinguilhed, a
new metal was found, compofed of feveral different
ones, and greatly efteemed in after ages. The walls
of the city were then demoliftied, and rafed to the
foundation; but the city was rebuilt again by Julius
Caefar, and made a Roman colony. It continued fub-
ject to the Roman emperors till the divifion of the
empire, after which it fell to the (hare of thofe of Con-
ftantinople. On the decline of that empire it fell to
the Venetians, but was taken from them by Moham¬
med II. The Venetians retook it in 1678; but the
Turks became mafters of it again in 1715, and have
kept it ever fince. It is now greatly decayed ; for the
houfes are not contiguous, but intermixed with fields
COR
n Corinth and gardens, which make it look like a village. The
•I II. country about it abounds with corn, wine, and oil;
_ Corls‘ and from its caftle, is one of the fineft profpedf s in the
umrld, over the fea to the eaft and well, and a fertile
country to the north and fouth. The narroweft part
of the illhmus, on which it Hands, is above fix miles
over. There are Hill to be feen the ruins of the tem¬
ples dedicated to the Sun, Pluto, Diana, Neptune,
Ceres, and Bacchus. The inhabitants are moll of them
Chriltians, of the Greek church, who are allowed li¬
berty of confcience by the Turks. E. Long. 28. 15.
N. Lat. 38. 14.
Corinth, (the illhmus of), in theMorea, is a neck
of land which joins the Morea to Greece, and reaches
from the gulph of Lepanto to that of Egina. Julius
Caefar, Caligula, and Nero, attempted to cut a channel
through it, but in vain ; and they therefore afterwards
built a wall acrofs it, which they called Hexamilium,
becaufe it was fix miles in length. This was demo-
lilhed by Amuratll. and afterwards rebuilt by the Ve¬
netians, but was levelled a fecond time by Mahomet II.
CORINTHIAN, in general, denotes fomething be-
longing to Corinth : thus we fay, Corinthian brafs,
Corinthian order, ire.
Corinthian Ordert in architecture, the fourth
order of architecture, according to Scamozzi; but
Mr le Clerc makes it the fifth, being the moll noble
and delicate of all the other five. See Architec¬
ture, n0 52.
CORIO (Bernardine), an hiltorian born of an illullri-
ous family at Milan, in the year 1460. He was fecre-
tary of Rate to that duchy ; and the duke of Lavis
Storza appointed him to write the hiflory of Milan.
He died in 1500. The bell edition of his hillory is
that of 1503, in folio. It is printed in Italian, and is
very fcarce.
CORIOLANUS (C. Marcius), a famous Roman
captain, took Corioli a town of the Volfci, whence he
had his furname : at lad, difgulling the people, he
was banilhed Rome by the tribune Decius. He.went
to the Volfci, and, perfuading them to take up arms
againft the Romans, they encamped within four miles
of the city. He would not lillen to propofals of peace
till he was prevailed upon by his wife Veturia, and his
mother Volumnia, who were followed by all the Ro¬
man ladies in tears. He was put to death by the
Volfci as a traitor that had made them quit their con-
queft: upon which the Roman ladies went into mourn¬
ing ; and in the fame place where his blood was fpilled,
there was a temple confecrated to feminine virtue.
CORIS, in botany, a genus of the monagynia order
belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants, for which
there is no Englilh name. There is only one fpecies,
viz. the monfpelienfis, or blue maritime coris. There
are two varieties of this plant, one with a red, and
the other with a white flower ; but thefe are only ac¬
cidental, and arife from the fame feeds. They grow
wild about Montpelier, and in moll places in the fouth
of France : they feldom grow above fix inches high,
and fpread near the furface of the ground Kke heath;
and in June, when they are full of flowers, make a
very pretty appearance. They may be propagated
by lowing their feeds in a bed of frelh earth, and af¬
terwards removing the young plants, fome into pots,
COR
and others into a warm border. They generally bear Corifper-
our winter colds well enough, but fevere frofts will mum
fometimes deftroy them ; for which reafon it is pro- c
per to keep fome of them in pots, which Ihould be put 1—
under a hot-bed frame in winter. As they feldora
produce good feeds in this country, they may, in want
of thefe, be propagated by flips and cuttings, which will
take root if planted on a very gentle hot-bed, lhaded
from the fun and duly watered.
CORISPERMUM, tickseed, a genus of the digy-
nia order belonging to the monandria clafs of plants.
There are two fpccies; but none of them are remark¬
able for their beauty or any other quality.
CORK, or Cork-tree, in botany. SccQuercus*
FoJJU-Covlk, a name given to a kind of Hone. It
feems to be a fpecies of amianthus, confining of flexi¬
ble fibres loofely interwoven, and fomewhat refem-
bling vegetable cork. It is the lighteH of all Hones; by
fire it is fufible, and forms a black glafs. It polfelfes
the general qualities of amianthus. See that article.
Cork, in Latin comitatus Ccrcagienfis, a county of
the province of Munlter in Ireland. It is the moll
populous and confiderable county of the kingdom next
to that of Dublin ; containing near a million of acres,
and being divided into 15 baronies. It is bounded on
the eafi by the county of Waterford ; on the weH by
the ocean ; by Li meric on the north; and by the
Vergiyian fea on the fouth and fouth-eaH. Including
Defmond it is 85 miles in length, and 50 in breadth;
but is very unequal both ways. Though a confider¬
able part of the country is boggy, mountainous, and bar*
ren ; yet by the induflry of the inhabitants it is pretty
well cultivated and improved, and contains feveral
good towns and harbonrs.
Cork, a city of Ireland, and capital of the county
of that name. It is an epifcopal fee; and is the largell
and moH populous of any in the kingdom, Dublin alone
excepted. It is fituated on the river Lee, 15 miles
from its mouth, and is a place of great trade. Though
fmaller vefiels can come up to the key, yet the larger
generally ride at a place called paffage. The houfes
in general are well built, but many of the Hreets are
too narrow. Its churches are unexceptionably the
neatell and mofl elegantly finifhedof any in the king¬
dom. This city, together with its liberties, makes a.
county. It was built, ©r rather fortified, by the Danes,
in the ninth century. The greatell part of it Hands
on a marlhy ifland furrounded by the river Lee, which
alfo runs through the city, and divides it into feveral
canals. On this account fome have thought the air
very moiH and unwholefbme. Complaints have allb
been made againH the water as impure ; but, from
comparing the bills of mortality with thofe of other
cities, it appears that the city of Cork is far from being
unhealthy. This hath been accounted for from the in¬
flux of the tide, by which a flagnation of air is pre¬
vented. The firR charter of Cork was beHowed by
Henry III. and afterwards ratified by Edward I. Ed¬
ward II. and Edward III. Edward IV. granted a new
charter ; and the city received many favours from the
fucceeding monarchs. King James I. gave the citizens
a new and ample charter ; and king Charles I. what
is called the Great Charter, by which, among others,
a claufe in king James’s charter was enforced, making
this
t 2253 ]
COR [ 2254 ] COR
Cork this city a county of itfelf. Though a garrifon, it CORMORANT, a corruption of Corvorant, in or- Cormorant
Corn. |
.. was never a place of much ftrength, as appeared at nithology. See Pelicanus.
ormandel. revo]utjon. it was then reduced in a fhort time CORN, in country affairs, the grain or feeds of.
by Marlborough ; and the troops that were then plants feparated from the fpica, or ear, and ufed for
in it, to the number of 4 or 5000, made prifoners of making bread.
war. The laft royal charter was granted in 1735, by There are feveral fpecies of corn, fuch as wheat,
which all the aldermen that had paffed the chair were
empowered to aft as judices of peace. The inhabi-
rye and barley, millet and rice, oats, maize and lentils,
peafe, and a number of other kinds, each of which
tants in general are aftive and induftrious; carrying has Its ufefulnefs and propriety. Corn is very diffe-
on various manufaftures, and a great inland trade,
efpecially for live cattle. But the wealth and gran¬
deur of Cork arifes chiefly from its excellent harbour,
rent from fruits, with refpeft to the manner of its pre-
fervation ; and is capable of being preferved in pu¬
blic granaries, for prefling occafions, and of being kept
where aimed any number of flxips may lie with fafe- for feveral centuries,
ty. According to fome accounts, in times of peace, The fird method is to let it remain in the fpike ;
1200 veffels have been known to relbrt to this harbour the only expedient for conveying it to the iflands and
in a year. Ships from England, bound to all parts of provinces of America. Theinhabitantsofthofecoun-
the Wed Indies, take in here a great part of their pro-
vifions ; and on the fame account the haven of Cork
is vifited by thofe of mod other nations. The mer¬
chants of Cork carry on a very extenfive foreign trade.
fave it in the ear, and raife it to maturity by that
precaution : but this method of preferving it, is at¬
tended with feveral inconveniencies among us; corn
_ is apt to rot or fprout, if any the lead moidure is in
which is daily increafing. Vad quantities of fait beef the heap ; the rats likewife infed it, and our want of
are exported from this place. The flaughtering feafon
continues from the month of Augud to the end of Ja¬
nuary ; during which fpace it has been computed that
draw alfo obliges us tofeparate the grain from the ear.
The fecond is to turn out and winnow it frequently ;
or to pour it through a trough or mill-hopper, from
they kill feldom fewer than too,000 head of black one floor to another; being thus moved and aired
cattle. The red of their exports confid of butter, every 15 days, for the fird 6 months, it will require
candles, hides raw and tanned, linen-cloth, pork, lefs labour for the future, if lodged in a dry place :
calves, lambs, and rabbit-fldns, tallow, wool for Eng- :r *' 1 n ^ ,J ■ ” ■ ^ ’
land, linen and woolen yarn, worded, ire. Notwith-
ftanding all this, however, the city of Cork is expofed
to fome inconveniencies from its fituation, particularly
to inundations. It is lituated in W. Long. 8. 2J. N.
Lat. 51. 40.
Cork Jacket, or IVaiftcoat, is an invention of one
Mr Dnbourg, a gentleman very fond of fwimming,
but fubjeft to the cramp, which led him to confider
of fome method by which he might enjoy his favou¬
rite diveffion with fafety. The waidcoat is compo-
fed of four pieces of cork, two for the breads, and
two for the back ; each pretty near in length and
breadth to the quarters of a waidcoat without flaps ;
the whole is covered with coarfe canvafs, with two
holes to put the arms through ; there is a fpace left be¬
tween the two back pieces, and the fame betwixt each
back and bread piece, that they may fit the eafier to
the body. . Thus the waidcoat is open only before,
and may be fadened on the wearer with drings, or,
if it Ihould be thought more fecure, with buckles, and
leather draps. This waidcoat does not weigh above
12 ounces, and may be made up for about y or 6 /hil¬
lings expence. Mr Dubourg tried his waidcoat in the
Thames, and found that it not only fupported him on
the water, but that two men could not fink him, though
they ufed their utmod efforts for that purpofe. If
thofe who ufe the fea occafionally, and efpecially thofe
who are obliged to be almod condantly there, were
to have thofe waidcoats, it would be next to impof-
fible that they fhould be drowned. It would alfo be
of vad fervice to thofe that, for the fake of health,
bathe in the fea ; and even the mod delicate and timo¬
rous young lady might by the help of one of thefe
jackets venture into a rough fea. See AiR-Jacket, and
BAMBOO-Hahit.
CORMANDEL. See Coromandel.
but if, through negleft, mires fhould be allowed to Hide
into the heap, they will foon reduce the corn to a heap
of dud : this mud be avoided by moving the corn a-
new, and rubbing the places adjacent with oils and
herbs, whofe drong odour may chace them away;
for which garlic and dwarf-elder are very effeftual:
they may likewife be expofed to the open fun, which
immediately kills them. When the corn has been pre¬
ferved from all impurities for the fpace of two years,
and has exhaled all its fires, it may be kept for yo or
even too years, by lodging it in pits covered with
drong planks, clofely joined together : but the fafer
way is to cover the heap with quick-lime, which
fliould be diffolved by fprinkling it over with a fmall
quantity of water ; this caufes the grains to /hoot to
the depth of two or three fingers; and inclofes them
with an incrudation, through which neither air nor
infefts can penetrate.
Corn not exceeding the under-mentioned prices
have the following bounties per quarter, viz.
Price per qr.
Wheat
Rye
Barley and Malt
Oat-meal
1 4
o ly
Bounty per qr.
s. d.
5 o
3 6
2 6
2 6
In France corn of the growth of the kingdom is
reckoned a contraband commodity.
Indian Corn or maize. See Zea.
CoRN-Butterfy, method of dedroying it. See A-
GRICULTURE, n° 76.
CoRX-Crake. See Rallus.
Corn-/Hr'//, a water-engine for grinding of corn.
See Mechanics.
Corn, in medicine and furgery, a hard tubercle like
a flat wart, growing in feveral parts of the feet, efpe¬
cially
COR [ 2255 ] COR
Corn dally upon the joints of the toes. See [Index fub-
II. joined to) Mebicine.
orneille- Corn, in farriery. See Farriery, § xliii.
CORNAGE, an ancient tenure, the fervice where¬
of was to blow a horn when any invafion of the Scots
was perceived. This tenure was very frequent in
the northern counties near the Pids wall.
CORNARIUS, or Haguenbot, (John), a celebra¬
ted German phyfician, born at Zwickow, in Saxony.
His preceptor made him change his name of Haguen-
bot to that of Cornarius, under which he is moft
known. At 20 years of age he taught grammar, and
explained the Greek and Latin poets and orators to
his fcholars ; and at 23, was licentiate in medicine.
He found fault with moft of the remedies provided
by the apothecaries; and obferving, that the greateft
part of the phyficiatis taught their pupils only what is
to be found in Avicenna, Rafis, and the other Arabian
phyficians, he carefully fought for the writings of the
belt phyficians of Greece, and employed about 15
years in tranflating them into Latin, efpecially the
works of Hippocrates, Aetius, Eginetes, and a part of
thole of Galen. Meanwhile he practifed phyfic with
reputation at Zwickow, Francfort, Marpurg, Nord-
haufen, and Gena, where he died of an apoplexy in
it558, aged 58. He alfo wrote fome medicinal trea-
tifes ; publilhed editions of fome poems of the anci¬
ents on medicine and botany ; and tranflated fome of
the works of the fathers, particularly thofe of Bafil,
and a part of thofe of Epiphanius.
CORNARO (Lewis), a Venetian of noble extrac¬
tion, memorable for having lived healthful and adlive
to above 100 years of age by a rigid courfe of tempe¬
rance. By the ill conduct of fome of his relations he
was deprived of the dignity of a noble Venetian; and.
feeing himfelf excluded from all employments under
the republic, he fettled at Padua. In his youth, he
was of a weak conftitution; and by irregular indul¬
gence reduced himfelf, at about 40 years of age, to
the brink of the grave, under a complication of dif-
orders; at which extremity he was told that he had
no. other chance for his life, but by becoming fober
and temperate. Being wife enough to adopt this
wholefome counfel, he reduced himfelf to a regimen
of which there are very few examples. He allowed
himfelf no more than 12 ounces of food, and 14 ounces
of liquor each day ; which became fo habitual to him,
that when he was above 70 years of age, the experi¬
ment of adding two ounces to each by the advice of
his friends,, had like to have proved fatal to him. At
83, he wrote a treatife which h is been tranflated in¬
to Englifli, and often printed, intitled, Sure and cer¬
tain Methods of attaining a Long and'Healthful Life ;
in which he relates his own ftory, and extols temper¬
ance to a degree of enthufiafm. At length, the yolk
of an egg became fufficient for a meal, and fometimes
for two, until he died with much eafe and compofure
in 1566. The writer of the Spedlator, N° 195. con¬
firms the faft from the authority of the Venetian am-
baffador at that time, who was a defeendant of the
Cornaro family.
CORNEA tunica. See Anatomy. n° 406'. c.
CORNEILLE (Peter), a celebrated French poet,
was born at Rouen, in the year 1606. He was
brought up to the bar, which he attended for fome Corneille'
little time; but, formed with a genius too elevated II
for fuch a profeffion, and having no turn for bufinefs, Corneus*
he foon defected it. An affair of gallantry occafioned
his writing his firft piece, intitled, Melite; which had
prodigious fuccefs. Encouraged by the applaufe of
the public, he wrote the Cid, and the other tragedies
that have immortalized his name. In his dramatic
works he difeovers a majefty, a ftrength and eleva¬
tion of genius, fcarce to be found in any other of the
French poets; and, like our immortal Shakefpeare,
feems better acquainted with nature, than with the
rules of critics. Corneille was received into the
French academy in 1647, and died dean of that aca¬
demy in 1784, aged 78. Befides his dramatic pieces^
he wrote a tranllation, in French verfe, of the “ I-
“ mitation of Jefus Chrift,” &c. The beft edition of
his works is that of 1682, in 4 vols i2mo.
Corneille (Thomas), brother of the former,
was a member of the French academy, and of that of
inferiptions. He difeovered in his youth a great in¬
clination to poetry ; and at length publifhed feveral
dramatic pieces, in five volumes duodecimo, fome of
which were applauded by the public, and aifted with
fuccefs. He alfo wrote, 1. A tranflation of Ovid’s
Metamorphofes, and of fome of Ovid’s Epiftles.
2. Remarks on Vauglas. 3. A Duftionary of Arts,
two volumes folio; and, 4. An univerfal, geogra¬
phical, and hiftoriCal Di&ionary, in three volumes
folio.
Corneille (MichaelJ, a celebrated painter, was
born at Paris, in the year 1642; and was inftruifted
by his father, who was himfelf a painter of great me¬
rit. Having gained a prize at the academy, young.
Corneille obtained a penfion from Lewis XIV.; and
was fent to Rome, where that prince had founded a
fchool for young artifts of genius. Having ftudied there
fome time, he gave up his penfion, and applied to
the antique with great care. He is faid to have equal¬
led Carache in drawing ; but in colouring he was de¬
ficient. Upon his return from Rome, he was cho-
fen profeffor in the academy of Paris; and was em¬
ployed by the above prince in all the great works he
was carrying on at Verfailles and Trianon, where
are ftill to he feen fome noble efforts of his genius.
CORNEL-tree, in botany. See Cornus.
CORNELIAN. See Carnelian.
CORNER, in a general fenfe, the fame with An¬
gle.
CORNET, in the military art of the ancients, an
inftrument much in the nature of a trumpet; which
when it only founded, the enfigns were to march
alone, without the loldiers; whereas, when the
trumpet only founded, the foldiers were to move
without the enfigns. The cornets and buccinss found¬
ed the charge and retreat; and the cornets and trump¬
ets founded during the courfe of the battle.
Cornet, in the military, art of the modems, the
third commiflion-officer in a troop of horfe or dragoons.
This is a very honourable port: he commands in
the lieutenant’s abfence; his principal duty being to>
carry the ftandard, near the middle of the firft rank
of the fquadron.
CORNEUS, the name by which Linnasus calls a
kind-
COR [ 2256 ] COR
Corniche kind of tin-ore, found in black columns, with irregular
fi Tides, and terminating in pril'ms.
-Cornus. COR.NICHE, Cornish, or Cornice, in archi-
te&ure, the uppermoft member of the entablature of
a column, as that which crowns the order. See Ar¬
chitecture, Chap. I. and the Plates.
Corniche, is alfo ufed, in general, for all little
projedlures in mafonry or joinery, even where there
are no columns, as the corniche of a chimney, beau-
fet, &c.
CoRmcnz-Ring, a piece of ordnance, is that next
from the muzzle-ring, backward.
CORNISH diamond. See Diamond.
CORNICULARIUS, in Roman antiquity, an offi¬
cer of the army, appointed to affift the military tri¬
bune in quality of lieutenant.
CORNIX, in ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Corvus.
CORNU. See Horn.
Cornu Aibmcnis, in natural hiftory, foffile {hells,
called alfo ferpent-Jlones, or fnake-jlanes.
They are found of all fizes, from the breadth of a
fixpence, to more than two feet in diameter; fome
of them rounded, others greatly comprefled, and
lodged in different ftrata of Hones and clays; fome a-
gain are fmooth, and others ridged in different man¬
ners, their ftriae and ridges being either ftraight, irre¬
gularly crooked, or undulated. .See Snake-iS/cwc.
Cornu Cervi. See Hartshorn.
CORNUCOPIA, or Horn of plenty, among
painters, frc. is reprefented under the figure of a
large horn, out of which iffue fruits, flowers, ire.
Upon medals jhe cornucopia is given to all deities,
genii, and heroes, to mark the felicity and abundance
of all the wealth procured by the goodnefs of the for¬
mer, or the care and valour of the latter.
CORNUS, Cornel-tree,Cornelian Cherry,
or Dog-wood; a genus of the monogynia order, be¬
longing to the tetandria clafs of plants.
Species. Of this genus there are five fpecies; the
moft remarkable are the following. 1. The mas, or
cornelian cherry-tree, hath an upright tree-item, rifing
20 feet high, branching, and forming a large head,
garnifhed with oblong leaves, and fmall umbels of
yellowilh-green flowers at the lides and ends of the
branches, appearing early in the fpring, and fucceed-
ed by fmall, red, cherry-like, eatable, acid, fruit.
2. The fanguinea, bloody-twig, or common dog¬
wood ; hath an upright tree-ftem, branching 10 or 12
feet high, having blood-red (hoots, garnifhed with ob¬
long pointed nervous leaves two inches long; and all
the branches terminated by umbellate white flowers
fucceeded by black berries, of this there is a kind with
variegated leaves. 3. The ttorida, or Virginian
dog-wood, hath a tree-flem branching 12 or ij feet
high, and fine red flioots garnilhed with large heart-
Ihaped leaves; and the branches terminated by um¬
bellate white flowers, having a large involucrum fuc¬
ceeded by dark red berries. Of this fpecies there are
feveral varieties, chiefly diflinguiffied by the colour of
their berries, which are red, white, or blue.
Culture. All the fpecies may be propagated by
feeds, which ought to be Town in autumn, otherwife
they will lie a year in the ground. When the plants
come up, they Ihould be duly watered m dry wea* Cornurfa
ther, and kept clean from weeds. The following au- II
tumn they may be tranfplanted into the nurfery ; and c'oniwa1,;
having remained there two or three years, they may
then be removed to the places where they are to re¬
main. They may alfo be propagated by fuckers, of
which they produce great plenty, or by laying down
the young branches.
CORNUTIA, in botany, a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There
is but one fpecies, viz. the pyramidata, with a blue py¬
ramidal flower, and hoary leaves. It grows plentiful¬
ly in feveral of the illands of the Weft-Indies, alfo at
Campeachy, and at La Vera Cruz. It rifes to the
height of 10 or 12 feet, with rude branches, the
leaves being placed oppofite. The flowers are pro¬
duced in fpikes at the end of the branches, and are of
a fine blue colour. They ufually appear in autumn,
and will fometimes remain in beauty for two months
or more. It is propagated either by feeds or cuttings,
and makes a fine appearance in the ftove ; but is too
tender to bear the open air in this country'.
CORNWAL, the mort wefterly county of England,
bounded by the Englilh channel on the fouth, Sl
George’s channel on the weft, the Briftol channel on
the north, and on the eaft by the river Tamar, which
feparates it from Devonlhire. Its name is fuppofed by
fome to be compounded of cam, fignifying “ a rock”
in the Bririlh language, and Cauls, or Wattles, the
name the Saxons gave to the Britons. Others, how¬
ever, think it is derived from the Latin cornu, or
the Britilh kern, “ a horn;” on account of its running
out into the fea fomewhat in the form of a horn. It
is computed to be 70 miles in length, 40 in breadth
where broadeft, and not five in the narroweft part.
Dr Campbell, however, in his Political Survey of
Great Britain, is of opinion that this county is much
larger than our accounts commonly make it. In re-
fpe<ft of fize, he thinks it is equal at leaft to the duchy
of Parma ; and but little, if at all, inferior to the ifland
of Majorca. There is a tradition in this county with
regard to its former extent, which Dr Campbell is
alfo inclined to believe, namely, that there was an¬
ciently a tratft. of ground called the Lione/s, extending
towards the Scilly iflands, but no\y covered with wa¬
ter. At prefent, Cornwal contains 21 parliamentary
boroughs; 27 market towns ; between 12 and 1300
villages, and upwards of 120,000 inhabitants.
As Cornwal is furrounded by the fea on all fides
except the eaft, its climate is fomewhat different from
that of the other parts of Britain. The reafons of
this difference will be eafily underftood from what is
obferved concerning the climate of America *. The *
fummers in Cornwal are lefs hot, and the winters lefs ™|’4n
cold, than in other parts of England, and the fpring
and harveft are obferved to be more backward. High
and fudden winds are alfo more common in this than
in other counties of England. The county is rocky
and mountainous ; but the mountains are rich in me¬
tals, efpecially tin and copper. The valleys are very
pleafant and fertile, yielding great plenty both of corn
and pafture. The lands near the fea-coaft are ma¬
nured and fertilized with fea-weed, and a kind of fand
formed by the particles of broken {hells as they are
dalhed
COR [ 2257 ] COR
‘Comwal da (Led again ft each other by the ftfa. Here are great
I II plenty of copper, tin, and lead mines, moor-ltones,
Corollary. japjs calaminaris for making brals, corniih diamonds,
and a yellow ore called mundick, whence copper and
lapis calaminaris are extracted. Cattle of all forts
are fmaller here than in the other counties of England;
and the wool of the Iheep, which are moftly without
horns, is very fine, and the flelh, both of them and of
the black cattle, extremely delicate. The country is
well fupplied with fifli from the fea and the many
rivers with which it is watered. The moft noted of
the fea-fifli is the pilchard; of which prodigious quan¬
tities are caught from July to November, and exported
to different parts, efpecially to Spain. It is faid that a
million have been fometimes taken at a Angle draught.
The natives are remarkable for their llrength and ac¬
tivity, as well as their dexterity in wreltling, in which
exercife the Cornifh hug is highly extolled.
The tin dug from the Cornifh mines is melted into
pigs of three or four hundred weight, each of which
is Itamped with the owner’s name. There are five
towns, Lelkard, Leflwithel, Truro, Hellion, and Pen¬
zance, where the- tin is elfayed and marked at Mid-
fummer and Michaelmas, or Lady-day and Chriftmas,
with the feal of the duchy of Cornwal. When it is thus
marked, and the duty of four fhillings for every hun¬
dred weight paid,, the tinner may difpofe of it as he
pleafes only the king, or duke of Cornwal, are to
have the preference, if they chufe to be purchafers.
The caufes arifxng among the tinners are tried by ju¬
ries, returned by the mayors of the flannary or coin¬
age towns, before the lord-warden or his deputy.
They have had many privileges beftowed upon them
by the kings and dukes of Cornwal, in confideratioh
of the high duty they pay, and for encouraging them
in their laborious and difagreeable bufinefs of mining.
Ever fince Edward III. created his eldeft fon duke of
Cornwal, the eldeft fons of the kings of England have
enjoyed that title. They have royal prerogatives and
privileges in the duchy, fitch as the nomination of its
IherilF, a right to the duty on tin, wrecks, cuftoms, ire.
Though this county is much inferior to fome others in
point of populoufnefs and wealth, particularly York-
Ihire and Middlefex, yet it fends a far greater number
of members to parliament, viz. 44, which is nearly
equal to the number fent from Scotland, and double to
that fent from Wales. This great disproportion, fo
dangerous to the conftitution, is attributed to the par¬
tiality of the kings, on account of the great revenue
they received from it, or to the intereft of its ancient
dukes. Of the boroughs which fend members to par¬
liament, fome are fo inconfiderable as to have no church.
COROLLA, among boranifts, the moft confpicuous
part of a flower, furrounding the organs of generation,
and compofed of one or more flower-leaves, moft
commonly called petals, to diftinguifli them from the
leaves of the plant ; according as there is one, two,
or three of thefe petals, the corolla is faid to be mo-
nopetalous, dipetalous, tripetalous, ire.:
COROLLARY is a confequence drawn from fome-
thing already advanced or demonftrated; thus, it
being demonftrated that a triangle which has two
equal fides, has alfo two angles equal ; this corol¬
lary will follow, that a triangle which has three
Vox.. III.
lines equal, has alfo its three angles equal. , Corollifl*
COROLLISTiE, a name by which Linnaeus diftin- II
guifhes thofe lyltematic botanills who have arranged Coroman-
vegetables from the regularity, figure, number, am' < e'
other circumllances, of the petals, or beautiful coloured
leaves of the flower. The belt fyltems of this kind
are thofe of Rivinus and Tournefort. The former
proceeds upon the regularity and number of the pe¬
tals ; the latter, with much more certainty, on their
regularity and figure.
COROLLULA, a term ufed by botanifts to ex-
prefs the little partial flowers which make up the com¬
pound ones.
COROMANDEL, the eaftern coaft of the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges in Alia. It is bounded on
the north by Golconda, on the call by the bay of Ben¬
gal, on the fouth by Madura, and on the welt by Bif-
nagar. This coaft fo much refembles that of Orixa,
that the Abbe Raynal choofes to confider them as one,
and gives to both the general name of Coromandel.
Here an exceffive heat reigns from the beginning of
May to the end of Odlober. It begins at nine in tlte
morning, and continues till nine in the evening. Du¬
ring the night it is allayed by a fea-breeze from the
fouth-eaft ; and moft commonly this refrelhing gale
begins at three in the afternoon. The air is lefs in¬
flamed during the reft of the year, though in all fea-
fons it is very hot. It rains almoft continually during
the monthsofNovemberand December. This immenle
tradl is covered with a parched fand for the extent of
two miles, and fometimes only one mile along the coaft.
This country was at firft negledled by the Europe¬
ans for many reafons. It was feparated by inaccef-
fible mountains from Malabar, where thefe bold ad¬
venturers endeavoured to fettle themfelves. Spices
and aromatics, which were the principal objedls of
their attention, were not to be found there. In Ihort,
civil diffentions had baniihed from it tranquillity, fecu-
rity, and induftry. At that period the empire of
Bifnagar, to which this vaft country was fubjedl, was
falling to ruin. The governments of Vifapour, the
Carnatic, Golconda, and Orixa, threw off their depen¬
dence, and affumed the title of kings. Thofe of
Madura, Tanjore, My fore, Gingi, and fome others,
likewife ufurped the fovereign authority, though they
retained their ancient title of Naick. This revolution
had juft happened when the Europeans appeared on
the coaft of Coromandel. The foreign trade was at
that time inconfiderable; it confided only of diamonds
from Golconda, which were carried to Calicut and
Surat, and from thence to Ormus or Suez, whence
they were circulated through all Europe and Afia.
Mafllilipatan, the richeil and moft populous city of
thefe countries, was the only market that was known
for linens ; they were purchafed at a great fair an¬
nually holden there by the Arabian and Malayan vef-
fels that frequented that bay, and by caravans arrived
from diftant parts. The linens were exported to the
fame places with the diamonds. The fondnefs for the
manufadlures of Coromandel which began to prevail
here, infpired all the European nations trading to the
Indian feas with the refolution of forming fettlements
there. They were not difeouraged either by the .dif¬
ficulty of conveying goods from the inland parts of the
12 G country,
COR [ 2258 ] COR
Coroman- country, where there was no navigable river ; by
del. the total want of harbours, where the lea at one fea-
~ fon of the year is not navigable ; by the barrennefs of
the coafts, for the moll part uncultivated and uninha¬
bited ; nor by the tyranny and fluctuating (late of the
government. They thought that filver would be in-
dultrioufly fought after; that Pegu would furnilh tim¬
ber for building, and Bengal, corn for fubfiftence ;
that a prolperous voyage of nine months would be
more than fulficient to complete their ladings; and
that by fortifyitig themfelves they Ihould he fecure
againlt the attacks of the weak tyrants that opprelfed
thefe countries.
The firlt European colonies were ellahlilhed near
the Ihore. Some of them obtained a fettlement by
force ; moll of them were formed with the conlent
of the fovereigns ; and all were confined to a very
narrow traCt of land. The boundaries of each were
marked out by a hedge of thorny plants, which was
their only defence. In. procefs of time fortifications
were raifed ; and the fecurity derived from them,
added to the lenity of the government, foon increafed
the number of colonills. The fplendor and indepen¬
dence of thefe fettlements feveral times railed the jea-
loufy of the princes in whofe dominions they were
formed ; but their attempts to demolilh them proved
abortive. Each colony increafed in prolperity id pro¬
portion to the riches and the wifdom of the nation
that founded it. None of the companies that exer-
cifed an exclufive privilege beyond the Cape of Good
Hope had any concern in the trade of diamonds. This
was always left to private merchants, and by degrees
fell entirely into the hands of the Englifh, or the Jews
and Armenians that lived under their protection. At
prefent this.grand ohjefl of luxury and indultry is much
reduced. The revolutions that have happened in In-
dollun have prevented people from reforting to tltefe
rich mines; and the anarchy in which this unhappy
country is plunged, leaves no room to hope that they
will be again attended to. The. whole of the com¬
mercial operations on the coall of Coromandel is con¬
fined to the ptirchafe of cottons. The manufacturing
of the white cottons bought there, differs fo little from
ours, that it would be neither interelting nor inllruc-
tive to enter into a minute defeription of it. The
procefs ufed in making their printed cottons, which
was at firll fervilely followed in Europe, has fince
been rendered more fimple, and brought to greater
perfection by our manufacturers. The painted cot¬
tons which are bought there, we have not yet attempt¬
ed to imitate. Thofe who imagine we have been
prevented from undertaking this branch merely by
the high price of labour among us, are millaken. Na¬
ture has not given us the wild fruits and drugs necef-
fary for the compofitibn of thofe bright and indelible
colours which conftitute the principal merit of the In¬
dian manufactures ; nor has (he furnifhed us with the
waters that ferve to fix them. The Indians do not
univerfally obferve the fame method in gaiating their
cottons ; either becaufe there are fome niceties pecu¬
liar to certain provinces, or becaufe different foils pro¬
duce different drugs for the fame ufes. We Ihould
tire the patience of our readers were we to trace the
flow and painful progrefs of the Indians in the art of
painting their cottons. It is natural to believe that they Coromaa
owe it to length of time, rather than to the fertility del-
of their genius. What feems to authorize this conjee- '
ture is, that they have flopped in their improvements,
and have not advanced a fmgle Hep in the arts for
many ages ; whereas we have proceeded with amaz¬
ing rapidity. Indeed, were we to confider only the
want of invention in the Indians, we fhould be tempt¬
ed to believe, that, from time immemorial, they have
received the arts they Cultivate from fome more in-
duflrious nation ; but when it is remembered that
thefe arts have a peculiar dependence on the mate¬
rials, gums, colours, and productions of India, we
cannot but be convinced that they are natives of that^
country. It may appear fomewhat furprifing that
cottons painted with all forts of colours fhould be fold
at fo moderate a price, that they are almofl as cheap
as thofe that have only two or three. But it mud be
obferved, that the merchants of the country fell to all
the companies a large quantity of cottons at a time ;
and that the demand for cottons paihted with various
colours makes but a I mall article in their affortments,
as they are not much efleefned in Europe.
Though cottons of all forts are in feme degree ma-
nufaClured throughout the whole country oflndoffan,
which extends from Cape Comorin to the hanks of the
Ganges; it is obfervable, that the fine forts are made
in the eafkrn pin t, the common ones in the centre,
and the coarfo ones in the mod Wedern parts. Ma¬
nufactures are eftablifhed in the European colonies,
and upon tire coad : they are more frequent at the
didance of five or fix leagues from the fea, where cot¬
ton is more cultivated, and provifions are Cheaper.
The purchafes made there are carried 30or 40 leagues
farther into the country. The Indian merchants fet¬
tled in the European factories have always the ma¬
nagement of this bufinefs. Tlieiqhantity and quality
of the goods wanted are s fettled with tlrefe people :
the price is fixed according to the patterns : and, at
the time a contraCl is made, a third, or a fourth part
of the money agreed on is advanced. This arrange¬
ment is owing to the neceflity thefe merchants them-
felves are under of advancing money to the Workmen
by the partners or agents who are difperfed through
the whole country; of keeping a watchful eye upon
them, for fear of lofing what they have advanced ; and
of gradually leffening the lum, by calling for the cot¬
tons as fad as they are worked off. Without thefe
precautions, nothing could be depended on in an op-
prefiive government, where the weaver cannot work
on his own account, either becaufe his circumdances
will not permit, or becaufe he dares not venture to
difeover them for fear of exaCtiom. The Companies
that have either fuccefs, or good management, con-
dantly keep the dock of one year in advance in their
fettlements. By this method they are dire of having
the quantity of goods they have occafion for, and of
the quality they choofe, at the mod convenient time t
not to mention that their workmen, and their mer¬
chants, who are kept in condant employment, nevter
leave them. Such nations as want money and credit
cannot begin their mercantile operations till the ar¬
rival of their (hips. They have only five or fix months
at mod to execute the orders fent from Europe. The
goods
COR [ 2259 ] COR
Coroman- goods are manufactured and examined in liafte; and
del. they are even obliged to take fuch as are known to be
bad, and would be rejefted at any other time. The
neceflity they are under of compleating their cargoes,
and fitting out their vefTels before hurricanes come on,
leaves no room for nicety of in 1 pection. It would be
a miltake to imagine that the country agents could be
prevailed upon to order goods to be made on thein
account, in hopes of felling them with a reafonable
advantage to the company with whom they are en¬
gaged. For, befides that the generality of them
are not rich enough to embark in fo large an under¬
taking, they would not be certain of finding their ac¬
count in it. If the company that employ them fhould
be hindered by unforei’een accident! from fending the
ufual number of (hips, thefe merchants would have no
vent for their commodities. The Indians, the form
of whofe drefs requires different breadths and lengths
from thofe of the cottons fabricated for our ule, would
not pin-chafe them ; and the other European compa¬
nies wonld be provided, or certain of being provided,
with whatever the extent of their trade required, and
their money enabled them to purchafe. The plan of
procuring loans, which was contrived to remedy this
inconvenience, never has, nor can be ufeful. It has
been a cuftom, time immemorial, in Indoftan, for
every citizen who borrows money, to give a written
inftrument to his creditor. This deed is of no force
in a court of judicature, unlefs it is figned by three
witnefles, and bears the day of the month, and the
year when it was made, with the rate of interelf a-
greed upon by the parties. If the borrower fails to
fulfil his engagements, he may be arrefted by the
lender himfelf. He is never imprifoned, becaufe
there is no fear of his making his efcape. He would
not even eat, without obtaining leave of his creditor.
The Indians make a three-fold divifion of intereff:
one kind they call vice; another neither vice nor vir¬
tue ; and a third, they fay, is virtue. The firft is four
per cent, a month; the fecond two; and the third
one. The lad is, in their opinion, an a61 of bene¬
ficence that only belongs to the mod heroic minds.
Yet, though the Europeans, who are forced to bor¬
row, meet with this treatment, it is plain they can¬
not avail themfelves of the indulgence without being
involved in ruin.
The foreign trade of Coromandel is not in the hands
of tire natives. In the wedern part, indeed, there
are Mohammedans known by the name of Cbalias,
who, at Naour, and Porto-Nuovo, fend out (hips to
Acken, Merguy, Siam, and the Eadern toad. Befides
veflels of confiderable burden employed in thefe voy¬
ages, they have fmaller embarkations for the coading
trade for Ceylon,- and the pearl fifhery. The Indians
of Madulipatan turn their attention another way.
They import from Bengal white callicoes which they
dye or print, and fell them again at the places from
whence they had them, at 35 or 40 per cent, advan¬
tage. Excepting thefe tranfa6Uons which are of very
little confequence, the whole trade is veded in the
Europeans, who have no partners but a few I^nianss
and Armenians fettled in their colonies. The quanti¬
ty of callicoes exported from Coromandel to the dif¬
ferent ports of India, may be computed at 350© bales.
Of thele the French carry 800 to Malabar, Madia, Coro**,
and the ifle of France; the Euglilh, 1200 to Bombay, ——“
Malabar, Sumatra, and the Philippine Iflands; and the
Dutch 1500 to their different (ettlements. Except
500 bales dedined for Manila, each of the value of rco
guineas, the others are of fuch ap ordinary kind that
they do not exceed 30 guineas at prime cod ; fo that
the whole number of bales do not amount to more
than about L. 150,000.
Coromandel furnifhes Europe with 9500 bales;
800 of which are brought by the Danes, 2 500 by the
French, 3000 by the Englifii, and 3200 by the
Dutch. A confiderable part of thefe callicoes are dyed
blue, or driped blue and red for the African trade.
The others are fine muflins, printed callicoes, and
handkerchiefs from MafFulipatan, or Paliacate. It b.
proved by experience that each of thefe bales cods
only about L. 42 Sterling; confequetitly they ought to
bring in to the manufactory where they are wrought,
near L. 360,000. The payments are not entirely
made in fpecie, either in Europe or Afia; we give in
exchange, cloths, iron, lead, copper, coral, and fome
other articles of lei's value. On the other hand, Ada
pays with fpices, pepper, rice, fugar, corn, and dates.
All thefe articles taken together may amount to about
L. 210,000 ; and from this calculation it follows, that
Coromandel receives annually from Europe about
L. 300,000 in money. The Britifh who have ac¬
quired the fame fuperiority on this coad that they have
ell'ewhere, have formed on it feveral lettlements.
CORONA, among anatomids, denotes that edge
of the glans penis, where the preputium begins.
Corona, or JJaU, in optics, a luminous circle, fur¬
rounding the fun, the moon, the planets, or fixed dars.
Sometimes thefe circles are white, and fometimes co¬
loured, like the rainbow. Sometimes one only is vi-
fible, and fometimes feveral concentric coronas make
their appearance at the fame time. Thofe which have
been feen about Sirius and Jupiter were never more
than three, four, or five degrees in diameter; thofe
which furround the moon are, alfo, fometimes no more
than three or five degrees; but thefe, as well as thofe
which furround the fun, are of very different magni¬
tudes, viz. of 12° o', 22c 35', 3d0 o', 38° o', 41°
2', 450 o', 46® 24', 47® o', and 90°, or even larger
than this. Their diameters alio fometimes vary du¬
ring the time of dbfervation, and the breadths both of
the coloured and white circles are very different, viz.
of 2, 4, or 7 degrees.
The colours of thefe coronas are more dilute than
thofe of the rainbow ; and they are in a different or¬
der, according to their fize. In thofe which Newton
obferved in 1692, they were in the following order,
reckoning from the infide. In the innermoft were
blue, white, and red ; in the middle were purple, blue,
green, yellow, and pale red; in the outermoft, pale
blue, and pale red. Mr Huygens obferved red next
the fun, and a pale blue outwards. Sometimes they
are red on the infide, and white on the outfide. , M.
Weidler obferved one that was yellow on the infide,
and white on the outfide. In France, one was ob¬
ferved in 1683, the middle of which was white; af¬
ter which followed a border of red ; next to it was
blue, then green, and the outermoft circle was a bright „
13 G 2 red.
COR [ 2260 ] COR
Corona, red. In 1728, one was 1'een of a pale red outward-
  ly, then followed yellow, and then green, termina¬
ted by white.
Thefe coronas are very frequent. In Holland, M.
Mufchenbroeck fays, 50 may be feen in the day-time,
almolt every year; but they are difficult to be pbfer-
ved, except the eye be fo fituated, that not the body
of the fun, but only the neighbouring parts of the
heavens can be feen. Mr Middleton fays, that this
phenomenon is very frequent in North America; for
that there is generally one or two about the fun every
week, and as many about the moon every month.
Halos round the fun are very frequent in Ruflia. M.
iEpinus fays, that, from the 23d of April 1758, to the
20*h of September, he himfelf had obferved no lefs
than 26, and that he has fometimes feen twice as ma-
Viy in the fame fpace of time.
Coronas may be produced by placing a lighted can¬
dle in the midft of fleam in cold weather. Alfo, if
glafs windows be breathed upon, and the flame of a
candle be placed fome feet from it, while the fpecla-
tor is alfo at the diltance of fome feet from another
part of a window, the flame wiil be furrounded with
a coloured halo. And if a candle be placed behind a
glafs receiver, when air is admitted into the vacuum
within it, at a certain degree of denfity, the vapour
With which it is loaded will make a coloured halo
round the flame. This was obferved by Otto Gue¬
ricke. In December 1756, M. Mufchenbroeck ob¬
ferved that, when the glafs windows of his room
were covered with a thin plate of ice on the infide,
the moon appearing through it was furrounded with a
large and varioufly coloured halo; and, opening the
window, he found that it arofe intirely from that thin
plate of ice, for none was feen except through it.
Similar, in fome refpe&s, to thq halo, was the re¬
markable appearance which M. Bouguer defcribes, as
obferved by himfelf and his companions, on the top of
Mount Pichinca, in the Cordilleras. When the fun
was juft rifing behind them, fo as to appear white,
each of them law his own fliadow pri jeHed upon it,
and no other. The diftance was fuch, that all the
parts of the ffiadow were eafily diftinguilhable, as the
arms, the leg, and the head ; but what furprifed them
moft, was, that the head was adorned with a kind
of glory, confifting of three or four fmall concentric
crowns, of a very lively colour, each exhibiting all
the varieties of the primary rainbow, and having the
circle of red on the outfide. The intervals between
thefe circles continued equal, though the diameters of
them all were conftantly changing. The laft of them
was very faint, and, at a confiderable diftance was
another great white circle, which furrounded the
whole. As near as M. Bouguer could compute, the
diameter of the firft of thefe circles was about 5^ de¬
grees, that of the fecond 11, that of the third 17, and
fo on ; but the diameter of the white circle was about
76 degrees. This phenomenon never appeared but in a
cloud confifting of frozen particles, and never in drops
of rain, like the rainbow. When the fun was not in
the horizon, only part of the white circle was vifible,
as M. Bouguer frequently obferved afterwards.
Similar alfo to this curious appearance, was one
that was obferved by Dr M'Fait in Scotland. This
gentleman obferved a rainbow round his ffi<\dow in Corons.
the mift, when he was upon an eminence above it. 
In this lituation the whole country round feemed, as it
were, buried under a vaft deluge, and nothing but
the tops of diftant hills appeared here and there above
the flood; fo that a man would think of diving down
into it with a kind of horror. In thofe upper regions
the air, he fays, is at that time very pure and a-
grceable to breath in. At another time he obferved
a double range of colours round his fliadow in thefe
circumftances. The colours of the outermoft range
were broad and very diftintft, and every where about
two feet diftant from the ftiadow. Then there was
a darkiffi interval, and after that another narrower
range of colours, clofely furrounding the ftiadow, which
was very much contracted. This perfon Items to think
that thefe ranges of colours are ca 11 fed by the inflexion
of the rays of light, the fame that occafioned the ring
of light which furrounds the ffiadows of all bodies, ob¬
ferved by M. Maraldi, and this author*. But the pro- * Edinb.
digious variety with which thefe appearances are ex- Efoyti
hibited feems to ffiew that many of them do not reliilt v°f r-
from the general laws of reflexion, refrattion, or p'
infleClion, belonging to tranfparent fubftances of a
large mafs; but upon the alternate reflexion and tranf-
miflion of the different kinds of rays, peculiar to fub¬
ftances reduced to the form of thin plates, or confift¬
ing of feparate and very minute parts. But where
the dimenlions of the coronas are pretry conftanr> as
in the ufual and larger halo, which is about half the
diameter of the rainbow, they may, perhaps, be ex¬
plained on the general principles of refraftion only.
Delcartes obferves, that the halo neVer appears
when it rains: from which he concludes that this phe¬
nomenon is occafioned by the refradlion of light in the
round particles of ice, which are then floating in the
atmofphere ; and though thefe particles are flat when
they fall to the ground, he thought they mull be pro¬
tuberant in the middle, before their defcent; and ac¬
cording to this protuberancey he imagined that the di¬
ameter of the halo would vary.—In treating' of me¬
teors, Gaflendi fuppofed that a halo is the fame thing
with the rainbow, the rays of light being in both
cafes twice refratfted and once reflected within each
drop of rain or vapour, and that all the difference
there is between them arifes from their different litu-
ation with refpeCI to the obferver. For, whereas,
when the fun is behind the fpe&ator, and confequent-
ly the rainbow before him, his eye is in the centre of
the circle ; when he views the halo, with his face to¬
wards the fun, his eye is in the circumference of the
circle ; fo that, according ro the known principles of
geometry, the angle under which the objeCl appears
in this cafe, mull be juft half of what it is in the other.
Though this writer fays a great deal upon the fubjeCI,
and endeavours to give reafons why the colours of the
halo are in a different order to thofe of the rainbow,
he does not deferibe the progrefs of the rays of light
from the fun to the eye of the fpeClator when a halo
is formed by them, and he gives no figures to explain
his ideas.
Dechales, alfo, endeavours to ffiow that the gene¬
ration of the halo is fimilar to that of the rainbow.
If> fays he, a fphere of glafs or cryftal, AB, full of
water.
COR [ 2261 ] COR
water, be placed in the beams of the fun Aiming from
C, there will not only be two circles of coloured
light, on the fide next the fun, and which conftitute
the two rainbows ; but there will allb be another on
the part oppofite to the fun, the l ays belonging to which
meeting at E, afterwards diverge, and form the co¬
loured circle G, as will be vifible, if the light that is
tranfmitted through the globe be received on a piece
of white paper. The colours alfo will appear to an
eye placed in any part of the furface of the cone FEG.
Meafuring the angle FEH, he found it to be 33 de¬
grees. They were only the extreme rays of this
cone that were coloured like thofe of the rainbow.
This experiment he thought fufficiently illullrated
the generation of the halo; fo that whenever the tex¬
ture of the clouds is fuch, as not entirely to intercept
the rays of the fun or moon, and yet have fome de¬
gree of denfity, there will always be an halo round
them, the colours of the rainbow appearing in thofe
drops which are 2 3 degrees difiant from the fun or
moon. If the fun be at A, and the fpedlator in B,
the halo will be the circle DFE, DBE being 46 de¬
grees, or twice 23.
The reafon why the colours of the halo are more
dilute than thole of the rainbow, he fays, is owing
principally to their being formed not in large drops of
rain, but in very fmall vapour ; for if the drops of
water were large, the cloud would be fo thick, that
the rays of the fun could not be regularly tranfmitted
through them ; and, on the other hand, he had obfer-
ved, that when the rainbow is formed by very thin
vapours, the colours hardly appear. As for thofe cir¬
cles of colours which are fometimes feen round can¬
dles, it was his opinion that they are owing to nothing
but moillure on the eye of the obferver ; for that he
could never produce this appearance by means of va¬
pour only, if he wiped his eyes carefully ; and he had
obferved that fuch circles are vifible to fome perfons
and not to others, and to the fame perfons at one time
and not another.
The moll: confiderable of all the theories refpediing
halos, and that which has met with moft favourable
and the longefi reception, is that of Mr Huygens.
Sir Ifaac Newton mentions it with refpeift, and Dr
Smith, in his Complete fyftem of Optics, does not fo
much as hint at any other. The occafion of M. Huy¬
gens publilhing his thoughts on this fubjeft, was the
appearance of a halo at Paris, on the 12th of May
1667, of which he gave an account in a paper read at
the Royal Academy in that city, which was afterwards
tranAated, and publiAied in the EngliAt Philofophical
tranfactions, and which may be feen in Lpwthorp’s
Abridgment, Vol. 2, p. 189. But this article contains
nothing more than the heads of a difcourfe, which he
afterwards compofed, but never quite finiAied, on this
fubjetft ; and which has been tranllated, with fome ad¬
ditions, by Dr Smith, from whom the following ac¬
count is chiefly extracted.
Our philofopher had been firft engaged to think
particularly upon this fubject, by the appearance of
five funs at Warfaw, in 1658; prefently after which,
he fays, he hit upon the true caufe of halos, and not
long after of that of mock funs alfo.
To prepare the way for the following obfervations,
it muft be remarked, that if we can conceive any Corona,
kind of bodies in the atmofphere, which, according to
the known laws of optics, will, either by means of re¬
flection or refra<5tion, produce the appearance in quef-
tion, when nothing elfe can be found that will do it,
we mufl acqutefce in the hypothefis, and fuppofe fuch
bodies to exift, even though we cannot give a fatif-
fadtory account of their generation. Now, two fuch
bodies are affiimed by Mr Huygens ; one of them a
round ball, opaque in the centre, but covered with a
tranfparent fliell; and the other is a cylinder, of a fimi-
lar compofition. By the help of the former Ire endea¬
vours to account for halos, and by the latter for thofe
appearances which are called mock funs. Thofe
bodies which Mr Huygens requires, in order to ex¬
plain thefe phenomena, are not, however, a mere af-
fumption j for fome fuch, though of a larger fize than
his purpofe requires, have been adlually found, con¬
fining of fnow within, and ice without. They are
particularly mentioned by Defcartes.
The balls with the opaque kernel, which he fup-
pofed to have been the caufe of them, he imagines
not to exceed the fize of a turnip-feed ; but, in order
to illuftrate this hypothefis, he gives a figure of one,
of a larger fize, in ABCD, EF, reprefenting the Fig.r.n°3.
kernel of fnow in the middle of it. If the rays of °
light, coming from GH, fall upon the fide AD, it is
manifeft they will be fo refradted at A and D, as to
bend inwards; and many of them will Itrike upon
the kernel EF. Others, however, as GA, and HD,
will only touch the fides of the kernel; and being a-
gain refradted at B and C, will emerge in the lines
BK, CK, crofling each other in the point K, whole
neareft difiance from the globule is fomewhat lefs
than its apparent diameter. If, therefore, BK and CK
be produced towards M and L, (fig. 1. n° 4.) it is evi¬
dent that no light can reach the eye placed within the
angle LKM, but may fajl upon it when placed out of
that angle, or rather the cone reprefented by it.
For the fame reafon, every other of thefe globules
will have a fliadow behind it, in which the light of the
fun will not be perceived. If the eye be at N, and
that be conceived to be the vertex of a cone, the fides
of which NR, NQ^, are parallel to the fides of the
former cone KL, KM, it is evident that none of the
globules within the cone QNR, can fend any rays of
the fun to the eye at N. But any other globule out
of this cone, as X, may fend thofe rays, which are
more refi adfed than XZ, to the eye ; lo that this will
appear etilightened, while thole within the cone will
appear obfcure. It is evident from this, that a cer¬
tain area, or fpace, quite round the fun, mufl appear
dark; ami that the fpace next to this area will appear
luminous, and more fo in thofe parts that are nearefl:
to the obfcure area; becaufe, he fays, it may eafily be
demonllrated, that thofe globules which are nearelt
to the cone £)NR exhibit the largeft image of the
fun. It is plain, alfo, that a corona ought to be pro¬
duced in the fame manner, whatever be the fun’s al¬
titude, becaufe of the fpherical figure of the globules.
To verify this hypothefis, our philofopher advifes
us to expofe to the fun a thin glafs bubble, filled with
water, and having fome opaque fubltance in the cen¬
tre of it ; and he fays we lhall find, that we fliall not
be
COB r 2262 1 COR
C-ormu. be able to fee the fun through it, unlefs at a certain
diftance from a place opponte to the centre of it; but
as foon as we do perceive the light, the image of the
fun will immediately appear the brigutelt, and coloured
red, for the fame reafon as in the rainbow.
Thefe coronas, he fays, often appear about the
moon ; but the colours are fo weak as to appear only
white. Such white coronas he had alfo i'een about
the fun, when the fpace within them appeared fcarce
darker than that without. This he fuppofes to hap¬
pen when there are but few of thofe globules in the
atmofphere : for the more plentiful they are, the more
lively the colours of the halo appear; at the fame time
alfo the area within the corona will be the darker.
The apparent diameter of the corona, which is gene¬
rally about 45 degrees, depends upon the lize of the
dark kernel ; for the larger it is with refpe<5t to the
whole globule, the larger will be the dark cone be¬
hind it.
The globules that form thefe halos, Mr Huygens
fuppofes to have confided of foft fnow, and to have
been rounded by continual agitation in the air, and
thawed on their outfides by the heat of the fun.
To make the diameter of the halo 45 degrees, he
demonftrates that the femi-diameter of the globule
muft be to the femi-diameter of the kernel of fnow
very nearly as 1000 to 480 ; and that to make a co¬
rona of 100 degrees, it mull be as a 1000 to 680.
Mr Weidler, in his Commentary on parhelias, pub-
Hlhed at Wirtemburgh in 1738, obferves that it is
very improbable that fuch globules as Mr Huygens’
hypothefis requires, with nuclei of fuch a precife pro¬
portion, Ihould exift ; and if there were fuch bodies,
he thinks they would be too fmall to produce the ef¬
fects alcribed to them. Befides, he obferves that ap¬
pearances exa&ly fimilar to halos are not uncommon,
where fluid vapours alone are concerned ; as when a
candle is placed behind the fleam of boiling water in
frolly weather, or in the midll of the vapour ilfuing
copioufly from a bath, or behind a receiver, when the
air is fo much rarefied as to be incapable of fupporting
the water it contains. The rays of the fun twice re-
flefted and twice refraXed within fmall drops of wa¬
ter are fufficient, he fays, without any opaque kernel,
to produce all the appearances of the halos that have
the red light towards the fun, as may be proved by
experiment. That the diameter of the halo is gene¬
rally half of that of the rainbow, he accounts for as
Gaflendi did before him.
M. Mariotte accounts for the formation of the fmall
coronas by the tranfmiflion of light through aqueous
vapours, where it fuffers two refraXions, without any
intermediate refleXion. He fhews that light which
comes to the eye, after being refraXed in this man¬
ner, will be chiefly that which falls upon the drop
nearly perpendicular ; becaufe more rays fall upon
any given quantity of furface in that fttuation, fewer
of them are refleXed with fmall degrees of obliquity,
and they are not fo much fcattered after refraXion.
The red will always be outermofl in thefe coronas,
as confifling of rays which fuffer the leafl refraXion.
And whereas he had feen, when the clouds were dri¬
ven brifldy by the wind, halos round the moon, vary¬
ing frequently in their diameter, being fometimes of
two, fometimes of three, and fometimes of four de- Corona.
grees ; fometimes alfo being coloured, fometimes only
white, and fometimes difappearing intirely ; he con¬
cluded that all thefe variations arofe from the differ¬
ent thicknels of the clouds, through which fometimes
more and fometimes lefs light was tranfmitted. He
fuppofed, alfo, that the light which formed them might
fometimes be refleXed, and at other times refraXed.
As to thofe coronas which confifl of two orders of co¬
lours, he imagined that they were produced by fmall
pieces of fnow, which when they begin to diffolve, form
figures which are a little convex towards their extre¬
mities. Sometimes, alfo, the fnow will be melted in
different fhapes ; and in this cafe, the colours of feve-
ral halos will be intermixed, and confufed ; and fuch,
he fays, he had fometimes obferved round the fun.
M. Mariotte then proceeds to explain the larger co¬
ronas, namely thofe that are about 45 degrees in dia¬
meter, and for this purpofe he has recourfe to equi¬
angular prifms of ice, in a certain pofition with re-
fpeX to the fun ; and he takes pains to trace the pro-
grefs of the rays of light for this purpofe : but this hy¬
pothefis is very improbable. In fome cafes he thought
that thefe large coronas were caul'ed by hail-ftones,
of a pyramidal figure ; becaufe, after two or three of
them had been feen about the fun, there fell the fame
day feveral fuch pyramidal hail-ftones. M. Mariotte
explains parhelia by the help of the fame fuppofitions.
See Parhelia.
Sir Ifaac Newton does not appear to have given
any particular attention to the fubjeX of halos, but he
has hinted at his fentiments concerning them occafio-
nally; by which we perceive that he confidered the
larger and lefs variable appearances of this kind as
produced according to the common laws of refraXion,
but that the lefs and more variable appearances de¬
pend upon the fame caufe with the colours of thin
plates.
He concludes his explication of the rainbow with
the following obfervation on halos and parhelias. “ The
light which comes through drops of rain by two re¬
fraXions, without any reflexion, ought to appear the
ftrongeft at the diftance of about 26 degrees from
the fun, and to decay gradually both ways as the di¬
ftance from him increafes. And the fame is to be un-
dertlood of light tranfmitted through fpherical hail-
ftones : and if the hail be a little flatted, as it often
is, the tranfmitted light may be fo ftrong, at a little
lefs diftance than that of 26 degrees, as to form a halo
about the fun or moon ; which halo, as often as the
hail-ftones are duly figured, may be coloured, and then
it muft be red within by the leaft refrangible rays,
and blue without by the molt refrangible ones ; efpe-
cially if the hail-ftones have opaque globules of fnow
in their centres to intercept the light within the halo,
as Mr Huygens has obferved, and make the infide of
it more diftinXly defined than it would otherways be.
For fuch hail-ftones, though fpherical, by terminating
the light by the fnow, may make a halo red within,
and colourlefs without, and darker within the red than
without, as halos ufo to be. For of thofe rays which
pafs dole by the fnow, the red-making ones will be
the leaft refraXed, and fo come to the eye in the
ftraighteft lines.”
Some
COR
Some farther thoughts of Sir Ifaac Newton’s on the
fubjeft of halos we find fubjoined to the account of
his experiments on the colours of thick plates of glafs,
which he conceived to be fiimilar to thole which are
exhibited by thin ones. “ As light reflected by a lens
quick-lilvered on the back fide makes the rings of the
colours above defcribed, fo (he fays), it ought to make
the like rings in palling through a drop of water. At
the firll reflexion of the rays within the drop, feme
colours ought to be tranfmitted, as in the cafe of a
lens, and others to be reflected back to the eye. For
in fiance, if the diameter of a finall drop or globule of
water be about the jooth part of an inch, fo that a
red-making ray, in palling through the middle of this
globule, has 250 fits of eafy tranfmiflion within the
globule, and all the red-making rays which are at a
certain diftance from this middle ray round about it
have 249 fits within the globule, and all the like rays
at a certain farther diftance round about it have 248
fits, and all thofe at a certain farther difiance 247 fits,
and fo on, thefe concentric circles of rays, after their
tranfmiffion, falling on a white paper, will make con¬
centric rings of red upon the paper ; fuppofing the
light which palles through one fingle globule firong
enough to be fenfible, and in like manner the rays of
other colours will make rings of other colours. Sup-
pofe now that in a fair day the fun fhould fliine through
a thin cloud of fuch globules of water or hail, and that
the globules are all of the fame fize, the fun feen
through this cloud ought to appear furrounded with
the like concentric rings of colours, and the diameter
of the firft ring of red ftionld be 71 degrees, that of
the fecond ioi, that of the third 120 33', and ac¬
cording as the globules of water are bigger or lefs,
the ring (hould be lefs or bigger.”
This curious theory' our author informs us was con¬
firmed by an obfervation which he made in 1692. He
faw by reflexion, in a veflel of ftagnating veflel, three
halos, crowns, or rings of colours about the fun, like
three little rainbows concentric to his body. The co¬
lours of the firft, or innermoft crown, were bine next
the fun, red without, and white in the middle, between
the blue and red. Thole of the fecond crown were
purple and blue within, and pale red without, and
green in the middle. And thofe of the third were
pale blue within, and pale red without. Thefe crowns
inclofed one another immediately, fo that their colours
proceeded in this continual order from the fun out¬
ward ; blue, white, red ; purple, blue, green, pale
yellow, and red ; pale blue, pale red. The diameter
of the fecond crown, meafured from the middle of
the yellow and red on one fide of the fun, to the
middle of the fame colour on the other fide, was 91
degrees, or thereabouts. The diameters of the firft
and third he had not time to meafure ; but that of the
firft feemed to be about five or fix degrees, and that
of the third about twelve. The like crowns appear
fometimes about the moon. For in the beginning of
the year 1664, on February 19th at night, he faw two
fuch crowns about her. The diameter of the firft,
or innermoft, was about three degrees, and that of
the fecond about five degrees and a half. Next about
the moon was a circle of white ; and next about that
the inner crown, which was of a bluiflt green within,
COR
next the white, and of a yellow and red without ; Corots-,
and next about thefe colours were blue and green on
the infide of the outer crown, and red on the outfide
of it.
At the fame time there appeared a halo at the di¬
ftance of about 220 35' from the centre of the moon.
It w’as elliptical; and its long diameter was perpendi¬
cular to the horizon, verging below fartheft from the
moon. He was told that the moon has fometimes
three or more concentric crowns of colours encompaf-
fing one anotlter next about her body. The more
equal the globules of water or ice are to one another,
the more crowns of colours will appear, and the co¬
lours will be the more lively. The halo, at the di¬
fiance of 2 2f degrees from the moon, is of another
fort. By its being oval, and more remote from the
moon below than above, he concludes that it was
made by refraction in feme kind of hail or fnow float¬
ing in the air in an horizontal pofture, the refraCling
angle being about 50 or 60 degrees. Dr Smith, how¬
ever, makes it lufficiently evident, that the reafon.
why this halo appeared oval, and more remote from
the moon towards the horizon, is a deception of light,
and the fame with that which makes the moon ap¬
pear larger in the horizon.
Dr Kotelnihow, having, like Dr Halley, made very
accurate obfervations to determine the number of pof-
fible rainbows, confidered the coloured halo which a p¬
pears about a candle as the fame thing with one of
thefe bows which is formed near the body of the fun,
but which is not vifible on account of his exceflive
fplendor.
Laftly, M. Mufchenbroeck concludes his account of
coronas with oblerving, that fome denfity of vapour,
or fome thicknefs of the plates of ice, divides the light
in its tranfmiflion through the fmall globules of water,
or their intei ftices, into its feparate colours : but what
that denfity was, or what was the lize of the particles
which compofed the vapour, he could not pretend to
determine.
Corona, amongbotanifis, the name given by fome
to the circumference or margin of a radiated com¬
pound flower. It correfponds to the radius of Linnseus;
and is examplified in the flat, tongue-lhaped petals
which occupy the margin of the daify or fun-flower.
Corona Borealis, the northern crown, or garland,
in aftronomy, a conrtellation of the northern hemil-
phere, whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are eight,
in Tycho’s as many, and in Mr Flamftead’s 21.
Corona Imperialis, in conchyology, a name gi¬
ven by fome authors to a kind of voluta, differing from
the other fltells of that family, by having its head or¬
namented with a number of points, forming a fort of
crown. See Voluta.
Corona Imperialis, in botany. See Fritilla-
RIA.
Corona Solis, in botany. See Helianthus.
CORONAL, in anatomy, the firff future of the
Ikull. See Anatomy, n° 10, g.
CORONALE os, the fame with the osfrontis. See
Anatomy, n° ii.
CORONARY vessels, in anatomy, certain vef-
fels which furnilh the fubftance of the heart with blood.
Coronary Arteries, are two arteries fpringing out
©f
[ 2263 ]
COR [ 2264 ] COR
Coronary of the aorta, before it leaves the pericardium. See
li Anatomy, n° 387, b. and 386, d.
roner. Cokonart Vein, a vein diffufed over the exterior
furface of the heart. Ibid. n° 386, d.
Stomachic Coronary, a vein inferted into the
trunk of the fplenic vein, which, by uniting with the
mefenteric, forms the vena porta. See Anatomy,
n° 387, k.
CORONARIAS, in botany, the 10th order of plants
in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a natural method. Under
this name, inftead of the more obvious one libacea-,
Linnaeus collects a great number of genera, moft of
which furnilh very beautiful garden-flowers, viz. al-
buca, cyanella, fritillaria, helonias, hyacinthus, hypo-
xis, lilium, melanthium, ornithogalum, fcilla, tulipa,
agave, aletris, aloe, anthericum, afphodelus, bromelia,
burmannia, hemerocallis, polianthes, tillandfia, vera-
trum, yucca.
CORONELLI (Vincent), a famous geographer,
born at Venice. His (kill in the mathematics having
brought him to the knowledge of the count d’Eftrees,
his eminence employed him in making globes for
Lewis XIV. With this view Coronelli (pent fome
time at Paris; and left a great number of globes
there, which are efleemed. In 1685, he was made
cofmographer to the republic of Venice ; and four
years after, public profeflfor of geography. He found¬
ed an academy of cofmography at Venice ; and died
in that city in 1718. He publifhed above 400 geo¬
graphical charts, an abridgement of cofmography, fe-
veral books on geography, and other works.
CORONER, (coronator) an ancient officer in
England, fo called becaufe he hath principally to.do
with pleas of the crown, or fuch wherein the king is
more immediately concerned. And in this light, the
lord chief juftice of the king’s bench is the principal
coroner in the kingdom; and may, if he pleales, ex-
ercife the jurifdidlion of a coroner in any part of the
realm. But there are alfo particular coroners for
every county of England ; ufually four, but fometimes
fix, and fometimes fewer. This oflicer is of equal
authority with the IheriiF; and was ordained, toge¬
ther with him, to keep the peace when the earls gave
up the wardlhip of the county.
He is chofen by all the freeholders of the county
court; and by the llatute of Weftminfter 1. it was e-
nadled, that none but lawful and difereet knights (hould
be chofen ; but it feems now fufficient if a man have
lands enough to be made a knight, whether he be really
knighted or not: for the coroner ought to have an
eftate fufficient to maintain the dignity of his office,
and anfwer any fines that may be made upon him for
his mifbehaviour; and, if he hath not enough to an¬
fwer, his fine (hall be levied on the 'county, as a pu-
nilhment for eiedting an infufficient officer. Now,
indeed, through the culpable negledt of gentlemen of
property, this office has been fuffered to fall into dif-
repute, and get into low and indigent hands: fo that
although formerly no coroners would be paid for fer-
ving their country, and they were by the aforefaid
(latute of Weftminfter 1. exprefsly forbidden to take
a reward under pain of great forfeiture to the king ;
yet for many years part they have only defired to be
cliofen for the fake of their perquifites; being allow¬
ed fees for their attendance by the ftatute 3 Hen. VU.
c. 1. which Sir Edward Coke complains of heavily,
though fince his time thofe fees have been much en¬
larged.
The coroner is chofen for life; but may be removed,
either by being made (heriff, or chofen verderor, which
are offices incompatible with the other ; and by the
ftatute 25 Geo. II. c. 29. extortion, negledl, or mifbe¬
haviour, are alfo made caufes of removal.
The office and power of a coroner are alfo, like
thofe of the (herifF, either judicial or minifterial; but
principally judicial. This is in great meafure afeer-
tained by ftatute 4 Edw. I. De officio coronatoris ; and
confifts, firft, in inquiring, when any perfon is (lain, or
dies fuddenly, or in prifon, concerning the manner of
his death. And this muft be fuper vifum corporis ; for
if the body is not found, the coroner cannot fit. He
muft alfo fit at the very place where the death hap¬
pened. And his inquiry is made by a jury from (bur,
five, or fix of the neighbouring towns, over whom he
is to prefide. If any be found guilty by this inqueft
of murder, he is to commit to prifon for farther trial,
and is alfo to inquire concerning their lands, goods,
and chattels, which are forfeited thereby : but whe¬
ther it be murder or not, he muft inquire whether
any deodand has accrued to the king, or the lord of
the franchife, by this death ; and muft certify the
whole of this inquifition to the court of king’s-bench,
or the next affizes. Another branch of his office is to
inquire concerning (hipwrecks ; and certify whether
wreck or not, and who is in pofleffion of the goods.
Concerning treafure-trove, he is alfo to inquire con¬
cerning the finders, and where it is, and whether any
one be fufpedted of having found and concealed a
treafure; “ and that may well be perceived, (faith
the old ftatute of Edw. I.) where one liveth riotoufly,
haunting taverns, and hath done-fo of long time;”
whereupon he might be attached and held to bail up¬
on this (ufpieion only.
The minifterial office of the coroner is only as the
flieriff’s fubftitute. For when juft exception can be
taken to the (heriff, for fufpicion of partiality, (as that
he is interefted in the fuit, or of kindred to either
plaintiff or defendant), the procefs muft then be a-
warded to the coroner, inftead of the (heriff’, for exe¬
cution of the king’s writs.
CORONET. See Crown.
Coronet, or Cronet, of a Horfe, the lowed part
of the paftern, which runs round the coffin, and is di-
ftinguiftted by the hair joining and covering the upper
part of the hoof.
CORONILLA, podded Colutea ; a genus
of the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia
clafs of plants. To this genus Linnaeus alfo joins the
emerus, or fcorpion fen a; though Mr Miller makes it
a diftintft fpecies. There are 11 fpecies, all of them
plants of confiderable beauty, with very bright yellow
flowers. All of them, however, are rather too ten¬
der for this climate, except the emerus. This fpecies
rifes with a fhrubby ftem, branching numeroufly (ix or
eight feet high, clofely garnifhed with winged leaves
of three pair of lobes, terminated by an odd one ;
and, at the (ides of the branches, numerous long flower-
Jtalks, each fupporting two or three large yellow
. flowers
Coronet
Coronilla.
COR [ 2265 ] COR
-Coronold flowers of the papilionaceous kind, fucceeded by longifli
II pods ; it is ealily propagated by feeds, and likewife by
Corpora- layerS; or cuttings. The leaves of this plant are e-
‘°n' fteemed laxative, and ufed as a Fubftitute for common
fena in fome parts of Europe. A dye is procured by
fermentation from the leaves, like that of indigo.
CORONOID, and Condyloid, Froceffes. See
Anatomy, nQ 256.
CORPORAL, an inferior officer under a ferjeant,
in a company of foot, who has charge over one of the
divifions, places and relieves centinels, and keeps good
order in the corps de garde : he alfo receives the
word from the inferior rounds, which paffes by his
corps de garde. This officer carries a fufee, and is
commonly an old foldier : there are generally three
corporals in each company.
Corporal of a Ship of War, an officer under the
mafter at arms, employed to teach the officers the ex-
ercife of fmall arms, or of mulketry ; to attend at the
gang-way, or entering ports, and obferve that no fpi-
rituous liquors are brought into the Ihip, unlefs by ex-
prefs leave from the officers. He is alfo to extinguilh
the fire and candles at eight o’clock in winter, and
nine in fummer, when the evening gun is fired ; and
to> walk frequently down in the lower decks in his
watch, to fee that there are no lights but fuch as are
under the charge of proper centinels.
CORPORATION, a body politic or incorporate,
fo called, becaufe the perfons or members are joined
into one body, and are qualified to take, grant, ire.
Of corporations there is a great variety fubfifting,
for the advancement of religion, of learning, and of
commerce; in order to prelerve entire and for ever
thofe rights and immunities, which, if they were
granted only to thofe individuals of which the body
corporate is compofed, would upon their death be ut¬
terly loft and extinct. To Ihew the advantages of
thele incorporations, let us confider the cafe of a col¬
lege in either of our univerfities, founded ad ftuden-
dum et orandum, for the encouragement and fupport
of religion and learning. If this was a mere volun¬
tary aflembly, the individuals which compofe it might
indeed read, pray, ftudy, and perform fcholaftic exeP*
tiles together, fo long as they could agree to do fo :
but they could neither frame, nor receive, any laws or
rules of their conduct; none at leaft which would
have any binding force, for want of a coercive power
to create a fufficient obligation. Neither could they
be capable of retaining any privileges or immunities:
for, if fuch privileges be attacked, which of all this
unconne&ed aflfembly has the right or ability to de¬
fend them ? And, When they are difperfed by death
or otherwife, how ffiall they transfer thefe advanta¬
ges to another fet of ftudents, equally unconne<fted as
themfelves ? So alfo, with regard to holding eftates
or other property, if land be granted for the purpofes
of religion or learning to 20 individuals not incorpo¬
rated, there is no legal way of continuing the pro¬
perty to any other perfons for the lame purpofes, but
by endlefs conveyances from one to the other, as of¬
ten as the hands are changed. But when they are
confolidated and united into a corporation, they and
their fucceffors are then confidered as one perlbn in
law : as one perfon, they have one will, which is col-
Vol. III.
levied from the fenfe of the majority of the indivi- Corpora
duals : this one will may eftablifli rules and orders for
the regulation of the whole, which are a fort of mu¬
nicipal laws of this little republic ; or rules and Ra¬
tines may be preferibed to it at its creation, which are
then in the place of natural laws: the privileges-and
immunities, the eftates and pofleffions, of the corpo- 'Blackfl.
ration, when once veiled in them, will be for ever Comment.
veiled, without any new conveyance to new fpccef-
fions ; for all the individual members that have exift-
ed from the foundation to the prefent time, or that
Ihall ever hereafter exift, are but one perfon in law,
a perfon that never dies : in like manner as the river
Thames is ftill the fame river, though the parts which
compofe it are changing every inftant.
The honour of originally inventing thefe political
conftitutions entirely belongs to the Romans. They
were introduced, as Plutarch fays, by Numa ; who
finding, upon his accelfion, the city torn to pieces by
the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, thought
it a prudent and politic meafure to fubdivide thele
two into many fmaller ones, by inftituting leparate
focieties of every manual trade and profeffion. They
were afterwards much confidered by the civil law, in
which they were called univerfitatei, as forming one
whole out of many individuals; or collegia, from be-
ing gathered together : they were adopted alfo by the
canon law, for the maintenance of ecclefiaftical difei-
pline ; and from them our fpiritual corporations are
derived. But our laws have conliderably refined and
improved upon the invention, according to the ufual
genius of the 'Englifh nation : particularly with regard
to foie corporations, confining of one perfon only, of
which the Roman lawyers had no notion; their maxim
being, that “ tres faciunt collegium:” though they
held, that, if a corporation, originally conlifting of
three perfons, be reduced to one, “ fi univerfitas ad
unum redit,” it may ftill fubfift as a corporation, “ et
ftet nomen univerfitatis.”
As to the feveral forts of corporations, the firft di-
vifion of them is into aggregate and foie. Corporati¬
ons aggregate confiil of manjwperfons united toge¬
ther into one fociety, and are kept up by a perpetual
fucceflion of members, fo as to continue for ever : of
which kind are the mayor and commonalty of a city,
the head and fellows of a college, the dean and chap¬
ter of a cathedral church. Corporations $p le conlill
of one perfon only and his fuccelfors, in fome particu¬
lar ftation, who are incorporated by law, in order to
give them fome legal capacities and advantages, par¬
ticularly that of perpetuity, which in their natural per¬
fons they could not have had. In this fenfe the king
is a foie corporation : fo is a hilltop: fo are fome deans
and prebendaries, diflindl from their feveral chapters:
and fo is every parfon and vicar. And the necelfity,
or at leaft ufe, of this inftitution will be very appa¬
rent, if we confider the cafe of a parfon of a church.
At the original endowment of parilh-churches, the
freehold of the church, the church-yard, the parfonage-
houfe, the glebe, and the tithes of the pafilh, were
veiled in the then parfon by the bounty of the donbr,
as a temporal recompence to him for his fpiritual care
of the inhabitants, and with intent that the fame emo¬
luments fltould ever afterwards continue as a recom-
I3 H pence
Corpora-
Blackft.
Comment.
COR [ 2266 ] COR
pence for the fame care. But how was this to be ef¬
fected ? The freehold was verted in the parfon ; and,
if we fuppofe it verted in his natural capacity, on his
death it might defeend to his heir, and would be li¬
able to his debts and incumbrances: or at beft the
heir might be compellable, at feme trouble and ex¬
pence, to convey thefe rights to the fucceeding in¬
cumbent. The law therefore has wifely ordained,
that the parfon, quatenus parfon, fhall never die, any
more than the king ; by making him and his fuccef-
fors a corporation. By which means all the original
rights of the parfonage are preferved entire to the
fucceflbr : for the prelent incumbent, and his prede-
celfor who lived feven centuries ago, are in law one
and the fame perfon ; and what was given to the one
was given to the other alfo.
Another divifioh of corporations, either foie or ag¬
gregate, is into eccleftajlicaland lay. Ecclesiastical
corporations are where the members that compofe it
are entirely fpiritual perfons; fuch as bilhops; certain
deans and prebendaries j all archdeacons, parfons, and
vicars; which are foie corporations : deans and chap¬
ters at prefent, and formerly prior and convent, abbot
and monks, and the like, bodies aggregate. Thefe
are erefted for the furtherance of religion, and per¬
petuating the rights of the church.—Lay corpora¬
tions are of two forts, civil and deemofynary. The
civil are fuch as are erected for a variety of tem¬
poral purpofes. The king, for inrtance,- is made a
corporation to prevent in general the poffibility of
an interregnum or vacancy of the throne, and to
preferve the polfeflions of the crown entire ; for,
immediately upon the demife of one king, his fuc¬
ceflbr is in full pofleflion of the regal rights and
dignity. Other lay corporations are erefted for the
good government of a town or particular diftribt,
as a mayor and commonalty, bailiff and burgefles,
or the like : fome for the advancement and regu¬
lation of manufactures and commerce ; as the tra¬
ding companies of London, and other towns: and
fome for the better carrying on of divers fpecial pur¬
pofes ; as church-gardens, for confervation of the
goods of the parilh ; the college of phyficians and com¬
pany of furgeons in London, for the improvement of
the medical fcience ; the royal fociety for the ad¬
vancement of natural knowledge ; and the fociety of
antiquarians for promoting the ftudy of antiquities.
The deembfynary fort are fuch as are conftituted for
the perpetual diftribution of the free alms, or bounty,
of the founder of them to fuch perfons as he has di¬
rected. Of this kind are all hofpitals for the mainte¬
nance of the poor, fick, and impotent; and all col¬
leges, both in our univerfities and out of them; which
colleges are founded for two purpofes; 1. For the
promotion of piety and learning by proper regula¬
tions and ordinances. 2. For imparting afliftance to
the members of thofe bodies, in order to enable them
to profecute their devotion and ftudies with greater
eafe and afliduity. And all thefe eleemofynary cor¬
porations are, (triCily fpeaking, lay, and not ecclefia-
ftical, even though compofed of ecclefiaftical perfons.
and although they in fome things partake of the na- Corpora- ;
ture, privileges, and reftriCtions of ecclefiartical bo- tlu11-
dies.
Having thus marlhalled the feveral fpecies of cor- Bhckft.
porations, Jet us next proceed to confider, 1.. How Comment. |
corporations in general may be created. 2. What are
their powers,capacities, and incapacities. And, 3. How
they may be dilfolved.
1. Corporations, by the civil law, feem to have
been created by the mere aCt, and voluntary affocia-
tion., of their members; provided fuch convention was
not contray to law, for then it was illicitum collegium.
It does not appear that the prince’s confent was ne-
ceffary to be aClually given to the foundation of them
but merely that the original founders of thefe volun¬
tary and friendly focieties (for they were little more
than fuch) Ihould not eltablilh any meetings in oppo-
fition to the laws of the flate.
But in England the king’s confent is abfolutely.ne-
ceflary to the ereClion of any corporation, either im¬
pliedly or exprefsly given (a). The king’s implied con¬
fent is to be found in corporations which exirt by force
of the common law, to which our former kings are
fuppofed to have given their concurrence; common
law being nothing elfe but cuflom, ariiihg from the
univerfal agreement of the whole community. Of
this fort are the king himfelf, all bilhops, parfbns, vi¬
cars, churchwardens, and fome others; who by com¬
mon law have ever been held (as far as our books can
fhew us) to have been corporations, virtute officii :
and this incorporation is fo infeparably annexed to
their offices, that we cannot frame a complete legal
idea of any of thefe perfons, but we murt alfo have an
idea of a corporation, cnpable to tranlmk his rights to
his fucceflbrs, at the. fame time. Another method of
implication, whereby the king’s confent is prefumed,
is as to all corporations by prefeription,. fuch as the
city of London, and many others, which have exirted
as corporations, time whereof the memory of man
runneth not to the contrary ; and therefore are look¬
ed upon in law to be well created. For though the
members thereof c$n fhew no legal charter of. ineor- .
poration, yet in cafes of fuch high antiquity the law
prefumes there once was one; and that by the variety.,
of accidents, which a length of time may produce, the
charter is loft ordeftroyed. The methods by which
the king’s con Cent is exprefsly given, are either by a&
of parliament or charter. By aeft of parliament, of
which the royal aflent is a neceflary ingredient, cor¬
porations may undoubtedly be created : but it is ob- -
fervable, that moft of thofe ftatutes, which are ufually
cited as having created corporations, do. either confirm .
fuch as have been before created by" the king; as in
the cafe of the college of phyfi.cians, eretrted by char¬
ter 10 Hen. VIII. which charter was afterwards con-,
firmed in parliament; or, they permit the king to e-
reeft a corporation in future withffuch and fuch powT
ers ; as is the cafe of the bank of England, and,the.
fociety of the Britifh fifhery, So that the imhiediare
creative aft is ufually performed by the king alone,
in virtue of his royal prerogative.
All
(a) Cities and towns were fir ft ereifted into corporate communities on the continent, and endowed with many valuable privileges,
about the itth . i.tary, (Robertf. C ha. V. i 30.); to which the confent of the feodal foyereign was abfolutely neceffary, as jnarjf
of his prerogatives and revenues were thereby conftderably diminilhed.
COR
[ 2267 ]
COR
rr Corpora- AH the other methods therefore whereby corpora- for two of them, though they may be pra&ifed, yet Corpon
v .r . . t . r ■ 11     /r   .....4:..^ tion.
tionsexifl, by common law, by prefcription, and by • are very unnecelfary to a corporation file ; viz. 10
| kckft.
" aect of parliament, are for the molt part reducible to
this of the king’s letters patent, or charter of incor¬
poration. The king’s creation may be performed by
the words “ creamus, erigimus, fundamus, incorpora-
mus,” or the like. Nay it is held, that if the king
grants to a fet of men to have gildarn mere atari am,
“ a mercantile meeting or alTembly,” this is alone fuf-
ficient to incorporate and eltablilh them for ever.
The king (it is faid) may grant to a fubjedl the
have a corporate leal to teftify his foie affent, and to
make llatutes for the regulation of his own conduct.
Corporations have a capacity to purchafe lands for BLci?.
themfelves and fuccelfors ; but they are excepted out
of the ftatute of wills; fo that no devife of lands to a
corporation by will is good ; except for charitable ufes,
by ftatute 43 Eliz. c. 4. which exception is again great¬
ly narrowed by the ftatute 9 Geo. II. c. 36. And alfo,
by a great variety of ftatutes, their privilege even of
power of erecting corporations, though the contrary purchaling from any living granter, is much abridged;
was formerly held : that is, he may permit the fob- r"   —^ t,„
je& to name the perfons and powers of the corpora¬
tion at his pleafure ; but it is really the king that e-
re&s, and the fobyecT is but theinftrument: for though
none but the king can make a corporation, yet qui fa-
cit per alium, facit per fe. In this manner the chan¬
cellor of the univeriity of Oxford has power by char¬
ter to ereeft corporations; and has actually often ex¬
erted it in the ere<5tion of feveral matriculated com¬
panies, now lubfifting, of tradefmen fobfervient to the
ftudents.
When a corporation is eredted, a name muft be gi¬
ven to it; and by that name alone it muft foe, and be
foed, and do all legal acts.
II. After a corporation is fo formed and named, it
acquires many powers and rights, Which we are next
to confider. Some of thefe are neceforrily and infe-
parably incident to every corporation ; which inci¬
dents, as foon as a corporation is duly eredled, are ta-
fo that now a corporation, either ecclefiaftical or lay,
muft have a licence from the king to purchafe, before
they can exert that capacity which is veiled in them
by the common law : nor is even this in all cafes fuf-
ficient. Thefe ftatutes are generally called the ftatutes
of mortmain. See Mortmain.
The general duties of all bodies politic, confidered
in their coporate capacity, may, like thofe of natural
perfons, be reduced to this fmgle one ; that of adting
up to the end or defign, whatever it be, for which
they were created by their founder.
III. HoW corporations may be diflblved. Any par¬
ticular member may be disfranchifed, or lofe his place
in the corporation, by adling contrary to the laws of
the fociety, or the laws of the land : or he may refign
it by his own voluntary adl. But the body politic may
alfo itfelf be dilfolved in feveral ways » which diftblu-
tion is the civil death of the corporation : and in this
cafe their lands and tenements lhall revert to the per-
citly annexed of courfe. As, 1. To have perpetual fon, or his heirs, who granted them to the corpora-
focceffion. This is the very end of its incorporation: tion : for the law doth annex a condition to every
for there -cannot be a fucceffion for ever without an
incorporation ; and therefore all aggregate corpora-
foch grant, that if the corporation be dilfolved, the
granter lhall have the lands again, becaufe the caufe
tions have a power necelfarily implied of eledting of the grant faileth. The grant is indeed only during
members in the room of foch as go off. 2. To foe or
be foed, implead or be impleaded, grant or receive,
by its corporate name, and do. all other adts as natu¬
ral perfons may. 3. To purchafe lands, and hold
them, for the benefit of themfelves and their foccef-
fors : which two are confequential to the former.
4. To have a common feal. For a corporation, being
an invifible body, cannot manifeft its intentions by any
perfonal adt or oral difeourfe: it therefore adts and
fpeaks only by its common feal. For, though the par¬
ticular members may exprefs their private confents to
any adt, by words, or figning their names, yet this
does not bind the corporation ; it is the fixing of the
feal, and that only, which unites the feveral affents of
the individuals, who compofe the community, and
makes one joint affent of the whole. 5. To make
by-laws or private ftatutes for the better government
of the corporation ; which are binding upon Them¬
felves, unlefs contrary to the laws of the land, and
then they are void. But no trading company is with
us allowed to make by-laws, which may affedt the
king’s prerogative, or the common profit of the people,
the life of the corporation ; which may endure for
ever : but, when that life is determined by the diflb-
lution of the body politic, the granter takes it back by
reverfion, as in the cafe of every other grant for life.
The debts of a edrporation, either to or from it, are
totally extinguilhed by its diffolution ; fo that the
members thereof cannot recover, or be charged w ith
them, in their natural capacities : agreeable to that
niaxim of the civil law, “ ft quid uuiverjitati debetur,
“ fingulis 110,1 debetur; nee, quod debit univerjitas,
“ fiuguli debent."
A corporation may be diffblved, 1. By adt of par¬
liament, which is boundlefs in its operations. 2. By
the natural death of all its members, in cafes of an ag¬
gregate corporation. 3. By furrender of its franchiles
into the hands of the king, which is a kind of foicide.
4. By forfeiture of its charter, through negligence or
abufe of its franchifes ; in which cafe the lav/ judges
that the body politic has broken the condition upon
which it was incorporated, and thereupon the incor¬
poration is void. And the regular courfe is to bring
information in nature of a writ of quo warranto,
under penalty of 401. unlefs they be approved by the to inquire by what warrant the members now exer-
chancellor, treaforer, and chief jultices, or the judges cife their corporate power, having forfeited it by foch
of aflize in their circuits : and, even though they be and fuch proceedings. The exertion of this adt of
fo approved, {till if contrary to law they are void, law, for the purpofes of the ftate, in the reigns of king
Thefe five powers are infeparably incident to every Charles and king James II. particularly by feiling the
corporation, at lead to every corporation aggregate : charter of the city of London, gave great and.juft of-
J 13 H 3 fence ;
cor r 2268 1 c o 11
Corporeal fence 5 though perhaps, in ftrkctnefs of law, the pro-
11 ceedings in moft of them were fufficiently regular: but
Corpufcular the judgment againft that of London was reverfed by
aft of parliament after the revolution; and by the fame
ftatute it is enadted, that the franchifes of the city of
London lhall never more be forfeited for any cattle
' whatfoever. And, becaufe by the common law cor¬
porations were diflblved, in cafe the mayor or head
officer was not duly eledted on the day appointed in the
charter or eftablilhed by prefeription, it is now pro¬
vided, that for the future ho corporation ffiall be dif-
folved upon that account; and ample diredtions are
given for appointing a new officer, in cafe there be
no eledtion, or a void one, made upon the charter or
preferiptive day,
CORPOREAL, thofe qualities which denominate a
body. See Quality, Body, and Incorporeal.
CORPSE, a dead body.
If any oner in taking up a dead body, fteals the
flirowd, or other apparel, it will be felony. Stealing
only the corpfe itfelf is not felony.; but it is puniffiable
as a rtnfdemeanor by indidfment at common law.
CORPULENCY, the (late of a perfon too much
loaded with fleffi or fat.—For the caufes and cure
of corpulency, (fee the Index fubjoined to) Medi¬
cine.
CORPUS, in anatomy, is applied to feveral parts of
the animal lirudture ; as corpus callofum, corpus ca'
vernofum, &c. See Anatomy, n° 371, o, p. and
372, c.
Corpus, is alfo ufed in matters of learning, for fe¬
veral works of the fame nature colledfed and bound
together.
Gratian made a colledlion of the canons of the
church, called corpus canonum. The corpus of the
civil law is compofed of the digeft, code, and initi-
tutes. We have alfo a corpus of the Greek poets; and
ajiother of the Latin poets.
Corpus Chrijli, a feflival of the church of England,
kept on the next Thurfday after Trinity-funday, in-
llituted in honour of the eucharift ; to which alfo one
of the colleges in Oxford is dedicated.
CORPUSCLE, in phyfics, a minute particle, or phy-
fical atom, being fuch as a natural body is made up of.
By this word is not meant the elementary particles, nor
the hypoflatical principles of chemifts; but fuch par¬
ticles, whether of a fimple or compound nature, whole
parts will not be diflblved nor diflipated by ordinary
degrees of heat.
CORPUSCULAR philosophy, that way of phi-
lofophifing which endeavours to explain things, and to
account for the phenomena of nature, by the motion,
figure, reft, pofition, ire. of the corpufcles, or the mi¬
nute particles of matter.
Mr Boyle fums up the chief principles of the cor¬
pufcular hypothefis, which now flourilhes under the
mechanical philofophy, in thefe particulars :
1. They fuppofe that there is but one catholic or
univerfal matter, which is an extended, impenetrable,
and divifible fubftance, common to all bodies, and ca¬
pable of all forms. 2. That this matter, in order to
form the. vaft variety of natural bodies, muft have mo¬
tion in fome or all its affignable parts ; and that this
motion was given to matter by God the Creator of all
things, and has all manner of directions and tenden* Comdini
cies. 3. Matter muft alfo be actually divided into II
parts, and each of thefe primitive particles, frag- Corrofioik
ments, or atoms of matter, muft have its proper mag¬
nitude or fize, as alfo its peculiar figure or ffiape.
4. They fuppofe alfo, that thefe differently fized and
fhaped particles may have as different orders and po-
fitions, whereof great variety may arife in the com-
pofition of bodies.
CORRADINI de Sezza (Peter Marcelinus) a learn¬
ed civilian and cardinal, born at Sezza, in 1658,. ac¬
quired the efteem and confidence of Clement XI. and
died at Rome in 1743. He was the author of a learn¬
ed and curious work entitled “ Verus Latium profa-
num 8c facrum,” 2 vols folio ; and a hiftory of Sezza,
in 4to
CORRADO (Sebaftian) an Italian grammarian of
the 16th century, taught the Greek and Latin tongups
at Reggio, where he formed an academy of polite li¬
terature ; and at length removed to Bologna, in order
to be profeflbr of thofe languages. Pie wrote feveral
works, the. moft efteemed of which are,. “ Queftura
in qua Ciccronis Vita refertur,” an excellent per¬
formance; and, “ .db Lingua Latina.” He died in
1556.
CORR.ECTION, in printing, the pointing out or
difeovering the faults in a printed Iheet, in order to be
amended by the compofitor before it be printed off*.
See Printing.
CORRECTOR, in general, denotes fomething that
mends the faults or bad qualities of others.
Corrector of the Staple, a clerk belonging to the
ftaple, whofe bulinefs.is to write down and record the
bargains that merchants make there.
Corrector, in medicine or pharmacy, an ingre¬
dient in a compofition, which guards againft or abates
the force of another.
CORREGGIO (Antonia da), a moft extraordinary
painter, named from a town in the duchy of Modena^
where he was born in 1 ’94. He w as a man of fuch
great natural talents, that nothing but the deficiencies
of education prevented; his being the heft painter in
the world. This artift is noted for borrowing nothing
from the works of other men, and his novelties are
clear from cenfure. He is . faid to be the firft wbo
placed figures in the air, or Iky, of hiftory-pieces;-
and to have excelled in the art of fore-fhortening,
and in “ the magic of ceilings.” Correggio fpent
the greateft part of his life at Parma ; where, not-
withftanding his high reputation, he was obliged to
work hard for the maintenance Of a large family, and
was extremely poor. He died young, in 1534, by an
odd circumftance : he was to have 50 crowns for a
piece of work; and receiving the fum in copper, w'hich
he had to carry 12 miles in the midft of fummer, he
overheated himfelf; and indifcreetly drinking cold
water, brought on a pleurily that killed him.
CORRELATIVE, fomething oppofed to another in
a .certain relation. Thus, father and Ton are correla¬
tives. Light and darknefs, motion and reft, are cor¬
relative and oppofite terms.
CORROBORANTS, or Corroborative Medi¬
cines. See Strengtheners.
CORROSION, in a general fenfe, the aeftion of
gnawing
COR [ 2269 ] COR
rrofion gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts
ill II _ of bodies.,
* rM|’tlon' Corrosion, in chemiftry, an action of bodies, by
means of proper menftruums, that produces new com¬
binations, and a change of their form, without con¬
verting them to fluidity.
CORROSIVE, SUBLIMATE MERCURY. See CHE¬
MISTRY, n° 351.
ICORRUGATOR muscle. See Anatomy, Ta¬
ble of the Mufales.
CORROSIVES, in furgery, are medicines which
corrode whatever part of the body they are applied
to : fuch are burnt alum, white precipitate of mercury,
white vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of an¬
timony, lapis infernalis, ire.
CORRUPTION, the deftrudlion, extimHiion, or, at
leail, celfation for a time, of the proper mode of exif-
tence. of any natural body. See Putrefaction.
Corruption of Bloody in law, one of the confe-
quences of an attainder; and is both .upwards and
downwards; fo that an attainted perfon can neither in¬
herit lands or other hereditaments from his anceftors,
nor retain thofe he is already in pofleffion of, nor tran li¬
mit them by defeent to any heir ; but the fame lhall
efeheat to the lord of the fee, fubjeft to the king’s fu-
perior right of forfeiture; and the perfon attainted
fhall alfo ob ft rued all defeents to his polierity, where-
ever they are obliged to derive a title through him to
a remoter ancellor. See Attainder.
U&ft* This is one of thofe notions which our laws have
•munent. adopted from the feodal conftitutions, at the time of
the Norman conquell ; as appears from its being un¬
known in thofe tenures which are indifputably Saxon,
or Gavel kind : wherein, though by treafon, according
to the ancient Saxon .laws, the land is forfeited to the
king, yet no corruption of blood, no impediment of de¬
feents, enfues ; and on judgment of mere felony, no
efeheat accrues to the lord. But, by the law of Eng¬
land, derived as above, a man’s blood is fo univerfally
corrupted by attainder, that his Ions can neither in¬
herit to him nor to any other anceftor, at leaft on the
part of their attainted father.
This corruption of blood cannot be abfolutely remo¬
ved but by authority of parliament. The king may
excufe the public punilhment of an offender; but can¬
not abolilh the private right which has accrued, or
may accrue, to individuals as a confequence of the cri¬
minal’s attainder. He may remit a forfeiture in which
the intereft of the crown is alone concerned : but he
cannot wipe away the corruption of blood ; for there¬
in a third perfon hath an interelf, the lord who claims
by efeheat. If therefore a man hath a fon, and is at¬
tainted, and afterwards pardoned by the king ; this
fon can never inherit to his father, or father’s ancef¬
tors ; becaufe his paternal blood, being once thorough¬
ly corrupted by his father’s attainder, mult continue
fo : but if the fon had been born after the pardon, he
might inherit; becaule, by the pardon, the father is
made a new man, and may convey new inheritable
blood to his after-born children.
This corruption of blood, thus arifmg from feudal
principles, but perhaps extended farther than even
thefe principles will warrant, has been long looked
upon as a peculiar hardfliip : beeaufe the oppreffive
parts of the feudal tenures being now in general abo- Corfal*
lilhed, it Items unreafonable to referve one of their II
molt inequitable confequences; namely, that the child- Colfned-
ren Ihould not only be reduced to prelent poverty,
(which, however fevere, is fulfieiently juftified upon
reafons of public policy), but alfo be laid under future
difficulties of inheritance, on account of the guilt of their
anceftors. And therefore in moll (if not all) of the
new felonies treated by Parliament lince the reign of
Henry VIII. it is declared that they lhall not extend to
any corruption of blood : and by the ftatute 7 Anne
c. 21. (the operation of which is poftponed by the fta¬
tute t 7 Geo. II. c. 39.) itisenatfted, that, after the death
of the late pretender and his fons,no attainder for rrea-
fon (liall extend to the difinheriting any heir, nor the
prejudice of any perfon, other than the offender him-
feif: which provilions have indeed carried the remedy
farther than was required by the hardlhip above com-
plained of; which is only the future obftrmftion of de-
icents, where the pedigree happens to be deduced
through the blood of an attainted anceftor.
CORSAIR, a-pirate, or perfon who fcours the fea
for plunder, with an armed veffel, without commif-
fion from any prince or power. A corfair differs from
a privateer, in that the latter aefts under a-commiffion,
and only attacks the veflels of thofe at war with the
ftate whence he had his commiffion.
CORSELET, a little cuirafs; or, according to o-
thers, an armour or coat made to cover the whole
body, anciently worn by tbe pike-men, ufually placed
in the front and flanks of the battle, for the better re¬
filling the enemy’s affaults, and guarding the foldiers
placed behind them.
CORSICA, an illand in the Mediterranean, between
8° and io° E. Long, and between 410 and 430 N.
Lat. about 100 miles fonth of Genoa, and 'fnbject to
that republic ; though the natives for many years dif-
puted their right. The illand is now in the hands of
the French.
CORSNED, or Morsel of Execration, a fpe-
cies of trial or purgation * anciently in ule among us, • See 7>m.’.
and which probably arofe from an abufe of revelation
in tbe dark ages of luperftition. It confifted of a piece
of cheefe or bread, about an ounce in weight, which
was confecrated with a form of exorriftn ; defiring
of the Almighty that it might caufe convulfions and
palenefs, and find no paftiige, if the man was really
guilty ; but might turn to health and nourilhment, if
he was-innocent; as the water of jealoufy among the
Jews was, by God’s efpecial appointment, to. caufe
the belly to fwell; and the thigh to rot, if the woman
was guilty of adultery. This corfned was then given
to the fufpecled perfon, who at the fame time alio re¬
ceived the holy facrament : if indeed the corfned was
not, as feme have fufpedled, the facramental bread it-
felf; till the fubfequent invention of tranfubftantiation
preferved it from profane nfes with a more profound
refpeft than formerly. Our hiftorians allure us, that
Godwin, earl of Kent, in the reign of king Edward
the Confeffor, abjuring the death of the king’s brother,
at laft appealed to his corfned, “ per buccellant deglu-
tiendam abjuravit,” which ftuck in his throat and killed
him. This cuftom has been long fince gradually abo-
lillied, though the remembrance of it ftill fubfifts in
certain
COR [ 2270 j COR
rfCort. certain phrafes of abjuration retained among the com¬
il mon people ; as, “ I will take the facrament upon it;
Cortex. ]y[ay thjs morfel be my laft and the like.
CORT (Cornelius,) one of the moft celebrated en¬
gravers, and heft deiigners Holland has produced,
went to Rome in about the middle of the ib'l* centu¬
ry, and fettled there. It was he who taught Auguf-
tin Caracci to engrave.
CORTES of Spain, a term purely Spanilh, figni-
fying the courts, i. e. the Rates, or alTembly of the
Rates, at Madrid.
Cortes, or Cortez, (Ferdinand), a Spaniih ge¬
neral, faimous for the conqueR of Mexico, and other
victories over the natives of South America ; but in¬
famous for the cruelties he committed upon the van-
quiflied, without regard to rank, age, or fex. It pro¬
bably was on this account he was but coolly received
at his return to Europe, by his royal maRer Charles le
Quint: it is even aRerted that the emperor alked him
who he was ? to which Cortez replied ; “ I am the
man who have given you more provinces than your
anceflors have left you towns.” Died in I J J4, aged
63. See Mexico.
CORTEX, in botany, the rind, or coarfe outer
bark, of plants. The organization of the outer and
inner barks, which differ principally in the finenefs of
their texture, is particularly explained under the ar¬
ticle Plants.
Wounds of the bark, and its reparations from the
wood, whether naturally or artificially made, are ea-
fily cured, and made to unite again by proper care.
If fedlions be made in the rinds of the afli and fyca-
more of a fquare figure, three fides cut, and the fourth
uncut, and the whole be afterwards bound round with
a pack-thread, it will all unite again, only leaving a
fear in each of the three fides where it was cut. If
feveral parts of the bark of either of thefe trees be
cut off, and entirely feparated from the tree ; fome
fhallower, leaving a part of the bark on ; and others
deeper, to the wood itfelf; thefe pieces being again
put into their places, and bound on with pack-thread,
will not indeed unite, but a frefh bark will grow in
their plates, and thruR them away : but if they be
firR carefully laid on in the exact direction in which
they originally grew, and then the whole part beyond
the wound on every fide covered with a large plafler
of diachylon, or the like, and this bound over with
pack-thread to keep all firmly in their places, the
pieces of bark, whether cut off fhallower, or deep
down to the very wood of the tree, will firmly unite
themfelves to the places where they originally grew.
This cure will be performed in about three weeks:
but the outer rind of the feparated pieces will not be
plump, but fomewhat fhivelled ; the edges alfo will
recede fomewhat from their original place ; fo that
there remains a fort of fear all round. Thefe expe¬
riments are befl made in the fpring feafon ; for, in
the autumn and winter, the fap ariling but weakly,
the parts that fhould unite wither before that is brought
about. The fuccefs of thefe experiments has made
fome think that the whole branch of a tree feparated
and bound on again might unite with the reR. But
the experiments that have been made in the moR fa¬
vourable manner for Rich a trial have all proved vain,
the branch cut off withering always in a few days, Cortex
however well united, and carefully kept on. D .
Cortex Peruvianus. See Cinchona. . Corufcatt
Cortex IVinteranus. See White Cinnamon.
CORTONA, a very ancient town of Italy, men¬
tioned by many of the Roman hiRorians. It was ori¬
ginally called Gorton, and lay to the northward of the
lake Thrafymenus. It Rill retains the name of Cor¬
tona. E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 43. 15.
CORTUSA, bear’s-ear sanicle ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are two fpecies, both of them very
low, flowery, herbaceous perennials, crowned by um¬
bels of monopetalous, wheel-fhaped flowers, of a fine
red colour. They are natives of mountainous rocky
parts abroad, fo muR have a dry lean foil ; or they
may be kept in pots of dry fandy earth placed in the
fliade, and in fummer muR be duly watered ; and
their propagation here is by flipping the roots in Oc¬
tober.
CORUNNA, or Groyne, a port-town of Gallicia
in Spain, fituated on a fine bay of the Atlantic ocean,
about 32 miles north of CompoRella : W. Long. 9. o.
and N. Lat. 43. o.
CORUS, in Jewifli antiquity. See Homer.
Cor us, in our old writers, denotes eight bufhels,
or a quarter.
Gorus is alfo a wind, fo called by the Jews, rifing
in the fummer in the weR ; and is that at prefent call¬
ed the north-eajl wind.
CORUSCATION, a glittering, or gleam of light
iffuing from any thing.. It is chiefly tiled for a flafli
of lightning darting from the clouds in time of thun¬
der.
There is a method of producing artificial corufca-
tions, or fparkling fiery meteors, which will be vifible
not only in the dark, but at noon-day, and that from
two liquors actually cold. The method is this. Fif¬
teen grains of folid phofphorus are to be melted in.
about a drachm of water ; when this is cold, pour upon
it about two ounces of oil of vitriol; let thefe be ‘
fliaken together, and they will at firR heat, and after¬
wards they will throw up fiery balls in great number,
which will adhere like fo many flats to the fides of
the glafs, and continue burning a confiderable time ;
after this, if a finall quantity of oil of turpentine is
poured in, without fliaking the vial, the mixture will
of itfelf take fire, and burn very furioufly. The vef-
fel fliould be large, and open at the top.
Artificial corulcations may alfo be produced by means
of oil of vitriol and iron, in the following rnahner.
Take a glafs body capable of holding three quarts;
put into this three ounces of oil of vitriol, and twelve
ounces of water ; then warming the mixture a little,
throw in, at feveral times, two ounces, or more, of
clean iron filings: upon this an ebullition and white
vapours will arife : then prefent a lighted candle to
the mouth of the veffel, and the vapour will take fire,
and afford a bright fulmination, or flafli like light¬
ning. Applying the candle in this manner feveral
times, the effe<R will always be the fame ; and fome-
times the fire will fill the whole body of the glafs, and
even circulate to the bottom of the liquor ; at others,
it will only reach a little way down its neck. The
great
COR [ 2271 ] COR
great caution to be ufed in making this experiment is
the making the vapour of a proper heat : for, if too
cold, few vapours will arife ; and, if made too hot,
they will arife too frit, and will only take fire in the
neck of the glafs, without any remarkable corufca-
tion.
CORVORANT, formerly written Cormorant.
See Pelicanus.
CORVUS, the raven or crow kind, in ornitho-
logy, a genus of birds of the order of picae, the di-
ftinguifhing chara<5teriftics of which are thefe : The
beak is convex and cultrated': the noltrils are covered
with briftly feathers; the tongue is forked and carti¬
laginous ; and the feet are of the walking kind. The
fpecies are 19. • The moft remarkable are :
x. The corax, or raven of Englilh authors, weighs
three pounds, and is about two feet two inches in
length; the colour is black, finely glofled with a rich
blue ; the belly excepted, which is of a dulky colour.
They build in trees, and lay five or fix eggs of a pale
green colour marked with fmall brownifh fpots. They
are very docile birds, and may be trained up to fowling
like hawks to fetch and carry like fpaniels; they
may be taught to fpeak like parrots; and, what is mofl:
extraordinary of all, they may be taught to imitate the
human voice in finging. They frequent the neighbour¬
hood of great towns, where they are ufeful in devour¬
ing the carcafes and filth which would otherwife prove
a nuifance. In clear weather they fly in pairs to a
great height, making a deep loud noife, different from
the common croaking. Their (cent is remarkably
good ; and they are very long lived. The quills of
ravens fell for 12 s. per hundred, being of great ufe in
tuning the lower notes of an harpfichord when the
wires are fet at a confiderable diftance from the
flicks.
2 The corone, or carrion-crow, in the form of its
body agrees with the raven alfo in its food, which
is carrion and other filth. It will alfo eat grain and
infedls; and like the raven will pick out the eyes :
for which reafon it was formerly diflinguifhed from
the rook, which feeds entirely on grain and infedls,
by the name of the gor, or ger-croiv. Virgil fays
that its croaking foreboded rain :
Turn cornix plena pluviam vocat improba voce-
It was alfo thought a bird of bad omen, efpecially if
it happened to be feen on the left hand :
Saepe finiftra cava prsedixit ab illice cornix.
England breeds more of this kind of birds than any
other country in Europe. In the 24th of Henry VIII.
thi > were grown fo numerous, and thought to he fo
prejudicial to the farmer, that they were confidered
as an evil worthy of parliamentary redrefs ; an a<fl
was palRd for their deitruftion, in which rooks and
choughs were included. Every hamlet was to provide
crow-nets for t^n years ; and all the inhabitants were
obliged at certain times to aflemble during that fpace
to confult of the proper means for extirpating them.
But though the crow abounds thus in Britain, it is fo
rare in Sweden, that Linnaeus fpeaks of it only as a
bird that he once knew killed there. It lays the fame
number of eggs as the raven, and of the fame colour :
immediately after deferring their young, they go in
pairs. Both thefe birds are often found white or pied 5 Corvus.
an accident that bcfals black birds more frequently -
than any others. Mr Pennant fays, he has obferved
one entirely of a pale brown colour, not only in its plu¬
mage, but even in its bill and feet. The crow weighs
about 20 ounces. Its length is xS inches ; its breadth
two feet two inches.
Concerning thefe birds, we have the following
curious anecdote in Mr Edward’s natural hiftory *. * V°I- v*
“ The re verend Mr Robtnfon reflor of Ouflby in Pref' *xv‘
Weflmoreland and Cumberland, fays, ‘ that birds
are natural planters of all forts of wood and trees.
They difleminate the kernels upon the earth, which
like nurferies brings them forth till they grow up to
their natural flrength and perfection.’ He fays,
‘ About 2 5 years ago, coming from Rofecaftle early
in the morning, I obferved a great number of crows
very bnfy at their work upon a declining ground of a.
mofly fiirface : I went out of my way on purpofe to
view their labour, and I found they were planting a
grove of oaks. The manner of their planting was
thus : they firft made little holes in the earth with
their bills, going about and about till the hole was deep
enough ; and then they dropped in the acorn, and co¬
vered it with earth and mofs. The feafon was at the
latter end of autumn when all feeds are full ripe.’
“ Mr Robinfon feems to think that Providence had
given the crows this inftinCt folely for the propagation
of trees ; but I imagine it was given them principally
for their own prefervation, by hiding provifion in
time of plenty, in order to fupply them in a time of
fcarcity : for it is obferved in tame pies and daws kept
about houfes, that they will hide their meat when they
have plenty of it, and fetch it from their hiding-places
when they want it. So that fuch an inflinCl in thefe
birds may anfwer a double purpofe; both their own
fupport in times of need, and the propagation of the
trees they plant : for wherever they hide a great
number of nuts or grain in the earth, we cannot fup-
pofe they find them all again ; but that as many will
remain in the plot of ground they make ufe of, as can
well grow by one another.”’
3. The frugilegus, or rook, is the corvus of Virgil;
no other fpecies of this kind being gregarious.
E pajiu dccedens agm 'tne viagno
Corvorum increpuit denfes exercitus alls.
A very natural defeription of the evening return of -
thefe birds to their nefls.
The rook differs not greatly in its form from thecar-
rion crow : the moft remarkable difference is in the bill;
the noftrils, chin, and fides of that and the mouth be¬
ing in old birds quite white and bared of feathers by
often thruffing the bill into the ground in fearch of the
erucx of the dor-beetle f. The rook then, inftead of f The Sea-
being prolcribed, fhould be treated as the farmer’s rab.ius Me-
friend; as it clears his ground from caterpillars, which
do incredible damage by eating the roots of the corn.
Rooks are focial birds, living in vaft flocks : but crows
go only in pairs. They begin to build their nefts in
March ; one bringing materials, while the other
watches the -neft, left it ftiould be plundered by its bre*
thren : they lay the fame number of eggs as the crow,,
and of the fame colour, but lefs. After the breeding
feafon, the rooks forlake their neft-trees, and for
fame :
C O ft [ 2272 ] C O ft ^
Corvus. fome time go and rooft elfewbere, but return to them
 in Auguft: in October they repair their neits.
4. The cornix, or roylton crow, pretty much re-
fembles the rook, feeding on ini'etfls, and flying to¬
gether in great flocks. In England it is a bird ot paf-
fage, vifuing that kingdom in the beginning of win¬
ter, and leaving it with the woodcocks. In the ma¬
ritime parts they feed on crabs and fliell-fifh. They
are very common in Scotland : in many parts of the
Highlands, and in all the Hebrides, Orknies, and
Shetland, it is the only fpecies of genuine crow ; the
carrion, and rook, being unknown there. It breeds
and continues in thole parts the whole year round.
In the Highlands, they breed indifferently in all kinds
of trees : lay fix eggs : have a Ihriller note than the
common crows ; are much more mifchievous; pick out
the eyes of lambs, and even of horfes when engaged
in bogs. They are, therefore, in many places pro¬
scribed, and rewards given for killing them. For
want of other food thefe birds will eat cran-berries,
or other mountain berries.
5. The monedula, or jack-daw, weighs nine oun¬
ces ; the length thirteen inches, the breadth twenty-
eight. The head is large in proportion to its body ;
which, Mr Willughby fays, argues him to be ingeni¬
ous and crafty. The irides are white : the breaft
and belly are of a duiky hue inclining to afli-colour :
the reft of the plumage is black, flightly glofled with
blue : the claws very ftrong and hooked. It is a do¬
cile and loquacious bird. Jack-daws breed in fteeples,
old caftles, and in high rocks, laying five or fix eggs.
Sometimes they have been known to breed in hollow-
trees near a rookery, and join thofe birds in their fo¬
raging parties. In fome parts of Hampfhire, they
make their nefts in rabbit holes: they alfo build in the
interftices between the upright and tranfum ftones of
... Stotthenge; a proof of the prodigious height of that
ftupendous antiquity, for their nefts are placed beyond
the reach of the fhepherd boys, who are always idling
about this fpot. They are gregarious birds; and feed
on infects, grain, and feeds.
6. The glandularius, or jay, is one of the moft beau¬
tiful Brrtifh birds. The weight is between fix and
feven ounces: the length 13 inches, the breadth 20i.
The forehead is white ftreaked with black: the head is
covered with very long feathers, which it can ereeft at
pleafure into the form of a creft : the whole neck,
back, breaft, and belly, are of a faint purple dafhed
with grey ; the covert-feathers of the wings are of
the fame colour. The firft quill-feather is black ; the
exterior webs of the nine next are afh-coloured ; the
interior webs dufky ; the fix next are black, but the
lower fides of their exterior webs are white tinged
with blue; the two next wholly black ; the laft of a
fine bay colour tipt with black. The leflTer coverts
are of a light bay : the greater covert feathers moft
beautifully barred with a lively blue, black, and white:
the reft are black: the rump is white. The tail con-
fifts of twelve black feathers. The feet are of a pale
brown ; the claws large and hooked. It lays five or
fix eggs of a dull whitifh olive, mottled very obfeure-
ly with pale brown. The neft is made entirely of the
fine fibres of roots of trees; but has for the foundation
a few coarfe fticks. It is generally placed on the top
of the underwood, fuch as hazels, thorns, or low Corrm
birch. The young follow their parents till the fpring  
in the fummer they are very injurious to gardens, be¬
ing great devourers of peafe and cherries. In the
autumn and winter they feed on acorns, from whence
the Latin name. Dr Kramer obferves, that they will
kill fmall birds. Jays are very docile, and may be
taught to imitate the human voice : their native note
is very loud and difagreeable. When they are en¬
ticing their fledged young to follow them, they emit
a noife like the mewing of a cat.
7. The caryocata<5tes, or nutcracker, is by far the
moft beautiful of the European birds. It is very com¬
mon in Germany, Denmark, ire. and feeds on nuts.
It is fomewhat lefs than the jack-daw : the bill is
Itrong, ftrait, and black : the colour of the whole head
and neck, breaft and body, of a rufty brown: the
crown of the head and rump are plain : the other parts |
marked with triangular white fpots : the wings black:
the coverts fpotted in the fame manner as the body :
the tail rounded at the end, black tipt with white :
the vent-feathers white : the legs duiky.
8. The pica, or magpie, is fo well known that it
would be fuperfluous to deferibe it minutely. It bears
a great refemblance to the butcher-bird in its bill,
which has a lharp procefs near the end of the upper
mandible. It relembles the fame alfo in the Ihortnefs
of its wings, a«d the form of its tail; each feather
fhortening from the two middlemoft. It agrees alfo
in its food, which confifts of worms, infers, and finall
birds. It will deftroy young chickens; and is a craf¬
ty, reftlefs, and noify bird. It is eafily tamed ; and
may be taught to imitate the human voice. It builds
its neft with great art, covering it entirely with thorns,
except one linall hole for admittance. It lays fix or
feven eggs of a pale green colour fpotted with green.
It weighs near nine ounces : the length is r8 inches ;
the breadth 24.
9. The graculus, or red-legged crow, is but thinly
fcattered over the northern world: no mention is made
of it by any of the Faunifts; nor do we find it in other
parts of Europe, except England and the Alps. It is pro¬
duced in the illand of Candia in Afia; and it vilits Egypt
towards the end of the inundations of the Nile. Ex¬
cept in Egypt, it afte<fts mountainous and rocky places;
builds its neft in high cliffs, or ruined towers; and
lays four or five eggs, white, fpotted with a dirty yel¬
low. It feeds on irifedls, and alfo on new-fown corn.
They commonly fly high, make a fhriller noife than
the jack-daw, and may be taught to fpeak. It is a
very tender bird, and unable to bear very fevere wea¬
ther; is of an elegant, fiender-make; adtive, reftlefs
and thieving ; much taken with glitter, and fo med¬
dling as not to be trufted where things of confequence
lie. It is very apt to catch up bits of lighted fticks ;
fo that" there are inftances of’ hdufes being fet on fire
by its means ; on which account Camden calls it hi- •
cendiaria avis. It is found in Cornwal, Flintfliire,
Caernarvonlhire and Ariglefea, in the rocky cliffs along
the fhores. It is alfo found in Scotland as far as Strath-
navern; and in fome of the Hebrides. Its colour is
wholly black, beautifully glofled over with blue, and
purple : the legs and bill are of a bright orange colour
inclining to red : the tongue is almoftas long as the bill,
and
COR [ 2273 ] COR
wiCorvus an(* a little cloven : the claws large, hooked and black.
Knh II Corvus, Raven, in aitronomy. See Astro-
iT^bant:' NO MY, n°.2c6.
*:a' Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine,
or rather gallery, moveable at pleafure by means of
pullies; chiefly uied in boarding the enemy’s Ihips to
cover the men. The conftrudtion of the corvus was
as follows. They eredted on the prow of their vef-
fels a round piece of timber of about a foot and an
half diameter, and about 12 feet long ; on the top of
Which they had a block or pulley. Round this piece
of timber they laid a Rage or platform of boards, four
feet broad, and about 18 feet long, which was well
framed, and faftened with iron. The entrance was
long-ways, and it moved about on the above-men¬
tioned upright piece of timber as on a l,pindle, and
could be hoiited up within fix feet of the top : about
this was a fort of parapet knee-high, which was de*
fended with upright bars of iron fliarpened at the end,
and towards the top there was a ring, by the help of
which and a pulley or tackle, they railed or lowered
the engine at pleafure. With this moveable gallery
they boarded the enemy’s vellels, (when they did not
oppofe fide tolide), fometimes on their bow, and fotfle-
| times on their Item, as occafion belt ferved. When they
had grappled the enemy with thefe iron fpikes, if they
happened to fwing broadfide to broadfide, then they
entered from all parts; but in cafe they attacked them
on the bow, they entered two and two by the help
of this machine, the foremoft defending the foreparts,
and thofe that followed the flanks, keepiqg the bofs
of their bucklers level with the top of the parapet.
CORY ATE (Thomas), a very extraordinary per-
•fonage, who feems to have made himfelf famous by
his whimfical extravagancies, was the fon of a clergy¬
man, and born at Oldcombe in Somerfetlhire in 1577.
He acquired Greek and Latin at Oxford ; and coming
to London, was received into the houfehold of Hen¬
ry prince of Wales. If Coryate was not over witty
himfelf, he got acquainted with the wits of that time,
and ferved to exercife their abilities, ha ving more learn¬
ing than judgment. He was a great peripatetic : for, in
1608, he took a long journey on foot; and after he re¬
turned, publilhed his travels under the following
ftrange title, Crudities haftily gobbled up in five months
Travels in France, Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia,
feme parts of High Germany, and the Netherlands,
Lon'd 1611, 4t0. In 1612 he fet out again, with a
refolution to fpend ten years in travelling : he went
lirft to Conftantindple; and after travelling over .a
great part of the Eafi, died of a flux at Surat in the
Eaft-Indtes. Some of the accounts of his peregrinations
are to be found in the accounts of Purchas’s Pilgrimages.
CORYBANTES, in antiquity, priefts pf the goddefs
Cybele, who, infpired with a facred fury, danced up
and down, toffing their heads, and beating on cym¬
bals or brazen drums. They inhabited mount Ida,
in the ifland of Crete, where they nouriilied the infant
Jupiter, keeping a continual rattling with their cym¬
bals, that his father Saturn, who had refolved to de¬
vour all :his male offspring, might not hear the child’s
cries.
CORYBANTICA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival
kept in honour of the Corybantes.
Vol. III.
CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a Cwyroma-
fort of exercife in which they puihed forwards a ball, chia
fufpended from the ceiling, and at its return either II
caught it with their hands, or buffered it to meet their ’ColyPha>
body. Oribalius informs us it was recommended for  
extenuating too grofs bodies.
CGRYDALES, in botany, an order of plants in
the fragment a methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, contain¬
ing the follow inggenera, niz. epimedium, hypecoum,
leontice, melianthus, pinguicula, and utricularia.
CORYDALIS, in botany. See Fvmaria.
CORYLUS, the Hazie ; a genus of the polyaq-
dria order, belonging to tlie moncecia clafs of plants.
Mr Miller reckons three fpecies, though other bota-
nilte make only two. They are all of the latge .fbrub
kind,,hardy and deciduous; and have feveral varieties,
valuable for their nuts, as alfo for their variety in
large wilderneffes and ihrubbery works. They will
profper in almoft any toil or lituation, and turn out to
good account when growing in coppices to cut as
underwood, and as poles for various ufes, as lioops,
fpars, hurdles, handles to.hulbandry implements, walk¬
ing-flicks, fifhing-rods, ire. for which .purpoles they
may be cut every 5t|*, 7th, or 8th year, according to
tlte purpoles for which they are detigned. The beft
method of propagating them is by layers, tbongh they
may alfo be railed from the nuts.
-CORYMBIFE1L/E, in botany, the name of an or*
der or divifion of the compound flowers adopted >by
LinnasUs after Ray and Vaillarit, in the former editions
of his Fragments of a Natural Method. This'title in
the latter editions is changed for Difeoidea, another
name borrowed from Ray’s Method, but ufed in a
fomew'hat different fenfe.
CORY MB US, properly fignifies a duller of ivy
berries. Among botanills, it is a mode of flowering
in which the lelfer or partial fiowcr-ltalks are produ¬
ced along the common /talk on both fides; and, though
of unequal lengths, rife to the fame height, fo as to
form a flat and even furface at.the top. See Bota¬
ny, p. 1294. n0 32.
CORYPHiENA, in ichthyology, a genus belonging
to the order of thoracici. The head is declined and
truncated ; the branchioftege membrane has fix rays;
and the back-fin runs the whole length of the back.
There are twelve f’pecies, nloft bf them natives of
foreign Teas. The mjoft remarkable are the blue
and parrot iilhes, deferibed by Mr Catefby. The
head of the firlt is of an odd ftru&ure, refembling that
of the fpermaceti whale: the mouth is fmall, each
mandible armed with a Tingle row' of even teeth, fo
dofely joined that they feem entire bones; the iris
of the eye is red. On the back is a long pliant fin,
fomewhat indented on the edge ; behind the gills are
two fins, one under the abdomen, and another'behind
the anus. The tail is forked ; and the whole filh en -
tirely blue. They are taken on the coafis of the Ba¬
hama Iflands, and in moil of the feas between the
tropics.
The parot-fifti hatha large mouth, paved as it were
with blunt teeth, clolely connefted, after the manner
of the lupus marines. The body is covered with large
green icales ; the eyes are red and yellow ; the up¬
per part of the head brown, the lower part and the
*3 1 gills
COS [ 2274 ] cos
Coryphaeus gills blue, bordered with a dulky red : a ftreak of red
_ H. extends from the throat behind the gills, at the upper
0 mlca ' end of which is a bright yellow fpot. The fins are
five in number, one extending almoit the length of
the back, of a bay or cinnamon colour ; there are two
behind the gills, blended with black, green, and pur-
plifli colours, with the upper edge verged with blue :
under the abdomen is another red fin verged with
blue : under the anus extends another long narrow
green fin, with a hit of red through the middle of it:
at the bafis of the tail on each fide is a large yellow
(pot. The tail is large, forked, and green, with a
curved red line running through the middle parallel to
the curve, and ending in two points. This fifh is
more efteemed for beauty than the delicacy of its tafte.
They are taken on the coafts of Hifpaniola, Cuba, and
the Bahama Iflands.
CORYPHAEUS, in the ancient tragedy, was the
chief or leader of the company that compofed the cho¬
rus. See Chorus. The word is formed from the
Greek Kogvcpn, “ tip of the head.” The coryphaeus
fpoke for all the reft, whenever the chorus took part
in the adfion, in quality of a perfon of the drama, du¬
ring the courfe of the a<5ts. Hence coryphaeus had
palfed into a general name for the chief or principal
of any company, corporation, fedt, opinion, &c.
Thus, Euftacius of Antioch is called the coryphxus of
the council of Nice ; and Cicero calls Zeno the cory-
phtcus of the lloics.
CORYZA, in medicine, a catarrh of the nofe. See
(the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
CORZOLA, or Curscola, an ifland in the gulf of
Venice, divided from Ragufa in Dalmatia by a nar¬
row ffrait. E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 42. 35.
COS, the whetstone, in natural hiftory, a ge¬
nus of vitrefeent (tones, confifting of fragments of an
indeterminate figure, fub-opaque, and granulated.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, fome con¬
fiding of rougher, and others of fmoother, or even of
altogether impalpable particles ; and ufed not only for
whet-dones, but alfo for mill-dones, and other the like
purpofes.
CO-SECANT, in geometry, the fecant of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°. See
Geometry.
COSENING. See Cozening.
COSENZA, the capital of the Hither Calabria, in
the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 16. 35. N. Lat.
39. 15. It is an archbifhop’s fee.
COSHERING, in the feudal cudoms, a kind of
right of the lords to lie and fead themfelves and their
followers at their tenants houfes. The word cojhcr-
ing may perhaps be derived from the old Englilh word
cojhe, a cot or cottage.
CO-SINE, in trigonometry, the fine of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°. See
Geometry.
COSMETIC, in phyfic, any medicine or prepara¬
tion which renders the (kin foft and white, or helps to
beautify and improve the complexion ; as fip-laJves,
cold creams, cerufs, ire.
COSMICAL, a term in adronomy, expreffing one
of the poetical rifings of a dar: thus a dar is (aid to
life cofmically when it rifes with the fun, or with that
point of the ecliptic in which the fun is at that time : Cofi
and the cofmical fetting is when a dar fets in the wed
at the fame time that the fun rifes in the ead. Co
COSMOGONY, or Cosmology, a knowledge of
the original formation of the different parts of this vi-
fible fydem. See Earth, and Creation.
COSMOGRAPHY, a defeription of the feveral parts
of the vifible world. It is divided into two parts, A-
stronomy and Geography. See thefe two articles.
COSMOPOLITE, or Cosmopolitan, a term fome*
times ufed to fignify a perfon who has no fixed living
or place of abode, or a man who is a dranger no¬
where. The word comes from the Greek xoap®*,
“ world,” and iroM*, “ city.” One of the ancient
philofophers being interrogated what countryman he
was ? anfwered, he was a cofmopo/ite, i. e. an inha¬
bitant or citizen of the world.
COSSACKS, a name given to the people inhabiting
the banks of the rivers Nieper and Don, near the
Black Sea and borders of Turky. There are feveral
kinds of Codacks : the mod known are thofe of the
Don, the Zaporavian, and the Ukraine Coflacks.
They inhabit the Ukraine, which is alfo called Ma/a
~ Rujfta, or Little Ruffia, and is unquedionably one of
the fined countries in Europe. They were once a
free people, and of the fame defeent with the Polan-
ders. When united, they could bring an army of
150,000 men into the field. They were long under
the protection of the republic of Poland, and were of
great fervice in the wars againd the Turks. At lad,
however, the Polanders attempted to treat them like
(laves ; upon which they revolted, and chofe for their
leader one Hettman Chelmninjk'iy who put himfelf un¬
der the proteHion of the Turks. Some years after
the death of Chelmninfki, his fucceflbr Dorofchonko
fubinitted himfelf and his country to the Ruffians.
This brought on a war which terminated in the de-
druHion of the town of Czigrin, at that time the ca¬
pital of the Ukraine. This happened in 1674. For
(bme years after this they prefc-rved all' their privi¬
leges, and Were governed by a prince of their own
chufing. But having taken part with Charles XII. of
Sweden againd the Ruffians, they were reduced-by
Peter the Great, (b as to be incapable of ever (baking
off the yoke. They were, however, redored to their
former date by the emprefs Elizabeth, in which they
dill continue.
The cudoms of this people are fingular : no Zapo¬
ravian Coffack is allowed to marry within the pre¬
cincts of their territory. If he is married, his wife
mud live in fome neighbouring country, where he
reforts to her from time to time ; and even this in-
tercourfe mud be without the knowledge of the el¬
ders. They do not even differ women to remain at
the houfe of any dranger that happens to come among
them. They are great thieves and robbers; but, if
any one (hould deal from his neighbour, he is tied to
a pod in fome public place : A bottle of brandy, a
loaf of bread, and a number of drong dicks, are fet
by his fide ; when every one that pades has a right
to give him as many blows as he pleafes ; after which
he may refrefli the fufferer with a little brandy and a
morfel of bread. The criminal remains thus tied for
twenty-four hours together, and often five times as
long;.
COS [ 2275 ] COT
long; after which, if he has the good luck to furvive
the blows, he is again received into the ibciety. The
whole republic is made up entirely of thieves and va¬
gabonds, who fubfilt on nothing but rapine and plun¬
der both in peace and war. The court of Rulfia can¬
not hinder their continual excurlions; nay, is even
obliged to keep meafures with them, for fear of their
changing fides.
The Don Collacks were originally Ruffian peafants,
to whom the yoke of their mailers having proved in¬
tolerable, they by degrees took refuge in this country,
where they eftablilhed themfelves into a common¬
wealth. In procefs of time they voluntarily put them¬
felves under the protection of the Ruffian empire, by
which they are very mildly treated. They are ex¬
cellent foldiers, and can bring 15,000 men into the
field. Their general, or chief of their republic, is
ftyled voijkowoy attavian : he is chofen by themfelves
from among the principal officers of the nation ; but
lie mull be confirmed by the court.
COSSET, among farmers, a colt, calf, or lamb,
brought up by hand without the dam.
COSTA (Chriltopher a), a celebrated botanift of
the 16th century, was born in Africa, of a Portuguefe
father, and went into Afia to perfedt himfelf in the
knowledge of limples, where he was taken prifoner,
but found means to make his efcape, and after feveral
voyages pradlifed phyfic at Bourgos. He wrote,
I. A treatife on Indian drugs and medicines. 2. His
voyages to the Indies. 3. A book in praife of wo¬
men ; and other works.
COSTAL, an appellation given by anatomills to fe¬
veral parts belonging to the lides : thus we meet with
coital mufcles, vertebra:, ire.
COSTANZO (Angelo di), an Italian hillorian and
poet, lord of Catalupo, was born in 1507, of a noble
and ancient family of Naples, and died about IJ91.
He wrote, 1. A hillory of Naples, from 1250 to 1489;
the heft edition of which is that of Aquila, in 1582, in
folio, very fcarce. 2. Italian poems, which are e-
Ileemed, and have had feveral editions.
COSTA-ricca, a province of North America in
New Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala, bound¬
ed on the north-eaft by the northern ocean, on the
fouth-well by the fouth lea, on the north-well by Ni¬
caragua, and on the fouth-eaft by Veragua. The foil
is not very fertile, though there is plenty of cattle.
Carthage is the capital town.
COSTIVENESS, a preternatural detention of the
feces, with an unufual drynefs and hardnefs thereof,
and thence a fuppreffion of their evacuation. See
(the Index fqbjoined to) Medictne.
COSTMARY, the Englilh name of a fpecies of
tanfy. See Tanacetum.
COSTS, in law, imply the expences of a fuit reco¬
vered by the plaintiff, together with damages. Colts
were not allowed by the common law, the amerce¬
ment of the vanquilhed party being his only punifh-
ment j but they are given by ftatute *. Colls are al¬
lowed in chancery for failing to make anfwer to a bill
exhibited ; or making an inlulficient anfwer : and if
, a firlt anfwer be certified by a mailer to be infuffici-
ent, the defendant is to pay 40 s. ; 3 1. for a fecond
infufficient anfwer ; 4 1. for a third, ire. But if the
anfwer be reported good, the plaintiff lhall pay the
defendant 40 s. colts.
COS FUME, a rule or precept in painting, by which
the artill is enjoined to make every perfon and thing *”
fultain its proper character, and not only obferve the
llory, but the circumllances, the feene of action, the
country or place, and take care that the habits, arms,
manners, proportions, and the like, exaclly corre-
fpond.
COSTUS, a genus of the monogynia order, belong¬
ing to the monandria clafs of plants. There is but
one fpecies, viz. the arabicus, a native of the Indies.
The root was formerly in fome elteem as an attenu-
ant, and ferviceable in venereal complaints ; but is
now rarely preferibed or met with in the fliops.
COTA (Rodriguez), a Spanilh poet in the 16th cen¬
tury, was the author of the Tragi-comedia de CaliJIo
y Melibea, which has been tranllated into Latin by
Gafpar Barthius, and into French by James de La-
vardin. Tiie Spaniards let a great value on this per¬
formance.
CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch which is
the complement of another to 90°. See Geometry.
COTBUS, a town of Germany in Lower Luface :
it is a ftrong important place, and has been fubjedl to
the king of Pruffia ever fince the year 1645. It is
feated on the river Spree, 60 miles fouth by call of
Berlin, and 55 fouth-eall of Wirtemberg. Here are
a great number of French Protellants, who have in¬
troduced manufadtures ; and this place is noted for
excellent beer, pitch, and the cultivation of flax.
E. Long. 15. 29. N. Lat. 51. 40.
COTELERIUS (John-Baptift), fellow of the Sor-
bonne, and king’s Greek profeffor, was born at Nif-
mes in Languedoc in 1627. He made a coiledlion of
the fathers who lived in the apollolic age, which he
publilhed at Paris in two volumes folio in 1672 ; all
reviewed and corredled from feveral MSS. with a
Latin tranflation and notes. He allb publilhed Mo~
numenta Ec cleft a Graca-, in 3 vols. being a coiledlion
of Greek tra&s out of the king’s and M. Colbert’s li¬
braries, and which had never been publilhed before :
to thefe he added a Latin tranflation and notes. He
intended a farther profecution of this work ; but his
intenfe lludies broke his conllitution, and deprived
him of life in 1686. Befides his great Ikill in lan¬
guages and ecclefiallical antiquities, Cotelerius was re¬
markable for his probity and candour.
COTES (Roger), an excellent mathematician of
the 18‘h century. He early difeovered an inclination
to the mathematics ; and, at 17 years of age, was
admitted a penfioner of Trinity College, Cambridge.
In 1706 he was appointed profeffor of altronomy in
the profefforlhip founded by Dr Plume archdeacon of
Rochelter, being choferi the firlt in that chair for his
great merit and learning. In the year 1713, at the
requell of Dr Richard Bentley, he publiihed at Cam¬
bridge, in quarto, a fecond. edition of Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s “ Principia,” with all the improvements which
the author had annexed thereto ; to which he prefix¬
ed an excellent Preface. He prepared feveral ufeful
books for the public; and wvaxe 4 Defcriptioti of the
great Meteor which appeared on the 6th of March
1716, publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions. He
13 I 2 lived
Colhsme
#
Cotes.
CO T t 22
Coeeflvold lived but a little while to carry on the difcourfes for
II which he was eminently qualified ; dying in the prime
Cotton‘ of his age in 1716, to the great regret of all the lo¬
vers of the fciences.
COTESWOLD, feveral fheep-cotes> and fheep
feeding on hills. It comes from the Saxon cots, i. e.
cafa, “ a cottage/' and wo/d, “ a place where there
is no wood.”
COTHURNIX, in ornithology, a fpecies of Te-
trao.
COTHURNUS, Buskin, a very high Ihoe, or
patten railed on iba-ls of cork, wore by the ancient ac¬
tors in tragedy to make them appear taller and more
like the heroes they reprefen ted; moft of whom
were fuppofed to be giants. It covered the greatefl
part of the leg, and was tied beneath the knee. i^Ef-
chylusis faid to have invented the cothurnus. See
Buskin.
COTT, a particular fort of bed-frame, fefpended
from the beams of a Ihip, for the officers to fleep in
between the decks. This contrivance is much rhore
convenient at fea than either the hammocks or fixed
cabins ; being a large piece of canvas fewed into the
form of a chert, about fix feet long-, one foot deep,
and from two to three feet wide : it is extended by a
fquare wooden frame with a canvafs bottom, equal to
its length and breadth, to retain it in an horizontal
pofition.
COTTON;, in commerce; a fofr downy fubftance
found on the goflypium, or cotton-tree. See Gossv-
PIUM.
Cotton is feparated from the feeds of the plant’by
a mill, and then fpun and prepared for all forts of fine
works, as ftockings/waifteoats, quilts, tapertry, cur¬
tains, is’c. With it they likewife make muffin ; and
fometimes it is mixed with wool, fometimes with filk,;
and even with gold itfelf.
The fineft fort comes from Bengal and the coaft of
Coromandel.
Cotton makes a very confiderable article’ in com¬
merce, and is' diftinguilhed into cotton-wool and cot¬
ton-thread. The firrt is brought mortly from Cyprus,
St John d'Acre; and Smyrna : the rhoft erteemed is
white, long; and foft. Thole who buy it in bales
ihould fee that it has not been wet, moifture being
very prejudicial to it. The price of the finelf is
ufually from fix to feven piafters the quintal of 44
ocos.
Of cotton-thread, that of Da-mas, called cotton
d-ounce, and that of Jerufalem, called bazas, are the
mod efteemed ; as aWb that of the Ahtillfesf i(lands.
It is to be chofen white; fine, very dry, and evenly
fpun. The other cotton-threads are the half bazas;
the rames, the beledin, and gondezel; the payns and
montafiri, the geneguins, the bnquins, the jortelaflars,
of which there are two forts. Thofe of India, known
by the name of Tutucorin, Java, Bengal, and Surat,
are of four or five forts, dirtinguilhed by the letters
A, B, C, tfi-’. They are fold in bags, with a deduc¬
tion of one pound’and a half on each of thole of Tu¬
tucorin, which are the dearert, and two pounds on
each bag of the other forts. For thofe of Fielebas,
Smyrna. Aleppo, and Jerufalem, the deduction at Am-
rterdam is eight in the hundred for the tare, and two
76 J GOT
in the hundred for weight, and on the value one per Cotton.
cent, for prompt payment.   
Cotton of Siam, is a kind of filky cotton in the An- . ^
tilles,. fo called becaul’e the grain was brought from
Siam. It is of an extraordinary finenefs, even furpaf-
fing lilk in foftnefs. They make hole of it there pre¬
ferable to filk ones, for their luftre and beauty. They
fell from 10 to 12 and 15 crowns a pair, but there
are very few made unlefs for curiofuy.
The manner of Packing CoTTOti as praBifid in the
■Antilles. The bags are made of coarfe doth, of which
they take three ells and a half each ; the breadth is
one ell three inches. Wrhen the bag has been well
Ibaked in water, they hang it up, extending the mouth
of it to crofs pieces of timber nailed to ports fixed in
the ground leven or eight feet high. He who packs
it goes into the bag, which is fix feet nine inches deep,
or thereabouts, and prertes down the cotton, which an¬
other hands him, with hands and feet; obferving to
tread it equally every where, and putting in but little
at a time. The belt time'of packing is in rainy moift
weather, provided the cotton be under cover. The
bag Ihould contain from 300 to 320 pounds. The tare
abated in the Antilles is three in the hundred. Cotton
being a production applicable-to a great variety of ma¬
nufactures, it cannot be too much cultivated in our
own plantations that will admit of it.
Cotton-woolj not of the Britift plantations, pays,
on importation, T7/5 d. the pound, and draws back on
exportation L d. Cotton-yarn the pound, not of the
100
Eaft. Indies, pays d. and draws back d.
100 100
Cotton-yarn the potmd of the Eart.Indies pays 4-j.5/- d.
and draws back 4r\’a d.
Lavender Ce-T-TON-. See Santduin.v.
Pffi/bfbphib CoTton, a name given to the flowers
of zinc,'on account of their white colour, and refem-
bfence to cotton’.
Flax made to refemblc Cotton. See Flax.
jS/VTCoIton. See Bombax.
CoTTOK-IVccd. See Gnaphalium.
Cotton (Sir Robert), a mort eminent Ehgliffi, an¬
tiquarian, dellended'from an ancient family, was born
in 1570. In his i’8nh year he began to collect ancient
records, charters, and other MSS. Camden, Selden,
and Speed, acknowledged their obligations to hirrt
in their refpeCtiye works. He was highly diftinguilh¬
ed by queen Elizabeth, and by Jambs I. who created
him a baroner. He wrote, many things, hitnfelf; but
our principal obligations to him are for his valuable li¬
brary of MSS. which was fecured to the public by
two a efts of parliament, and now makes part of the
Britilh mufeum.
Cotton- (Charles), a burlefquepoet, was defeended
of a good family, and lived in the reigns of Charles II.
and James II. His moft celebrated piece is Scarroni-
dss, or Traveftie of the fli rt: and fourth books, of the.
AEneid. But though, from the title, one would be
apt to imagine it an imitation of Scarron.’s famous
Traveftie of the fame author, yet, upon examination,
it would be found greatly to excel not only that, but
every other attempt of the fame kind that hath been
hitherto-
COT [ 2277 } COT
hitherto made in any language. He has alfo tranflated
feveral of Lucian’s dialogues, in the lame manner, un¬
der the title of tbs. Scoffer Scoff'd;—and written an¬
other poem of a more ferious kind, entitled the Won-
den of the Peak. The exact period of either Mr
Cotton’s birth or his death, is no-where recorded ;
but it is probable the latter happened about the time
of the revolution. Neither is it better known what
his circumftances were with refpect to fortune ; they
appear> however, to haye been eafy, if one may judge
fr,om the turn of his writings, which is Inch as fee ms
fcarcely poflible for any one to indulge whole mind
was not perfectly at. <jafe. Yet there is one anecdote
told of him, which feems to Ihew that his vein of hu¬
mour could not reftrain itfelf on any confideration,
viz. that in confequence of a fingle couplet in. his. f7r-
£■.// ¥ravefUe,i wherein be has made mention of a pe¬
culiar kind of ruff worn by a grandmother of his who
lived in the Peak, he loll an ellate of L. 400 per an-
iturn ; the old lady, whofe humour and telly dilpoli-
tion he could by no means Have been a llranger to,
being never able to forgive the liberty he had taken
with her ; and having her fortune wholly at her dif-
pofal, although Che had before made him her foie heir,
altered her will, and gave it away to an abfolute
flranger. .
COTTU-S,. or Buxt-head, in ichthyology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of thoracici. The head is
broader than the body, and the gill-membrane has fix
rays. There are fix fpecies; the moil remarkable
are,
r. The gobio, or river bull-head, is very common
in all our clear brooks ; it lies almolt always at the
bottom, either on the gravel, or under a Hone : it de-
pofits its fpawn in a hole, which it forms among the
gravel, and quits it with great reluctance. It feeds on
water infeits. This filh feldom exceeds the length of
three inches and an half: the head is large, broad,
flat, and thin at its circumference, being well adapted
for infinuating itfelf under ftones: on the middle part
of the covers of the gills is a fmall crooked fpine turn¬
ing inwards. The eyes are very fmall: the irides
yellow : the body grows {lender towards the tail, and
is very fmooth. The colour, of this fifli is as difagree-
afile as its form, being dulky, mixed with a dirty yel¬
low ; the belly b whitifti. The tafte, however, is ex¬
cellent.
2. The cataphra&us, armed bull-head, or pogge, is
very common on moft of the Britifh coafb. It feldom
exceeds five inches, and an half in length; and even
feldom arrives at that fize. The head is large, bony,
and very rugged : the end of the nofe is armed with
four fliort upright fpines: on the throat are a number
of fttort white beards : the body is odfogonal,. and co¬
vered with a number of flxong bony crufts, divided
into feveral compartments, the ends of which projedt
into a {harp point, and form feveral echinated lines
along the back’and fides from the bead to the tail.
3. The fcorpius, or father-lalher, is not uncommon
on the rocky, coafts.of this ifland ; it lurks under {tones,
and will take a bait. It feldom exceeds 8 or 9 inches
in length. The bead is large, and has a moft formi¬
dable appearance, being armed with vaft fpines, which
it can oppofe to any enemy that attacks it, by Iweiling
out its cheeks and gill-covers to a large fize. The nofe Coftili)
and {"pace contiguous to the eyes are furniflied with II
fhort {harp fpines : the covers of the gills are termi-
nated by exceeding long ones, which are both ftrong ones‘--
and very {harp pointed. The mouth is large ; the jaws
covered with very fmall teeth : the roof of the mouth
is furnilhed with a triangular fpot of very minute teeth.
The back is more elevated than that of the others of
this genus: the belly is prominent: the fide line rough,
the reft of the body very fmopth, and grows {lender
towards the tail. The colour of the body is brown, or
dulky and white marbled, and fometimes is found alfo
ftained with red : the fins and tail are tranfparent,
fometimes clouded, but the rays barred regularly with
brown : the belly is of a filvery white. This fpecies
is very frequent in the Newfoundland feas, where it
is calied fcolpiug ; it is alfo as common on. the coaft of
Greenland, in deepwater near the {bore. It is 3 prin- ,
cipal food of the natives, and the foup made of it is.
laid to be agreeable as well as wholefome.
COTULA, may-weed ; a genus of the polygamia
fuperflua order, belonging to the fyngenefia clai's of
plants. There are fix fpecies, all of them herbaceous
annuals, rifing 6 or 8 inches high, and adorned with
yellow flowers. There are none of them natives
of this country, and moft of them require artificial
heat.
Cotula, or Cotyla, in antiquity, a liquid mea-
fure among the Greeks, equal to the hemina of the
Romans, containing half a iextary, or four acetabula:
hence it appears that it contained 10 ounces of vydne,,
and 9 of oil.
COTURNIX, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
COTYLEDON, navel-wort; agenusof the pen-
tagynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of
plants. There are eight fpecies, moft of them hardy
fueculent perennials; though fome require to be kept
in a ftove, as being natives of warm climates. They
rife from half a foot to a yard and an half high, and
are adorned with yellow flowers growing in umbels.
They are eafily propagated either by feed or cuttings
of their branches.
COTYLEDONES, in anatomy, are certain glandu- Milne’f
lar bodies, adhering to the chorion of fome animals. Bot. Di£?+
Cotyledones, in botany, the perifljable, porous
fide-lobes of the feed, which involve, and for fome
time furnilh nourilhment to, the embryo plant. The
lobes in queftion, which are generally two in number,,,
are very confpicuous in the bean and moft of the le¬
guminous tribe, on ftripping off the hulk or outer co¬
ver of the feed ; particularly if they have previoufly
been laid in earth or water. Their fobitapee is mealy,
mucilaginous, and eafily ferments. They refolt from,
the expanfion of an infinite number of branching vef-r
ftls. The lobes are externally convex, internally flat,,
unlefs where they are united and infold the principle
of life, corculum, which communicates with them by
means of two large trunks of veflels that fupply it with
nourifliroent, and correfrond to the navel-ftring in ani¬
mals; as the lobes themfely.es feem to anfwer the pur-
pofe of the placenta in women, and cotyledons in
brutes, ire.
We faid, in the definition, that the lobes are the pe-
rifhable parts of the feed. To explain this we mu ft
previoufly
COT [ 2278 ] C O V
Cotyle- previoufly obferve the changes which are effected on
denes. t|le embryo plant in the firft Itages of vegetation. Af-
Couch. ter 'ying ^oine time in water or earth, the lobes of the
-■■■■, . -feed, penetrated by the watery particles, which are
charged with nutritive juices, put in motion by the
heat, fwell and thicken; the air, contained within their
fubltance, dilating, burfts open the outer cover or
hulk which unites them, and difcovers the radicle and
embryo-plant. In this firft ftage the feed is faid pro¬
perly to fprout or germinate. Soon after, the lobes
expanding, rife out of the earth in the form of leaves;
very different, however, from thofe which the plant
is afterwards to produce. In this ftage the feed is
properly faid to rife. Thefe leaves, called for diftinc-
'tion’s fake feminal or feed leaves, (that is, the firft
leaves produced by the feeds)* are commonly two in
number : fome feeds, however, have only one femi¬
nal leaf ; in which cafe the plants, by botanifts, are
called m0nocotyUdoncus, a term of the fame import ;
as thofe which rife with two feminal leaves are ftyled
dicotyledonous. Carfalpinus and Jungius termed both
thefe kinds of feeds univalvular and bivalvular ; that
is, having one or two feed-covers. The former was
the firft who difeovered the number of lobes in the
embryo of feeds.—To proceed with our infant plant.
Under this new form of leaves, the lobes elaborate
and redlify the fap, which is deftined to nourifti the
tender vegetable. The young root too, which natu¬
rally tends downwards, has by this time made fome
efforts to penetrate into the bofom of the earth, where
meeting with ftrong exhilarating juices, it tranfmits
them to the lobes, through which they pafs, highly
refined, to the future plant. The ftem begins to ap¬
pear ; but, though enlarged in volume, its parts are
not developed or unfolded, but continue as they were
in the feed. The lobes ftill united to the plant by
the two trunks of the veffels, accompany it for fome
time after its eruption from the earth, till, having ac¬
quired fufficient ftrength and growth, the feminal leaves
become, ufelefs, wrinkle, wither, and die away. See
Germination.
Of plants which have only one feminal leaf, we
^ muft carefully diftinguilh thofe in which the lobe forms
a fort of fheath furrounding the whole body of the
plant, as in the palms, graffes, and liliaceous vegeta¬
bles ; from thofe in which the lobe is only extended in
length, as in dodder. Pine, and fir-trees, fays Lin¬
naeus, have ten ; cyprefs, five ; flax, four lobes : in
fadl, however, thefe plants have only two lobes, each
of Which is differently divided, almoft to the bafe ;
the lobes only being perfectly diftimft. The lobes be¬
ing in the vegetable (economy what the placenta is in
the animal, their difpofirion at the time when the feed
begins to grow, is termed very properly, by Linnaeus,
Placentation.
In the muflirooms, ferns, and other imperfeeft plants,
the feminal leaves are not fufficienlty afeertained. The
feeds of the moffes want only the proper coverings
and lobes.
COTYTTIA, or Cotyttis, in antiquity, a noc¬
turnal feftival in honour of Cotys, or Cotytta, the god-
defs of wantonnefs.
COUCH, in painting, a term ufed for each lay or
imprelfion of colour, either in oil or water, wherewith
the painter covers his canvas, wall, wainfeot, or other Comto j
matter to be painted. II i
■Couch-Cra/i, in botany. See Triticum. Coventry.
COUCHANT, in heraldry, is underftood of a lion, T ""
or other beaft, when lying down, but with his head
raifed; which diftinguilhes the pofture of couchant from
dormant, wherein he is fuppofed quite ftretched out
and afleep.
COUCHE, in heraldry, denotes any thing lying
along : thus, chevron-couche, is a chevron lying Tide¬
ways, with the two ends on each fide of the Ihield,
which fliould properly reft on the bafe.
COUCHING of a Cataract, in furgery. See
Surgery.
COVENANT, in law, is the confent and agree¬
ment of two or more perfons to do, or not to do, lome
adt, or thing, contradled between them. Alfo it is
the declaration the parties make, that they will ftand
to fuch agreement, relating to lands or other things ;
and is created by deed in writing, fealed and executed
by the parties, or otherwife it may be implied in the
contradl as incident thereto. And if the perfons do
not perform their covenants, a writ or adtion of cove¬
nant is the remedy to recover damages for the breach
of them.
COVENTRY, a town of Warwickfhire in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 1. 26. "ts!. Lat. 52. 25. It
is an ancient place, and is fuppofed to derive its name
from a convent formerly fituated here. Hither Ro¬
bert de Limfey, bilhop of Litchfield and Chefter, re¬
moved his fee, tempted, as it is faid, by the wealth of
the convent: however, the fee returned in a fhort time
to Litchfield again ; but with this condition, that the bi-
fhop Ihould be ftyled of Litchfield and Coventry. Leo-
fric, earl of Mercia, who rebuilt the religious houfe af¬
ter it had been deftroyed by the Danes, and was lord
of the place about the year 1040, is faid, upon fome
provocation, to have loaded them with heavy taxes.
Being importuned by his. lady, Godiva, to remit them,
he confented, upon condition that flie fliould ride na¬
ked through the town, which he little imagined flie
would ever comply with. But he found himfelf mif-
taken : for flie accepted the offer, and rode through
the town with her long hair fcattered all over her bo¬
dy ; having firft enjoined the citizens not to venture,
on pain of death, to look out as flie paffed. It is faid,
however, that a certain taylor could not help peep¬
ing ; and to this day there is an effigy of him at the
window whence he looked. To commemorate this
extraordinary tranfadlion, and out of refpedl to the
memory of their patronefs, the citizens make a procef-
fion every year, with the figure of a naked woman
on horleback. After Leofric’s death, the earls of
Chefter became lords of the city, and granted it many
privileges. At length it was annexed to the earldom
of Cornwal; and growing confiderable, had divers
immunities and privileges conferred upon it by feveral
kings, particularly that of a mayor and two bailiffs by
Edward III. ; and Henry VI. made it, in conjubtion
with fome other towns and villages, a diftinft county,
independent of the county of Warwick. But after¬
wards Edward IV. for their difloyalty, deprived them
of their liberties, which were not reftored, till they
had paid a fine of 500 merks. By a charter from
James
C O U [ 2279 ] c o u
James I. an alderman is allotted to each ward, with
the powers of the jultices of the peace within the city
and its liberties. The walls were ordered to be de-
molilhed at the reftoration; and now nothing remains
of them but the gates, which are very lofty. Coven¬
try is noted for the two parliaments which were held
in it; the one called the parliament of Dunces, and the
other of Devils. The former was fo called on account
of the exclufion of the lawyers; and the attainders of
the duke of York, the earls of Salifbury, Warwick,
and March, procured the other the epithet of Devils.
The town-houfe of Coventry is much admired for its
painted windows reprefenting feveral kings and others
that have been beneiadors to the city. The chief ma¬
nufactures carried on here are temmies and ribbands.
CO-VERSED sine, in geometry, the remaining
part of the diameter of a circle, after the verfed fine
is taken from it. See Geometry.
COVERT-way, or Corridor, in fortification, a
fpace of ground, level with the field on the edge of
the ditch, three or four fathoms broad, ranging quite
round the half moons and other works toward the
country. It has a parapet raifed on a level, together
with its banquets and glacis. See Fortification.
COVERTURE, in law, is applied to the ftate and
condition of a married woman, who is under the
power of her hulband, and therefore called femme
convert.
COUGH, in medicine. See [Index fubjoined to)
Medicine.
Cough, in farriery. See Farriery, § vi.
COVIN, a deceitful compaCt or agreement between
two or more to deceive or prejudice a third perfon :
As, if a tenant for life confpire with another, that
this other Ihall recover the land which the tenant
holds, in prejudice of him in reverfion. Dr Skin¬
ner takes the word to be a corruption of the Latin
conventum, and therefore writes it coven. See Con¬
spiracy.
COVING, in building, is when houfes are built,
projecting over the ground-plot, and the turned pro-
jecture arched with timber, lathed and plaftered.
COULTER,in hufbandry,an iron-inftrument, fixed
in the beam of a plough, and ferving to cut the edge
of each furrow. See Agriculture, p. 143. col. 1.
COUNCIL, or Counsel, in a general fenfe, an
affembiy of divers confiderable perfons to concert
meaftires relating to the Itate.
In Britain, the law, in order to affift the king in the
difcharge of his duties, the maintenance of his dignity,
and the exertion of his prerogative, hath affigned him
a diverlity of councils to advii'e with.
1. The firit of thefe is the high court of parlia¬
ment. See Parliament.
2. The peers of the realm are by their birth here¬
ditary counfellors of the crown; and may be called to¬
gether by the king, to impart their advice in all mat¬
ters of importance to the realm, either in time of par¬
liament, or, which hath been their principal ufe, when
there is no parliament in being. Accordingly, Brac-
ton, fpeaking of the nobility of his time, fays, they
might properly be called, “ confides a conlulendo; re-
ges enim tales fibi affociant ad confulendum.” And in
the law-books it is laid down, that the peers are crea¬
ted for two reafons: 1. M confulendum, i. Ad defen- Counrd.
denduniy regem: for which reafons the law gives them
certain great and high privileges; fuch as freedom
from arrelts, ire. even when no parliament is fitting;
becaufe the law intends, that they are always aflilting
the king with their counfel for the common-wealth,
or keeping the realm in i’afety by their prowefs and
valour.
Inllantes of conventions of the peers, to advife the
king, have been in former times very frequent; though
now fallen into difufe, by reafon of the nrore regular
meetings of parliament. Sir Edward Coke gives us an
extract, of a record, 5 Henry IV. concerning an ex¬
change of lands between the king and the earl of Nor¬
thumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed
to be fettled by advice of parliament, (if any Ihould
be called before the feafi of Sl Lucia), or otherwife
by advice of the grand council of peers, which the king
promifes to aflemble before the laid feafi, in cafe no Blackjf*.
parliament Ihall be called. Many other inftances of Comment.
this kind of meeting are to be found under our ancient
kings : though the formal method of convoking them
had been fo long left off, that when king Charles I. in
1640, iffued out writs under the great leal, to call a
council of all the peers of England, to meet and attend
his majeffy at York, previous to the meeting of the
long parliament, the earl of Clarendon mentions it as
a new invention, not before heard of; that is, as he
explains himfelf, fo old, that it had not been praftifed
in fome hundreds of years. But though there had not
for long before been an infiance, nor has there been
any fince, of affembling them in fo folemn a manner,
yet, in cafes of emergency, our princes have at feve¬
ral times thought proper to call for, and eonfult as
many of the nobility as could eafily be brought toge¬
ther : as was particularly the cafe with king James II.
after the landing of the prince of Orange ; and with
the prince of Orange himfelf, before he called the
convention parliament which afterwards called him to
the throne.
Befides this general meeting, it is ufually looked
upon to be the right of each particular peer of the
realm, to demand an audience of the king, and to lay
before him with decency and refpetfi fuch matters as
he Ihall judge of importance to the public weal. And
therefore, in the reign of Edward II. it was made an
article of impeachment in parliament againft the two
Hugh Spencers, father and fon, for which they were
banilhed the kingdom, “ that they by their evil covin
would not fuffer the great men of the realm, the
king’s good counfellors, to fpeak with the king, or to
come near him; but only in prefence and hearing of
faid Hugh the father, and Hugh the fon, or one of
them, and at their will, and according to fuch things
as pleafed them.”
3. A third council belonging to the king, are, ac¬
cording to Sir Edward Coke, his judges of the courts
of law, for law-matters. And this appears frequent¬
ly in the Englilh ftatutes,. particulary 14 Edward III.
c. 5. and in other books of law. So that when the
king’s council is mentioned generally, it muft be de¬
fined, particularized, and xmfexQtaoiS,fecundumfttbjec-
tai/i materiem ; “ according to the fubjeft matter
andif.the fubjeA.be of a legal nature, then by the
king!s
C O U [ 2280 1 c o u
Council, king’s coundl is underltood Ins council for matters of
law ; namely, his judges. Therefore, when by liatute
■16 Richard II. c. 5. it was made a high offence to im¬
port into England any papal bulls, or other pro-
ceffes from Rome ; and it was enacted, that the of¬
fenders fhould be attached by their bodies, and brought
‘before the king and his council to anfwer for fuch
offence ; here, by the expreflion of king’s council,
were underltood the king’s judges of his courts of juf-
tice, the fubjecf-matter being legal: this being the ge¬
neral Way of interpreting the word council.
4. But the principal council belonging to the king is
his privy council, which is generally, by way of emi¬
nence, called the council. And this, according to Sir
Edward Coke’s defcription of it, is a noble, honour¬
able, and reverend atfl’embly, of the king, and fuch as
he wills to be of his privy council, in the king’s court
■or palace. The king’s will is the foie conftituent Of a
privy counfellor; and this allb regulates their number,
which was anciently twelve, or thereabouts. After¬
wards it ihorealed to fo-large a number, that it was
found inconvenient for lecrecy and difpatch; and
therefore, king Charles II. in 1679, limited it to 30:
Whereof 15 were to be the principal officers of Itate,
and thofe to be counlellors virtute officii; and the o-
ther 15 were compofed of ten lords and five com¬
moners of the king’s ehoofing. But lince that time
the number has been much augmented, and now con¬
tinues indefinite. At the fame time aH'ythe ancient of¬
fice of lord prelident of the council was revived in the
perfon of Anthony earl of Shaftelbury ; an officer that
by the flatute of 31 Henry VIII. c. 10. has precedence
next after the chancellor and lord treasurer.
Privy counfellors are made by the king’s nomination,
Without either patent or grant; and, on taking the
neceflary oaths they become immediately privy coun-
fellbrs during the life of the king that chooles them,
but fubje£t to removal at his difcretton.
As to the qualifications of members to fit at this
board; any natural fubjedl of England is capable of
being a member of-the privy council; taking the pro¬
per oaths for the fecurity of government, and the teft
for fecurity of the church. But, in order to prevent
any p'erfons under foreign attachments from iniinuating
themfelves into this important trull, as happened in
the reign of king William in many inllances, it is
enacted, by the a£t of fettlement, that no perfon born
out of the dominions of the crown of England unlel's
born of Englifh parents, even tho’ naturalized by par¬
liament, fhall be capable of being of the privy council.
The duty of a privy counfellor appears from the
oath of office, which confills of feven articles: 1. To
advife the king according to the bell of his cunning
and dilcretion. 2. To advife for the king’s honour,
and good of the public, without partiality through af¬
fection, love, meed, doubt, or dread. 3. To keep the
king’s counfel fecret. 4. To avoid corruption. 5. To
help and ftrehgthen the execution of what fliall be there
refolved. 6. To withfland all perfons who would at¬
tempt the contrary. And laftly, in general, to ob-
ferve, keep, and do all that a good and true counfel¬
lor ought to do to his fovereign lord.
The power of the privy council is to inquire into
all offences againft die government, and to commit
the offenders to fafe cuflody, in order to take their Com
trial in fome of the courts of law. But their jurifdic-
tion herein is only to inquire, and not to puniffi : and
the perfons committed by them are intitled to their
■habeas corpus by ftatute 16 Car. I. c. 10. as much as
if committed by an ordinary juftice of the peace. Anti,
by the fame fiatute, the court of frar-chamber, and
the court of requeits, both of which confifted of pri-
vy-counlellors, were diffolved ; and it was declared
illegal for them to take cognizance of any matter of
property belonging to the lubjeCfs of this kingdom.
But, in plantation or admiralty caufes, which arife out
of the jurif'diCtion of this kingdom ; and in matters of
lunacy and idiocy, being a fpecial fiower of the pre¬
rogative ; with regard to thefe, although they may
eventually involve queftions of extenfive property/the
privy council continues to have cognizance, being the
court of appeal in fuch cafes : or rather, the appeal
lies to the king’s majelty himfelf in council. When¬
ever alfo a queffion arifes between two provinces in
America or elfewhere, as concerning the extent of
their charters and the like, the king in his council ex-
•ereifes jurifdi&ion therein, upon the principles
of feodal fovereignty. And fo likewife when any
perfon claims an illand or a province, in the nature of
a feodal principality, by a grant from the king or
his aneeftors, the determination of that right belongs
to his majeffy in council : as was the cafe of the earl
of Derby with regard to the ille of Man in the 'reign
of queen Elizabeth ; and of the earl of Cardigan and
others, as representatives of the duke of Montague,
with relation to the illand of S' Vincent in 1764. But
from all the dominions of the crown, excepting Great
Britain and Ireland, an appellate jurifdicTion (in the
laft refort) is veiled in the lame tribunal ; which ufual-
ly exercifes its judicial authority in a committee of the
whole privy council, who hear the allegations and
proofs, and make their report to bis majefty in coun¬
cil, by whom the judgment is finally given.
The 'privileges of privy counfellors as fuch, confilt
principally in the fecurity which the law has given
them again!! attempts and confpiracies to take away
their li ves. For, by ftatute 3 Ben. VII. c. 14. if any
of the king’s fervants of his houfehold confpire to take
away the life of a privy counfellor, it.isfelony, though
nothing be done upon it. And the reafon of making
this ftatute, Sir Edward Coke tells us, was, becaule
fuch fervants have greater and readier means, either
by night or by day, to deftroy fuch as be of great au¬
thority and near about the king: and fuch a confpi-
racy was, juft before this parliament, made by lome
of king Henry the Seventh’s houfehold fervants, and
great mi (chief was like to have enfued thereupon.
This extends only to the king’s menial fervants. But
the 'ftatute 9 Anne, c. 16. goes farther, and enaec!s,that
any perfon that ffiall Unlawfully attempt to kill, or fhall
unlawfully alfanlt and ftrike, or wound, any privy
counfellor in the execution of his office, lhall be a fe¬
lon without benefit of‘clergy. This ftatute was made
upon the daring attempt of the Sieur Guifcard, who
ftabbed Mr Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, with
a penknife, when under examination for high crimes
in a committee of the privy council.
The diffolution of the privy council depends upon
the
»unci).
C O U [ 2281 ] C O U
the king's plcafure; and he may, whenever he thinks
proper, difcharge any particular member, or the whole
of it, and appoint another. By the common law alio
it was dilfolved ipjo fatio, by the king’s demife ; as
deriving all its authority from him. But now, to pre¬
vent the inconveniencies of having no council in being
on the acceffion of a new prince, it is enadled by fta-
tute 6 Anne, c. 7. that.the privy council fhall continue
for fix months after the demife of the crown, unlefs
fooner determined by the fuccefibr.
Aulic Council. See Aunc.
Cabinet Council, the fame with Privy Council.
Common Council, in the city of London, is a court
wherein are made all bye-laws which bind the citizens.
It confifts, like the parliament, of two houfes ; an up¬
per, compofed of the lord mayor and aldermen ; and
a lower, of a number of common-council men, chofen
by the feveral wards, as reprefentatives of the body
of the citizens.
Privy Council, the primum mobile of the civil go¬
vernment of Great Britain, bearing part of that great
weight in the government which otherwile would be
too heavy upon the king. See Council,n° 4.
Council oflVar, an aflembly of the principal offi¬
cers of an army or fleet, occafionally called by the ge¬
neral or admiral to concert meafures for their conduct
with regard to fieges, retreats, engagements, ire.
Council, in church-hiltory, an allembly of prelates
and dodlors, met for the regulating matters relating to
the doctrine or difeipline of the church.
National Council, is an allembly of prelates of a
nation under their primate or patriarch.
Oecumenical ov General Council, is an aflembly
which reprefents the whole body of the univerfal
church. The Romanifts reckon eighteen of them ;
Bullinger, in his treatife de Conciliis, fix; Dr Prideaux,
feven; and biffiop Beveridge has increafed the number
to eight, which, he fays, are all the general councils
which have ever been held fince the time of the firll
Chriflian emperor. They are as follows: 1. The
council of Nice, held in the reign of Conftantine the
Great, on account of the herefy of Arius. 2. The
council of Conftantinople, called under the reign and
by the command of Theodofius the Great, for much
the fame end that the former council was fummoned.
3. The council of Ephefus, convened by Theodofius
the younger, at the fuit of Neftorius. 4. The coun¬
cil of Calcedon, held in the reign of Martianus, which
approved of the Eutychian herefy. 5. The fecond
council of Conllantinople, aflembled by the emperor
Juftinian, condemned the three chapters taken out of
the book of Theodorus of Mopfueftia, having firft de¬
cided that it was lawful to anathematize the dead.
Some authors tell us, that they likewife condemned the
feveral errors of Origen about the Trinity, the plura¬
lity of worlds, and pre-exiflence of fouls, 6. The
third council of Conftantinople, held by the command
of Conftantius Pogonatus the emperor, in which they
received the definitions of the five firft general councils,
and particularly that againft Origen and Theodorns of
Mopfueftia. 7. The fecond Nicene council. 8. The
fourth council of Conftantinople, aflembled when Lewis
II. was emperor of the Weft. The regulations which
they made are contained in twenty-feven canons, the
VOL. III.
heads of which are fet down by M. du Pin, to whom
the reader is referred.
Counsel, in a general fenfe, fignifies advice or
inftrubtion how to behave in any difficult matter.
Counsel, or Advocates, m Enghfli courts of law,
are of two fpecies or degrees; Barristers and Ser¬
jeants. See thefe articles.
From both thefe degrees fome are ufually feledted
to be his majefty’s counfel, learned in the law ; the two
principal of whom are called his attorney-general, and
folicitor-general. The firft king's counfel, under the de¬
gree of ferjeant, was Sir Francis Bacon, who was made
fo, honoris caufa, without either patent or fee : fo that
the firft of the modern order (who are now the fworn
fervants of the crown, with a ftanding falary) feerHs
to have been Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper
of the Great Seal to king Charles II. Thefe king’s
counfel anfwer,in fome degree, to the advocates of the
revenue, advoeati fifei, among the Romans. For they
muft not be employed in any caufe againft the crown
without fpecial licence ; in which reftridlion they agree
with the advocates of the fife : but, in the imperial
law, the prohibition was carried ftill farther, and per¬
haps was more for the dignity of the fovereign ; for,
excepting fome peculiar caules, the fifeal advocates
were not permitted to be at all concerned in private
fuits between fubject and fubjedt. A cuftom has of
late years prevailed of granting letters-patent of pre¬
cedence to fuch barrifters as the crown thinks prope"r
to honour with that marie of diftindtion : whereby they
are entitled to fuch rank and preaudience as are aflign-
ed in their refpedtive patents ; fometimes next after
the king’s attorney-general, but ufually nejet after his
majefty’s counfel next being. Thefe, as well as the
queen’s attorney and folicitor-general, rank promifeu-
0*1 fly with the king’s counfel; and, together .with them,
fit within the bar of their refpedtive courts : but re¬
ceive no falaries, and are not fworn ; and therefore
are at liberty to be retained in caufes againft the crown
And all other ferjeants and barrifters indiferiminately,
(except in the court of common-pleas, where only
ferjeants are admitted), may take upon them the pro-
tedlion and defence of any fuitors, whether plaintiff or
defendant; who are therefore called their clients ,•
like the dependents on the ancient Roman orators.
Thefe indeed pradlifed gratis, for honour merely, or
at moft for the fake of gaining influence : and fo like¬
wife it is eftabliffied with us, that a counfel can main¬
tain no adiion for his fees; which are given, not as
locatio vel conduttio, but as quiddam honorariutn; not
as a falary or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a
counfellor cannot demand without doing wrong to his
reputation; as is alfo laid down with regard to advo¬
cates in the civil law, yv\\o£e honorarirem was diredled,
by a decree of the fenate, not to exceed in any cafe
10,000 fefterces, or about Sol. of Englilh money. And
in order to encourage due freedom of fpeech in the
lawful defence of their clients; and at the fame time to
check the unfeemly licentioufnefs of proftitute and illi¬
beral men (a few of whom may fometimes infinuate
themfelves even into the moft honourable profeflions),
it hath been holden that a counfel is not anfwerable for
any matter by him fpoken, relative to the caufe in
hand, and fuggefted in the client’s rnftrudtions ; altho’
13 K it
Counfel.
Black ft.
Comment.
c o u
Counfellor it Ihould reflect upon the reputation of another, and
II even prove abfolutely groumllefs; but if he mentions
Counter. an untruth 0f pis own invention, or even upon inftruc-
tions, if it be impertinent to the caufe in hand, he is
then liable to an a&ion from the party injured. And
counfel guilty of deceit and collufion are punilhable by
the ftatute Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 28. with imprifon-
ment for a year and a day, and perpetual filence in
the courts: a punifhment ttill fometimes inflitSled for
grofs mifdemeanours in practice.
COUNSELLOR, in general, a perfon who advifes
another : thus we fay, a counfellor at law, a privy
counfellor, ire.
Counsellor Law, a perfon retained by<a client
to plead his caufe in a public court of judicature.
COUNT, a title of foreign nobility, which anfwers
to that of earl among us. Counts palatine were for¬
merly fuch as had an office in the king’s palace, as ap¬
pears by their titles ; but counts palatine in England
were fuch as had regal power within their own jurif-
didlion. Counts w’ere originally lords of the court, or
of the emperor’s retinue; and had their name comites,
a comitando.
In the courts of the Roman emperors, from Auguft-
us downwards, there were certain counfellors who
attended the emperor both at home and abroad, to
affift him with their advice upon all occalions. Thefe
counfellors were ftyled comites augujiales, or comites
augujli, “companions of the emperor,” from their con-
jftant attendance on his perfon. They were divided
into three orders or degrees, and thofe of each order
had certain privileges and appointments while they
attended the imperial court. As thefe comites or
companions had frequent accefs to the emperors, they
often flood high in their favour ; and obtained from
them the government of provinces, towns, forts, and
caftles, and other offices of profit and honour. When
they left the Imperial court, in order to take upon
them their refpedlive governments, they then chan¬
ged their general title of comites augrift ales, for one
taken from the particular government to which they
were appointed. Such were the counts of Britain,
and of the Saxon fhire in Britain.
CovTST-Wheel, in the ftriking part of a clock, a
wheel which moves round once in 12 or 24 hours.
It is fometimes called the iocking-vshsel.
COUNTER, a term which enters into the Compo-
fition of dlverfe words of our language, and general¬
ly implies oppofition; but when applied to deeds,
means an exa<5i copy kept of the contrary party, and
fometimes figned by both parties.
CouNteK-Chtviged, in heraldry, the intermixture,
or oppofition of any metal with a colour. See He¬
raldry, n° 30. Examp. 17, 18, &c.
Counter T/ory, in heraldry, is faid of a treffure
whofe flower-de-luce are oppollte to others. Ibid.
n° 40. Examp. 7.
Co u N t e R-E>rin painting, is the copying a
defign, or painting,' by means of a fine linen-cloth, an
oiled paper, or other tranfparent matter, where the
flrokes appearing through are followed with'a pencil,
with or without colour. Sometimes it is done on
glafs, and with frames or nets divided into fquares
with filk or with thread, and alfo by means of inflru-
c o u
ments invented for the purpofe, as the parallelogram. Counter;
Counrek-Ermine, in heraldry, is the contrary of* 
ermine, being a black field with white fpots.
COUNTERFEITS, in law, are perfons that ob- ;
tain any money or goods by counterfeit letters or falfe
tokens, who being conviifled before juflices of aflize
or of the peace, ire. are to fuffer fuch punifhment as
fliall be thought fit to be inflicted under death, as im-
prifonments, pillory, &c.
COUNTER-foil, or CouNTER-STOCK,in the ex¬
chequer, that part of at ally which is kept by an offi¬
cer of the court.
CouNTER-G«rfn/, in fortification, is a work raifed
before the point of a baflion, confifling of too long
faces parallel to the faces of the baflion, making a
falliant angle : they are fometimes of other fhapes, or
otherwife fituated.
Count er-ZJ^/, or Counter-jour, alight oppofite
to any thing, which makes it appear to difadvantage.
A Angle counter-light is fufficient to take away all the
beauty of a fine painting.
CouNTER-AZm^, in military affairs, a change of
the face or wings of a battalion, by which means
thofe that were in the front come to be in the rear.
It alfo fignifies returning, or marching back again.
CouNTER-Afi«<?, in war, a well and gallery drove
and funk till it meet the enemy’s mine to prevent its
effect.
CavmnK-Paled, in heraldry, is when the ef-
cutcheon is divided into twelve pales parted perfeffe,
the two colours being counter-changed ; fo that the
upper are of one colour, and the lower of another.
Counter-/5urt, in mufic, denotes one part to be
applied to another. Thus the bafs is faid to be a
counter-part to the treble.
CovtfST&K-Pcijfant, in heraldry, is when two lions
are in a coat of arms, and the one feems to go quite
the contrary way from the other.
Counter-Point, in mufic: a term derived from
the Latin prepofition contra, and the verb pungere ;
becaufe the mufical characters by which the notes in
each part are fignified are placed in fuch a manner
each with rtfpecl to each as to fliew how the parts an-
fwer one another. See Composition.
Counter-/W/<?;/, (Contre-poiutd,) in heraldry, is
when two chrevrons in one efchutcheon meet in the
points, the one rifing as -ufual from the bafe, and the
other inverted falling from the chief; fo that they are
counter to one another in the points. They may alfo
be counter-pointed when they are founded upon the
fides of the fhield, and the points meet that way, cal¬
led counter-pointed mfeffe.
COUNTERPOISE, in the manage, is the liberty
of the aClion and feat of a horfe-man ; fo that in all
the motions made by the horfe, he does not incline his
body more to one fide than to the other, but continues
in the middle of the faddle, being equally on his itir-
rups, in order to give the horfe the proper and fea-
fonable aids.
COUNTER-potent, (Contre-potence), in herald¬
ry, is reckoned a fur as well as vair and ermine ; but
compofed of fuch pieces as reprefent the tops of
crutches, called in French potences, and in old Englilh
potents.
[ 2282 ]
Counter-
C O U [22
CouNTER-Proo/J in rolling-prefs printing, a print
taken ofl'from another freih printed ; which by being
paffed through the prefs, gives the figure of the form¬
er, but inverted. To counter-prove, is alfo to pafs
a defign in black lead, or red chalk, through the prefs,
after having moiftened with a fpunge both that and
the paper on which the counter-proof is to be taken.
Counter-.Quartered, (cmtre-ecartele), in herald¬
ry, denotes the efcutcheon, after being quartered, to
have each quarted again divided into two.
CouNTER-Saliant, is when two beafts are borne in
a coat leaping from each other directly the contrary
way.
Counter-Scarps in fortification, is properly the
exterior talus or flop of the ditch; but it is often taken
for the'covered way and the glacis. In thisfenfe we
lay, the enemy have lodged themfelves on the coun-
terlcarp. Angle of the Counter-fcarp, is that made by
two fxdes of the counter-fcarp meeting before the
middle of the curtin.
Counter-Signing) the figning the writing of a fu-
perior in quality of lecretary. Thus charters are lign-
ed by the king, and counter-figned by a fecretary of
ftate, or lord chancellor.
CouNTER-Z’m?, in the menage, is the defence or
refiltance of a horfe that interrupts his cadence, and
the meafure of his menage, occafioned either by a bad
horfeman, or by the malice of the horfe.
Counter, is alfo the name of a counting-board in
a Atop, and of a piece of metal with a ftamp on it,
uied in playing at cards.
Counter of a Horfe, that part of a horfe’s fore¬
hand which lies between the fhoulders and under the
neck.
Counters in a Ship, are two. 1. The hollow arch¬
ing from the gallery to the lower part of the ftraight
piece of the ftern, is called the upper-counter. 2. The
lower-counter is between the tranfom and the lower
part of the gallery. ,
Counter, is alfo the name of two prifons in the
city of London, viz. the Poultry and Woodftreet.
COUNTRY, among geographers, is ufed indiffer¬
ently to*ctefiote either a kingdom, province, or lelfer
diftriet. But its moft frequent ufe is in contradiftinc-
tion to town.
COUNTY, in geography^ originally fignified the
territory of a count or earl, but now it is ufed in.the
fame fenfe with Shire.
CovNT\-Court) in Englilh law, a court incident to
the jurifdiiition of the flierilf. It is not a court of re¬
cord, but may hold pleas of debt or damages under
the value of 40 s. Over fome of which caufes thefe
inferior courts have, by the exprefs words of the 11a-
tute of Gloucefter, a jurifdkfiion totally exclufive of
the king’s fuperior courts. For in order to be entit¬
led to fue an action of trefpafs for goods before the
king’s jufticiars, the plaintiff is directed to make affi¬
davit that the caufe of action does really and bona fide
amount to 40 s. which affidavit is now unaccountably
difufed, except in the court of exchequer. The 11a-
tute alfo 43 Eliz. c. 6. which gives the judges in many
perfonal adlions, where tlie jury, alfels lefs damages
than 40s. a power to certify the fame and abridge
the plaintiff of his full colls, was alfo meant to pre-
83 ] c o u
vent vexation by litigious plaintiffs; who, for pur-
poles of mere oppreffion, might be inclinable to inlti-
tute fuch fuits in the fuperior courts for injuries of a
trifling value. The county-court may alfo hold plea
of many real adlions, and of all perfonal a<51ions to a-
ny amount, by virtue of a fpecial writ called a jufli-
cies ; which is a writ empowering the Iheriff for the
fake of difpatch to do the fame jullice in his county-
court, as might otherwife be had at Weftminiter. The
freeholders of the county are the real judges in this
court, and the Iheriff is the minilterial officer. The
great conflux of freeholders, which are fuppofed always
to attend at the county-court, (which Spelman calls
forum plebeite jufiiti<e et theatrum comitiva: potefiatis),
is the reafon why all adls of parliament at the end of
every feflion were wont to be there publilhed by the
Iheriff; why all outlawries of abfeonding offenders
are there proclaimed ; and why all popular eledlions
which the freeholders are to make, as formerly of
ffierifts and confervators of the peace, and (till of co¬
roners, verderors, and knights of the fliire, muff ever
be made in plena comitatu, or, in full county-court.
By the ftatute 2 Edw. VI. c. 25. no county-court lhall
be adjourned longer than for one month, confiding of
28 days. And this was alfo the ancient ufage, as ap¬
pears from the laws of king Edward the elder : <c pr a;-
it pofitus (that is, the flieriff) ad quart am circiter
** feptimanam frequentem populi coucionem celebrate ;
“ cuiquejus dicito ; litefque ftngulas dirimito." Inthofe
times the county-court was a court of great dignity
and fplendor, the biffiop and the ealdorman (or earl)
with the principal men of the ffiire fitting therein to
adminifter juftice both in lay and ecclefialtical caufes.
But its dignity was much impaired, when the bilhop
was prohibited, and the earl neglecled to attend it.
And, in modern times, as proceedings are removeable
from hence into the king’s fuperior courts, by writ of
pone or recordare, in the fame manner as from hun-
1 dred-courts, and courts-baron; and as the fame writ
of falfe judgment may be had, in nature of a writ of
error; this has occafioned the fame difufe of bringing
adlions therein.
COUPAR, the name of two towns of Scotland, the
one fituated about 12 miles north-eaft of Perth, in the
Ihire of Angus, W. Long. 3.0. N. Lat. 56. 30.; and
the other in the county of Fife, about 10 miles weft
of St Andrews: W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 56. 20.
COUPED, in heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the head,
or any limb, of an animal, cut off from the trunk,
fmooth; diftinguifliing it from that which is called eraf-
fed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is ragged
and uneven.
Couped, is alfo ufed to fignify fuch croffes, bars,
bends, chevrons, Izc. as do not touch the fides of the
efcutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off from them.
COUPLE-cuoss, in heraldry, the fourth part of a
chevron, never borne but in pairs, except there be a
chevron between them, faith Guillim, though Bloom:
gives an inftance to the contrary.
COUPLET, a divifion of a hymn, ode, fong, Effr.
wherein an equal number, or equal meafure, of veries
is found in each part; which divifions, in odes, are
called firophes.—Couplet, by an abufe of the word, is
frequently made to fignify a couple of verfes.
13 K 2 COURAP,
Couped
Couplet.
C O U [22
Courap COURAP, the modern name for a diftemper
I! very common in Java and other parts of the Eaft-
Courfing. jn(jieSi it js a fort of herpes or itch on the’ arm-pits,
groins, breafl, and face: the itching is almoit perpe¬
tual ; and the fcratching is followed by great pain, and
a difcharge of matter, which makes the linen ftiek fo
to the Iktn as not eafdy to be feparated without tear¬
ing off the cruft. Courap is a general name for any
fort of itch; but this diftemper is thus called by way of
eminence. It is fo contagious that few efcape it. For
the cure, gentle and repeated purging is ufed, and ex¬
ternally the lublimate in a iinall quantity is a good to¬
pic.
COURIER, a meffenger fent poll, or exprefs, to
carry difpatches.
COURLAND, a duchy fituated between E. Long.
21. 26. and between N. Lat. 56. 30. and 57. 30. it
is bounded by the river Dwina, which divides it from
Livonia, on the north; by Lithuania, on the eaft;
by Samogitia, on the fouth ; and by the Baltic fea on
the weft ; being 130 miles long, and 30 broad.
COURSE, (route), in navigation, the angle con¬
tained between the neareft meridian and that point
of the compafs upon which a Ihip fails in any particu¬
lar direflion.
COURSES, a name by which the principal fails of
a fhip are diftinguiflied, viz. the main-fail, the fore¬
fail, and the mizen : the mizen-ftay-fail and fore-fail
are alfo fometimes comprehended in this denomina¬
tion ; as are the main-ftay-fails of all brigs and fchoon-
ers. See Sail.
COURSING. There are three feveral forts of
courfes with gre-hounds: 1. At the hare ; 2. At the
fox; and, 3. At the deer.
For the deer, there are two forts of courfes; the
one in the paddock, the other either in the foreft
or the purlieu. For the paddock courfe, there muft
be the gre-hound and the terrier, and the mongrel
gre-hound, whole bufinefs it is to drive away the.
deer before the gre-hounds are flipped ; a brace or
a leafli are the ulual number flipped at a time, fel-
dom at the utmoft more than two brace. In cour-
fing the deer in the foreft, or purlieu, there are two
ways in nfe : the one is courfmg from wood to wood ;
and the other, upon the lawns clofe by the keeper’s
lodge. In the courfing from wood to wood, the way
is to throw in fome young hounds into the wood to
bring out the deer; and if any deer come out that is
not weighty, or a deer or antler which is buck, fore,
or forrel, then you are not to flip your gre-hounds,
which are held at the end of the wood, where the
keepers, who can guefs very well on thefe occafions,
ettpefl: that the deer will come out. If a proper deer
come out, and it is fufpetfted that the brace or leafli of
gre-hounds flipped after him will not be able to kill
him, it is proper to waylay him with a couple of
frelh gre-hounds.
The courfing upon the lawn is the moft agreeable
of all other ways. When the keeper has notice of
this, he will lodge a deer for the courfe; and then,
by coming under the wind, the gre-hound may be
brought near enough to be flipped for a fair courfe.
The beft method of courfmg the hare, is to go out
and find a hare fitting; which is eafily done in the
84 ] c o u
fummer, by walking acrofs the lands, either ftubble, Courfmg..
fallow, or corn grounds, and calling the eye up and  —1
down: for in fummer they frequent thofe places for
fear of the ticks, which are common in the woods at
that feafon; and in autumn the rains falling from the
trees offend them. The reft of the year there is
more trouble required; as the bulhes and thickets
muft be beat to roufe them, and oftentimes they will
lie lb clofe, that they will not ftir till the pole almoft
touches them the fportfmen are always pleafed with
this, as it promiles a good courfe. If a hare lies near
any clofe or covert, and with her head that way, it
is always to be expedted that Ihe will take to that im¬
mediately on being put up; all the company are there¬
fore to ride up and put themfelves between her and
the covert before flie is put up, that file may take the
other way, and run upon open ground. When a
hare is put up, it is always proper to give her ground,
or iaw, as it is called; that is, to let her run 12 fcore
yards, or thereabouts, before the gre-hounds are
flipped at her; other wife (he is killed too foon, the
greater part of the fport is thrown away, and the
pleafure of obferving the feveral turnings and wind¬
ings that the creature will make to get away is all
loft. A good fportfman had rather fee a hare fave
herfelf alter a fair courfe, than fee her murdered by
the gre-hounds as foon as flie is up.
In courfing the/ox, no other art is required, than
(landing dole, and in a clear wind, on the outfide of
fome grove where it is expecfted he will come out;
and when he is come out, he mult have head enough
allowed bfm, otherwife he will return back to the co¬
vert. The floweft gre-hound will be able to over¬
take him, after all the odds of diftance neceffary ; and
the only danger is the fpoiling the dog by the fox,
which too frequently happens. For this reafon, no
gre-hound of any value fhould be run at this courfe;
but the ftrong, hard, bitter dogs, that will feize any
t thing.
The laws of cOurfing eftablifhed by the duke of
Norfolk, and other fportfmen of the kingdom of Eng¬
land, are thefe:
1. He that is chofen fewterer, or letter loofe of the
dogs, fhall receive the gre-hounds matched to run
together into his leafli, as foon as he comes into the
field ; he is to march next tb the hare-finder, or him
who is to ftart the hare, until he come to the form ;
and no horfeman or footman is to go before or fide-
ways, but all ftraight behind, for the fpace of about 40
yards. 2. A hare ought never to be courfed with
more than a brace of gre-hounds. 3. The hare-
finder is to give the hare three fohoes before he puts
her up from her form or fear, to the end that the dogs
may be prepared and attend her ftarting. 4. If
there be not a particular danger of lofing the hare,
flie fhould have about twelve fcoreyards law. 5. The
dog that gives the firft turn, if after that there be
neither cote, flip, nor wrench, Wins the wager. 6. A
go-by, or bearing the hare, is accounted equivalent
to two turns. 7. If neither dog turns the hare, he that
leads to the laft covert wins. 8. If any dog turns the
hare, ferves himfelf, and turns her again, it is as much
as a cote, and a cote is efteemed as much as two
turns. 9. If all the courfe be equal, he that bears
the
C O U [ 2285 ] c o u
the hare fliall win ; and if he be not borne, the courfe
lhall then be judged dead. 10. If a dog take a fall
in his courfe, and yet perform his part, he may
challenge the advantage of a turn more than he
gave. 11. If a dog turn the hare, ferve himfelf,
and give divers cotes, and yet in the end. lhall Hand
Hill in the field, the other dog, if he turns home to the
covert, although he gives no other, lhall be adjudged
to win the wager. 12. If by misfortune a dog be rid
over in the courfe, that courfe lhall be adjudged void,
and he that did the mifchief is to make reparation to the
owner. 13. If a dog gives the firll and lalt turn, and
there be no other advantage betwixt them,he that gives
the odd turn wins. 14. A cote is when a gre-hound
goes end-ways by the lide of his fellow, and gives the
hare a turn. 15. A cote ferves for two turns, and two
trippings or jerkings for a cote ; and if the hare turns
not quite about, Ihe only vireneheth, in the fportfman’s
phrafe. 16. If there be no cotes given by either of the
gre-hounds, but one lerves the other at turning, then
he that gives the molt turns wins the wager, 17.
Sometimes a hare does not turn, but wrenches; for
flte does not turn, except Ihe turn as it were round.
In thefe cafes, two wrenches Hand for one turn. 18.
He that comes in firft at the death of the hare takes
her up, and faves her from breaking; he cheriflies the
dogs, and cleanfes their mouths from the wool ; he is
adjudged to have the hare for his pains. 19. Finally,
thole who are judges of the lealh, mull give their
judgement before they depart out of the field, or elfe
it is not to Hand as valid.
COURT, an appendage to a houfe or habitation;
confining of a piece of ground inclofed with walls, but
open upwards.
Court is alfo ufed for the palace, or place where a
king or fovereign prince refides.
Court, in a law*fenfe, is defined to be a place
wherein jullice is judicially adminiftered.' And, as by
our excellent conititution the foie executive power of
the laws is veiled in the perfon of the king, it will
follow that all courts of juitice, which are the medium
by which he adminifters the laws, are derived from
the power of the crown. For whether created by act
of parliament, or letters patent, or fubfifting by pre-
feription, (the only methods by which any court of judi¬
cature can exift), the king’s confent in the two former
is exprefsly, and in the latter impliedly, given. In all
thefe courts, the king is fuppofed in contemplation of
law to be always prefent; but as that is in fadt impof-
fible, he is there reprefented by his judges, whofe
power is only an emanation of the royal prerogative.
For the more ipeedy, univerfal, and impartial ad-
miniftration of juftice between fubjedl and fubjeft, the
law hath appointed a prodigious variety of courts,
fome with a more limited, others with a more exten-
five jurifdi&ion ; fome conftituted to inquire only, o-
thers ro hear and determine ; fome to determine in
the firft inftance, others upon appeal and by way of re¬
view. See Law, n° xcviii.xeix.c. cxli. clvi.clviivclviii.
and the refpe<ftive articles in the order of the alpha¬
bet. One diftin&ion may be here mentioned, that
runs throughout them all; viz. that fome of them are
courts of record, others not of record. A court of re¬
cord is that where the a£ts and judicial proceedings are
enrolled in parchment for a perpetual memorial and Cemt.
tellimony : which rolls are called the records of the
court, and are of fuch high and fupereminent authori¬
ty, that their truth is not to be called in queltion. For
it is a iettled rule and maxim, that nothing fliall be
averred againrt a record, nor fliall any plea, or even
proof, be admitted to the contrary. And if the exift*
ence of a record be denied, it fliall be tried by nothing
but itfelf; that is, upon bare infpection whether there
be any fuch record or no; elfe there would be no end
of difputes. Bur, if there appear any miftake of the
clerk in making up fuch record, the court will diredl
him to amend it. All courts of record are the king’s
courts, in right of his crown and royal dignity, and
therefore no other court hath authority to fine or im*
prifon ; fo that the very erection of a new jurifdidlion
with power of fine or imprifonment makes it inftantly
a court of record.—A court not of record is the court
of a private man; whom the law will not intruft with
any diferetionary power over the fortune or liberty of
his fdlow-fubjedts. Such are the courts-baron incident
to every manor, and other inferior jurifdi&ions :
where the proceedings are not enrolled or recorded j
but as well their exiftence as the truth of the mat¬
ters therein contained ftiall, if difputed, be tried and
determined by a jury. Thefe courts can hold no plea
of matters cognizable by the common law, unlefs un¬
der the value of 40s.; nor of any forcible injury what-
foever, not having any procels to arreft the perfon of
the defendant.
In every court there muft be at leaft three confti-
tuent parts, the attor, reus, and judex: the aftor, or
plaintiff, who complains of an injury done ; the reus,
or defendant, who is called upon to make fatisfatflion
for it; and the judex, or judicial power, which is to
examine the truth of the fadt, to determine the law
arifing upon that fadl, and, if any injury appears to
have been done, to afeertain and by its officers to ap¬
ply the remedy. It is alfo ufual in the fuperior courts
to have attorneys, and advocates or counfel, as affift-
ants. See Attorney, and Counsel.
Covin-Baron, in Englifli law, a court incident to Blackjt..
every manor in the kingdom, to be holden by the
fteward within the faid manor. This court-baron is
of two natures : the one is a cuftomary court, apper¬
taining entirely to the copyholders, in which their
eftates are transferred by furrender and admittance,
and other matters tranfacled relative to their tenures
only. The other is a court of common law, and it is
the court of the barons, by which name the freehold¬
ers were fometimes anciently called : for that it is held
before the freeholders who owe full and fervice to the
manor, the fteward being rather the regiftrar than the
judge. Thefe courts, though in their nature dillinct,
are frequently confounded together. The court we
are now confidering, viz. the freeholder’s court, Was
compofed of the lord’s tenants, who were the pares of
each other, and were bound by their feodal tenure
to aflift their lord in the difpenfation of domeftic juf¬
tice. This was formerly held every three weeks ;
and its moft important bufinefs is to determine, by
writ of right, all controverfies relating to the right of
lands within the manor. It may alfo hold plea of any
perfonal a&ions, of debt, trefpafs on the cafe, or the
c o u
Court like, where the debt or damages do not amount to
II 40 s. Which is the fame fum, or three marks, that
ou u’ bounded the jurifdi^tion of the ancient Gothic courts
in their loweft inltance, or fierding-courts, fo called be-
caufe four were inftituted within every fuperior di-
ftri<5t or hundred. But the proceedings on a writ of
right may be removed into the county-court by a pre¬
cept from the Iherifl'called a tolt, “ quia tollit atque
eximit caufam e curia baronum.” And the proceedings
in all other actions may be removed into the fuperior
courts by the king’s writs of pone, or accedas ad curi¬
am, according to the nature of the fuit. After judg¬
ment given, a writ alfo of falfe judgment lies to the
courts at Weftminfter to rehear and review the caufe,
and not a writ of error ; for this is not a court of re¬
cord : and therefore, in fome of thefe writs of remo¬
val, the firft dire&on given is to caufe the plaint to be
recorded, recordari facias loquelam.
Barou-Covvii, in Scots law. See Law, n° dviii.
12, 13, 14.
Court-Martial, a court appointed for the punilhing
offences in officers, foldiers, and failors, the powers of
which are regulated by the mutiny-bill.
COURTESY, or Curtesy, of England: a certain
tenure whereby a man marrying an heirefs feized of
lands of fee-fimple, or fee-tail general, or feized as
heir of the tail fpecial, and getteth a child by her that
cometh alive into the world, though both it and his
wife die forthwith ; yet, if fhe were in pofleffion, he
fnall keep the land during his life, and is called tenant
per legem Anglia,tl or tenant by the courtefy of Eng¬
land becaufe this privilege is not allowed in any coun¬
try except Scotland, where it is called curialitas Scotia.
COURTESAN, a woman who proftitutes herfelf
for hire, .efpecially to people of fuperior rank. Lais,
the famous Theban courtefan, ftands on record for re¬
quiring no lefs than 10,000 crowns for a fingle night.
Of all places in the world, Venice is that where cour-
tefans abound the molh It is now 300 years fince the
fenate, which had expelled them, was obliged to re-
cal them ; to provide for the fecurity of women of
honour, and to keep the nobles employed left they
ffiould turn their heads to make innovations in the ftate.
COURTRAY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
lituated on the river Lys, about 23 miles fouth-weft
of Ghent, and fourteen ealt of Ypres. E. Long. 3.10.
N. Lat. 50. 48.
COUSIN, a term of relation between the children
of brothers and fifters, who in the firft generation are
called coufin-germans, in the fecond generation fe-
cond-coufins, &c. If fprung from the relations of the
father’s fide, they are denominated paternal coufins j
if on the mother’^, maternal.
Cousin (John), a celebrated French painter, who
excelled in painting on glafs. His picture of the laft
judgment, in the veftry of the Minims of the Wood of
Vincennes, is much admired. He was alfo a good
fculptor. He wrote feveral works on geometry and
perfpeiftive ; and died after the year 1689.
COUSU, in heraldry, fignifies a piece of another
colour or metal placed on the ordinary, .as if it were
fewed on, as the word imports. This is generally of
colour upon colour, or metal upon metal, contrary to
the general rule of heraldry.
COW
COVERT, in heraldry, denotes fomething like a Covert
piece of hanging, or a pavillion falling over the top of fi
a chief or other ordinary, fo as not to hide, but only
to be a covering to it.
COW, in zoology. See Bos.
Sea-Cow, in zoology. See Trick ecus.
Cow-Itch, ov Couage, in botany. See Dolichos.
Cow’s-Z.;/!, in botany. See Primula.
COWARD, in heraldry, a term given to a lion
borne in an efcutcheon with his tail doubled or turned
in between his legs.
COWEL (Dr John), a learned and eminent civi¬
lian, born about the year 1554. In 1607 he compi¬
led a Law Difliouary, which gave great offence to Sir
Edward Coke and the common lawyers; fo that they
firft accufed him to James I. as afferting that the king’s
prerogative was in fome cafes limited; and when they
failed in that attempt, they complained of him to the
houfe of commons, as a betrayer of the rights of the
people, by afferting that the king was not bound by
the laws : for which he was committed to cuftody,
and his book publicly burnt. He alfo publifhed Injti-
tutiones Juris Anglican't, in the manner of Juftinian’s
Inftitutes : and died of the operation for the ftone, in
1611.
COWES, a town and harbour on the north-eaft
coaft of the Ifle of Wight, in Hampfhire. It has no
market, but is the beft place for trade in the whole
ifland ; but as it lies low, the air is accounted unheal¬
thy. It is eight miles fouth-eaft of Portfmouth. W.
Long. 1. 25. N. Lat. 50. 45.
COWL, or Coul, a habit worn by the Bernar-
dines and Benedicftines, of which there are two kinds;
one white, very large, worn in ceremonies; the other
black, worn on ordinary occafions, in the ftreets, isc.
Friar's Cowl, in botany. See Arisarum.
COWLEY (Abraham), was born at London 1618.
His father, who was a grocer, dying before he was
born, his mother procured him to be admitted a king’s
fcholar at Weftminfter. His firft inclination to poetry
arofe on his lighting on Spenfer’s Fairy Queen, when he
was but juft able to read: and this inclination fo far
improved in him, that at 13 he began to write feve¬
ral poems; a colleiftion of which was publifhed in ^
1613, when he was but 15. But one thing extremely
remarkable in him was, that with fo extraordinary a
natural genius, he had fo bad a memory that his
teachers could never bring him to retain even the
common rules of grammar. So that had he not form¬
ed the moft intimate acquaintance with the books
themfelves from which thefe rules are drawn, he
could never have been mafter of them. In 1636 he
was eleHed a fcholar of Trinity College, Cambridge,
and removed to that univerfity. Here he went thro’
all his exercifes with a remarkable degree of reputa¬
tion ; and at the fame time muft have purfued his po¬
etical turn with great eagernefs, as it appears that
the greateft part of his poems were written before
he left that univerfity. He had taken his degree of
Mafter of Arts before 1643, when, in confequence of
the turbulence of the times, he, among many others,
was ejeZled from the college : whereupon, retiring
to Oxford, he entered himfelf of S‘ John’s college ;
and that very year, under the denomination of a fcho-
[ 2286 ]
COW [ 2287 ] cox
lar of Oxford, publifhed a fatire called The Puritan
and the Papift. It is apparent, however, that he did
not remain very long at Oxford : for his zeal to the
royal caufe engaging him in the fervice of the king,
who was very lenlible of his abilities, and by whom
he was frequently employed, he attended his majefty
in many of his journeys and expeditions, and gained
not only that prince’s efteem, but that of many other
great perfonages, and in particular of lord Falkland,
one of the principal fecretaries of ftate.
During the heat of the civil war, he was fettled in
the earl of St Alban’s family ; and when the queert-
mother was obliged to retire into France, he accom¬
panied her thither, laboured ftrenuoufly in the affairs
of the royal family, undertook feveral very dangerous
journeys on their account, and was the principal in-
ftrument in maintaining an epiflolary correfpondence
between the king and queen.
In the year 16j 6 it was judged proper that Mr
Cowley fhould come over into England, and, under
pretence of privacy and retirement, give notice of
the fituation of affairs in that kingdom to thofe by
whom he was employed. Soon after his arrival, how¬
ever, he was feized, in the fearch after another gen¬
tleman of confiderable note in the king’s party : but
although it was through miflake that he was taken,
yet when the republicans found all their attempts of
every kind to bring him over to their party proved
ineffediual, he was committed to a fevere confine¬
ment, and it was even with confiderable difficulty that
he obtained his liberty : when, venturing back to
France, he remained there, in his former fituation, till
near the time of the king’s return.
Soon after the reftoration he became poffeffed of a
very competent eflate, through the favour of his prin¬
cipal friends the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
S‘ Albans ; and being now upwards of 40 years of
age, he took up a refolution to pafs the remainder of
a life which had been a fcene of tempeft and tumult,
in that fituation which had ever been the obje<5l of his
wilhes, a fludious retirement. His eagernefs to get
out of the buftle of a court and city made him lefs
careful than he might have been in the choice of a
healthful habitation in the country; by which means
he found his folitude from the very beginning fuit
Igfs with the confiitution of his body than with his
mind. His firft rural refidence was at Barn Elms, a
place, which lying low, and being near a large river,
was fubjedt to a variety of breezes from land and
water, and liable in the winter-time to great inconve¬
nience from the dampnefs of the foil. The confe-
quence of this Mr Cowley too foon experienced, by
being feized with a dangerous and lingering fever.
On his recovery from this, he removed to Chertfey,
a fituation not much more healthy, where he had not
been long before he was feized with another confu-
ming difeafe. Having languifhed under this for feme
months, he at length got the better of it, and feemed
pretty well recovered from the bad fymptonas ; when
one day in the heat of fummer 1667, flaying too long
in the fields to give fome directions to his labourers,
he caught a molt violent cold, which was attended
with a defluxion and ftoppage in his breall ; and for
want of timely care, by. treating it as a common cold,
and refufing advice till it was part remedy, he depart¬
ed this life on the 28th of July in that year, being the
49th of his age ; and, on the 3d of Auguft following,
he was interred in Weflminfter-abbey, near the allies
of Chaucer and his beloved Spencer. He was a man
of a very amiable character, as well as an admirable
genius. King Charles 11. on the news of his death,
declared “ that Mr Cowley had not left a better man
behind him in England.” A monument was ereCted
to his memory by George Villiers duke of Buking-
ham in 1675.
COX (Richard),, a learned prelate, and principal
pillar of the Reformation, was born at Whaddon in
Buckingham-lhire, of low parentage,.in the year 1499.
From Eaton fchookhe obtained a icholarlhip in King’s-
college in Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in
1519 : he was thence invited to Oxford by cardinal
Woolfey, and was there made one of the junior canons
of Cardinal College. In 1525 he was incorporated
Batchelor ; and the following year took the degree of
Mafter of Arts in the fame univerfity. In this fitua¬
tion he became remarkable for his learning and poe¬
tical abilities; but his attachment to the opinions of
Luther rendered him hateful to his fuperiors, who
ftripped him of his preferment, and threw him into
prifon, on a fufpicion of herefy. Being, however,
foon releafed, he was chofen mafter of Eaton fchool,
which flouriflied remarkably under his care. In 153 7,
he commenced DoCtor of Divinity at Cambridge ; in
I5'40, was made archdeacon of Ely; and the follow¬
ing year prebendary of that cathedral, on its being
new founded by king Henry VIII. In 1546, he was
made dean of Chrift-church, Oxford. By the recom¬
mendation of archbifhop Cranmer and bifhop Good¬
rich, to the latter of whom he had been chaplain, he
not only obtained the above preferments, but was cho¬
fen preceptor to prince Edward; on whofe acccelfion
to the throne he became a favourite at court, was
fworn of the privy council, and made king’s almoner.
In 1547, he was elected chancellor of Oxford; in
1548, canon of Windfor ; and the next year, dean of
Weftminfter. About this time he was appointed one
of the commiftioners to vifit the univerfity of Oxford;
in which office his zeal for reformation was fo excef-
five, that he deftroyed a number of curious and valu¬
able books, for no better reafon than becaufe they
were written by Roman Catholics.. On the acceffion
of queen Mary he was ftripped of all his preferments,,
and committed to the Marlhalfea. He was, however,
foon releafed, and immediately left the kingdom. Ha¬
ving refided fome time at Strafburg with his intimate
friend Pater Martyr, on the death of queen Mary he
returned to England, and, with other divines,, was ap¬
pointed to revile the liturgy. He often preached be¬
fore the queen ; and, in 1559, was preferred to the
fee of Ely, which he continued to enjoy upwards of
21 years. He was, however, no favourite with the
queen : the reafon affigned for which was, his zea¬
lous oppofition to her retaining the crucifix and wax-
candles on the altar of the royal chapel; alfo his ftre-
nuous defence of the marriage of the clergy, which
her majefty always difapproved. He died on the 22i
of July 1581, aged 81. He was a man of conlider-
able learning, a zealous and rigid bulwark of the church
of
Cox.
C O Z [ 2283 ] C II A
Toxwoia of England, and an implacable enemy both to Papifts
il and Puritans. In a letter to archbifhop Parker he ad-
Cra^' vifes him to proceed vigoroufly in reclaiming or />«-
nijhitig the Puritans, and not to be difcouraged at the
frown of thofe court-favourites who protected them ;
afliiring him that he might ex peel the bleffing of God
on his pious labours to free the church from their dan¬
gerous attempts, and to eftablilh uniformity.—This
zealous reformer we find had not totally loll fight of
the popilh text, compel them to come in: but a ftronger
proof of his implacability and felf-importance appears
in his letter to the lord treafurer Burleigh, in which
he warmly expoflulates with the council for interpo-
fing in behalf of the Puritans, or meddling in affairs of
the church, admonifhing them to keep their own
fphere. Such language front a bilhop would make a
modern privy council Hare. His works are, i. Two
Latin Orations on the Difpute between Dr Trelham
and Peter Martyr, Lond. 1549, 4t0’ 2- Liturgy of
the Church of England; in compiling, and after¬
wards corredting which, he was principally concerned.
3. The Lord’s Prayer in verfe, commonly printed at
the end of David’s Pfialms by Sternhold and Hopkins.
4. Tranflation of the four Gofpels, the Adis of the
Apoflles, and the Epiftle to the Romans, in the new
tranflation of the Bible in the reign of queen Eliza¬
beth. 5. Refolutions of fome Queflions concerning
the Sacrament, in the Colledlion of Records at the end
of Burnet’s Hiflory of the Reformation. 6. Several
Letters to the Queen and others, publilhed in Strype’s
Annals of the Reformation. He is alfo (aid to have
been concerned in the declaration concerning the di¬
vine inllitution of bifliops, and to have aflilted Lilye
in his Grammar.
COXWOLD, a town in the North-riding of York-
fhire, 14 miles north of York. W. Long. 1.10. N.
Lat. 54. 16.
COYPEL (Anthony), an excellent French painter,
born a.t Paris in i66r. Noel Coypel, his father, be¬
ing chofen by M. Colbert to be diredlor of the acade¬
my at Rome, he took his fon with him into Italy,
where Anthony Coypel formed himfelf on the works
of the greatell mailers, and on his return to France
was made firll painter to the duke of Orleans. That
prince employed him in painting the grand gallery of
the royal palace, and allowed him a penfion. In 1 774,
he was diredlor of the Academy of Painting and Sculp¬
ture. In 1715, he was made firll painter to the French
king, and was ennobled on account of his merit. He
died in r 722. M. Coypel, his fon, alfo excelled in the
fame art.
COZENING ; tricking, or defrauding.—In law, it
denotes an offence where any thing is done deceitfully,
whether belonging to contradls or not, which cannot
be properly termed by any fpecial name.
COZUMEL, an ifland near the wellern coaft of
Jucatan, where Cortez landed and refrelhed his troops,
before entering upon the conquell of Mexico : W.
Long. 89. o. and N. Lat. 13. o.
CRAB, in zoology. See Cancer.
Crab’s Claws, in the materia medica, are the tips
of the claws of the common crab broken off" at the
verge of the black part, fo much of the extremity of
the claws only being allowed to be ufed in medicine
as is tinged with this colour. The blacknefs, how- Crab
ever, is only fuperficial; they are of a greyiflt white II
within, and when levigated furnilh a tolerable white Crack,ow,j
powder.
Crab’s claws are of the number of the alkaline ab-
forbents, but they are fuperior to the generality of
them in fome degree, as they are found on a chemical
analylis to contain a volatile urinous fait.
Crab’s Eyes, in pharmacy, are a ftrong concretion
in the head of the cray-filh. They are rounded on
one fide, and deprefled and finuated on the other, con-
fiderably heavy, moderately hard, and without fmell.
We have them from Holland, Mufcovy, Poland, Den¬
mark, Sweden, and many other places.
Crab’s eyes are much ufed both in the fliop-medi-
cines and extemporaneous preferiptions, being ac¬
counted not only abforbent and drying, but alio dif-
cuffive and diuretic.
Crab, a fort of wooden pillar, whofe lower end,
being let down through a (hip’s decks, reds upon a
focket like the capftern ; and having in its upper end
three or four holes, at different* heights, through the
middle of it, one above another, into which long bars
are thruft, whofe length is nearly equal to the breadth
of the deck. It is employed to wind in the cable, or
to purchafe any other weighty matter which requires
a great mechanical power. This differs from a cap-
item, as not being furniffied with a druvi-head, and
by having the bars to go entirely through it, reaching
from one fide of the deck to the other; whereas thole
of the capltern, which are fuperior in number, reach
only about eight inches or a foot into the drum-head,
according to the fize thereof. This machine is repre-
fented in Plate LXVII. n° 4. See alfo Cafstern.
CRAB-Yaws, a name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on the foies of the feet, with hard callous lips, fo hard
that it is difficult to cut them. The ungt. ccerol. fort,
is their cure.
CRACKER, or Sea-Pheasant, in ornithology, the
Englilh name of the anas acuta. See Anas.
CRACKS, in timber. See Cleft.
CRACKOW, a city of Poland, fituated in a pala¬
tinate of the fame name, and by fome accounted the
capital of the whole kingdom. It Hands at the conflux
of the rivers VIHula and Redawa, in E. Long. 20. 16.
N. Lat. 50. 8. It is very populous, and the largeH
and bell built town in Poland. The inhabitants had
the liberty of purchafing ellates, and a voice in choof-
ing the king, while Poland fubfiffed as an independent
Hate. But the city is now much declined from what
it was formerly, and its trade is become inconlidera-
ble ; yet it is full of gentry, and a wealthy clergy.
The number of the religious houfes in the town and
fuburbs is very great. Here is a caltle of fuch an im-
menfe fize as to refemble a town in its appearance.
It contains the palace, the cathedral, and fome other
churches and houfes; and is defended by walls, towers,
and ballions. This was alfo the place of the king’s
coronation and burial, and in the cathedral were kept
the regalia. The bilhop of Cracow is the firff in the
kingdom, duke of Saveria, and very often a cardinal.
His revenues are larger than thofe of his metropolitan
the archbifliop of Gelha, and are computed to amount
to 40,000 dollars per annum. The cathedral is dedi¬
cated
Cradle
(■Cramp.
—
G R A [ 2289 ] C R A
cated to Sl Staniflaus, wlio was formerly bifliop of this
fee ; and was murdered by Boleflaus II. at the altar,
becaufe he took the liberty to adinonifh and reprove
him ; for which reaton the king and nobles walked in
proceffion to his fkrine the day before the coronation,
with a view to expiate the crime, and often made
very cottly offerings. Maffes are faid in this church
day and night without intermiflion.
CRADLE, a well known machine in which infants
are rocked to deep.
It denotes alfo that part of the ftock of a crofs-bow
where the bullet is put.
Cradle, in furgery, a cafe in which a broken leg
is laid after being let.
Cradle, among fliipwrights, a frame placed under
the bottom of a fhip, in order to conduct her fmoothly
and Readily into the water when Ihe is going to be
launched ; at which time it fupports her weight while
Ihe Hides down the defcent or doping palfage called
the ways, which are for this purpofe daubed with foap
and tallow.
CRAFT, a general name for all forts of veffels em¬
ployed to load or difcharge merchant drips, or to carry
alongfide or return the Itores of men of war. Such
are lighters, hoys, barges, prames, ire. See thofe
articles.
CRAKE, or Corn-crake. See Rallus.
CRAIL, or Careil, a parliament town of Scotland,
fituated on the fea-coalt of the county of File, about
feven miles fouth-eaft of St Andrews. W. Long. 2. 20.
and N. Lat. 56. r 7.
CRAMBE, SEA-CABBAGE, SEA-BEACH KALE, or
sea-colewort; a genus of the filiquofa order, be-
longing to the tetradynamia clafs of plants. There
are three fpecies, all of them herbaceous efculents with
perennial roots, producing annually large leaves re-
fembling thofe of cabbage fpreading on the ground,
with ffrong flower-ftalks and yellowidi dowers. Only
one of the fpecies is a native of Britain: it grows wild
on the Ihores of many of the maritime counties of Eng¬
land, but is cultivated in many gardens as a choice
efculent; and the young robuft (hoots of its leaves and
flower-ftalks, as they iffue forth from the earth after
the manner of afparagus (hoots, are then in the great-
eft perfe&ion for ufe. At this period they appear
white as if blanched, and when boiled eat exceeding
fweet and tender. Its principal feafon for ufe is in
April and May. This plant may alfo be employed in
the pleafure-ground as a flowering perennial, for the
(talks divide into fine branchy heads of flowers. It is
propagated by feeds fown in any common light earth
in autumn or fpring, where the plants are to remain,
which, when two years old, will produce (hoots fit for
ufe, will multiply exceedingly by the roots, and con¬
tinue for many years.
CRAMP, in medicine, a convullive contraction
of any mufcular part of the body. It is common¬
ly removed by .ftretching, and rubbing the part af¬
fected.
Cramp-FI/^, or Torpedo. See Raja.
Cramp-Iron, or Cramps, a piece of iron bent at
VOL. III.
each end, which ferves to fallen together pieces of Cramponce
wood, Hones, or other things. II
CRAMPONEE, in heraldry, an epithet given to a Cr3Dmcr-
crofs which has at each end a cramp or fquare piece
coming from it; that from the arm in chief towards
the (inifter angle, that from tiie arm on that fide down¬
wards, that from the arm in bafe towards the dexter
fide, and that from the dexter arm upwards.
CRANAGE, the liberty of ufmg a crane at a wharf,
and alfo the money paid for drawing up wares out of
a (hip, ire. with a crane.
CRANE, in ornithology. See Ardea.
Crane, in mechanics, a machine ufed in building
commerce for railing large (tones and other weights.
See Mechanics, n°65.
Crane’s Bill, in botany. See Geranium.
Crane-F/j’, in zoology, a fpedes of Tipula.
CRANGANOR, a Dutch factory on the Malabar
coaft in the Eaft Indies, feated in £. Long. 75. 5. N.
Lat. 10. o. See Cochin.
CRANIOLARIA, in botany, a genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies, both natives of hot
climates, and neither of them poffeffed of any remark¬
able property.
CRANIUM. See Anatomy, n° 10.
CRANMER (Thomas), a celebrated archbilhop, re¬
former, and martyr, was the fon of Thomas Cran-
mer, Efq; of Aflacfton in Nottinghamlhire, where our
author was born in 1489. At the age of 14, he was
admitted a ftudent of Jefus’ college, Cambridge, of
which he afterwards became fellow ; but, marrying
the relation of an inn-keeper’s wife, he loft his fellow-
(hip, and quitted the college. On the death of his
wife, he was re-admitted fellow of Jefus’ college. In
1523, he took the degree of dodlor of divinity, and
was made theological ledlurer and examiner. The
plague being at Cambridge, he retired to the hoiife of
a relation at Waltham abbey, where, meeting with
Fox the king’s almoner, and Gardiner the fecretary,
he gave his opinion * concerning king Henry’s mar¬
riage with Catharine, fo much to the fatisfacTon of
his majefty, that he fent for him to court, made him
one of his chaplains, and ordered him to write in vin¬
dication of the divorce in agitation. This book ha¬
ving quieted the tender confcience of the king, he
was defirous that all Europe (hould be convinced of
the illegality of his marriage with queen Catharine ;
and for that purpofe fent Cranmer to France, Italy,
and Germany, to difpute the matter with the divines
of thofe countries. At Nuremberg he married a fe-
cond wife. Being returned to England, in March
IS33, he was confecrated archbifliop of Canterbury ;
in May following he pronounced the fentence of di¬
vorce between the king and queen, and foon after
married the amorous monarch to Ann Boleyn. Being
now at the head of the church, he exerted himfelf in
the bufinefs of the reformation. The bible was tranf-
lated into Englifli, and monafteries diflblved principal¬
ly by his means. In 1536 the royal confcience again
required the affiftance of our archbifliop ; in this ydar
13 L he
• This opinion was, that inftead of difputing about the validity of the king’s marriage with Catharine, they (hould reduce the
matter to this fimple queftion, “ Whether a man may marry his brother'^ wife or no?” When the king was told of it, he faid,
« This fellow has got the right fow by the ear.”
Cranny
CralTula.
C R A [ 2290 ] C R A
he divorced the king from Ann Boleyn ; but, foon af¬
ter, refufing his conient in parliament to the appro¬
priation of the diflblved monalteries to the foie ufe of
the crown, he fell into difgrace, and retired from the
bulinefs of the ifate. Neverthelefs the king continued
to protedl him from his enemies; and at his death ap¬
pointed him one of the executors of his will, and one
of the regents of the kingdom. In 1546 he crowned
young Edward, during whole Ihort reign he promoted
the reformation to the utmoft of his power ; and was
particularly inltrumental in compofmg, corre&ing and
eftablilhing the liturgy by aft of parliament. He had
alfo a (hare in compiling the thirty-nine articles of re¬
ligion. On the acceffion of queen Mary, the poor
archbifhop was accufed of blafphemy, perjury, incon-
tinency, and herefy. He defended himfelf with fome
refolution; but being degraded and mod ignomini-
oully treated, he was at laft flattered and terrified into
an infmcere recantation, and renunciation of the pro-
teftant faith. But this triumph was not fufflcient to
gratify the pious vengeance of the Romilh Mary *.
Cranmer was condemned to the flames, and died a
Protellant. He fuff’ered at Oxford in the year 1556,
in the 67th year of his age. As to his character, he
was doubtlefs a man of learning, an indefatigable and
fincere promoter of the reformation ; neverthelefs he
wanted moderation and refolution. He wrote a great
number of books: many of them he publiftied him¬
felf ; and many of them ftill remain in MSS. viz. two
folio volumes in the king’s library, feveral letters in
the Cotton colle&ion, ire.
CRANNY, in glafs-making, an iron inftrument
wherewith the necks of glades are formed.
CRANTOR, a Greek philofopher and poet, was
born at Solos in Cilicia. He left his native country
where he was admired ; went to Athens, and there
ftudied with Polemon under Xenocrates. He was
confidered as one of the chief fupporters of the Pla¬
tonic fedl; and was the firft who wrote commentaries
upon Plato’s works. He flourilhed 270 years before
Chrift.
CRAPE, in commerce, a kind of fluff, made in the
manner of gauze, with rawfilk, gummed and twifted
on the mill.
CRAPULA, among phyficians. See Surfeit.
CRASIS, from «pa.ywy.t to “ mix the temper of
the blood peculiar to every conflitution.
CRASSAMENTUM, in phylic, the thick red or
fibrous part of the blood, otherwife called cruor, in
contradiftincflion to the ferum or aqueous pait.
CRASSULA, lesser orpine, or live-ever ; a
genus of the pentagynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants. Their are 17 fpecies, all of
them natives of warm climates. Several of them are
cultivated in this country, but require the affillance of
artificial heat for their prefervation. They rife from
one foot to fix or eight in height, and are ornamented
with oblong, thick, lucculent leaves, and funnel-fliaped
pentapetalous flowers of a fcarlet, white, or greenilh
colour. They are propagated by off-lets or cuttings j
and mufl be potted in light, fandy comport, retained
in a funny part of the green-houfe ail winter, and very
fparingly watered. In fummer they may be placed
in the full air in a flickered place, and in dry weather
watered twice a-week.
CRASSUS (Marcus), a Roman conful, enriched
himfelf by trading in Haves : he was fo wealthy, that
he treated all Rome, and gave each citizen a flock of
corn for three months. In the year of the city 668,
he retired, from the tyranny of China and Marius, to
Spain, where Vibicus his friend hid him in a cave for
eight months. From thence he went to Africaywhere
Sylla employed him ; and he fhewed extraordinary
courage againfl the flaves under Spartacus, whom he
defeated, and put thofe that fled to death. He was
afterwards praetor, conful, and triumvir with Caeiar
and Pompey. Joining Pompey, he entered Syria,
plundered the temple of Jerufalem, and carried im-
menfe riches out of Judea. He at length marched
againfl the Parthians; but his army, which was com-
pofed of about 100,000 men, was defeated, and him¬
felf killed, near Sinnaca, a city of Mefopotamia, in the
fifty-third year before the Chriflian sera. It is faid
that his head being carried to Orodes king of the Par¬
thians, that prince caufed melted gold to be poured in¬
to his mouth, faying, that “ he fhould be confumed
by the fame metal, the infatiable defire of which had
made him commit fo many crimes.”
CRATALGUS, wild-service tree, hawthorn,
&c. a genus of the digynia order, belonging to the
icofandria clafs of plants. There are nine fpecies l
all of the tree and fhrub kind, hardy .and deciduous r
valuable for ceconomical and ornamental .purpofes in
gardening. They rife from 5 to 50 feet in height,
adorned with fimple leaves, in fome divided, in others
entire. Their flowers are of a white colour, pen¬
tapetalous, and appear in May and June, fucceeded by
bunches of red berries in autumn. They are railed
abundantly from feeds in the full ground ; and to con¬
tinue the varieties, of which there are a great number
diflinirt, they may be budded or grafted upon flocks of
the common hawthorn ; for all the forts will readily
take upon that flock or upon one another. The haws,
or berries of the hawthorn, never fail to ripen abun¬
dantly ; and may eafily be colle6Ied from the hedges
and inclofures of fields in September and October ;
but all the forts may be had cheap enough from the
nurfery-men ; and the bert time to low them is foon
after they are ripe 5 that is, in October or November,
or very early in the fpring, in beds of light earth,
either broad-caft or in drills, and cover them an inch,
or half an inch deep. But, as moft-of thefe feeds
frequently
* There can be no doubt that her pious majefty was, from the firft, determined to bring Cranmer to the flake; and her reafon is
obvious. If his being a Proteftant had been his only crime, his recantation would have been fufficient. But (he remembered
him as the inftrument of her mother's divorce, and this (he could never forgive. For this crime even his death was an infuffici-
ent atonement. She determined firft to make him renounce hi^ religion, by flattering him with the aflurance of pardon; by
which diabolical policy (he intended at once to humble the prelate, and triumph over the proteftant caufe As to Cranmer’s con-
du£I on this occafion, fome think he afted like a wile man. When the queftion was, recant or hum, he prudently chofe the for¬
mer; but When he found that he had been infarooufly deceived, and that his fate was inevitable, he repented of what he had done,
and heroically thruft into the fire the hand which had figned his recantation. If his zeal had not overpoifed his prudence, he
would have left the kingdom when Mary came to the crown.
CralTus I
Cratasgus
iCratdies
fcrateva.
C R A [ 2291 ] C R A
Frequently remain in the ground till the fccond fpring,
it is therefore cultomary with many, previous to fow-
ing, to bury them in a heap in a trench. This is to
be done in a dry-lying land, and they will be all the
while preparing for vegetation. If buried in Octo¬
ber, November, or December, they may be fuffered
to remain in the ground for a whole year. If they
are then fowed as above dire&ed, they will all molt-
ly come up the fpring after ; though it is obferved,
that thofe fowed at once in the beds an inch or two
deep, generally come up freely the fecond fpring after
fowing, and moil: commonly flioot ftronger and more
regular than when the other method is followed.
CRATCHES, in the menage, a fwelling on the pa-
ftern, under the fetlock, and fometimes under the
hoof; for which reafon it is diftinguiihed into the fi-
new cratches, which affeifi the finew, and thofe upon
the cronet, called quitter-bones.
CRATER, in artronomy, the name of a conftella-
tion. See Astronomy, n° 206.
Crater is alfo ufed to fignify the mouth or open¬
ing of a volcano or burning mountain, from whence
the fire is difcharged. See Volcano.
CRATES, of Thebes, a famous philofopher, was
the difciple of Diogenes the Cynic. It is laid that he
threw all his money into the fea, that he might the
more freely apply himfelf to the ftudy of philofophy.
Others alfert that he placed it in another perfon’s
hands, with orders to give it to his children if they
Ihould happen to be fools: For, (faid Crates), if they
Ihould be philofophers, they will have no need of it :
in which cafe it was to be given to the people. He
flourifhed about 328 years before Chrift.
He ought not to be confounded with Crates, a fa¬
mous academic philofopher, the difciple and friend of
Polemon. This laft Crates had Arcefilaus and other
celebrated philofophers for his difciples ; and flourilh-
ed about 300 years before Chrirt.
CRATEVA, the garlic pear ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of
plants. There are two fpecies, both of them natives
of feveral parts of India. They are both of the tree
kind ; and are chiefly diftinguiihed by their fruit.
The tapia, or garlic pear, has a fmooth round fruit
about the fize of an orange, with a hard brown fliell
or cover, which inclofes a meally pulp, filled with
kidney-fhaped feeds. It hath a ftrong fmell of garlic,
and communicates the fame to fuch animals as feed
upon it. The tender buds from the young branches
being bruifed and applied to the naked Ikin, will bli-
fter as effectually as cantharides. It rifes to the height
of about 30 feet. The other grows to the fize of a
very large tree, with trifoliate leaves, fawed on the
edges. The flowers have the fmell of rofes, and are
fucceeded by an oblong fruit of the fize of an apple,
covered with a very hard bony (hell, and containing a
loft flefhy pulp, having the tafte of quinces. From
the flowers of this plant is obtained by diftillation a
water highly odoriferous and cordial. The pulpy
part of the fruit is prepared into various kinds of mar¬
malades, which are exceedingly agreeable to the tafte,
and are much ufed by the grandees in thofe countries
where the trees are native; they are alfo reckoned
ferviceable in dyfenteries. Both fpecies may be pro¬
pagated in this country by feeds. Thefe are to be
1'own upon a hot-bed in the fpring; and when the
plants come up, they are to be treated in the manner
directed for the Annona.
CRAT1NUS, an ancient comic poet, of whom we
fhould fcarcely have known any thing, had not Quin¬
tilian, Horace, and Perlius, mentioned him, Eupolis,
and Ariftophanes, as the great mafters of what we
call the ancient comedy. It is gathered that he died
in the 87th Olympiad. Suidas tells us that he wrote
21 plays, and that he was fplendid and bright in his
characters.
CRATIPPUS, a celebrated peripatetic philofopher,
was a native of Mitylene, where he taught philofo¬
phy ; but at length went to Athens, where Brutus and
the fon of Cicero, were his difciples. Pompey went
to fee him after the battle of Pharfalia, and propofed
to him his difficulties in relation to the belief of a pro¬
vidence ; when Cratippus comforted him, and by for¬
cible arguments anfwered his objections.
CRATO, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province
of Alentejo, with a rich priory. It is the chief com-
mandery which the knights of Malta have in Portu¬
gal. W. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 38. 50.
CRAVAN, a town of France, in Burgundy, re¬
markable for its good wine, and for a battle fought
there between the Engliffi and French. It is feated
near the confluence of the rivers Cure and Yonne.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 47. 42.
CRAVEN, or Cravent, a word of reproach, ufed
^ in trials by battel. See Battel.
CRAX, in ornithology, a genus of birds, belonging
to the order of gallinas. The bafe of the beak of each
mandible is covered with wax-, and the feathers of
the head are curled. There are five fpecies, viz.
r. The alecator, or Indian hen of Sloane, is about the
fize of a common hen. It is black, with a white belly.
A yellow wax covers about one half of each man¬
dible ; the tongue is entire ; the temples are bare and
black; the tail is roundiffi, and confifts of 14 prime
feathers; and it has no fpur. It is found in the warm
parts of America. 2. The rubra, or Peruvian hen, is
red, with a bluilh head : it is a native of Peru. 3. The
mitu, or Braiilian pheafant, is black, with a dulky
belly, and red wax : it is a native of Guinea and Bra¬
zil. 4. The globicera, has a yellow protuberance be¬
tween the noitrils, and is of a bluilh-black colour : it
is likewife a native of Brazil. 5. The pauxi, or Me¬
xican pheafant of Brilfonius, is of a bluiffi colour, with
blue wax, and the tip of the tail and belly white : it
is a native of Mexico.
CRAY-fish, or Craw-T//^. See Cancer.
C R A Y O N-Painting.
13 L 2
Crat’mu
Cray.
Whether
2292
C R A Y O N-Painting,
Sea.
Whether the painter works with oil-colours, water¬
colours, or crayons, the grand object of his puri’uit is
flill the fame : a juit imitation of nature. But each
fpecies has its peculiar rules and methods.—Painting
with crayons requires in many rel'pefts a treatment
different from painting in oil-colours; becaufe all co¬
lours ufed dry are, in their nature, of a much warmer
complexion than when wet with oils, be. For this rea-
fon, in order to produce a rich picture, a much greater
portion of what painters term catling teitits muft be
applied in crayon-painting, than would be judicious
to ufe in oils. Without any danger of a miitake, it
is to be fuppofed, the not being acquainted with this
obfervation is one great caufe why fo many oil-painters
have no better fuccefs when they attempt crayon¬
painting. On the contrary, crayon-painters being fo
much tiled to thofe teints, which are of a cold nature
when ufed wet, are apt to introduce them too much
when they paint with oils, which is feldom produdtive
of a good effedt.
We fhall now endeavour to give the ftudent fome
directions towards the attainment of excellence in
this art.
Sect. I. Of the Application of the Crayons, with fome
previous Difpofitions.
The ftudent muft provide himfelf with fome ftrong
blue paper, the thicker the better, if the grain is not
too courfe and knotty, though it is almoft impoflible
to get any entirely free from knots. The knots fhould
be levelled with a penknife or razor, otherwife they
will prove exceedingly troublefome. After this is
done, the paper muft be parted very fmoorh on a linen
cloth, previoufly {trained on a deal frame, the fize ac¬
cording to the artill’s pleafure : on this the pidiure is
to be executed ; but it is moft eligible not to parte the
paper on till the whole fubjedl is firft dead-coloured.
The method of doing this is very eafy, by laying the
paper with the dead-colour on its face, upon a fmooth
board or table, when, by means of a brnlh, the back-
fide of the paper muft be covered with pafte ; the
frame, with the {trained cloth, muft then be laid on
the parted fide of the paper, after which turn the
painted fide uppermoft, and lay a piece of clean paper
upon it, to prevent fmearing it; this being done, it
may be ftroked gently over with the hand; by which
means all the air between the cloth and the paper will
be forced out.
When the pafte is perfedtly dry, the ftudent may
proceed with the painting. The advantages arifing
from parting the paper on the frame according to this
method, after the pidfure is begun, are very great, as
the crayons will adhere much better than any other
way, which will enable the ftudent to finilh the pic¬
ture with a firmer body of colour, and greater luftre.
When painters want to make a very corredl copy
df a pidVure, they generally make ufe of tiffany or
black gauze, {trained tight on a frame, which they lay
flat on the fubjedt to be imitated, and with a piece of
Iketching chalk, trace all the out-lines on the tiffany.
They then lay the canvas to be painted on, flat upon
the floor, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines
upon it, and with an handkerchief bruih the whole o-
ver ; this prefents the exact out-lines of the pidture
on the canvas. The crayon-painter may alfo make
ufe of this method, when the fubjedt of his imitation
is in oils ; but in copying a crayon-pidture, he muft
have recourfe to the following method, on account of
the glafs.
The pidture being placed upon the eafel, let the out*
lines be drawn on the glafs with a fmall camel’s hair
pencil dipped in lake, ground thin with oils, which
muft be done with great exadtnefs. After this is ac-
complifhed, take a Iheer of paper of the tame fize and
place it on the glafs, ftroking over all the lines with
the hand, by which means the colour will adhere to
the paper, which muft be pierced with pin-holes pretty
clofe to each other. The paper intended to be uied
for the painting muft next be laid upon a table, and
the pierced paper placed upon it; then with fome
fine-pounded charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub
over the pierced lines, which will give an exadl out¬
line ; bur. great care muft be taken not to brufli this
off till the whole is drawn over with iketching chalk,
which is a compofition made of whiting and tobacco-
pipe clay, rolled like the*crayons, and pointed at each
end.
When a ftudent paints immediately from the life, it
will be moft prudent to make a correct drawing of
the outlines on another paper, the fize of the picture
he is going to paint, which he may trace by the pre¬
ceding method, becaufe erroneous ftrokes of the
fketching chalk (which are not to be avoided without
great expertnefs) will prevent the crayons from ad¬
hering to the paper, owing to a certain greafy quality
in the compofition.
The ftudent will find the fitting pofture, with the
box of crayons in his lap, the moft convenient method
for him to paint. The part of the pufture he is im¬
mediately painting- fhould be rather below his face;
for, if it is placed too high, the arm will be fatigued.
Let the windows of the room where he paints be dar¬
kened, at leart to the height of fix feet from the
ground ; and the fubjetft to be painted fhould be fitua-
ted in fuch a manner, that the light may fall with e-
very advantage^nn the face, avoiding too much fha-
dow, which feldom has a good effedt in portrait paint-
ing, efpecially if the face he paints from has any de¬
gree of delicacy.
Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to
his fubjedl, and appropriate the adlion or attitude pro¬
per to the age of the fubjedl: if a child, let it be
chiklifh ; if a young lady, exprefs more vivacity than
in the majeftic beauty of a middle-aged woman, who
alfo fhould not be expreffed with the fame gravity as
a perfon far advanced in years. Let the embellifh-
ments of the pidlure, and introdudlion of birds, ani¬
mals, be. be regulated by the rules of propriety and
confiftency.
The featuresof the face being corredlly drawn with
chalks, let the ftudent take a crayon of pure carmine,
and carefully draw the noftril and edge of the nofe,
next the fhadow, then, with the faintefl carmine teint,
lay in the higheft light upon the nofe and forehead,
which muft be executed broad. He is then to proceed
gradually with the fecond teint, and the fucceeding
ones, till he arrives at the fhadows, which muft be co¬
vered brilliant,, enriched with much lake, carmine,
and
m. i.
2293
CRAYON
and deep green. This method will at firft offenfively
ftrike the eye, from its crude appearance j but, in the
finiihing, it will be a good foundation to produce a
plealing effect, colours being much more ealily fullied
when too bright, than when the fir ft colouring is dull,
to raife the picture into a brilliant ftate. The feveral
pearly teints diicernable in fine completions muft be
imitated with blue verditer and white, which anfwers
to the ultramarine teints ufed in oils. But if the parts
of the face where thefe teints appear are in lhadow,
the crayons compofed of black and white muft be fub-
ftituted in their place.
Though all the face when fir ft coloured fliould be
laid in as brilliant as poffible, yet each part thould be
kept in its proper tone; by which means the rotun¬
dity of the face will be preferred.
Let the Undent be careful when he begins the eyes
to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine
teint, of whatever colour the irifes are of; he muft
lay them in brilliant, and at firft not loaded with co¬
lour, but executed lightly : no notice is to be taken of
the pupil yet. The ftudent muft let the light of the
eye incline very much to the blue, call, cautioully a-
voiding a flaring white apppearance, (which, when-
once introduced, is feldom overcome), preferring a
broad lhadow thrown on its upper part, by the eye-
lalh. A black and heavy teint is alfo to be avoided in
the eye-brows ; it is therefore bell to execute them
like a broad glowing lhadow at firft, on which, in the
finiihing, the hairs of the brow are to be painted ; by
which method of proceeding, the former teints will
Ihew themfelves through, and produce the moll plea-
fing effe<Sl.
The ftudent Ihould begin the lips with pure carmine
and lake, and in the Ihadow ufe fome carmine and
black; the ftrong vermiilion teints Ihould be laid on
afterwards. He mull beware of executing them with
liiff, harfll lines, gently intermixing each with the
neighbouring colours, making the lhadow beneath
broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He mull
form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown
oker, and greens, varioully intermixed. If the hair
is dark, he Ihould preferve much of the lake and deep
carmine teints therein ; this may eafily be overpower¬
ed by the warmer hair teints, which, as obferved in
painting the eye-brows, will produce a richer elfetft
when the picture is finilhed ; on the contrary, if this
method is unknown or negledlcd, a poverty of co¬
louring will be difcernable.
After the Ihulent has covered over, or as artifts
term it, has dead-coloured the head, he is to fweet-
en the whole together, by- rubbing it over with his
finger, beginning at the ftrongeft light upon the fore¬
head, palling his finger very lightly, and uniting it with
the next teint,. which, he muft continue till the whole
is fweetened together, often wiping his finger on a
tow! to prevent the colours being fullied. He muft
be cautious not to fmooth or fweeten his picture too
often, becaufe it will give rife to a thin and fcanty
effecft, and have more the appearance of a drawing
than a folid painting; as nothing but a body of rich co¬
lours can conftitute a rich effect. To avoid this, (as
the ftudent finds it neceflary to fweeten with the fin-
-Painting.
ger), he muft continually replenilh the picture with
more crayon.
When the head is brought to fome degree of for-
wardnefs, let the back-ground be laid in, which mull-
be treated in a differentmanner, covering k as thin
as poffible, and rubbing it into paper with a leather-
flump. Near the face the paper fliould be almolt free
from colour, for this will do great fervice to the headr
and by its thinnefs, give both a ibft and folk! appear¬
ance. In the back-ground alfo, no crayon that has
Whiting in its compolkion fliould be ufed, but chiefly
futh as are the moft brilliant, and the lealt adultera¬
ted. The ground being painted thin next the hair^.
will give the 'ftudent an- opportunity of painting the
edges of the hair over in a light and free manner
when he gives the finiihing touehes.
The ftudent h iving proceeded thus far, the face,,
hair, and back-ground being entirely covered, he mufl-
carefully view the whole at fonie diftance, remarking
in what refpetft it is out of keeping,, that is, what parts
are top light, and what too dark, being particularly-
attentive to the- white or chalky appearances,, which-
muft be fubdued with lake and carmine. The above
method being properly put into execution, will pro¬
duce the appearance of a painting principally conipof-
ed of three colours, viz. carmine, black,, and white,,
which is the bell preparation a painter can make for
the producing a fine crayon-pifture.
The next llept, is to complete the back-ground and-
the hair, as the dull, in painting thefe, will fall on the
face, and would much injure it if that was compleated-
firft. From thence proceed to the forehead, finilhing
downward till the whole piblure is compleated.
In painting over the forehead the lall time, begin
the higheft light with the moft faint vermiilion teint,.
in the fame place where the faint carmine was firll
laid, keeping it broad in the fame manner. In the
next fliade fucceeding the light eft, the Undent muft
work in fome light blue teints, compofed of verditer
and white, intermixing with them fome of the deep¬
er vermiilion teints, fweetening them together with
great caution *, infenfibly melting them into one ano¬
ther, increafing the proportion of each colour as his
judgment (hall direct. Some brilliant yellows may al¬
io be ufed, but fparingly ; and towards the roots of
the hair, ftrong verditer teints, intermixed with
greens, will be of lingular fervice. Cooling crayons,,
compofed of black and white, Ihould fucceed thefe,.
and melt into the hair. Beneath the eyes, the fweet,
pearly teints are to be preferved, compofed of verdi¬
ter and white, and under the nofe, and on the tem¬
ples, the fame may be ufed ; beneath the lips, teints
of this kind alfo are proper, mixing them with the light
greens and fome vermillion.
In finiihing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them
from any dull contra<5!ed from the other crayons;
then, with the lake may be intermixed the bright
vermillion ; and laft of all, (if the fubjedl fhould re¬
quire it), a few touches of the orange-coloured cray¬
on, but with extreme caution ; after this, fweeten
that part with the finger as little as poffible, for fear
of producing a heavy, di (agreeable effetk on the
cheeks : -as the beauty of a crayon-pifture confifts in
one!
This dirtftion is for the fineft completions, but the Undent muft vary his colouring according to his fubjeft.
^294
C R A Y O N-Painting,
one colour (hewing itfelf through, or rather between
another; this the Undent cannot too often remark, it
being the only method of imitating beautiful complec-
tions.
The eye is the moft difficult feature to execute in
crayons, as every part muft be expreffed with the ut-
moff nicety, to appear finifhed ; at the fame time that the
painter muff preferve its breadth and folidity while he
is particularizing the parts. To accomplifh this, it will
be a good general rule for the ftudent to ufe his crayon
in fweetening as much, and his finger as little as pof-
fible. When he wants a point to touch a fmall part with,
he may break off a little of his crayon againft the box,
which will produce a corner fit to work with in the
minuteft parts. If the eye-laflies are dark, he muft ufe
fiome of the carmine and brown oker, and the crayon
of carmine and black; and withthefe he may alio touch
their is of the eye (if brown or hazel), making a broad
fhadow, caufed by the eye-lafh. Red teints of Vermil¬
lion, carmine, and lake, will execute the corners of
tire eye properly; but if the eye-lids are too red,
they will have a difagreeable, fore appearance. The
pupil of the eye muft be made of pure lamp-black ;
between this and the lower parr of the iris, the light
will catch very ftrong, but it muft not be made too
fudden, but be gently diffufed round the pupil till it is
loft in fhade. When the eye-balls are fufficiently pre¬
pared, the fhining fpeck muft be made with a pure
white crayon, which fhould be firft broken to a point,
and then laid on firm; but as it is poffible they may
be defedtive in neatnefs, they fhould be corredied
with a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by which
means they may be formed as neat as can be required.
The difficulty, with refpedt to the nofe, is to pre¬
ferve the lines properly determined, and at the fame
time fo artfully blended into the cheek, as to exprefs
its projedlion, and yet no real line to be perceptible
upon a clofe examination; in fome circumftances it
fhould be quite blended with the cheek, which appears
behind it, and determined entirely with a flight touch
of red chalk. The fhadow caufed by the nofe is gene¬
rally the darkeft in the whole face, partaking of no
refledlion from its furrounding parts. Carmine and
brown oker, carmine and black, and fuch brilliant
crayons will compofe it be ft.
The ftudent having before prepared the lips with
the ftrongeft lake and carmine, ire. muft, with thefe
colours, make them compleatly correct; and, when
finifhing, introduce the ftrong vermillions, but with
great caution, as they are extremely predominant.
This, if properly touched, will give the lips an ap¬
pearance equal, if not fuperior, to thofe executed in
oils, notwithftamling the feeming fuperiority the lat¬
ter has, by means of glazing *, of which the former
is intirely deftitute.
When the ftudent paints the neck, he fhould avoid
expreffing the mufcles too ftrong in the Item, nor
fhould the bones appear too evident on the cheft, as
both have an unpleafing effeeft, denoting a violent agi¬
tation of the body, a circumftances feldom neceffary to
exprefs in portrait-painting. The moft neceffary part
to be expreffed, and which fhould ever be obferved,
Sedt.
(even in the moft delicate fubjefts), is a ftrong mark¬
ing juft above the place where the collar bones unite;
and if the head is much thrown over the fhoulders,
fome notice fhould be taken of the large mufcle that rife*
from behind the ear, and is inferred into the pit be¬
tween the collar bones. All inferior mufcles fhould be,
in general, quite avoided. The ftudent will find this
caution neceffary, as moft fubjecls, efpecially thin per-
fons, have the mufcles of the neck much more evident
than would be judicious to imitate. As few necks are
too long, it may be neceflary to give fome addition to
the ftem, a fault on the other fide being quite unpardon¬
able, nothing being more ungraceful than a fhort neck.
In colouring the neck, let the ftudent preferve the ftem
of a pearly hue, and the light not fo ftrong as on the
cheft. If any part of the breaft appears, its tranfpa-
rency muft alfo be expreffed by pearly teints; but the
upper part of the cheft fhould be coloured with beauti-
ful vermillions delicately blended with the other.
Sect. II. Of the Drapery.
Dark blue, purple, black, pink, and all kinds of
red draperies alio, fhould be firft tinged with carmine,
which will render the colours much more brilliant
than any other method ; over this fhould be laid on
the paper, the middle teint, (a medium between the
light and dark teints, of which the drapery is to be
painted), except the dark maffes of fhadow, which
ffiould be laid on at firft as deep as poflible; thefe,
fweetened with the finger, being deftitute of the
fmaller folds, will exhibit a mafterly breadth, which
the leffer folds, when added, ought by no means to
deftroy. With the light and dark teints, the fmaller
parts are next to be made with freedom, executing,
as much with the crayon, and as little with the finger
as poffible, in each fold touching the laft ftroke with
the crayon, which ftroke the finger muft never touch.
In the cafe of reflexions, the fimple touch of the cray¬
on will be too harfh, therefore, fingering will be necef¬
fary afterwards, as refleXed lights are always more
gentle than thofe which are direX. With refpeX to
refieXions in general, they muft always partake of
the fame colour as the objeX refleXing, but in the
cafe of fingle figures, it may be ufeful to make fome
particular obfervations.
In a blue drapery, let the refleXions be of a green-
iffi caft ; in green draperies, make them of a yellow
teint ; in yellow, of an orange ; in orange, refleX a
reddifh caft ; in all reds, fomething of their own na¬
ture, but inclined to the yellow : black fhould have a
reddiffi refleXion ; the refleXion of a reddifh teint
will alfo prtefent purples to the beft advantage.
Of whatever colour the drapery is, the refleXion on
the face muft partake thereof, otherwife the piXure,
like paintings on glafs, will have but a gaudy effeX.
Linen, lace, fur, tsV. fhould be touched fpiritedly
with the crayon, fingering very little, except the lat¬
ter ; and the laft touches, even of this, like all other
parts, ■ ffiould be executed by the crayon, without
f'weetening with the finger.
The methods above recommended, have been prac-
tifed by the moft celebrated crayon-painters, whofe
works
* The method with which painters in oils exprefs tranfparency in the lips is, by painting them firll with light Vermillion teints,
jnd, when dry, touching them over with pure lake. ,, , , 4
2295
tea. III.
G R A Y O N-Painting.
works have been held in public eltimation ; but the
knowledge of, and ability to execute each feparate
part with brilliancy and truth, will be found very in-
fufficient to conftitute a complete painter, without his
judgment enables him to unite them with each other,
by corre&nefs of drawing, propriety of light and flia-
dow, and harmony of colouring. In order to accom-
plilh this, the ftudent Ihould carefully avoid finilhing
one part in particular, till he has properly confidered
the connection it is to have with the reft. The ne-
gledl of this is the principal realbn why the perfor¬
mances of indifferent painters are fo deftitute of what
is termed breadth, lb conlpicuoufly beautiful in the
works of great mafters. It mull be granted, that this
obfervation relates more particularly to large compo-
fitions, where a diverfity of figures requires fuch a ju¬
dicious dil’pofition, that each may aflift in the combi¬
nation of a kind of univerlal harmony ; yet, even in
portrait-painting, the ftudent fliould be particularly at¬
tentive to obferve this idea of breadth, if he is de-
firbus of acquiring that importance and dignity which
c'onftitutes excellence in painting.
Sect. III. Of the Materials.
The perfection.of the crayons confifts, in a great
meafure, in their foftnefs; for it is impoflible to exe¬
cute a brilliant picture with them if they are other-
wife, on which account great care Ihould be obferved
in the preparing them, to prevent their being hard.
In all compofitions, fiake-white, and white-lead Ihould
be wholly rejedted, becaufe the llighteft touch with
either of thefe will unavoidably turn black.
The ufual objection to crayon-paintings is, that they
are fubjeCt to change ; but whenever this happens, it is
entirely owing to an injudicious ufe of the above-men¬
tioned whites, which will ftand only in oils. To ob¬
viate the bad effeCls arifing from the ufe of fueh cray¬
ons, let the ftudent make ufe of common whiting pre¬
pared in the following manner.
Take a large veffel of water, put the whiting into
it, and mix them well together ; let this ftand about
half a minute, then pour off the top into another vef¬
fel, and throw the gritty fediment away ; let what is
prepared reft'about a minute, and then pour it off as
before, which will purify the whiting and render k
free from all dirt and grittinefs. When this is done,
let the whiting fettle, and then pour the water from
it; after which, lay it on the chalk to dry, and keep
it for ufe, either for white crayons, or the purpofe of
preparing teints with other colours, for with this, all
other teints may be fafely prepared. If the ftudent
chufes to make crayons of the whiting immediately af¬
ter it is walked, it is not neceffary to dry it on the
chalk, for it may be mixed inftantly with any other
colour, which will fave confulerable trouble. All co¬
lours of a heavy, or gritty nature, efpecially blue
verditer, muft be purified by walking after this me¬
thod.
The ftudent muft be provided with a large, flexible
pullet-knife, a large ftone and muller to levigate the
colours, two or three large pieces of chalk to abforb
the moifture from the colours after they are levigated,
a piece of flat glaft to prevent the moifture from be¬
ing abforbed too much, till the colours are rolled into
form, and vefleis for water, fpirits, be. as neceffity
and convenience fliall direCt.
I. R E D S.
It is rather difficult to procure either good carmine,
or good lake. Good carmine is inclined to the Ver¬
million teint, and good lake to the carmine teint. The
carmine crayons are prepared in the following man¬
ner.
1. Carmine. As their texture is inclinable tohard-
nefs, inftead of grinding; and rolling them, take a
fufficient quantity’of carmine, lay it upon the grind-
ing-ftone, mix it with a levigating knife with fpirits
of wine, till, it becomes fmooth and even. The chalk-
fton’e being ready, lay the colour upon it to abforb the
fpirit; but be careful that it is laid on in a proper fliape
for painting. If it is levigated too thin, the crayons
will be too flat, and if too thick, it will occafion a
wafte of colour, by their adhering to the paljet-knife ;
but praefife will render the proper degree of confif-
tency familiar.
The fimple colour being prepared, the' next ftep is
to compole the different teints by a mixture with
whiting} the proportion to be obferved confifting of
20 gradations to one, which may be clearly underftood
by the following diredions. Take forae of the fimple
colour, and levigate it with fpirits of wine, adding
about one part of walhed whiting to three parts of
carmine, of which, when properly incorporated, make
two parcels. The next gradation fhould be compofed
of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which
four crayons may be made. The third compofition
fhould have one fourth carmine, and three fourths
whiting, of this make fix crayons, which will be a
good proportion with the reft. The laft teint fhould
be made of whiting, very faintly tinged with carmine^
of which make about eight crayons, which will com¬
plete the above-mentioned proportion. As thtfe com¬
pound teints are levigated, they are to be laid imme¬
diately upon the chalk that the moifture may be ab¬
forbed to the proper degree of drynefs for forming
into crayons, which may be known by its lofing the
greater part of its adhefive quality when taken into
the hand : if the confiftency is found to be right, it
may be then laid upon the glafs, which having no
pores will prevent the moifture from becoming too
dry before it is convenient to form it into crayons,
other wife the crayons would be full of cracks and very
brittle, which will be a great inconvenience when they
are tiled in painting.
2. Lake is a colour very apt to be hard, to prevent
which the ftudent muft: obferve the following particu¬
lars :
Take about half the quantity of lake intended for
the crayons, and grind it very fine with fpirits of wine;
let it dry, and then pulverize it, which is eafily done if
the lake is good ; then take the other half, and grind
it with fpirits, after which mix it with the pulverized
lake, and lay it out direcftly in crayons on the chalk. This
colour will not bear rolling. The fimple colour being
thus prepared, proceed with the compound crayons,
as diredted before, and in the fame degrees of grada¬
tion as the carmine teints.
3. Vermillion ; the belt is inclined to the carmine
teint.
2296
C R A Y O N-Painting.
teint. Nothing is required to prepare this colour more
than to mix it on the ftone with loft water or fpirits,
after which it may be rolled into crayons. The dif¬
ferent teints are prdduced by a mixture of the fimple
colour with whiting, according to the proportions al¬
ready given.
II. BLUES.
1. Prussian-blue is a colour very apt to bind, and
is rendered foft with more difficulty than carmine and
lake. The fame method of preparation is to be follow¬
ed with this as directed with refpe& to lake, only it
is necelfary to grind a larger quantity of the pure co¬
lour, as it is chiefly ufed for painting draperies. The
different teints may be made according to neceflity,
or the fancy of the painter.
2. Blue-verditer is a colour naturally gritty,
and therefore it is neceflary to wafli it well. Its par¬
ticles are fo coarfe as to require fome binding matter
to unite them, otherwife the crayons will never ad¬
here together. To accomplilh this, take a quantity
fufficient to form two or three crayons, to which add
a piece of flacked plafter of Paris about the fize of a
pea ; mix thefe well together, and form the crayons
upon the chalk. This blue is extremely brilliant, and
will be of great ufe in heightening draperies, 4?c.
The teints muff be formed with whiting as diredted
in the former inftances, and are highly ferviceable for
painting flelh, to produce thofe pearly teints fo beau¬
tiful in crayon-pidtures. It is not necefl’ary to mix
the compounds with fpirits, as clear waaef will be fuf¬
ficient.
III. GREENS.
Brilliant-greens are produced with great dif¬
ficulty. In Switzerland, they have a method of making
them, far fuperior to ours*. We ufually take yellow
oker, and after grinding it with fpirits, mix it w'itfi the
powder of Pruflian blue, then temper it with a knife,
and lay the crayons on the chalk, without rolling
them. Inftead of this, fome ufe king’s yellow mixed
with Pruflian blue, and others, brown oker and Pruf-
fian blue. The crayons made of the two lafl may be
rolled. Various teints may be produced by thefe co¬
lours, according to fancy or neceflity; fome to partake
more of the blue, and others of the yellow.
IV. YELLOWS.
1. King’s-yellow is the molt ufefuland the moil
brilliant, levigated with fpirits of wine, and compofe
the different teints as before diredled. Yellow oker
and Naples yellow ground with fpirits will make ufeful
crayons.
2. Orange is produced with king’s-yellow and
vermillion ground together with fpirits, and the teints
formed as in other cafes, but no great quantity of them
is required.
V. BROWNS.
I. Cullens-earth is a fine dark brown. After
fix or eight of the fimple crayons are prepared, feve-
ral rich compound teints may be produced from it, by
a mixture with carmine, in various degrees. Black,
* Mr ftonhote, in Hayfe's
may find it very ufeful
are not to be met with
Seft. HI
carmine, and this colour, mixed together, make tffe-
ful teints for painting hair ; feveral gradations may be
produced from each of thefe by a mixture with whit¬
ing. Roman, or brown oker is an excellent colour*
either fimple or compounded with carmine. Whiting
tinged in fever.4 degrees with either of thei'e, will
prove very ferviceable in painting.
2. Umber may be treated in juft the fame manner,
only k is neceffary to levigate it with fpirits of wine.
VI. PURPLES.
Prussian-blue ground with fpirits, and mixed
with pulverized lake, will produce a good purple.
Carmine thus mixed with Pruflian blue, will produce
a purple fomefhing different from the former. Va¬
rious teints may be made from either of thefe com¬
pounds by a mixture with whiting.
VII. BLACK.
1. Lamp-black is the only black that can be ufed
with fafety, as all others are fubjeck to mildew ; but
as good lamp-black is very fcarce, the ftudent will,
perhaps, find it moft expedient to make it himfelf; the
procefs of which is as follows :
Provide a tine cone, fix it over a lamp at fuch a
height that the flame may juft reach the cone for the
foot to gather within it. When a fuflicient quantity
is colletfted, take it out, and burn all the greafe from
it in a crucible. It mult then be ground with fpirits
and laid on the chalk to abforb the moifture. Various
grey teints may be formed from this by a mixture
with whiting, as mentioned in former inftances.
2. Vermillion mixed with carmine.—This is a
compofition of great ufe, and teints made from this
with whiting will be found to be very ferviceable.
3. Carmine and black is another good compound,
of which five or fix gradations Ihould be made, fome
partaking more of the black, and others having the
carmine mort predominant, befides feveral teints by a
mixture with whiting.
4. Vermillion and black is alfo a very ufeful com¬
pound, from which feveral different teints Ihould be
made.
5. Prussian-blue and black is another good com¬
pound, and will be found of fingular fervice in paint¬
ing draperies.
It is impoflible to lay down rules for the. forming
every teint neceflary in compofing a fet of crayons,
there being many accidental compofitions, entirely de¬
pendant on fancy and opinion. The ftudent Ihould
make it a rule to fave the leavings of his colours ; for
of thefe he may form various teints, which will occa-
fionally be ufeful.
Sect. IV. Of Rolling the Crayons, and difpofng them
for Painting.
The different compofitions of colours muft be cut
into a proper magnitude, after they are prepared, in
order to be rolled into paftils, for the convenience of
ufing them. Eadh crayon Ihould be formed in the left
hand with the ball of the right, firft formed cylindri-
cally.
court, Soho, is the original importer of thefe crayons from Laufanne, in Switzerland; the ftudent
to fupply deficicnces of this nature with them, as the ingredients which compofe thefe brilliant crayons
in England.
€ R A Y O N-Painting.
Jea. IV.
cklly, and then tapered at each end. If the compofi-
tion is too dry, dip the finger in water; if too wet, the
icompofition tmift be laid upon the chalk again to ab-
forb more of the moifture. The crayons Ihould be
rolled as quick as poffible ; and when finilhed, mud
be laid upon the chalk again, to abforb all remaining
moidure. After the gradation of teints from one co¬
lour are formed, the done Ihould be well fcraped and
cleanfed with water before it is ufed for another colour.
When the fet of crayons is compleated according to
the rules prefcribed, they fhould be arranged in dalles
for the convenience of painting with them. Some
thin drawers, divided into a number of partitions is
the mod convenient method of difpofing them proper¬
ly. The crayons fhould be depofited according to the
feveral gradations of light. The bottom of the parti¬
tions mud be covered with bran, as a bed for the co¬
lours ; becaule it not only preferves them clean, but
prevents their breaking.
The box made ufe of when the dudertt paints, Ihould
be about a foot fquare, with nine partitions. In the
upper corner, on the left hand, (fuppofing the box to
be in the lap when he paints), let him place the black
and grey crayons, thofe being the mod feldom ufed ;
in the 1'econd partition, the blues ; in the third, the
greens and browns; in the fird partition on the left
hand of the fecond row, the carmines, lakes, vermil-
lions, and all deep reds; the yellows and orange in
the middle, and the pearly teints next; and as thefe
lad are of a very delicate nature, they mud be kept
very clean, that the gradations of colour may be
eafily didinguilhed: In the lowed row, let the fird
partition contain a piece of fine linen rag to wipe
the crayons with while they are ufmg; the fecond,
all the pure lake and vermillion teints; and the other
partition may contain thofe teints, which, from their
complex nature, cannot be clafled with any of the
former.
C R E C R E
CREAM, a general name applicable to all fubdan-
ces that feparate from a liquor, and.are collefted upon
its furface ; but is more particularly applied to the fol¬
lowing.
Cream of Lime, is that part of the lime which had
been difl’olved in the water in its caudic date, but ha¬
ving again attracted fome fixed air fxom the atmo-
fphere, becomes incapable of folution, and therefore
feparates from the water in the mild date of chalk, or
limedone.
Cream of Milk, generally called fimply cream, is the
mod oily part of the milk ; which being naturally only
mixed, and not diflblved in the red, foon feparates
from them, as being fpecifically lighter ; after which
it collects on the furface; from which it is generally
Ikimmed, to complete the difengagement of the oily
from the cafeous and ferous parts, that is to make but-
• See Baf- ter *. Cream of milk is not only an agreeable aliment
ter and when recent, but is alfo ufeful in medicine as a lenient,
Milk. when applied to tetters and eryfipelas attended with
pain and proceeding from an acrid humour.
Ckkma of Tartar.. See Chemistry, n° 292.
GREAT, in the menage, an ulher to a riding ma-
der ; or a gentleman bred in the academy, with in¬
tent to make himfelf capable of teaching the art of
riding the great horfe.
CREATION, is commonly applied to the original
formation of the materials whereof the vifible fydem
of nature is formed. It is reckoned to be an abfohite
and incommunicable prerogative of divine power, as
by creation all things were produced out of nothing ;
the fubfequent creations being only transformations or
changes of drape in what was already made.
There is no fubjeft concerning which there have
been more difputes than this pf creation. It is certain
that none of the ancient philofophers had fhe fmalled
idea of its being poffible to produce a fubdance out of
nothing, or that even the power of the deity himfelf
could work without any materials to work upon.
Hence fome of them, among whom was Aridotle,
aflerted that the world was eternal, both as to its mat¬
ter and form. Others, though they believed that the
Vox.. III.
gods had given the world its form, yet imagined the
materials whereof it is compofed to have been eternal.
Indeed, the opinions of the ancients, who had not the
benefit of revelation, were on this head fo confufed and
contradictory, that nothing of any confequence can be
deduced from them. The free-thinkers of our own and
of former ages have denied the poffibility of creation,
as being a contradiction to reafon, and of conlequence
have taken the opportunity from thence to diferedit
revelation. On the other hand, many defenders of
the facred writings have afferted, that creation out of
nothing is fo far from being a contradiction to rea¬
fon, that it is not only probable but demonftrably cer¬
tain. Nay, fome have gone fo far as to fay, that from
the very infpeClion of the vifible fyftem of nature, we
are infallibly certain that it was once in a Hate of non-
exiftence. It would be impoffible for us, however, to
enter into the multiplicity of arguments ufed on both
fides ; nor can we pretend to fettle it, as the fubjeCl
is confefledly above human comprehenfion. We ihall
therefore content ourfelves with giving a fliort abftraft
of the opinions of thofe that feem to keep the moft
proper medium between the extremes above men¬
tioned.
“ It is confefled (fay they) that creation is utterly
beyond the comprehenfion of man. We readily allow
that the power which gives exiftence to that which
had none before is imperceptible to human wifdom ;
but though it is fo to us, that is no reafon why it Ihould
be fo to the Deity. It is impoffible that a negative ar¬
gument of this kind can be taken for a demonfiration,
unlefs we lay it down as a firft principle, that man is
the wifeft of all poffible beings. Though it is granted,
therefore, that our reafon cannot difeover the world
to be created, this only proves that ws cannot create,
but it cannot in the leaf! affeCl the truth of the facred
writings. Nay, fo far from this being any objeClion
fo the truth of the doCtrine, it is a proof nothing Ihort
of demonftration in its favour. When it is agreed on
all hands that creation out of. nothing is an effeCt of
power whereof man can form no idea either by his
fenfes or reafon, it thence follows, that it is abfolufe-
13 M ly
2297
C R E [ 2298 ] G R E
Credentials ly beyond the power of his imagination alfo to invent
II or relate any thing concerning it. The reafon of this
Cree(*' is, that the imagination of man, as well as his reafon,
is limited by his fenfes; and therefore, we can neither
reafon nor imagine but where fenfe lays a foundation.
But as creation is utterly beyond our fenfes, it is there¬
fore beyond our imagination alfo, and confequently
cannot be a lie of human invention. Hence we lee,
that in fadt it never was difcovered by the moll learned
and.lhnrp-fighted philofophers. The thought is pecu¬
liar to that book which we commonly reckon to be of
divine original; nor is it to be found in human writ¬
ings of any age or country, excepting where it is ma-
nifeftly taken from the fcriptures.”
CREDENTIALS, letters of recommendation and
power, efpecially fuch as are given to ambaliadors or
public minilters, by the prince or Bate that fends them
to foreign courts.
CREDIBILITY, a fpecies of evidence, lefs indeed
than abfolute certainty or demonftration, but greater
than mere poflibility: it is nearly allied to probability,
and feems to be a mean between poffibility and de-
monllration.
CREDIT, in commerce, a mutual truft or loan of
merchandize or money, on the reputation of the pro¬
bity and fufficiency of a dealer. See Commerce.
CRED1TON, a market-town in Devonlhire, con-
fiderable for a good woolen manufactory : it is fitua-
ted about 9 miles north-weft of Exeter, in W. Long.
3. JO. and N. Lat. 50. JO.
CREDITOR, a perfon to whom any fum of mo¬
ney is due, either by obligation, promife, or other-
wife. See Debt.
CREECH (Thomas), an eminent poet in the I7‘h
century, of Dorfetlhire, born 16 J9. He foon began
to diltinguilh himfelf in the republic of letters by the
works which he publilhed ; but they were of no ad¬
vantage to his fortune, fince his circumftances were
always very indifferent. He died in a very unfortu¬
nate manner. In 1700 he fell in love with a woman
who treated him with great negleCI, though fhe was
complaifant enough to' others. He could not digeft
this affront; but Ihut himfelf up in his lludy, where he
hanged himfelf. Others fay, that being naturally mo-
rofe, his refentments frequently engaged him in dif-
putes which in the end proved fatal to him. Mr Dry-
den flyles him a learned and judicious writer. His
tranflation of Lucretius is efteemed. But he wrote
befide this a tranflation of Horace, and many other
pieces.
CREED, a brief fummary of the articles of a Chri-
ftian’s belief.
The molt ancient form of creeds is that which goes
under the name of the apoftolic creed ; befides this,
there are feveral other ancient form's and (battered
remains of creeds to-be met with in the primitive re¬
cords of the church. The firft is the form of apolto-
lical doCtrine, collected hy Origen; the fecond is a
fragment of a creed preierved by Tertullian ; the
third remains of a creed is in the works of Cyprian ;
the fourth, a creed compofed by Gregory Thaumatur-
gus, for the ufe of his own church ; the fifth, the creed
of Lucian the martyr; the fixth, the creed of the apo-
flolical conftitutions. Bdides thefe fcattered remains
of the ancient creeds, there are extant fotrie perfect CretR.
forms, as thofe of Jerufalem, Caefarea, Antioch, i?c. II
The moft univerfal creeds are, the Apostolical, CrePundi<
the Athanasian, and the Nicene creeds.
CREEK, the part of a haven where any thing is
landed from the fea.
CREEPER, in ornithology. See Certhia.
Creeper, in naval affairs, an inftrument of iron
refembling a grappling, having a Jhatik, and four hooks
or claws. It is ufed to throw into the bottom of any
river or harbour, with a rppe faftened to it to hook
and draw up any thing from the bottom which may
have been loll. See Plate LXXXI. fig. 1 r.
CRELLIUS (John), a famous Socinian, born in
IJ90, in a village near Nuremberg. In 1612 he went
into Poland, where the Unitarians had a fchool, in
which he became profeffor of divinity, and minifler
at Crackow, where he died in 1632, aged 42. He
was the author, 1. Of a famous Treatife again!! the
Myllery of the Trinity ; 2. Commentaries on a part
of the New Teflament; and other works. All of
them are fcarce.
CREMA, a city and biftiop’s fee of Italy, capital of
a diffridt of the Milanefe, called from it Cretnafco : it
Hands almolt in the middle between Milan and Man¬
tua, in E. Long. 10. i j. and N. Lat. 4J. 20.
CREMASTER, in anatomy, the name of a mufclo
of the tefticle, of which there is one on each fide. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CREMONA, a city of Italy, and capital of a diftribl
of the Milanefe, called from it the Cremonefe; is fi-
tuated 4J miles fouth-eaft of Milan, in E. Long, 10. 30.
and N. Lat. 4J. o.
CRENATED, in botany. See there, p. 1296,
n° 74-
CRENELLE, or Imbattled, in heraldry, is ufed
when any honourable ordinary is drawn, like the bat¬
tlements on a wall to defend men from the enemies
fliot. This attribute belongs to the arms of fuch as
have defended caftles for their prince or country, or
of fuch as are (killed in architecture.
CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a magiftrate of
Athens, who had the infpedlion of fountains.
CREON, the fir!! annual archon of Athens. See
Attica, n° 28.
CREPANCE, in the menage, a chop or cratch in a
horfe’s leg, given by the fpunges of the flioes of one
of the hinder feet croffing and ftriking again!! the o-
ther hinder foot. This cratch degenerates into an
ulcer.
CREPIS, hawk-weed ; a genus of the polygamia
aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants. There are 14 fpecies, mo!! of them herba¬
ceous annuals, rifing to the height of a foot, or a foot
and an half; and having their branches terminated by
ligulated compound red and yellow flowers. Thefe
are very large, and confift of many flat florets fpread
over one another imbricatim, and when fully blown
appear as if radiated. They are very confpicuous and
beautiful; and appear in June, July, and Augu!!. They
are fucceeded by plenty of feed, which, if permitted
to fcatter on the ground, will produce a number of
young plants without further trouble.
CREPUND1A, in antiquity, a term ufed to exprefs
fuch
C R E [ 2299 ] G R E
rercent fuch things as were expofed along with children, as
I . rings, jewels, ire. lerving as tokens whereby tiiey af-
refcentia. terwards might he known.
CRESCENT, the new moon, which, as it begins
to recede from the fun, fliews a little rim of light, ter¬
minating in points, called horns, that are dill increa-
fing, till it is in oppofition to the fun, at which time
it is full moon, or quite round.
Crescent, in heraldry, a bearing in form of a
new moon.
It is ufed either as an honourable bearing; or as the
difference to diftinguifh between elder and younger
families, this being generally affigned to the fecond
fon and thofe that defeend from him. The figure of
the crefcent is the Turkifh fymbol, with its points look¬
ing towards the top of the chief, which is its moft or¬
dinary reprefentation, called crefcent montant. Cref-
cents are faid to be adoffed, when'their backs are
turned towards each other ; a crefcent is faid to be
inverted, when its points look towards the bottom ;
turned crefcents have their points looking to the dex¬
ter fide of the fhield ; cornuted crefcents, to the II-
nifter fide ; and affronted crefcents, contrary to the
adoffed, have their points turned to each other.
Crescent, a term among farriers. Thus a horfe
is faid to have crefcents when that part of the coffin-
bone, which is moft advanced, fails down and preffes
the foie outwards, and the middle of the hoof above
ffirinks, and becomes fiat, by reafon of the hollownefs
beneath it.
CRESCENTIA, the Calabash-tree ; a genus of
the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia
clafs of plants. There are two fpecies.
1. The cujete, with oblong narrow leaves and a
large oval fruit, is a native of Jamaica and the Leeward
Iflands. It hath a thick trunk covered with a whitifh
bark, which rifes from 20 to 30 feet high, and at the
top divides into many branches, forming a large and
regular head, garnifhed with leaves, which come out
irregularly, fometimes fingle; at other times many
arife out of the fame knot; the flowers are produced
from the fides of the large branches, and fometimes
from the trunk, Handing upon long foot-ftalks. They
have but one petal, which is irregular; and they are of
a greenifh yellow colour, ftriped and fpotted with
brown. Thefe are fucceeded by very large fruit, ge¬
nerally fpherical, fometimes oval; and at other times
they fjave a contracted neck like a bottle ; and are fo
large, that when the pulp and feeds are cleaned out,
the (hells will contain three pints or two quarts of li¬
quid. The fruit is covered externally with a thin fkin
of a greenifh-yellow colour when ripe. When this is
peeled off, there appears a hard ligneous fliell, inclo-
fing a pale yellowiffi foft pulp of a tart unfavoury fla¬
vour, furrounding a great number of flat heart-fliaped
feeds. 2. The latifolia, or broad-leaved calabalh, fel-
dom rifes more than 15 or 20 feet high, with an up¬
right trunk, covered with a white finooth bark, fend¬
ing out many lateral branches at the top, garniffied
with leaves three inches in length, and one and a quar¬
ter broad, ranged alternately. The flowers come out
as in the former fpecies ; but are fmaller, and of a
deeper yellow colour. The fruit of this fort is fome¬
times round,, fometimes oval, but of very unequal
fixes. Both thefe fpecies are eafily propagated by t'rrfs
feeds; but the plants are too tender to live in this coun- II
try, unlefs they are conftantly kept in a Hove. Crete‘
The ffiells of calabalhes are made ufe of for various
purpofes. At Barbadoes, befides drinking-cups and
punch-bowls, there are made of them fpoons, diffies,
and other utenfils for the Haves. Some of thefe fliefis
are fo large, as to be capable of holding 1 j pints of
water. The pulp is feldom eaten, except by cattle in
the time of drought. The wood, which is hard and
fmooth, is made into ftools, chairs, and other furniture.
CRESS, water-cress, or CRESSES, in botany.
See Sisymbrium.
Indian Cress. See Tropsiolum.
CRESSY, a port-town of Picardy in France, about
44 miles fouth of Calais, and 27 north-weft of Abbe¬
ville, remarkable on account of the victory obtained
there over the French, by Edward III. of England, in
the year 1346. E. Long. 2.0. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CREST, in armoury, the top-part of the armour,
for the head, mounting over the helmet, in manner of
a comb, or tuft of a cock; deriving its name from cri-
fta, a cock’s comb.
The creft was for the moft part made of feathers,
or the hair of horfgs tails or mains. The foldiers took
great pride in adorning them.
Crest, in heraldry, the figure placed above the
helmet in an atchievement. See Heraldry, n° 49.
CREST-/iz/A’tt, a fault of an horfe, when the upper
part of his neck, called the crcjl, hangs to one fide :
this they cure by placing it upright, clipping away the
fpare Ikin, and applying plafters to keep it in a proper
pofition.
CRETA, or Chalk, in natural-hiftory. See
Chalk.
CRETE, one of the largeft iflands In the Mediter¬
ranean, lying between 22 arid 27 degrees of eaft lon¬
gitude, and between 35 and 36 degrees of north la¬
titude. According to Strabo, this ifland is 287 miles
in length ; according to Pliny, 270 ; and, according to
Scylax, 312. As to its breadth, it is not, as Pliny ob-
ferves, above'JS miles where wideft ; whence it
was ftyled, as Stephanus obferves, the Long Ifland. It
has the Archipelago to the north, the African fea to
the fouth, the Carpathian fea to the eaft, and the
Ionian to the weft. Anciently it was known by the
names of Aeria, Chthonia, Id<ea, Curete, Mac art'
&c.; but its moft common name was that of Crete.
This laft name is by fome derived from the Curetes,
whom they reckon to have been the firft inhabitants
of the ifland ; by others from the nymph Crete, daugh-.
ter of Hefperus, or from Cretus the fon of Jupiter,
who reigned here.
The firft inhabitants of Crete, according to Diodo¬
rus Siculus, were the Idas Dattyli, who inhabited
mount Ida. See Dactyli.
Next to the Idaei Daftyli were the nine Curetes j
fome of whom are fuppofed to have fprung from the
earth, and others to be defeended from the Idafi Dac¬
tyli. See Curetes.
The Titans were cotemporary with the Curetes ;
and dwelt in the country where the city of GnoflTus
was afterwards built. They were in number fix men,
and five women. Some fayjfiey were the offspring
13 M 3 of
CUE [ 2300 ] C R E
Crete, of Uranus and Terra; others that they were defend¬
ed from one of the Curetes and Titsea ; whence their
name of Titans. The men were Cronus, or Saturn,
Hyperion, Casus, Japetus, Crisis, ahd Oceanus ; the
women were Rhasa, Themis, Mnemofyne, Phasbe, and
Thetis. All thefe were alfo deified, on account of
their ufeful inventions. Saturn, the eldeft, obtained
the kingdom of Crete, and brought his fubje<5ts to a
fomewhat more civilized kind of life than they for¬
merly ufed, which gave occafion to the many fables of
the poets concerning the Golden Age. Hyperion was
the firft who obferved the motions of the fun, moon,
and ftars, meafuring by them the feafons of the year;
and hence he was called the father of the planets.
Latona was the daughter of Cosus and Phoebe, and
Prometheus, fo famous among the poets, the fon of
Japetus. He is faid to have found out the way of
ilriking fire with flint, which gave occafion to the fa¬
ble of his Healing fire from heaven. Mnemofyne in¬
vented many things conducing to help a man’s me¬
mory, whence her name. Themis taught the art of
divination; inftrudfled men in holy rites; and prefcribed
laws for the worfltip of the gods, and for the prefer-
vation of peace and good government among men.
Vella, Ceres, Juno, Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto, are
fuppofed to have been the children of Saturn and
Rhaea. Vella invented the art of building houfes ;
Ceres the ufe of corn ; Neptune the art of navigation ;
and Pluto, funeral folemnities. Hence the latter was
flyled “ Prince of the infernal lhadesand the for¬
mer, “ Prince of the fea.”
Though the illand of Crete is one of the moll re¬
markable in the writings of the ancient hillorians and
poets, its hillory affords nothing interelling. The
only remarkable particulars are the wife inllitutions of
one of the kings, called Minos ; who for his wifdom
and prudence was faid to have been made one of the
judges of the dead. At what time he lived is uncer¬
tain ; but no fooner did he afcend the throne than he
made the happinefs of his people his firll objefl. A
wife fyllem of laws he jullly thought was what alone
could tend to this 5 and to give thefe laws the greater
weight with his fubje<5ls, he fell upon an expedient
pra£lifed by many other legillators, namely, to pretend
that he received them from Jupiter.
This prince occafioned a change in the government,
from a monarchy to a republic, According to the
fpirit of his inllitutions, the government of Crete was
a democracy tempered with an arillocracy. The fu-
preme authority devolved to ten chofen magillrates,
who compofed their fenate. Ten others were after¬
wards aflbciated with them, who were dillinguifhed
by the title of cofmi. The former, called fenators,
were eltabliflied as guardians of the laws and govern¬
ment. They did not rife to that dignity till after they
had exercifed, for a certain time, the office of cofmi;
and the latter were appointed to maintain a jull me¬
dium between the power of the great, and the weak-
nefs of the people of whom they were appointed pro¬
testors. But the power both of the fenators and cof-
uni was limited in fuch a manner, that they could not
enrich themfelves during their adminillration. A ma-
gillrate whofe duty it was to fee that they were put
in execution, was obliged to vifit thrice every year
the towns depending on the government; and he carri- Crete.
ed with him tablets, or plates of brats, on which they ™
were engraved. The Cretan laws feem to have been j
modelled for people who had no other bufinefs than
to attack enemies or to defend themfelves. They
were particularly careful of the education of their
youth. Mailers were appointed, who taught them to
repeat, and fing regularly, hymns in honour of the
gods and of their laws, and of heroes. They even
gave them fome tinclure of polite learning. The
poems of Homer were not unknown in Crete, though
they did not hold foreign poets in much ellimation.
The Cretans, from their infancy, were accultomed
to bear hunger and thirll with patience. As they ad¬
vanced, in years, they were caught the exercifes sf
running, hunting, archery (in which they particularly
excelled), the ufe of the fword, and wrellling. Fo?
their martial improvement alfo the Pyrrhic dance was
inllituted, in which the young men completely armed
imitated the motions and actions of combatants. Thus
they were early accultomed to fee arms, and their
ufe, without emotion. Indeed no people had greater
occafion for learning the art of war than the Cretans,
as they were for many ages in perpetual enmity with
one another, the inhabitants of each city claiming the
fovereignty of the whole ifland. Hence alio they be¬
come very ufeful auxiliaries to other nations. Many
of Alexander’s victories were owing to the Cretan
auxiliaries; and to the archers and {lingers brought
from this illand the Romans were highly indebted, af¬
ter they became acquainted with it.
One of Minos’s inllitntions which Ariftotle much
admires was, that all his fubjedls Ihotild ufe the fame
diet, and take their repalts together, v. ithout any di-
llincilion between poor and rich. By this means a
kind of equality was introduced among them, they
were accuilomed to a frugal and fober way of life,
and friendlhips were cemented among them. The
public defrayed the charges of thefe meals; one part
of the revenues of the Hate being applied to the ufes
of religion, and the falaries of the magillrates; and '
the rell allotted for the public meals. After their re¬
pall, the old men difeourfed of the a<5iions and virtues
of their anceltors, and of fuch as had diflinguilhed
themfelves either by their valour in war, or their wif¬
dom in peace ; and the youth, who were prefent at
thefe entertainments, were exhorted to propofe to
themfelves thofe great men as examples whom they
were to imitate. Another inflitution greatly admired
by Plato was, to infpire the youth with an high re¬
gard for the cuftoms, maxims, and laws, of their own
country; not fuffering them to difpute, or call in que-
llion the wifdom of their conllitution ; but command¬
ed them to look upon the laws as dictated by the gods
themfelves. He enjoined every one to honour in a
particular manner the magillrates and aged perfons ;
and that nothing might leffen the refpeiSt due to their
age, if any defetfl was found in them, it was ne¬
ver to be mentioned in the prefence of their youth.
A cullom ellablilhed by Minos, and afterwards adop¬
ted by the Romans, gives us realbn to believe, that
even the Haves in this illand were better treated than
any where elfe; for, at the fealls of Mercury, the
mailers waited on their Haves at table, and performed
about
C R E [ 2301 ] C R I
st Crew' about them the fame offices which they received from
I II _ their flaves the relt of the year. The laws of Minos
^ nbrat‘Qn. were anciently in lb great repute, that Lycurgus puf¬
fed a confiderable time in Crete, employing liimfelf
in the ftudy of their conflitution, and forming his laws
on the model of thofe which at that time obtained in
the illand. Plato tells us, that, under the government
of fo wife a prince, Crete became the abode of vir¬
tue, probity, and juftice ; and that the laws which he
eftablifhed were fo well founded in juftice and equity,
that they fubfifted in their full vigour even in his time;
that is, above 900 years after they had been firlt pub-
lilhed. It is true the Cretans degenerated by degrees
from their ancient probity ; and at length, by an en¬
tire change of manners, became the moll vicious na¬
tion known either to the Greeks or Latins. Polybius
writes, that the Cretans in his time were interefled
and avaricious to fuch a degree as to think no lucre
fordid. Suidas and Callimachus give them the charac¬
ter of liars and impoltors. Sl Paul quotes againft
them the tellimony of one of their own poets, who
paints them in very difagreeable colours. The im¬
purity of their amoufs is but too well known from the
accounts given us by Strabo, Servius, and Athenaeus.
Thefe authors inform us, that the unnatural palfion of
the Cretans for boys proceeded to a degree of mad-
Inefs, and that from them it overfpreati all Crete. But
this change of manners, in whatever time it happened,
does not affedt the probity of the ancient Cretans, nor
leffen the glory of their legiflature.
Crete was the mofl ancient maritime power men¬
tioned by the Greek hiflorians. It is about 600 miles
in circumference, though not i-20th part fo large as
Great Britain ; and this large extent of coafl was of
See the ar-great fervice in this refpedl*. It was exceedingly
cle Ceaft. fruitful, producing all forts of grain, fruits, &c. The
Cretan wines, particularly, are greatly commended
both by ancient and modern writers. From the fruit-
fulnefs of its foil, and the purity of its air, it had the
appellation of the fortunate ijland; and from its ma¬
ritime power was ftyled etnprefs of the fea. In an¬
cient times alfo it had the name of Hecatoupolis, as
containing 100 cities; poof thefe were built before
the Trojan war, and 10 after it. About 66 years be¬
fore Chrift this ifland fell under the power 6f the Ro¬
mans. In the year of Chrilt 812 it was taken from
them by the Saracens, who built the prefent capital of
the ifland called Chatidax, or Gandia ; from whence
the whole ifland has got its modern name of Candia.
It is now fubjeft to the Turks.
CREW, the company of failors belonging to a fhip,
boat, or other velfel.
CREX, in ornithology, a fpecies of Rallus.
CRIB, the rack or manger of a liable, or the Hal!
or cabbin of an ox. It is alfo ufed for any fmall ha¬
bitation, as a cottage, ire.
Crib, in the .Englilh falt-works, a name given to a
fort of cafe ufed in fome places inltead of the drab, to
put the fait into as it is taken out of the boiling pan.
CRIBBAGE, a game at cards, to be learnt only by
praftice.
CRIBRATION, in pharmacy, the paffing any fub-
• " Do&ores ecclefiae quatuor redarguit," fays an author who
tichrifto habitus eft." Stepb. PaJ'ch. Difquif. lib.. 5.
fiance through a fieve, or fearch, in order to feparate Cribrolum
the finer particles from the grofler. . |
CRIBROSUM os, in anatomy, called alfo os etb- nc ton*
moldes. See Anatomy, n° 16.
CRICELASIA, the driving a ring or hoop. Dri¬
ving a hoop was one of the ancient gymnaltics : this
hoop was as high as the breall of the perfon who ufed
it. It was commended for rendering the limbs pli¬
able, and for llrengthening the nerves.
CRICHTON (James), known by the appellation
of “ the admirable Crichton,” was born in Perthlhire,
at Clunie his paternal inheritance, in the year 1557.
He fludied grammar at the fchool of Perth, and philo-
fophy at the college of S* Andrews.
At the age of 20 years, he thought of improving M'Kenzie’s
himfelf by foreign travel ; and having arrived at Pa- Lives;
ris, the defire of procuring the notice of its univerfity,
or the pride of making known his attainments, indu-
ced him to affix placards on the gates of its colleges, rfr>.uv gj,
challenging the profefTors to difpute with him in all
the branches of literature and the fciences, in 10 lan¬
guages, and either in profe or in verfe. On the day
appointed 3000 auditors aflembled. Fifty mailers,
who had laborioully prepared for the contefl, propo-
fed to him the molt intricate queflions; .and he repli¬
ed to them in the language they required, with the
happiefl propriety of expreffion, with an acutenefs
that feemed fuperior to every difficulty, and with an
erudition which appeared to have no bounds. Four ce¬
lebrated doHors of the church then ventured to enter
into difputation with him. He obviated every objec¬
tion they could urge in oppofition to him ; he refuted
every argument they advanced. A fentiment of ter¬
ror mingled itfelf with their admiration of him. They
conceived him to be Antichrifl*.
This fingular exhibition continued from nine o’clock
in the morning till fix at night, and was clofed by the
prefident of the univerfity, who having expreffed, in
the llrongelt terms of compliment, the fenfe he enter¬
tained of his capacity and knowledge, advanced to¬
wards him, accompanied by four profeffors, and be¬
llowed on him a diamond ring and a purfe of gold.
The acclamations of the fpetflators were frequent
and loud ; and, what completed the amazement of the
univerfuy, during the interval which palled from his
giving the challenge till the day appointed for accep¬
ting it, he applied not to his books. He rather feem¬
ed indullrioully to avoid them. He engaged in par¬
ties at cards, and at dice ; he exercifed himfelf at ten¬
nis, and other youthful fports. This conduct was in¬
terpreted to be in derifion of that learned fociety ;
but whether jullly, or invidioully, we know not; and
the fludents, to fupport or avenge the caufe of their
humiliated teachers, fixed a lampoon on the gate of
the Sorbonne, intimating, that thofe who would fee
this monfler of erudition, mufl look for him at the ta¬
vern or the brothel.
Nor, it is faid, was this formidable trial attended
with any wafle of his fire, or ufual vivacity. It feem¬
ed not an exertion that could fatigue him. The day
after, he attended a public match of tilting; and, in
the prefence of the princes of France, and a great
many
was prefect, “ fapientia comparandus nemini videbatur, pro An-
C R I
Crichton, many ladies, bore away the ring 15 times, and broke
' as many lances on. the Saracen.
About two years after he had atchieved this vic¬
tory at Paris, he appeared at Rome, and gave a fi-
milar challenge to the learned ot that city, i he wits
of Italy difperled papers in ridicule of what they con¬
ceived to be levity or madnefs. But Crichton was
not in the fmallelt degree intimidated. He difputed
in prefence of the pope, of many cardinals, bilhops,
and do&ors of divinity. The univerfality of his know¬
ledge extorted their admiration.
From Rome he went to Venice ; where, becoming
acquainted with Aldus Manutius, he prefented him
with a poem, which is ftill extant*. The treafures
of learning he difcovered in converfation auonilhed
Manutius ftill more than his poem. He mentioned
him as a prodigy wherever he went ; and the other
men of letters and reputation in that place were not
lefs amazed at his acquifitions. It was thought proper
that he fhould be publicly introduced to the doge and
the fenate ; and he addreffed them in a Ipeech, of
which the eloquence and the force, in regard to fen-
timent and expreffion, were not more remaikabie,
than the graces and the propriety with which he pro¬
nounced it. .
We next find him at Padua ; and the reputation of
his merit having reached it before him, the piofeffors
of its univerfity aflembled, on his arrival, in older to
receive him, and to do him honour. On being prefent¬
ed to them, he made an extemporal poem in praife
of the city, and the affembly then preient ; after
which, he fuftained a deputation with them during fix
hours, on whatever they pleafed to propofe in the
whole circle of the fciences. He then, to their fur-
prife, concluded the meeting with an. unpremeditated
oration on the advantages of ignorance.
Some time after, he publicly declared, that he was
ready to detect, before the fame univerfity, the al-
moft infinite multitude of errors which difgrace the
philofophy of Ariftotle ; to expofe the learned arro¬
gance of his commentators ; and to refute the opinions
of many celebrated mathematicians. And this ftupen-
dous talk he offered to perform in the common logical
method, by numbers, or mathematical figures, and by
a hundred different kinds of verfes. Nor was this a
matter of parade and oftentation. We have the au¬
thority of Aldus Manutius, who was prefent at the dif-
putation, that he performed all that he had ptomiled.
Before he left Padua, we are alfo told, that a per-
fon named Archangellus Mercenarius, who had applied
folely to fubje6Is of philofophy, and had acquiied a
high reputation for knowledge in them, difcoveied a
defire to enter into competition with him. Crichton
refufed him not the honour he afpired to ; he even
begged him to propofe the topics of which he was the
moft perfeaiy well informed. This advantage fo ho¬
nourably conferred by Crichton, added to the difgrace
of his adverfary. But Archangellus, on perceiving
his temerity, did much to apologize for it, by a ftrain
of conduct fomewhat uncommon among fcholars. He
acknowledged his defeat and inferiority with candour
and politenefs.
C R I
Thefe attainments of erudition, which cannot be Cskhtofl.
thought of without wonder, were not gained by an in- '
tenfity of labour, that allowed not leifure for amufe-
ment, or that precluded the acquifition of fofter and
more ufeful accomplilhments. Crichton did not confine
himfelf like a pedant to his clofet and his ftudies. He
was ambitious to adorn himfelf with every fort of ex¬
cellence. He moved with gracefulnefs in the dance ;
he was dexterous at every feat of horfemanfhip; he
defigned and painted with admirable fkill; he per¬
formed in vocal and inftrumental mufic with a taffe
and power of execution that are almoft never united.
It is alfo recorded, that lie had uncommon addrefs in
thofe domeftic games, which an indolent ingenuity has
invented, and which enable us to fill up the liftlefs in¬
tervals of life.
His hiftorians have likev/ife been careful to enlarge
on his knowledge and expertnefs in all military exer-
cifes. At tilts and tournaments he met no fuperior.
He never engaged in them without acquiring the vic¬
tory. Nor was it always in mock reprefentations of
battle that he difplayed his prowefs. A prize-fighter,
proud with triumphs obtained in every country of Eu¬
rope, received protection from the duke of Mantua,
and fpread terror through his dominions. Three per-
fons had fallen by his fword ; and the duke repenting
of his ralh concefiion, Crichton proftered him his fer-
vice, and flaked 1500 piltoles on his fuccefs. The
duke was reluctant to oppofe the life of a man fo ac-
complifiied, to that of a murderer and a common ene¬
my of mankind ; yet, relying on the fair report of his
atchievements, he was prevailed with to confent to it.
The time and the place were appointed ; and the
whole court determined to be fpeCtators of the com¬
bat. The prize-fighter advanced with addrefs and
violence. Crichton defended himfelf with a calm in¬
trepidity. In his turn, however, he became the aflai-
lant. The Italian waited with his own fury, was un¬
able to repel palfes preffed with no lefs vigour than
dexterity. He received three thrulls through the bo¬
dy, and expired. Crichton, generous as well as brave,
difdained to appropriate the prize of victory. He
haltened, in the true fpirit of chivalry, to throw it at
the feet of the widows whofe hulbands this gladiator
had aflaffinated.
The duke of Mantua, ftruck with the variety of his
talents and acquirements, made him tutor to his fon
Vincentio Gonzaga, a prince of turbulent difpofitions
and licentious manners. The court approved highly
of his choice ; and Crichton, in order to exprefs his
gratitude, or to excite Hill higher their admiration,
compofed a comedy for their entertainment. This
performance has been extolled as a molt ingenious la-
tire againft mankind; and he himfell was the chief
performer in it. He perlonated with inimitable pio-
priety, and with the molt exadt knowledge, the divine
and the philofopher, the lawyer and the mathemati¬
cian, the phyfician and the foldier. But, while he
was elated with his preferment, and was laughing
over the follies and the abfurdities of men, an unex-
pedted and cruel event was about to terminate the
career of his glory.
One
of his; it is in praife of the city of Venice. His other
* Deled?. Poet. Scot- There is alfo in this colle£Hon another poem
writings, of which Demplter has given a catalogue, have penlhed.
[ 2s02 1
Crick
. II
C rim-tar¬
tars.
C R I [ 2303 ] C R I
One night, during the feltivity of the carnival,
while he rambled about the Ifreets playing upon the
guitar, fix men in maiks attacked him. In this extre¬
mity, he confulted his courage and his ikill; and he
employed them with fuccels. He difperfed his affai-
lants, and difarmed their leader, who, pulling off his
maik, exclaimed, “ I am the prince your pupil.” The
gallant Crichton, recognizing his features, not only
i'pared his life, but taking his fword by the point,
prefented it to him. The prince infenhble of a con¬
duct fo noble, and ftung with jealoufy, or mad with
wine, immediately feized it, and plunged it into his
heart.
Thus perifhed, in the 32d year of his age, the admi¬
rable Crichton. A death io ignoble, fo immature, ad¬
ded to the regret and the lympathy which his lofs
would otherwile have excited. The court of Mantua
ordered a general mourning for him ; a thoufand epi¬
taphs and elegies lamented him ; and paintings of him,
in which he was reprefented on horfeback, with a
iword in one hand, and a book in the other, were
multiplied in every quarter.
CRICK, among farriers, is when a horfe cannot
turn his neck any manner of way, but holds it fore
right, infomuch that he cannot take his meat from the
ground without great pain.
CRICKET, in zoology. See Gryllus.
ikfc/tf-CRicket. See Gryllotalpa.
CRICKLADE, a borough-town of Wiltlhire, fitua-
ted on the river Ifis, about 26 miles louth-weft of Ox¬
ford. W. Long. I. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
CRICOARYTANOIDAiUS, in anatomy, a name
given to two mufcles of the larynx. See Anatomy,
n9 380, a.
CRICOIDES, in anatomy, a cartilage of the larynx,
called alfo the armular cartilage. It occupies the lowelt
part by way of bafe to the reft of the cartilages; and
to the lower part of it the afpera arteria adheres. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CRICOTHYROIDAEUS, in anatomy, one of the
five proper mufcles of the larynx. Ibid.
CRIM-TARTARS, a people of Afia, fo called
becaufe they originally came from Crimea. They
rove from place to place in fearch of paftures, their
houfes being drawn on carts. There are a great num¬
ber of them about Aftrachan, to which place they flock
in the winter-time ; but they are not permitted to en¬
ter the city : for this reafon, they erecft huts up and
down in the open Helds; which are made either of
hull-rulhes or reeds, being about 12 feet in diameter,
of a round form, and with a hole at the top to let out
the Imoke. Their fuel is turf or cow-dung; and, when
the weather is very cold, they cover the hut with a
Coarfe cloth, and fometimes pafs feveral days without
ftirring out. They are generally of fmall ftature,
with large faces, little eyes, and of an olive complec-
tion. The men are generally fo wrinkled in their
faces, that they look like old women. Their common
food is fifli dried in the fun, which ferves them inftead
of bread ; and they eat the flelh of horfes, as well as
camels. Their drink is water and milk, efpecially
mares milk, which they carry about in nafty leathern-
bags. Their garments are of coarfe grey cloth, with
a loofe mantle made of a black flieep’s Ikin, and a
cap of the fame. The women are clothed in white Crim-ta^-
linen, with which likewife they drefs their heads, tary
hanging a great many Mofcovian pence about them; Cr;mg an^
and there is likewife a hole left to flick feathers in. puni{hment
As for their religion, they are a fort of Mahometans ; 
but do not coop up their women like the Turks.
Crim-tartary, or Cr'wiea, is the ancient Taurica
Cherfonefus. It is a peninfula, lying on the Black Sea,
by which it is bounded on the weft and louth, on the eaft
by Circaffia, and the north by the Palus Meotis. It lies
between 44 and 46 degrees of north latitude, and 40
and 44 of eaft longitude. The foil is in many places
very fertile, and, if cultivated, would produce plenty
of corn ; but the Tartars defpife agriculture, and
leave it to their Haves, or to ftrangers.
CRIME and Punishment. The difcuftion and
admealurement of crimes and punilliments forms in
every country the code of criminal law ; or, as it is
more ufually denominated in England, the docftrine of
the pleas oj the crown : fo called, becaufe the king, in
whom centers the majefty of the whole community, is
fuppofcd by the law to be the perfon injured by every
infraction ot the public rights belonging to that com¬
munity ; and is therefore in all cafes the proper profe-
cutor for every public offence.
The knowledge of this branch of jtirifprudence,
which teaches the nature, extent, and degrees of
every crime, and adjufts to it its adequate and neceffary
penalty, is of the utmoft importance to every indivi¬
dual in the ftate. For no rank or elevation in life,
no uprightnefs of heart, no prudence or circumfpec-
tion of conduCl, fliould tempt a man to conclude,.that
he may not at feme time or other be deeply interefted
in thefe refearches. The infirmities of the beft among
us, the vices and ungovernable paflions of others, the
inftability of all human affairs, and the numberlefs un-
forefeen events which the compafs of a day may
bring forth, will teach us (upon a moment’s reflection)
that to know with precifion what the laws of our
country have forbidden, and the deplorable confe-
quences to which a wilful difobedience may expofe us,
is a matter of univerfal concern.
In proportion to the importance of the criminal
law, ought alfo to be the care and attention of the le-
giflature in properly forming and enforcing it. It
Ihould be founded upon principles that are permanent,
uniform, and univerfal; and always conformable to
the diClates of truth and juftice, the feelings of huma¬
nity, and the indelible rights of mankind : though it
fometimes (provided there oe no tranfgreffion of thefe
eternal boundaries) may be modified, narrowed, or
enlarged, according to the local or occafional necefli-
ties of the ftate wkich it is meant to govern. And'
yet, either from a want of attention to thefe prin¬
ciples in the fii ft concoClion of the laws, and adopting
in their ftead the impetuous diClates of avarice, amb£
tion, and revenge; from retaining the difcordant po¬
litical regulations, which fueceflive conquerors or fac¬
tions have eftablilhed, in the various revolutions of go¬
vernment ; from giving .a lading efficacy to fanClions
that were intended to be temporary, and made (as
lord Bacon expreffes it) merely upon the fpur of the
occafion ; or from, laftly, too haftily employing fuch
means as are greatly diiproportionate to their end, in
order
C R I [ 2304 ] C R I
Crime and order to check the progrefs of fome very prevalent
Puniftiment offence; from feme, or from all, of thel'e caufes it
hath happened, that the criminal law is in every coun¬
try of Europe more rude and imperfedt than the civil.
We fhall not here enter into any minute enquiries
concerning the local conhitutions of other nations; the
inhumanity and miftaken policy of which have been
fufficiently pointed out by ingenious writers of their
* As,baron own*. But even with us in Britain, where our
Montef- crown-law is with juft ice fuppofed to be more nearly
^ulsof Bee* a^vance^ t0 perfection ; where crimes are more ac-
caria° irc^' culately defined, and penalties lefs uncertain and ar-
’ ’ bitrary ; where all our accufations are public, and our
trials in the face of the world ; where torture is un¬
known, and every delinquent is judged by fuch of his
equals, againfl whom he can form no exception, nor
even a perfonal diflike;—even here we lhall occafion-
ally find room to remark fome particulars that feem
to want revilionand amendment. Theie have chief¬
ly arifen from too fcrupulous an adherence to fome
rules of the ancient common law, when the reafons
have ceafed upon which thofe rules were founded; from
not repealing fuch of the old penal laws as are either
obfolete or abfurd ; and from too little care and atten¬
tion in framing and palling new ones. The enadling
of penalties to which a whole nation lhall be fubjeCl,
ought not to be left, as a matter of indifference, to the
paflions or interells of a few, who upon temporary
motives may prefer or fupport fuch a bill; but be
calmly and maturely confidered by perfons who know
what provifions the laws have already made to reme¬
dy the mifehief complained of, who can from expe¬
rience forefee the probable confequences of thofe
which are now propofed, and who will judge without
paffion or prejudice how adequate they are to the evil.
Id is never ufual in the houfe of peers even to read a
private bill which may affeCt the property of an in¬
dividual, without firft referring it to fome of the learn¬
ed judges, and hearing their report thereon. And
furely equal precaution is neceffary, when laws are
to be eftablilhed, which tnay a ft e Cl the property, the
liberty, and perhaps even the lives, of thoufands. Had
fuch a reference taken place, it is impoffible that in
the 18th century it could ever have been made a ca¬
pital crime, to break down (however maiicioufly) the
mound of a filhpond, whereby any fifti {ball el’cape;
or to cut down a cherry-tree in an orchard. Were
even a committee appointed but once in an hundred
years to revife the criminal law, it could not have con¬
tinued to this hour a felony without benefit of clergy,
to be feen for one month in the company of perfons
Who call themfelves or are called Egyptians.
It is true, that thefe outrageous penalties, being
feldom or never infliCled, are hardly known to be the
law by the public: but that rather aggravates the
mifehief, by laying a fnare for the unwary. Yet they
BInckJl. cannot but occur to the obfervation of any one, who
Comment, hath undertaken the talk of examining the great out¬
lines of our law, and tracing them up to their prin¬
ciples ; and it is the duty of fuch a one to hint them
with decency to thofe, Whofe abilities and ftations
enable them to apply the remedy. Proceed we now
to confider (in the firft place), the general nature of
crimes.
I. A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an a6t committed, Crime anTf 1
or omitted, in violation of a public law, either forbid- Punifhm*
ding or commanding it. This general definition com-
prebends both crimes and mildemeanours; which, pro- . vj
perly (peaking, are mere fynonymous terms: though,
in common ufage, the word “ crimes” is made to de¬
note fuch offences as are of a deeper and more atro¬
cious dye ; while fmaller faults, and omiflions of lefs
confequence, are comprized under the gentler name
of “ mifdemeanours” only.
The diftintftion of public wrongs from private, of
crimes and mifdemeanours from civil injuries, feems
principally to confift in this : that private wrongs, or
civil injuries, are an infringement or privation of the
civil rights which belong to individuals, confidered
merely as individuals; public wrongs, or crimes and
mifdemeanours, are a breach and violation of the pub¬
lic rights and duties, due to the whole community,
confidered as a community, in its focial aggregate ca¬
pacity. A' if I detain a field from another man, to
which the law has given him a right, this is a civil in¬
jury, and not a crime; for here only the right of an
individual is concerned, and it is immaterial to the
public, which of us is in poffeflion of the land : but
treafon, murder, and robbery are properly ranked
among crimes; fince, befides the injury done to indi¬
viduals, they {trike at the very being of fociety ;
which cannot poffibly fubfift, where actions of this fort
are fuffered to efcape with impunity.
In all cafes the crime includes an injury : every pub¬
lic offence is alfo a private wrong, and fomewhat more;
it affefts the individual, and it likewife affefts the com¬
munity. Thus treafon in imagining the king’s death,
involves in it confpiracy againft an individual, which
is alfo a civil injury : but as this fpecies of treafon in
its confequences principally rends to the diffolution of
government, and the deftrutftion thereby of the order
and peace of fociety, this denominates it a crime of
the higheft magnitude. Murder is an injury to the
life of an individual; but the law of fociety confiders
principally the lofs which the ftate fuftains by be¬
ing deprived of a member, and the pernicious ex¬
ample thereby fet, for others to do the like. Rob¬
bery may be confidered in the fame view: it is an in¬
jury to private property; but, were that all, a civil
fatisfadlion in damages might atone for it: the public
mifehief is the thing, for the prevention of which our
laws have made it a capital offence. In thefe grofs
and atrocious injuries the private wrong is fwallowed
up in the public: we feldom hear any mention made
of fatisfa<5lion to the individual; the fatisfaflion to the
community being fo very great. And indeed, as the
public crime is not otherwife avenged than by forfei¬
ture of life and property, it is impofiible afterwards
to make any reparation for the private wrong: which
can. only be had from the body or goods of the ag-
greffor. But there are crimes of an inferior nature,
in which the public puniftiment is not fo fevere, but it
affords room for a private compenfation alfo : and
herein the diftindlion of crimes from civil, injuries is
very apparent. For inftance; in the cafe of battery,
or beating another, the aggreflbr may be indicted for
this at the fuit of the king, for.difturbing the public
peace, and be punifhed criminally by fine and impri-
fonment:
C R I [ 2105 ] C R I
TtiCrime and fonment: and the party beaten may alfo have his pri-
ii;||,ui)iflimcnt vate rerncciy by action of trefpafs for the injury, which
he in particular fuftains, and recover a civil iatisfac-
tion in damages. So alfo, in cafe of a public nuifance,
as digging a ditch acrofs a highway, this is punilhable
by indi&ment, as a common offence to the whole
kingdom, and all his majelly’s fubje&s: but if any in¬
dividual fuftains any fpecial damage thereby, as la¬
ming his horfe, breaking his carriage, or the like, the
offender may be compelled to make ample fatisfatftion,
as well for the private injury, as for the public wrong.
II. The nature of crimes and mifdemeanours in ge¬
neral being thus afcertained and diftinguilhed, we
proceed in the next place to confider the general na¬
ture of punifhments: Which are evils or inconvenien-
Icies conlequent upon crimes and mifdemeanours; being
devifed, denounced, and influfted by human laws, in
confequence of difobedience or milbehaviour in thofe,
to regulate whofe condudl fuch laws were refpetftively
made. And herein we will briefly confider the power,
the end, and the vieafure, of human punilhment.
1. As to the power of human punilhment, or the
right of the temporal legiflator to infliift difcretionary
i BAifty?. penalties for crimes and mifdemeanours. It is clear,
w Comment, that the right of punilhing crimes againft the law of
nature, as murder and the like, is in a ftate of mere
nature vefted in every individual. For it muft be
veiled in fomebody; otherwife the laws of nature
would be vain and frui tlefs, if none were empowered
; to put them in execution : and if that power is vefted
in anyone, it muft alfo be vefted in all mankind;
fince all are by nature equal. Whereof the firft mur¬
derer Cain was fo fenlible, that we find him expref-
fing his apprehenfions, that whoever fliould find him
would flay him. In a ftate of fociety this right is
transferred from individuals to the fovereign power;
whereby men are prevented from being judges in their
own caufes, which is one of the evils that civil go¬
vernment was intended to remedy. Whatever power
therefore individuals had of punifliing offences againft
the law of nature, that is now vefted in the magif-
trate alone; who bears the fword of juftice by the
confent of the whole community. And to this pre¬
cedent natural power of individuals muft be referred
that right, which fome have argued to belong to eve¬
ry ftate, (though, in fatft, never exercifed by any),
of punifliing not only their own fubjefts, but alfo fo¬
reign embaffadors, even with death itfelf; in cal’e
they have offended, not indeed againft the municipal
laws of the country, but againft the divine laws of
nature, and become liable thereby to forfeit their lives
for their guilt.
As to offences merely againft the laws of fociety,
which are only mala prohibita, and not mala in fe;
the temporal magiftrate is alfo empowered to inffuft
coercive penalties for fuch tranfgreflion : and this by
the confent of individuals; who, in forming focieties,
did either tacitly or exprefsly invert the fovereign
power with a right of making laws, and of enforcing
obedience to them when made, by exercifing, upon
their non-obfervance, feverities adequate to the evil.
The lawfulnefs therefore of punifliing fuch criminals is
founded upon this principle, that the law by which
they fuffer was made by their ownfcpnfent; it is a
Vol. III.
part of the original contrail into which they entered, Crime and
when firft they engaged in fociety; it was calculated Pmnihment
for, and has long contributed to, their own fecurity.
This right therefore, being thus conferred'by uni-
verfal conlent, gives to the ftate exactly.the fame
power, and no more, over all its members, as each
individual member had naturally over himfelf or o-
thers. Which has occafioned fome to doubt, how far
a human legiflature ought to inflict capital punilhments
for pofiti ve offences; offences againft the municipal law
only, and not againft the law of nature ; fince no in¬
dividual has, naturally, a power of infliifting death upon
himfelf or others for actions in themfelves indifferent.
With regard to offences mala in fe, capital punifti-
ments are in fqme inftances inflicted by the immediate
command of God himfelf to all mankind ; as, in the
cafe of murder, by the precept delivered to Noah,
their common anceftor and reprefentative, “ Whofo
“ fheddeth man’s blood, by man fliall his blood be
“ flied.” In other inftances they are inflicted after
the example of the Creator, in his pofitive code of
laws for the regulation of the Jewifli republic ; as in
the cafe of the crime againft nature. But they are
fometimes infliifted without fuch exprefs warrant or
example, at the will and difcretion of the human le¬
giflature ; as for forgery, for theft, and fometimes for
offences of a lighter kind. This pradlice is thus jufti-
fied by that great and good man, Sir Matthew Hale :
“ When offences grow enormous, frequent, and dan-
<l gerous to a kingdom or ftate, deltrucftive or highly
pernicious to civil fbcieties, and to the great inlecu-
“ rity and danger of the kingdom or its inhabitants,
“ fevere punifhment and even death itfelf is necelfary
“ to be annexed to laws in many cafes by the pru-
“ dence of lawgivers.” It is therefore the enormity,
or dangerous tendency, of the crime, that alone can
warrant any earthly legiflature in putting him to death
that commits it. It is not its frequency only, or the
difficulty of otherwife preventing it, that will excufe
our attempting to prevent it by a wanton effufion of
human blood. For, though the end of puniffiment is
to deter men from offending, it never can follow from
thence, that it is lawful to deter them at any rate and
by any means ; fince there may be unlawful methods
of enforcing obedience even to the jufteft laws. E-
very humane legiflator will be therefore extremely
cautious of eftablifliing laws that inflift the penalty of
death, efpecially for flight offences, or fuch as are mere¬
ly pofitive. He will expedl a better reafon for his
fo doing, than that loofe one which generally is given;
that it is found by former experience that no lighter
penalty will be effe&ual. For is it found upon far¬
ther experience, that capital puniftiments are more
effetftual ? Was the vaft territory of all the Ruflias
worfe regulated under the late emprefs Elizabeth,
than under her more fanguinary predeceflbrs ? Is it
now, under Catherine II. lefs civilized, lefs focial, lels
fecure ? And yet we are aftured, that neither of thefe
illuftrious princeffes have, throughout their whole ad-
miniftration, inflicfted the penalty of death: and the
latter has, upon full perfuafion of its being ufelefs, nay
even pernicious, given orders for abolilhing it entire¬
ly throughout her extenfive dominions. But indeed,
were capital punifliments proved by experience to be
13 N a
C R I [ 2306 ] C R I
Crime and a Cure and effectual remedy, that would not prove the
Punifhment neceflity (upon which the juftice and propriety de-
pend) ofinHi&ing them upon all occafions when other
expedients fail. It is feared this reafoning would ex¬
tend a great deal too far. For inftance, the damage
done to our public roads by loaded waggons is univer-
fally allowed, and many laws have been made to pre¬
vent it, none of which have hitherto proved effedtual.
But it does not therefore follow, that it would be juft
for the legiflature to inflidl death upon every obftinate
carrier, who defeats or eludes the provifions of for¬
mer ftatutes. Where the evil to be prevented is not
adequate to the violence of the preventive, a fovereign
that thinks ferioiifly can never juftify fuch a law to the
dictates of confcience and humanity. To fhed the
blood of our fellow-creature is a matter that requires
the greateft deliberation, and the fulleft ConvitStion of
our own authority : for life is the immediate gift of
God to man; which neither he can refign, nor can it
be taken from him, unlefs by the command or per-
miffion of him who gave it, either exprefsly reveal¬
ed, or collected from the laws of nature or fociety by
clear and indifputable demonftration.
We would not be underftood to deny the right of
the legiflature in any country to inforce its own laws
by the death of the tranfgreflbr, though perfons of
fome abilities have doubted it; but only to fuggeft a
few hints for the confideration of fuch as are, or may
hereafter become, legiflators. When a queftion a-
rifes, whether death may be lawfully inflidled for this
or that tranfgreflion, the wifdom of the laws muft de¬
cide it: and to this public judgment or decifion all pri¬
vate judgments muft fubmit; elfe there is an end of
the firft principle of all fociety and government. The
guilt of blood, if any, muft lie at their doors, who
mifinterpret the extent of their warrant; and not at
the doors of the fubjetfts, who is bound to receive the
interpretations that are given by the fovereign power.
2. As to the end, or final caufe, of human puniflt-
ments. This is not by way of atonement or expia¬
tion for the crime committed ; for that muft be left to
the juft determination of the Supreme Being : but as a
precaution againft future offences of the fame kind.
This is effetfted three ways: either by the amend¬
ment of the offender himfelf; for which purpofe all
corporeal punifliments, fines, and temporary exile or
imprifonment, are infliifted : or, by deterring others
by the dread of his example from offending in the like
way, “ ut pcena (as Tally expreffes it) ad paucos,
u metus admmcs, pervcniat ” which gives rife to all
ignominious punifliments, and to fuch executions of
juftice as are open and public : or, laftly, by depriving
the party injuring of the power to do future mif-
chief; which is effefled by either putting him to
death, or condemning him to perpetual confinement,
flavery, or exile. The fame one end, of preventing
future crimes, is endeavoured to be anfwered by each
of thefe three fpecies of punifhment. The public gains
equal fecurity, whether the offender himfelf be a-
mended by wholefome correftion, or whether he be
difabled from doing any farther harm: and if the pe¬
nalty fails of both thefe effects, as it may do, ftill the
terror of his example remains as a warning to other
citizens. The method however of inflkfting punilh-
ment ought alway to be proportioned to the partial- Crime and
lar purpofe it is meant to ferve, and by no means to Punil’hmenlj
exceed it: therefore the pains of death, and perpetual
difability by exile, flavery, or imprifonment, ought
never to be infilled, but when the offender appears
incorrigible : which may be collected either from a
repetition of minuter offences ; or from the perpetra¬
tion of fome one crime of deep malignity, which of
itfelf demonftrates a difpofition without hope or pro¬
bability of amendment: and in fuch cafes it would be
cruelty to the public to defer the punifhment of fuch a
criminal till he had an opportunity of repeating per¬
haps the worft of villanies.
3. As to the meafure pf human punifliments. From
what has been obferved in the former articles we may
colletft, that the quantity of punifhment can never be
abfolutely determined by any ftanding invariable rule ;
but it muft be left to the arbitration of the legiflature
to inflidl fuch penalties as are warranted by the laws
of nature and fociety, and fuch as appear to be the beft
calculated to anfwer the end of precaution againft.fu-
ture offences.
Hence it will be evident, that what fome have fo
highly extolled for its equity, the /:'* talionis or “ law
of retaliation,” can never be in all cafes an adequate or
permanent rule of punifhment. In fome cafes indeed it
feems to be didlated by natural reafon; as in the cafe
of confpiracies to do an injury, or falfe accufations of
the innocent; to which we may add that law of the
Jews and Egyptians, mentioned by Jofephus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, that whoever without fufficient caufe
was found with any mortal poifon in his cuftody, fliould
himfelf be obliged to take it. But, in general, the
difference of perfons, place, time, provocation, or o-
ther circumftances, may enhance or mitigate the of¬
fence ; and in fuch cafes retaliation can never be a
proper meafure of juftice. If a nobleman ftrikes a
peafant, all mankind will fee, that if a court of juftice
awards a return of the blow, it is more than a juft
compenfation. On the other hand, retaliation may
fometimes be too eafy a fentence; as, if a man mali-
cioufly fhould put out the remaining eye of him who
had loft one before, it is too flight a punifliment for the
maimer to lofe only one of his: and therefore the law
of the Locrians, which demanded an eye for an eye,
was in this inftance judicioufly altered ; by decreeing, in
imitation of Solon’s laws, that he who ftruck out the
eye of a one-eyed man, fliould lofe both his own in re¬
turn. Befides, there are very many crimes, that will
in no fliape admit of thefe penalties, without manifeft
abfurdity and wickednefs. Theft cannot be puniflied
by theft, defamation by defamation, forgery by for¬
gery, adultery by adultery, and the like. And we
may add, that thofe inftances, wherein retaliation ap¬
pears to be ufed, even by the divine authority, do not
really proceed upon the rule of exa£t retribution, by
doing to the criminal the fame hurt he has done to his
neighbour, and no more ; but this correfpondence be¬
tween the crime and punifliment is barely a confe-
quence from fome other principle. Death is ordered
to be puniflied with death ; not becaufe one is equiva¬
lent to the other, for that would be expiation, and not
punifliment. Nor is death always an equivalent for
death : the execution of a needy decrepid affaflin is a
poor
C R I
ime and poor fatisfadlion for the death of a nobleman in the
unilhment bloom of his youth, and full enjoyment of his friends,
his honours, and his fortune. But the reafon upon
which this fentence is grounded feems to be, that
this is the highelt penalty that man can inflhSt, and
tends moil to the fecurity of the world ; by remo¬
ving one murderer from the earth, and fetting a dread¬
ful example to deter others : fo that even this grand
inltance proceeds upon other principles than thole of
retaliation. And truly, if any meafure of punifhment
is to be taken from the damage fuftained by the fuf-
ferer, the punilhment ought rather to exceed than
equal the injury: fince it feems contrary to reafon and
equity, that the guilty (if convicted) fliould fuffer no
more than the innocent has done before him; efpeci-
ally as the fuffering of the innocent is pall and irre¬
vocable, that of the guilty is future, contingent, and
liable to be efcaped or evaded. With regard indeed
to crimes that are incomplete, which confift merely
in the intention, and are not yet carried into adt, as
confpiracies and the like ; the innocent has a chance
to frullrate or avoid the villany, as the confpirator has
alfo a chance to efcape his punilhment: and this may
be one reafon why the lex talionis is more proper to
be inflidted, if at all, for crimes that confift in inten¬
tion, than for fuch as are carried into adt. It feems
indeed confonant to natural reafon, and has therefore
been adopted as a maxim by feveral theoretical wri¬
ters, that the punilhment, due to the crime of Which
one falfely accufes another, Ihould be inflidted on the
perjured informer. Accordingly, when it was once
attempted to introduce into England the law of reta¬
liation, it was intended as a punilhment for fuch only
as preferred malicious accufations againft others; it
being enadled by ftatute 37 Edw. III. c. 18. that fuch
as preferred any fuggeftions to the king’s great coun¬
cil (hould put in fureties of taliation ; that is, to incur
the fame pain that the other Ihould have had, in cafe
the fuggeftion were found untrue. But, after one year’s
experience, this punilhment of taliation was rejedted,
and imprifonment adopted in its Head.
But though from what has been faid it appears,
that there cannot be any regular determinate method
of rating the quantity of punilhments for crimes, by
any one uniform rule; but they muft be referred to the
will and difcretion of the legislative power: yet there
are fome general principles, drawn from the nature
and circumftances of the crime, that may be of fome
affiftance in allotting it an adequate punilhment.
As, firft, with regard to the objedt of it: for the
greater and more exalted the objedl of an injury is,
the more care Ihould be taken to prevent that injury,
and of courfe under this aggravation the punilhment
fliould be more fevere. Therefore treafon in con-
fpiring the king’s death is (in Britain) punilhed with
greater rigour than even adlually killing any pri¬
vate fubjedl. And yet, generally, a defign to tranf-
grefs is not fo flagrant an enormity, as the adiual
■completion of that defign. For evil, the nearer we
approach It, is the more, difagreeable and fliocking ;
fo that it requires more obftinacy in wickednefs
C R I
to perpetrate an unlawful action, than barely to en- Crime and
tertain the thought of it : and it is an encourage- Puniftment
ment to repentance and remorfe, even till the laft
ftage of any crime, that it never is too late to retract;
and that if a man ftops even here, it is better for him
than if he proceeds: for which reafons an attempt to
rob, to ravilh, or to kill, is far lefs penal than the ac¬
tual robbery, rape, or murder. But iu the cafe of a
treafonable confpiracy, the objedt whereof is the king’s
majefty, the bare intention will deferve the higheft
degree of feverity : not becaufe the intention is equi¬
valent to the adl itfelf; but becaufe the greateft ri¬
gour is no more than adequate to a treafonable pur-
pofe of the heart, and there is no greater left to infliCt
upon the aCtual execution itfelf.
Again: The violence of paflion, or temptation, may
fometimes alleviate a crime ; as theft, in cafe of hun¬
ger, is far more worthy of compaflion, than when com¬
mitted through avarice, or to fupply one in luxurious
excefles. To kill a man upon fudden and violent re-
fentment is lefs penal than upon cool deliberate malice.
The age, education, and character, of the offender;
the repetition (or otherwife) of the offence; the time,
the place, the company wherein it was committed ;
all thefe, and a thoufand other incidents, may aggra¬
vate or extenuate the crime *.
Farther: As punilhments are chiefly intended for the
prevention of future crimes, it is but reafonable that
among crimes of different natures thofe Ihould be moft
feverely puniflied, which are the moft deftruCiive of
the public fafety and happinefs : and, among crimes of
an equal malignity, thofe which a man has the moft
frequent and eafy opportunities of committing, which
cannot be fo eafiiy guarded againft as others, and
which therefore the offender has the ftrongeft induce¬
ment to commit: according to what Cicero obferves,
“ ea funt animadvcrtenda peccata maxhne, qua diffi-
“ ciltime pracaventur." Hence it is, that for a fer-
vant to rob his mafter is in more cafes capital, than
for a ftranger : if a fervant kills his mafter, it is a fpe-
cies of treafon ; in another it is only murder : to Ileal
a handkerchief, or other trifle of above the value of
twelvepence, privately from one’s perfon, is made ca¬
pital ; but to carry off a load of corn from an open field,
though of fifty times greater value, is punilhed with
tranfportation only. And, in the ifland of Man, this
rule was formerly carried fo far, that to take away an
horfe or an ox was there no felony, but a trefpafs,
becaufe of the difficulty in that little territory to con¬
ceal them or carry them off: but to fteal a pig or a
fowl,which is eafiiy done, was a capital mifdemeanour,
and the offender was punilhed with death.
Laftly, as a conclullon to the whole, we may ob-
ferve, that punilhments of unreafonable feverity, efpe-
cially when indifcriminately inflifted, have lels effect
in preventing crimes, and amending the manners of a
people, than fuch as are more merciful in general, yet
properly intermixed with due diltindlions of feverity.
It is the fentiment of an ingenious writer,, who feems
to have well ftudied the fprings of human adtion, that
crimes are more effedhially prevented by the certain-
13 N 2 ty .
* Thus Dcmofthenes (In his oration againft Midias) finely works up the aggravations of the infults he had received. I was
abufed, (fays he), by my enemy, in cold blood, out of malice, not by heat of wine, in the morning, publicly,before ftrangersas
well as citizens; and that in the temple, whither the duty of my office called me."
t 2307 ]
C R I [ 2308 ] C R I
Crime anil ty, than by the feverity, of puniflnnent. For the ex-
1‘umfhinert cej]^ve feverity of laws (fays Montelcjuieu) hinders
their execution : when the punilhment fiirpalfes all
meafure, the public will frequently out of humanity
prefer impunity to it. Thus alfo the ftatute 1 Mar. ft. 1.
c. 1. recites in its preamble, “ that the Itate of every
“ king conlifts more affuredly in the love of the fub-
“je£t towards their prince, than in the dread of laws
“ made with rigorous pains ; and that laws made for
“ the prefervation of the commonwealth without great
“ penalties are more often obeyed and kept, than laws
“ made with extreme punilhments.” Happy had it
been for the nation, if the fubfequent practice of
that deluded princefs in matters of religion, had been
correfpondent to thefe fentiments of her (elf and par¬
liament, in matters of (late and government! We may
farther obferve,that fanguinary laws are a bad fymp-
tom of the dHtemper of any ftate, or at lead of its
weak conditution. The laws of the Roman kings,
and the twelve tables of the decemviri, were full of
cruel punilhments: the Porcian law, which exempted
all citizens from lentence of death, filently abrogated
them all. In this period the republic flour'dhed: under
the emperors fevere punifliments were revived ; and
then the empire fell.
It is moreover abfurd and impolitic to apply the
fame punilhment to crimes of different malignity. A
multitude of languinary laws (befides the doubt that
may be entertained concerning the right of making
them) do likewife prove a manifed defeid either in the
wifdom of the legiflative, or the drength of the exe¬
cutive, power. It is a kind of quackery in govern¬
ment, and argues a want of folid (kill, to apply the
fame univerfal remedy, the ultimum fupplicium, to e-
very cafe of difficulty. It is, it mud be owned, much
eafier to extirpate than to amend mankind ; yet that
fnagidrate mud be edeemed both a weak and a cruel
furgeon, who cuts off every limb, which through igno¬
rance or indolence he will not attempt to cure. It has
been therefore ingenioufly propofed, that in every
date a fcale of crimes (hould be formed, with a cor-
refponding fcale'of puniffiments, defcending from the
greated to the lead : but, if that be too romantic an
idea, yet at lead a wife legiflator will mark the prin¬
cipal divifions, and not affign penalties of the fird de¬
gree to offences of an inferior rank. Where men fee
no didinftion made in the nature and gradations of
puniffiment, the generality will be led to conclude
there is no didincdion in the guilt. Thus in France
the puniffiment of robbery, either with or without
murder, is the fame : hence it is, that though perhaps
they are therefore fubjeid to fewer robberies, yet
they never rob but they alfo murder. In China mur¬
derers are cut to pieces, and robbers not: hence in
that country they never murder on the highway,
though they often rob. And in Britain, befides the
additional terrors of a fpeedy execution, and a fub¬
fequent expofure or diffedtion, robbers have a hope of
tranfportation, which feldom is extended to murderers.
This has the fame effedt here as in China; in prevent¬
ing frequent affaffination and (laughter.
Yet, though in this indance we may glory in the
wifdotn of our law, we (hall find it more difficult
to juftify the frequency of capital puniffiment to be
found therein ; inflicted (perhaps inattentively) by Crime and ■
a multitude of fucceffive independent ftatutes, upon I’unilhmenr
crimes very different in their natures. It is a melan-
choly truth, that among the variety of adtions which
men are daily liable to commit, no lefs than 160 have
been declared by adt of parliament to be felonies with¬
out benefit of clergy ; or, in other words, to be wor¬
thy of indant death. So dreadful a lid, indead of di-
miniffiing, increafes the number of offenders. The
injured, through companion, will often forbear to pro-
fecute : juries, through compaflion, will fometimes for¬
get their oaths, and either acquit the guilty or miti¬
gate the nature of the offence : and judges, through
compaflion, will refpite one-half of the convidls, and
recommend them to the royal mercy. Among fo:
many chances of efcaping, the needy and hardened
offender overlooks the multitude that fuffer ; he bold¬
ly engages in fome defperate attempt, to relieve his
wants or fupply his vices ; and, if unexpedledly the
hand of juitice overtakes him, he deems himfelf pe¬
culiarly unfortunate, in falling at lad a facrifice to thole
laws, which long impunity has taught him to con¬
temn.
As to the trials and mode of puniffiment, fee Ar¬
raign ment; Trial, and the references there¬
from ; Conviction; Judgement; Attainder;
Corruption of Blood; Forkeiture ; Execu¬
tion ; the feveral Crimes under their refpeedive
names; and Law, Part II. exxii. etfeq. and Part III.
clxxxvi.
Perfotis capable, or incapable, of committing Crimes;
or (which is all one) of fuffering the cenfures of the
law upon the commiflion of forbidden aids.
All the feveral pleas and excufes, which protecd the
committer of a forbidden aid from the punifl>ment
which is otherwife annexed thereto, may be reduced
to this fingle confideration, the want or defetd of voill.
An involuntary a<d, as it has no claim to merit, fo
neither can it induce any guilt: the concurrence of
the will, when it has its choice either to do or to avoid
the facd in quedion, being the only thing that renders
human actions either praife-worthy or culpable. In¬
deed, to make a complete crime, cognizable by human
laws, there mud be both a will and an a<d. For
though, in foro confcient'ue, a fixed defign or will to
do an unlawful aid is aimed as heinous as the commif-
fion of it; yet, as no temporal tribunal can fearch the
heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwife
than as they are demondrated by outward aidions, it
therefore cannot puniffi for what it cannot know. For
which reafon, in all temporal jurifdiidions, an overt aid,
or fome open evidence of an intended crime, is ne-
ceflary, in order to demondrate the depravity of the
will, before the man is liable to puniffiment. And as
a vitious will without a vitious acd is no civil crime,
fo, on the other hand, an unwarrantable aid without
a vitious will is no crime at all. So that to conditute
a crime again d human laws, there mud be, fird, a
vitious will; and, fecondly, an unlawful aid confequent
upon fuch vitious will.
Now there are three cafes, in which the will does
not join with the act : I. When there is a defetd of
underdanding. For where there is no difeernment,
there is no choice; and where there is no choice,
there
C R I [ 2309 ] C R I
(Cjjifon there can be no a61 of the will, which is nothing elfe
but a determination of one’s choice to do or to ab-
jjthe- ftain from a particular action : he, therefore, that has
"" no underftanding, can have no will to guide his con-
du6l. 2. Where there is underitanding and will fuf-
ficierit, refiding in the party ; but not called forth and
exerted at the time of the aClion done ; which is the
cafe of all offences committed by chance or ignorance.
Here the will fits neuter ; and neither concurs with
the a6f, nor difagrees to it. 3. Where the a61ioo is;
conftrained by fome outward force and violence. Here
the will counteracts the deed ; and is lb far from c0n*
curring with, that it loaths and difagrees to, what the
man is obliged to perform. Infancy, idiocy, lunacy,
and intoxication, fall under the firfl clafs; misfortune,
! and ignorance may be referred to the fecond; and
compulfion or neceflity may properly rank in the third.
See Infancy, Idiocy, Drunkenness, Misfor-j:
tune, Ignorance, Necessity.
CRIMSON, one of the feven red colours of the
dyers. See Dyeing.
CRINGLE, a fmall hole made in the bolt-rope of
a fail, by intertwifling one of the divifions of a rope,
called a flrand, alternately round itfelf and through
the Jlrak'ds of the bolt-rope, till it becomes three¬
fold, and affumes the fhape of a wreath or ring. The
ufe of the cringle is generally .to contain the end of
fome rope, which is faltened thereto for the purpofe
of drawing up the fail to its yard, or of extending the
fkirts by the means of bridles, to ftand upon a fide
wind. The word feems to be derived from krinckslen,
(Belg.) to run into twifts.
CRINUM', asphodel-lily ; a genus of the mo-
| nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants. They are very beautiful green-lioufe plants,
rifing two or three feet high, each of them crowned
by a large umbellate duller of fpathaceous, monope-
talous, fongfurmel-fhaped flowers; blue, white, or flri-
ped, having a very fragrant fmell. They are propa¬
gated by ofF-fets.
CRISIS, in medicine, is ufed in different fenfes, both
by the ancient and modern phyficians. With fome it
means frequently no more than the excretion of any
noxious fubftance from the body. Others take the
word for a fecretion of die noxious humours made in
a fever. Others ufe it for the critical motion itfelf;
I, and Galen defines a crifis hi fevers, a hidden and in-
ftantaneous change, either for the better or the worfe,
jfroduefive of recovery or death.
CRIST^E, in furgery, a term for certain excref-
cences about the anus and pudenda. See (the Judex
fubjoined to) Medicine.
CRISTA galh. See Anatomy, n° 16. b.
CRITERION,©! Criterium, a ftandard by which
propofitions and opinions are compared, in order to
difeover their truth or falfehood.
CRITHE, in furgery, commonly called the flye, is
a fort of tubercle that grows on the eye-lids. When
fmall, it is feated on the edge of the eye-lid,; but when
large, it fpreads further. When they do not fuppu-
rate, they become wens. They are apt to difappear
and return. If there Is inflammation, endeavour to
fuppurate it with the white-bread poultice : if it is
•hard, deftroy it with a mixture of equal parts of
hog’s lard and quickfilver. If the lower eye-lid is Crithmsm
affe&ed, the tumour is more frequently on its in- . Jl ~
fide ; and then it is beft to diffe6l it, or to make way CritKifm’
for it outwardly, by applying a cauflic on the fkin juft
upon it.
CRITHMUM, samphire ; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are two fpecies, the principal of which is the
maritimum, or common maritime fampbire. It hath
a fibrous penetrating root; thick, fucculent, branchy
ftalks ri,fing two feet high, winged fiefhy leaves con-
fifling of many fmall fpear-lhaped lobes; with round
yellow flowers growing in umbels. It is produced
naturally pn the fea-coalts among the gravel and rocks.
Its leaves are an excellent pickle ufed for fauces, and
are by piany eaten raw in fallads. It is of a faltifh
relifli, palatable, and comfortable to the flomach. It
is not very eafily preferred in gardens.. It mull be
fown on gravelly or rocky ground, half an inch deep;
in which lituation the plants will come up, and laft
fomp years. The leaves of this plant are faid alfo to
be aperient and diuretic;
CRITICAL days and symptoms, amongphyllci-
ans, are certain days and fymptoms in the courfe of
acute difeafes, which indicate the patient’s Rate, and-
determirie him either to recover or grow worfe. See
[Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
CRITICISM, the art of judging with propriety con¬
cerning any object or combination of objedls. But,
in a more limited fenfe, the feience of criticifm is con¬
fined to the fine arts. The principles of the fine arts
are beft unfolded by ftudying the fenfitive part of our
nature, and by learning what obje6ts are naturally a-
greeable, and what are naturally difagreeable. The
man who afpires to be a critic in thefe arts, muft
pierce ftill deeper : he muft clearly perceive what ob-
je6ts are lofty, what low, what are proper or impro¬
per, what are manly, and what are mean or trivial.
Hence a foundation for judging of tafte, and for rea-
foning upon it : where it is conformable to principles,,
we can pronounce with certainty, that it is correfl;
otherwife, that it is incorre6f, and perhaps whimfical.
Thus the fine arts, like morals, become a rational
fcience ; and, like morals,, may be cultivated to a high
degree of refinement.
Manifold are the advantages of criticifm, when thus'
ftudied as a rational fcience. In the firft place, a
thorough acquaintance with the principles of the fine
arts, redoubles the entertainment thefe arts afford. To
the man who refigns himfelf entirely to fentiment or
feeling, without interpofing any fort of judgment,
poetry, mufie, painting, are mere paftime; in the prime
of life, indeed, they are delightful, being fupported
by the force of novelty, and the heat of imagination :
but they lofe their relifh gradually with their novelty ;
and are generally neglected in the maturity of life,
which difpofes to more ferious and more important
occupations. To thofe who deal in criticifm as a re¬
gular fcience, governed by juft principles, and giving
Hope to judgment as well as to fancy, the fine arts
are a favourite entertainment ; and in old age main¬
tain that relilh which they produce in the morning of
life.
In the next place, a philofophical inquiry into the
principles
C R I [ 2310 ] C R O
principles of the fine arts, inures the reflecting mind
to the moft enticing lort of logic : the practice of
reafoning upon fubjedts fo agreeable tends to a habit;
and a habit ftrengthening the reafoning faculties, pre¬
pares the mind for entering into fubjeds more difficult
and abftrad. To have, in this refped, a juft con¬
ception of the importance of criticism, we heed but
refled upon the common method of education; which,
after fome years fpent in acquiring languages, hurries
us, without the leaft preparatory difcipline, into the
moft profound philofophy : a more effedual method
to alienate the tender mind from abftrad fcience, is
beyond the reach of invention : and accordingly, with
relped to fuch fpeculations, the bulk of our youth
contrad a fort of hobgoblin terror;, which is feldom,
if ever fubdued. Thofe who apply to the arts, are
trainted in a very different manner: they are led, ftep
by ftep, from the eafier parts of the operation, to
what are more difficult; and are not permitted to
make a new motion, till they be perfeded in thofe
which regularly precede it. The fcience of criticifm
appears then to be a middle link, conneding the dif¬
ferent parts of education into a regular chain. This
fcience furniffieth an inviting opportunity to exercife
the judgment: we delight to reafon upon fubjeds that
are equally pleafant and familiar ; we proceed gr-adu-
ally from the fimpler to the more involved cafes: and
in a due courfe of difcipline, cuftom, which improves
all our faculties, beftows acutenefs upon thofe of rea¬
fon, fufficient to unravel all the intricacies of philo¬
fophy.
Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the reafonings
employed upon the fine arts are of the fame kind with
thofe which regulate our condud. Mathematical and
metaphyfical reafonings have no tendency to improve
focial intercourfe; nor are tliey applicable to the com¬
mon affairs of life : but a juft tafte in the fine arts, de¬
rived from rational principles, furniffies elegant fub¬
jeds for converfation, and prepares us finely for ad-
ing in the focial ftate with dignity and propriety.
The fcience of rational criticifm tends to improve
the heart not lefs than the underftanding. It tends,
in the firft place, to moderate the felfiffijiffedions: by
fweetening and harmonizing the temper, it is a ftrong
antidote to the turbulence of paffion and violence of
purfuit: it procures to a man fo much mental enjoy¬
ment, that in order to be occupied, he is not tempted
in youth to precipitate into hunting, gaming, drinking;
nor in middle-age, to deliver himfelf over to ambition ;
nor in old-age, to avarice. Pride and envy, two dif-
guftful paffions, find in the conftitntion no enemy more
formidable than a delicate and difcerning tafte : the
man upon whom nature and culture have beftriwed
this blefling, feels great delight in the virtuous difpo-
■fitions and actions of others: he loves to cherilh them,
and to publiffi them to the world : faults and failings,
it is true, are to him not lefs obvious; but thefe he
avoids, or removes out of fight, becaufe they give him
pain. On the other hand, a man void of tafte, upon
whom the moft linking beauties make but a faint im-
preffion, has no joy but in gratifying his pride or en¬
vy by the difcovery of errors and blemiffies. In a
word, there may be other paffions, which, for a fea-
ibn, difturb the peace of fociety more than thofe men¬
tioned ; but no other paffion is fo unwearied an anfk-
gonift to the fweets of focial intorcourfe : thefe paf-
lions, tending affiduoufly to their gratification, put a
man perpetually in oppofition to others ; and difpofe
him more to rebffi bad than good qualities, even in a
companion. How different that difpofition of mind,
where every virtue in a companion or neighbour, is,
by refinement of tafte, fet in its ftrongeft light ; and
defeats or blemiflies, natural to all, are fuppreffed, or
kept out of view !
In the next place, delicacy of tafte tends not lefs to
invigorate the focial affeftions, than to moderate thofe
that are felfiffi. To be convinced of this tendency,
we need only reflect, that delicacy of tafte neceffarily
heightens our fenfibility of pain and pleafure, and of
courfe our fympathy, which is the capital branch of
every focial paffion. Sympathy, in particular, invites
a communication of joys and forrows, hopes and
fears : fuch exercife, foothing and fatisfadlory in it-
felf, is neceffarily produclive of mutual good-will and
affection.
One other advantage of rational criticifm is refer-
ved to the laft place, being of all the moft important;
which is, that it is a great fupport to morality. No
occupation attaches a man more to his duty than that
of cultivating a tafte in the fine arts: a juft reliffi of
what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in
writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is
a fine preparation for the fame juft relifli of thefe qua¬
lities in character; and behaviour. To the man who
has acquired a tafte fo acute and accomplifted, every
action wrong or improper, muft be highly difguftfult
if, in any inltance, the overbearing power of paffion
fway him from his duty, he returns to it upon the firft
reflection, with redoubled refolution never to be fway-
ed a fecond time : he has now an additional motive
to virtue, a conviCtion derived from experience, that
happinel's depends on regularity and order, and that a
difregard to juftice or propriety never fails to be pu¬
nched with lhame and remorfe.
For the rules of criticifm, applicable to the fine arts,
and derived from human nature, fee Architecture,
Beauty, Congruity, Comparison, Grandeur,
ire.
CRITO, an Athenian philofopher, flouriffied 400
years before Chrift. He was one of the molt zealous
difciples of Socrates, and fnpplied him with whatever
he wanted. He had feveral fcholars who proved great
men, and he compofed fome dialogues which are loft.
CROATIA, a part of the ancient Illyricum, is bound¬
ed on the eaft by Sclavonia and Bofnia, on the fouth
and fouth-weft by Moriachia, and on the north by the
Drave, which feparates it from a part of Sclavonia. It
is about 80 miles in length, and 70 in breadth ; and
was once divided between the Hungarians and Turks;
but now the greateft part of it is fubjetft to the houfe
of Auftria. The Croats derive their origin from the
Sclavi; and their language is a dialed of the Sclavo-
nian, approaching very near to that of the Poles. The
country is divided into two parts ; viz. that under, and
that beyond, the Save. In the late wars between the em-
prefs queen and the king of Pruffia, no lefs than 50,000
men were raifed out of this fmall territory. Both
horfe and foot are good foldiers, efpecially the former.
Crito
c 11 f
C R O [23
Ocodile. The foil, where cultivated, is fruitful in wine and oil,
H &c. but being a frontier country, and much expofed
[r0Cl1s‘ to inroads, it is not lb well cultivated as otherwile it
might be.
CROCODILE, in zoology. See Lacerta.
FoJJite Crocodile, one of the greatelt curiofities
in the folfile world which the late ages have produced.
It is the Ikeleton of a large crocodile, almoft entire,
found at a great depth under ground, bedded in ftone.
This was in the polfelfion of Linkius, who wrote many
pieces of natural hiltory, and particularly an accurate
defcription of this curious foffile. It was found in the
fide of a large mountain in the midland part of Ger¬
many, and in a llratum of black foffile Hone, fomewhat
like our common Hate, but of a coarfer texture, the
fame with that in which the foflile filh in many parts
of the world are found. This Ikeleton had the back
and ribs very plain, and was of a much deeper black
than the relt of the ftone ; as is alfo the cafe in the
foffile fifties which are preferved in this manner. The
part of the ftone where the head lay was not found ;
this being broken off juft at the Ihoulders, but that ir¬
regularly ; fo that, in one place, a part , of the back
of the head was vifible in its natural form. The two
flioulder bones were very fair, and three of the feet
Were well preferved ; the legs were of their natural
ftiape and fize, and the feet preferved even to the ex¬
tremities of the five toes of each.
CROCUS, saffron ; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. Mo¬
dern botanifts allow only one fpecies of this genus,
which, however, comprehends many beautiful varie¬
ties. This hath a fmall roundifti, brown, bulbous root,
comprefled at the bottom. Direbtly from the root if-
fue many long narrow leaves, of a deep green colour;
and amidft them the flowers all protruded from a thiq
univalvular, radical fpatha ; the tube of the flower is
long, Handing on the root, and ferving as a foot-ftalk
to the limb, or upper part, which is eredi, fix-parted,
widens gradually upward, and grows from about three
to five or fix inches high. The varieties of this fpe¬
cies may be divided into two dalles, the autumnal and
Ipring flowering.
The varieties of the firft are the crocus officinalis,
or faffron of the ftiops; for the properties of which,
and its cultivation for fale, fee the article Saffron.
This hath a long-tubed bluilh purple flower, with three
ftigmata of a fine golden colour. Other varieties are
the autumnal fmall blue crocus; deep blue, Iky-blue,
whitilh blue, many-flowered wbitilh blue, purple,
large rulh-leaved purple, autumnal white crocus, and
autumnal yellow crocus. The varieties of the vernal
crocus are, the fmall and large, and golden yellow
crocufes, and the yellow black-ftriped, the yellow pur-
ple-ftriped and double cloth of gold ones; the white,
white purple-ftriped, white purple bottom, white
black-ftriped, whitifti cream-coloured, whitilh afti-co-
loured, little narrow-leafed white, and white blue-
ftriped crocufes. Befides thefe there are a great ma¬
ny others of a blue and purple colour finely varie¬
gated.
The autumnal crocufes flower about the beginning
of Odober, but never ripen their feeds in this coun¬
try. They are very beautiful if fowu in patches in
11 ] c r o
the front of borders or in beds by themfelves, and ve- Crocus
ry proper ornaments for gardens of every extent, as .11
coming up at a time when moil other flowers are on ^r0li'a°e'
the decay. They grow freely in any kind of foil, and
may be propagated by offsets. The vernal kinds
flower in February, March, and April. They alfo
are very ornamental, and are fo hardy that they will
grow almoft any where. They are propagated by
feeds, which the plants produce in plenty.
Crocus, in chemiftry, denotes any metal calcined
to a red or deep yellow colour.
Crocus Metallorum, an emetic preparation of an¬
timony and nitre. See Chemistry, n° 4J9.
CRCESUS, the fifth and laft king of Lydia, 544 B. C.
He made the Greeks of Afia tributary ; fubdued the
Phrygians, Myfians, Paphlagonians, Thracians, and Ca-
rians; amafled together immenfe riches; and became
one of the moil powerful and magnificent princes in
the world. He drew the learned to his court, and
took a pleafure in converfing with them. One day
as he was enumerating his riches, and magnifying the
felicity of his reign, Solon gave a check to his vanity,
by faying, that we ought to conftder no man happy be¬
fore his death. Croefus ridiculed this refledtion, but
foon he himfelf experienced its truth: for, being de¬
feated by Cyrus, he fhut himfelf up in Sardis, the ca¬
pital of his empire. The city was taken by aflault;
and, as a Perfian foldier was going to kill Croefus,
that prince’s only furviving fon, who had hitherto
been dumb, terrified at his danger, cried. Stop, fol¬
dier, and lay not thy hand on Crcefus. Crcefus was then
conduced to Cyrus, who caufed him to be laid on a
funeral pile ; when, refledting on Solon’s words, he
cried, 0 Solon, Solon! Cyrus defired to know what
he meant; and, being told the reafon of this excla¬
mation, was fo moved, that he recalled his fentence,
and treated him with great refpedt.
CROFT, a little dole adjoining to a dwelling-houfe,
and inclofed for pafture or arable land, or any other
purpole.
CROISADE, or Crusade, a name given to the
expeditions of the Chriftians againft the infidels for
the conqueft of Paleftine.
Thefe expeditions commenced in the year ropr.
The foundation of them was a fuperftitious veneration
for thofe places where our Saviour performed his mi¬
racles, and accomplilhed the work of man’s redemp¬
tion. Jerufalem had been taken, and Paleftine con¬
quered, by Omar the fucceffor of Abu Beer*, who * See Ar.;-
fucceeded Mahomet himfelf. This proved a confi- ^at nS
derable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from
all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy fe-
pulchre. They had, however, ftill been allowed this
liberty, on paying a fmall tribute to the Saracen ca¬
liphs, who were not much inclined to moleft them.
But, in 1065, this city changed its mafters. The
Turks took it from the Saracens; and being much
more fierce and barbarous than the former, the pil¬
grims now found they could no longer perform their
devotions with the fame fafety they did before. An
opinion was about this time alfo prevalent in Europe,
which made thefe pilgrimages much more frequent
than formerly. It was fomehow or other imagined,
that the thoufand years mentioned in the 20th chapter
C R O [ 22
Croifade. of the Revelations, were fulfilled ; that Chrift was
  — foon to make his appearance in Palefline, to judge the
World ; and confequently that journeys to that country
were in the highell degree meritorious, and even ab-
folutely neceflary. The multitudes of pilgrims which
now flocked to Paleftine meeting with a very rough
reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with com¬
plaints againft thofe infidels who profaned the holy
city by their prefence, and derided the facred myfte-
ries of Chriftianity even in the place where they were
fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a defign of
uniting all the princes of Crhiftendom againft the Ma¬
hometans ; but his exorbitant encroachments upon
the civil power of princes had created him fo many
enemies, and rendered his fchemes fo fufpicious, that
he was not able to make great progrefs in this under¬
taking. The work was referred for a meaner in-
ftrument.
Peter, commonly called the hermit, a native of A-
miens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeru-
falem ; and being deeply affected with the dangers to
which that aft of piety now expofed the pilgrims, as
well as with the oppreflion under which the eaftern
Chriftians now laboured, formed the bold, and, in all
appearance, imprafticable defign of leading into Afia,
from the fartheft extremities of the Weft, armies fuf-
ficient to fubdue thofe potent and warlike nations that
now held the Holy Land in flavery. He propofed
his fcheme to Martin II. who then filled the papal
chair; but he, though.fenfible enough of the advan¬
tages which muft accrue to himfelf from fuch an un¬
dertaking, refolved not to intcrpofe his authority till
he faw a greater probability of fuccefs. He fummon-
ed, at Placentia, a council confifting of 4000 ecclefia-
ftics, and 30,000 feculars. As no hall could be found
large enough to contain fuch a multitude, the affembly
was held in a plain. Here the Pope himfelf, as well
as Peter, harangued the people, reprefenting the dif-
mal fituation of their brethren in the Eaft, and the in-
dignity offered to the Chriftian name in allowing the
holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. Thefe
fpeeches were fo agreeable to thofe who heard them,
that the whole multitude fuddenly and violently decla¬
red for the war, and folemnly devoted themlelves to
perform this fervice, which they believed to be fo
meritorious in the fight of God.
But though Italy feemed to have embraced the de¬
fign with ardour, Martin yet thought it necelfary, in
order to infure perfeft fuccefs, to engage the greater
and more warlike nations in the fame enterprize. Ha¬
ving therefore exhorted Peter to vifit the chief cities
and fovereigns of Chriftendom, he fummoned another
council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this
great and pious deiign being now univerfally diffufed,
procured the attendance of the greateft prelates,
nobles, and princes ; and when the Pope and the her¬
mit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole
aflembly, as if impelled by an immediate infpiration,
exclaimed with one voice, “ It is the will of God !
it is the will of God !’‘ Thefe words were deemed fo
memorable, and fo much the effeft of a divine impulfe,
that they were employed as the fignal of rendezvous
and battle in all future exploits of thefe adventurers.
Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmoft
12 ] C R O
ardour, and a crofs was affixed to their right flioulder
by all who inlifted in this holy enterprize.
At this time Europe was funk in the moft profound
ignorance and fuperftition. The ecclefiaftics had gain¬
ed the greateft afeendant over the human mind ; and
the people, who committed the moft horrid crimes
and diforders, knew of no other expiation than the
obfervances impofed on them by their fpiritual pallors.
But amidft the abjeft fuperftition which now pre¬
vailed, the military Ipirit had alfo univerfally diffufed
itfelf; and, though not fupported by art or difeipline,
was become the general paffion of the nations govern¬
ed by the feudal law. All the great lords pofiefled
the right of peace and war. They were engaged in
continual hoftilities with one another: the open coun¬
try was become a feene of outrage and diforddr: the
cities, ftill mean and poor, were neither guarded by
walls, nor protefted by privileges. Every man was
obliged to depend for fafety on his own force, of his
private alliances; and valour was the only excellence
which was held in efteem, or gave one man the pre¬
eminence above another. When all the particular fu-
perftitions, therefore, were here united in one great
objeft, the ardour for private hoftilities took the fame
direftion ; “ and all Europe, (as the princefs Anna
Comnena exprefles herfelf), torn from its foundations,
feemed ready to precipitate itfelf in one united body
upon Afia.”
All orders of men, now deeming the croifades the
only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way
with their fwords to the holy city. Nobles, artifans,
peafants, even priefts, inrolled their names; and to
decline this fervice was branded with the reproach of
impiety or cowardice. The nobles who enlifted them-
felves were moved, by the romantic fpirit of the age,
to hope for opulent eftablifhments in the Eaft,' the
chief feat of arts and commerce at that time. In pur-
fuit of thefe chimerical projefts, they fold at the
loweft price their ancient caftles and inheritances,
which had now loft all value in their eyes. The in¬
firm and aged contributed to the expedition by pre-
fents and money ; and many of them, not fatisfied
with this, attended it in perfon, being determined, if
poffible, to breathe their laft in fight of that city where
their Saviour had died for them. Women themfelves,
concealing their fex under the difguife of armour, at¬
tended the camp ; and commonly forgot their duty
ftill more, by proftituting themfelves to the army.
The greateft criminals were forward in a fervice
which they confidered as an expiation for all crimes;
and the moft enormous diforders were, during the
courfe of thefe expeditions, committed by men inured
to wickednefs, encouraged by example, and impelled
by necelfity. The multitude of adventurers fooh be¬
came fo great, that their more fagacious leaders be¬
came apprehenfive left the greatnefsof the armament
would be the caufe of its own difappointmeht. For
this reafon they permitted an undifeiplined multitude,
computed at 300,000 men, to go before them under
the command of Peter the hermit, and Gautier, or
Walter, furnamed “ the moneylefs,” from his being
a foldier of fortune. Thefe took the road towards
Conftantinople, through Hungary and Bulgaria ; and,
trufting that heaven, by fupernatural affiftance, would
fnpply
C R O [ 23
forfade. fupply all their neceflities, they made no provifion for
fubfiftence on their march. They foon found them-
felves obliged to obtain by plunder what they vainly
expected from miracles; and the enraged inhabitants
of the countries through which they paiTed, attacked
the diforderly multitude, and flaughtered them with¬
out reliftance. The more difciplined armies followed
after ; and, pafling the ftraits at Conftantinople, they
were muftered in the plains of Afia, and amounted in
the whole to 700,000 men.
This rage for conquering the Holy Land did not
ceafe with this expedition. It continued for very
near two centuries, and eight different croifades were
fet on foot, one after another. The firft was in the
year 1096, as already obferved. The princes enga¬
ged in it were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother
to Philip I. king of France ; Robert, duke of Nor¬
mandy ; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Raimond, earl of
Touloufe and S‘ Giles; Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Euftace ; Ste¬
phen, earl of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, count of S'
Paul; with a great number of other lords. The ge¬
neral rendezvous was at Conftantinople. In this ex¬
pedition, the famous Godfrey befieged and took the
city of Nice. The city of Jerufalem was taken by
the confederated army, and Godfrey chofen king.
The Chriftians gained the famous battle of Afcalon
againft the foldan of Egypt; which put an end to the
firft croifade.
The fecond croifade, in the year 1144, was headed
by the emperor Conrad III. and Lewis VII. king of
France. The emperor’s army was either deftroyed
by the enemy, or perifhed through the treachery of
Manuel the Greek emperor; and the fecond army,
through the unfaithfulnefs of the Chriftians of Syria,
was forced to break up the fiege of Damafcus.
The third croifade, in the year 1188, immediately
followed the taking of Jerufalem by Saladin the foldan
of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedition
were, the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa ; Frederic,
duke of Suabia, his fecond fon; Leopald, duke of Au-
ftria ; Berthold, duke of Moravia ; Herman, marquis
of Baden ; the counts of Naflau, Thuringia, Milfen,
and Holland ; and above 60 other princes of the em¬
pire ; with the bifliops of Befan$on, Cambray, Mun-
fter, Ofnaburg, Miffen, Paftau, Viiburg, and ieveral
others. In this expedition; the emperor Frederic de¬
feated the foldan of Iconium : his fon Frederic, joined
by Guy Lufignon, king of Jerufalem, in vain endea¬
voured to take Acre, or Ptolemais. During Which
tranfa£tions, Philip Auguftus, king of France, and Ri¬
chard II. king of England, joined the croifade ; by
which means the Chriftian army confifted of 300,000
fighting men : but, great difputes happening between
the kings of France and England, the former quitted
the Holy Land, and Richard concluded a peace with
Saladin.
The fourth croifade was undertaken, in the year
1195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin’s death.
In this expedition, the Chriftians gained feveral battles
againft the infidels, took a great many towns, and
were in the way of fuccefs, when the death of the em¬
peror obliged them to quit the Holy Land, and return
into Germany.
Vol. III.
13 1 c ft o
The fifth croifade was publilhed, by order of Pope Croifade.
Innocent III. in 1198. Thole engaged in it made  
fruitlefs efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land:
for, though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet
equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little af¬
ter Simon of Montfort, Renard of Dampierre, and
others; yet the plague deftroying many of them, and
the reft either returning, or engaging in the petty
quarrels of the Chriftian princes, there was nothing
done ; fo that the foldan of Aleppo eafily defeated
their troops in 1204.
The fixth croifade began in 1228 ; in which the
Chriftians took the town of Damietta, but were for¬
ced to furrender it again. The next year, the em¬
peror Frederic made peace with the foldan for 10
years. About 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, and
brother to Henry III. king of England, arrived in Pa-
leftine, at the head of the Englifh croifade ; but, find¬
ing it moft advantageous to conclude a peace, he re¬
embarked, and fleered towards Italy. In 1244,
Karafmians being driven out of Perlia by the Tartars,
broke into Paleftine, and gave the Chriftians a gene¬
ral defeat near Gaza.
The feventh croifade was headed by S' Lewis, in
the year 1249, who took the town of Damietta : but
a ficknefs happening in the Chriftian army, the king
endeavoured a reti eat; in which being purfued by
the infidels, moft of his army were miferably butcher¬
ed, and himfelf and the nobility taken prifoners. Then
a truce was agreed upon for 10 years, and the king
and lords fet at liberty.
The eight croifade, in 12 70, uras headed by the fame
prince, who made himfelf mailer of the port and caftle
of Carthage, in Africa ; but, dying in a ftiort time, he
left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the
king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and join¬
ing Philip the bold, Ion and fucceflorof Lewis the king
of Tunis, after feveral engagements w'ith the Cfirifti-
ans, in which he was always worfted, defiled peace,
which was granted upon conditions advantageous to
the Chriftians: after which, both princes embarked
for their own kingdoms. Prince Edward of England,
who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, failed
towards Ptolemais, where he landed with a fmall body
of 300 Englilh and French, and hindered Bendocdar
from laying fiege to Ptolemais : but, being obliged to
quit the Holy Land to take poffeflion of the crown of
England, this croifade ended, without contributing any
thing to the recovery of the Holy Land. In 1291,
the town of Acre, or Ptolemais, was taken and plun¬
dered by the foldan of Egypt, and the Chriftians quite
driven out of Syria. There has been no croifade fince
that time, though feveral popes have attempted to ftir
up the Chriftians to fuch an undertaking ; particularly
Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311.
Though theft croifades were effetfts of the moft ab-
furd fuperftition, they tended greatly to promote the
good of Europe. Multitudes indeed were deftroyed.
M. Voltaire computes the people who periflied in the
different expeditions at upwards of two millions. Many
there were, however, who returned ; and theft, ha¬
ving converfed fo long with people who lived in a
much more magnificent way than themfelves, began
to entertain feme tafte for a refined and poliftied way
13 O of
C R O [23
Croifade. of life. Thus the barbarifm in which Europe had been
*  — io long immerfed, began to wear, olf foon after this
time. The princes allb who remained at home, found
means to avail themfelves of the frenzy of the people.
By the abi'ence of luch numbers of reltlefs and martial
adventurers, peace was eftablifhed in their dominions.
They alfo took the opportunity of annexing to their
crown many conuderable fiefs, either by purchafe, or
by the extinction of the heirs ; and thus the mifchiefs
which muft always attend feudal governments were
conliderably lelfened.
With regard to the bad fuccefs of the croifaders, it
was fcarce polfible *hat any other thing could happen
them. The emperors of Conftantinople, inftead of
aflifting, did all in their power to difconcert their
fchemes. They were jealous, and not without rea-
ibn, of fuch an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had
they confidered their true intereft, they would rather
have afliflecfthem, or at leaft fiood neuter, than en¬
tered into alliances with the Turks. They followed
the latter method, however, and were often of very
great diflervice to the wellern adventurers, which at
* See Con- Jaft occafioned the lofs of their city *. But the worll
flantinoplt, enemies t{ie croifaders had, were their own internal
^ 1^' feuds and diflentions. They neither could agree
while marching together in armies with a view to
conquelt, nor could they unite their conquefts under
one government after they had made them. They
fet up three fmall dates, one at Jerufalem, another at
Antioch, and another at EdelTa. Thefe dates, indead of
affiding, made war upon each other, and on the Greek
emperors; and thus became an eafy prey to the com¬
mon enemy. The horrid cruelties they committed alfo
were fuch as mud have infpired the Turks with the
mod invincible hatred againd them, and made them
refid with the greated obdinacy. They were fuch as
could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed
with religious enthufiafm. When Jerufalem was taken,
not only the numerous garrifon were put to the fword,
but the inhabitants were maflacred without mercy,
and without didinClion. No age nor fex was fpared,
not even fucking children. According to Voltaire,
fiome Chridians, who had been fuflered by the Turks
to live in that city, led the conquerors into the mod
private caves where women had concealed themfelves
with their children, and not one of them was fuffered
to efcape. What eminently Ihews the enthufiafm by
which thefe conquerors were animated, is their beha¬
viour after this terrible daughter. They marched
over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy fepulchre;
and while their hands were yet polluted with the
blood of fo many innocent perfons, fung anthems to
the common Saviour of mankind. Nay, fo far did
their religious enthufiafm overcome their fury, that
thefe ferocious conquerors now burd into tears. If
the abfurdity and wickednefs of this conducd can be
exceeded by any thing, it mud be by what follows.
In the year 1204, the frenzy of croifading feized the
children, who are ever ready to imitate what they
fee their parents engage rhemfelves in. Their childifh
folly was encouraged by the monks and fchoolmaders;
and thonfands of thofe innocents were conducted from
the houfes of their parents on the faith of thefe words,
“ Out of the mouth of babes and fucklings had thou
14 ] C R O
perfected praife.” Their bafe condmdors fold a part CroifesjM
of them to the Turks, and the red perilhed mile- II J
j-ably. CromwelK
CROISES, or Croizes, in Englilh antiquity, pil- ' 1
grims bound for the Holy Land, or fuch as had been
there ; fo called from a badge they wore in imitation
of a crofs. The knights of S‘ John of Jerufalem,
created for the defence and protection of pilgrims,
were particularly called croifes.
CROISIERS, a religious order founded in honour
of the invention or difcovery of the crofs by the em-
prefs Helena. They are difperfed in feveral parts of
Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France,
and Bohemia, thofe in Italy being at prefent fuppreffed.
Thefe religious follow the rule of S' Aiigudine. They
had in England the name of crouched friers.
CROMARTY, the capital of the fhire of Cromarty,
in Scotland, with an excellent and fafe harbour ca¬
pable of containing the greated fleets. W. Long. 3.40.
N. Lat. 57. 54.
CROMWELL (Thomas), earl of EITex, was the
fon of a bkckfmith at Putney, and born in 1498.
Without a liberal education, but endowed with a drong
natural genius, he confidered travelling as the proper
means of improving his underdanding; and to this,
early token of his found judgement he dood indebted
for the high rank and didinguifhed honours he after¬
wards enjoyed. He became by degrees the confi¬
dential favourite, and prime minider of Henry VIII.;
and from the moment he acquired any authority in
the cabinet, he employed it in promoting the refor¬
mation, to his zeal for which he became a vidtim ;
for, the more firmly to fectire the protedant caufe, he
contrived to marry the king to Ann of Cloves, wliofe
friends were all' Lutherans. Unfortunately Henry
took a dilgud to this lady, which brought on Crom¬
well’s ruin ; the king, with his ufual cruelty and ca¬
price, taking this opportunity to facrifice this minider
to the Roman Catholic party, to whom he feemed de-
firous of reconciling himfelf as foon as he had Catha¬
rine Howard in view. Cromwell was a great poli¬
tician, and a good man ; but, like mod datefmen, was
guilty of great errors. In his zeal for the new reli¬
gion, he had introduced the unjuflifiable mode of at¬
tainder in cafes of treafon and herefy ; and his ene¬
mies, who were numerous, (confiding of two dalles,
the ancient nobility and gentry, who were enraged to
fee the highed honours bedowed on a man of his mean
extra&ion, and the Roman Catholics, who deteded
him), having preferred many complaints againd' him,
availed themfelves of his own law. He was attaint¬
ed of treafon and herefy, convi&ed unheard, and be¬
headed in 1540. He was the chief indrument of the
fuppreffion of the abbeys and monaderies, and of the
dedrtudion of images and relics; to him alfo we are
indebted for the inditution of parifh-regiders of births,
marriages, and burials.
Cromwell (Oliver), dyled Lord Proteflor of the
commonwealth of England, one of the mod extraor¬
dinary perfonages mentioned in hidory, was the fon
of Mr Robert Cromwell of Hinchinbrooke in the
county of Huntingdon. His ancedors were of very
honourable extraidion ; but no ways related to Tho¬
mas Cromwell earl of EfFex, the prime minider and
favourite
C R O [23
mweli. Favourite of Henry VIII. He was born in the parifh
of S‘ John, Huntingdon, where his father mofrly li.
ved, on the 24th or 25 th of April 1599, and educated
at the free fchpol of that town. Little is known con¬
cerning him in his younger years, or indeed concern¬
ing his behaviour in'private life. It is, however, re¬
lated by authors of unfufpected veracity, that when at
fchool he gave many ligns of a very turbulent and
reltlefs dil'polition. He is ailb faid from his early
years to have been fubjedl to the hypochondriac difor-
der, and to many deceptions of the imagination. He
had a very remarkable one while at fchool. It hap¬
pened in the day time, when he was lying melancho¬
ly upon his back in bed. A fpedtre, as he thought,
approached him, and told him that he fliould be the
greateft man in the kingdom. His father, being in¬
formed of this, was very angry, and defired his maf-
ter to correct him feverely. This, however, produ¬
ced no effed. Oliver perlifted in the truth of his fto-
ry, and would fometimes mention it though his uncle
told him “ it was too traiterous to be repeated.”—
From this fchool, Oliver was removed to Sidney-col-
lege in Cambridge, where he was admitted in 1616.
His progrefs in his Iludies is uncertain; but he fpent
much time in playing at foot-ball, cricket, and other
robuft exercifes, at which he was very expert. His
father dying after lie had been about two years at col¬
lege, Cromwell returned home ; but the irregularity
of his life gave fuch offence to his mother, that, by the
advice of fome friends, flie fent him to London, and
placed him in Lincoln’s-inn. This expedient by no
means anfwered the purpofe; her fon gave himfelf
up to gaming, wine, and women, fo that he quickly
diflipated all that was left him by his father. This
diffipation, however, could be but of very fhort conti¬
nuance; for he was married, before he was 21 years
of age, to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Bouchier
-of EfTex. Soon after his marriage he returned to the
country, where he led a very grave and fober life.
This fudden reformation has been afcribed to his fal¬
ling in with the Puritans; but it is certain, that Mr
Cromwell continued then, and for fome time after, a
zealous member of the church of England, and form¬
ed a clofe friendfhip with feveral eminent divines.
He continued at Huntingdon where he fettled after
his marriage, till an eftate of between L. 400 and
and L. 500 />er annum devolved to him by the death
of his uncle Sir Thomas Stuart. This induced him to
remove to the ifle of Ely where the eftate lay, and
here he embraced the puritanical doftrines. He was
elected a member of the third parliament of Charles I.
which met on the 20th of January 1628; and was a
member of the committee for religion, where he dif-
tinguifhed himfelf by his zeal againft popery. After
the diflblution of that parliament, he returned again
into the country, where he continued to exprefs much
concern for religion, to keep company with filenced
minifters, and to invite them often to lectures and fer-
mons at his houfe. Thus he brought his affairs again
into a very indifferent fituation ; fo that, by way of re¬
pairing the breaches he made in his fortune, he took
a farm at S' Ives, which he kept five years. But this
fcheme fucceeded fo ill, that he was obliged to give it
up; and at laft, chagrined with his difappointments,
,5 ] c r o
and made uneafy by the treatment his party at that Cromwell/
time received, he formed a defign of going over to
New-England. In this, however, he was diiappoinf-
ed; the king iffned out a proclamation againft all filch
emigrations, and Cromwell was obliged to remain in
England againft his will.
In 1638, Cromwell had firft an opportunity of get¬
ting himfelf publicly taken notice of. The earl of
Bedford, and lome, other perfons of high rank, who
had eftates in the fen country, were very defirous of
having it better drained ; and, though one pr< jetft of
this tort had failed, they fet on foot another, got it
countenanced by royal authority, and fettled a part of
the profits upon the crown. This, though really in¬
tended for a public benefit, was oppofed as injurious
to private property; and at the head of the oppofers
was Mr Oliver Cromwell, who had confiderable in¬
fluence in thefe parts. The vigour he fhewed on this
occafion recommended him to his friend and relation
Mr Hampden ; who afterwards charatfterized him in
parliament, as a perfon capable of contriving and con¬
ducting great defigns. But for all this he was not ve¬
ry fuccefsful in his oppofition; and as his private af¬
fairs were ftill declining, he was in very neceffitous
circumftances at the approach of the long parliament.
In this critical fituation he got himfelf eleCted member
of parliament in the following manner. In the puri¬
tanical meetings which he conftantly frequented, Oli¬
ver had moft eminently diftinguifhed himfelf by his
gifts of praying, preaching, and expounding. At one
of thefe meetings, he met with one Richard Tims a
tradefman of Cambridge. This man was fo much ta¬
ken with Oliver, that he took it into his head to at¬
tempt getting him chofen burgefs for the approaching
parliament. Being himfelf one of the common coun¬
cil, Tims imagined this defign might be brought about;
and with this view' went to Mr Wildbore a relation of
Cromwell’s, to whom he communicated his intention.
Wildbore agreed as to the fitnefs of the perfon ; but
told him the defign was impracticable, becaufe Oliver
was not a freeman. Tims next addrelfed one Evett
on the fame fubjeCt, who alfo made the fame objec¬
tion. He recolleCled, however, that the mayor had
a freedom to beftow, and a fcheme was immediately
laid for fecuring this freedom to Cromwell. On ap¬
plication to the mayor, however, he told them that the
freedom was already difpofed of to another; but this
objection being obviated by promifing that perfon a
freedom from the town, the mayor, being informed
that Cromwell was a man of great fortune, fignified
his intention of beftowing the freedom upon him. Our
hero, being informed of the good offices of his friends,
made his appearance in the court drefled in fcarlet
richly laced with gold, and having provided plenty of
claret and fweatmeats, they were fo freely circulated
among the corporation, that Mr Mayor’s freeman was
unanimoufly declared to be a very civil worthy gen¬
tleman. When the eleCtion came on, the mayor dif-
covered his miftake, but it was now too late; the
party among the burgefles was ftrong enough to choofe
him, and accordingly did fo at the eleCtion next year.
When Cromwell firft came into parliament, he af-
fefted great plainnefs, and even carelelTnefs,in his drefs.
His attention to farming had entirely rufticated him,
13 O 2 fo
C R O [ 2216 ] C R O
Cromwel!. fo that he made a very uncouth appearance. “ Who
e*“ (lays Dr South) that had beheld inch a bankrupt, beg¬
garly fellow, as Cromwell, firlt entering the parlia¬
ment houfe, with a thread-bare torn coat and grea<y
hat, and perhaps neither of them paid for, could have.
lufpeccted, that, in the fpace'of fo few years, he fhould,
by the murder of one king, and the banifhmant of a-
nother, afcend the throne, be inveited with the royal
robes, and want nothing of the liate of a king but
the changing his hat into a crown Cromwell was
* See very active m promoting the famous Rewonjlraticc. *;.
Britain, which in reality laid the foundation of the civil war.
nv 107. pje ciec]ared afterwards to lord fc'a.lkland, that if the
remonltance had not been carried, he defigned to have
converted the fmall remains of his eftate into ready
money the next day, and to have left the kingdom by
the firll opportunity. His firmnefs on this occalion fo
effectually recommended him to Hampden, Pym,. and
the other leaders of the popular party, that they took
him into all their councils ; and here he acquired that
clear infight into things, and that knowledge of men,
of which be afterwards made Inch prodigious, ule.
His exploits during the civil war, his murder of the
king, and uftirpation of the kingdom, are related un¬
der the article Britain, n° 139,—188.
With regard to the character of Cromwell, Mr
Uqme exprefles himfelf as follows: “ The writers
attached to this wonderful perfon make his character,
with regard to abilities, bear the air of the moft ex¬
travagant panegyric: his enemies form inch a repre-
fentation of his moral qualities as refembles the molt
virulent inveCtive. Both of them, it mult be confef-
fed, are fupported by fuch ftriking circumftances in
Ids fortune and conduCt, as bellow on their reprefen-
tation a great air of probability. ‘ What can be
more extraordinary, it is faid, than that a perfon of
private birth and education, no fortune, no eminent
qualities of body, which have fometimes, nor Ihining
qualities of mind, which have often railed men to the
higbelt dignities, (houkl have the courage to attempt,
and the. abilities to execute, fo great a defign as the
ftibverting one of the molt ancient as well as belt
edtablilhed monarchies in the world ? That he fliould
have the power and boldnefs to put his prince and
mafter to an open and .infamous death ? Should banilh.
that numerous and ftrongly allied family ? Cover all
tftefe temerities under a feeming obedience to a par¬
liament, in whofe fervice he pretended to be retain¬
ed ? Trample too upon that parliament in their turn,
and fcornfully expel them as foon as they gave him
ground of cliiratisfaClion ? EreCi in their place the domi¬
nion of the, faints, and give reality to the molt vifion-
ary idea which the heated imagination of any fanatic
was ever able to entertain ? Supprefs again that mon-
fter in its infancy, and openly let himfelf up above all
things that ever were called fovereign in England f O-
vercome firft ali bis enemies by arms, and all his friends
afterwards by artifice ? Serve all parties patiently for
a while, and afterwards command them viCtorioully
at laft ? Over-run each corner of the three nations,
and fubdue with equal facility both the riches of the
fouth, and the poverty of the north ? Be feared and
courted by all princes, and adopted a brother to the
gods of the earth? Call together, par liaraents with a
word of his pen, and fcatter them again by the breath Cromweir.
of his mouth ? Reduce to fubjedtion a warlike and dif- —••——
contented nation by means of a mutinous army ? Com¬
mand a mutinous army by means of feditious and fac¬
tious officers ? Be humbly and daily petitioned, that he
would be pleafed, at the rate of millions a year, to
be hired as matter of thdfe who had formerly hired
him for their fervant? idave the eftates and lives of
three nations as much at his difpofal as was once the
little inheritance of his father, and be as noble and li¬
beral in the fpending of them ? And laftly, (for there
is no end of enumerating every particular of his glo-
ry), with one word bequeath all this power and fplen-
dor to his pofterity ? Die pofletTed of peace at home,
and triumph abroad ? Be buried among kings, and
with more than regal folemnity ? And leave a name
behind him not to be extinguiffied but with the whole
world; which, as it was too little for his praife, fo it
might have been for his conquefts,. if the ihort line of
his mortal life could have ftretched out to the extent
of his immortal defigns ?’
“ My intention is pot to disfigure this piifture
drawn by fo mafterly a hand : I ffiall only endeavour
to remove from it fomewhat of the marvellous,, a
circumftance which, on all occafions, gives much
ground for doubt and fufpicion. It teems to me that,
the circumttance of Cromwell’s life in which his abili¬
ties are principally difcovered, is his riling, from a
private Ration, in oppofition to fo many rivals, fa
much advanced before him, to a high command and
authority in the army. His great courage, his fighal
military talents, his eminent dexterity and addrefs^
were all requifite for this, important acquifition. Yet
will not this promotion appear the effect of fupernatu-
nd abilities, when we confider that Fairfax himftlf, a
private getwleman, who had not the advantage of at
feat in parliament, had, through the fame Iteps, at¬
tained even to a fuperior rank, and, if endued with,
common capacity and penetration, had been able to
retain it. To incite, fuch an army to rebellion againft
the parliament, required no uncommon art1 on indu-
ftry : to have kept them in obedience, had been the
more difficult emerprize. When the breach was once
formed between the military and civil powers, a fu-
preme and abfolute. authority, from that moment, is1
devolved on the general; and if he is afterwards
pleafed to employ artifice or policy, it1 may be re¬
garded on moft occafions as great condefcenfion, ifi
not as fuperflnous caution. That Cromwell was ever
able really to. blind, or over-reach,, either the king or
the republicans, does not appear -• as they pofielfed no
means of refilling the force under his command,, they
were glad to temporize with him, and, by feeming
to be deceived, to wait for an opportunity of freeing
themfelves from his dominion. If he feduced the mi¬
litary fanatics, it is to be confidered, that their inte-
reft and his evidently concurred ; that their ignorance
and low education expofed them to the groffeft impo-
fjtion ; and that lie himfelf was at bottom as frantic an
enthufiaft as the word of them, and, in order to ob*
tain their confidence, needed but to difplay thofe vul¬
gar and ridiculous habits which he had early acquired,
and on which he fet fo high a value. An army is fo
forcible, and at the fame time fo coarfe a weapon,
that
C R Q [ 2317 ] C R O
'ell. that any hand which wields it, may, without much
1— dexterity, perform any operation, and attain any af-
cendant in human fociety,
“ The domeltic adminiliration of Cromwell, though
it difcovers great ability, was conduced without any
plan either of liberty or arbitrary power : perhaps his
difficult fituation admitted of neither. His foreign en-
terprizes, though full of intrepidity, were pernicious to
national intereit; and feem more the refult of impetu¬
ous fury or narrow prejudices, than of cool forefight
and deliberation. An eminent perfonage, however,
he-was in many refpe&s, and even a luperior genius;
but unequal and irregular in his operations : and,
though not defective in any talent except that of elo¬
cution, the abilities which in him were moil admira-,
ble, and which contributed moft to his marvellous fuc-
cels, were the magnanimous refolution of his enter-
prizes, and his peculiar dexterity in difcovering the
characters and practifing on the weaknefles of man¬
kind.
“ If we furvey the moral character of Cromwell,
with that indulgence which is due to the blindnels and
infirmities of the human fpecies, we fhall not be in¬
clined to load his memory with fuch violent reproaches
as thofe which his enemies ufually throw upon it. A-
midfi the paffions and prejudices of that time, that he
fhould prefer the parliamentary to the royal caufe, will
not appear extraordinary •, fince, even at prefent, many
men of fenfe and knowledge are difpofed to think,
that the queftion, with regard to the juftice of the
quarrel, may be regarded as doubtful and ambiguous.
The murder of the king, the moft atrocious of all his
acftions, was to him covered under a mighty cloud of
republican and fanatical illufions; and it is not impof-
fible but he might believe it, as many others did, the
moft meritorious action which he could perform. His
fubfequent ufurpation was the effedt of neceffity, as
well as of ambition ; nor is it eafy to fee how the va¬
rious factions could at that time have been reftrained
without a mixture of military and arbitrary authority.
The private deportment of Cromwell as a Ton, a huf-
band, a father, a friend, is expofed to no confiderable
cenfnre, if it does not rather merit praife. And, up¬
on the whole, his character does not appear more ex¬
traordinary and unufual by the mixture of fo much ab-
furdity. with fo much penetration, than by his temper¬
ing i’uch violent ambition and fuch enraged fanaticifin
whh fo much regard tojuftiee and humanity.”
That Cromwell continued a moft complete and bi-
gotted enthufiaft to the very laft, appears from his be¬
haviour in his laft ficknefs* His difeafe, which at firft
was a kind of flow fever, brought on by the cares
and anxiety of his mind, foon degenerated into a ter¬
tian ague. For about a week the diforder continued
without any dangerous fy mptoras, infomnch that every
other day he walked abroad ; but one day after din¬
ner his five phylicians coming to wait upon him, one
of them having felt his pulfe, fard that it intermitted.
At this Cromwell was furprized, turned pale, fell into
a cold fweat, and, when he was almoft fainting, or*-
dered himfelf to be carried to bed ; where, by the af-
liftance of cordials, being brought a little to himfelf, he
made his will with refpeft to his private affairs. The
next morning when one of his jfliyficians came to vifit
him, Cromwell afked him, why he looked fo fad i and Cromwell.
when anfwer was made, that fo it became every one 
who had the weighty charge of his life and health
upon him, “ Ye phyficians (fays Cromwell), think I
ftiall die: I tell you I fhall not die this bout, 1 am fure
of it. Do not you think, (laid he to the phylician,
looking more attentively at him), do not think that I am
mad : I fpeak the words of truth upon furer grounds
than your Hippocrates or Galen can furnifli you with.
God Almighty himfelf hath given that anfwer, not to
my prayers alone, but alfo to the prayers of thofe who
entertain a-ftrkfter commerce and greater intereft with
him. Go on cheerfully, banifliing all fadnefs from your
looks; and deal with me as you would do with a fer-
ving man. Ye may have a flcill in the nature of things;
yet nature can do more than all phyficians' put toge¬
ther, and God is far more above nature.” As this phy-
fician was coming, out of the chamber, he accidentally
met with another, to whom he exprefled his fear that
the protedlor was turning light-headed. But the o-
ther informed him that the chaplains, being difperfed
the preceding night into different parts of the houfe,
had prayed for the protector’s recovery, and unani-
moufly received for anfwer that he fhould recover.
Nay, to fuch a degree of madnefs did they at laft ar¬
rive, that, a public faft being kept at Hampton-court,
they did not fo much pray to God for the protector’s
health, as return thanks for the undoubted pledges
they had of his recovery. On this account, though the
phyficians perceived his diftemper increafing every
hour, they took no notice of his danger, till it became
neceffary for him to appoint a fuccelfor while he had
any breath remaining. But being then in a lethargic
fit, he anfwered from the purpole; upon which he was
again afked whether he did not name his eldeft fon
Richard ? and to this queftion he anfwered, Yes. Be¬
ing then afked where his will was which he had for¬
merly made concerning the heirs of the kingdom ; he
fent to look for it in his clofet and other places, but
in vain ; for fomebody had either ftole it, or he him¬
felf had burnt it. Soon after, he expired, on the 3d of
September 1658, aged fomewhat rttore than 59 years
and four months. This day of September he had al¬
ways; reckoned to be the moft fortunate for him in the
whole year. A violent tempeft, which immediately
fucceeded his death, ferved as a fiibjedl of difcourfe to
the vulgar. His partizans, as well as his opponents^
were fond of remarking this event; and each of them
endeavoured, by forced inferences, to interpret it as
heft fuited their particular prejudices.
It has been imagined by fome, that Oliver Grom-
well was poifoned ; but for this there feems to be no
reafonable foundation. His body was opened by Dr
Bates. He found the brain fomewhat, overcharged
with blood, and the lungs a little inflamed ; but what
he reckoned to have been the principal caufe of his
diforder was a total degeneracy of the fubftance of the
fpleen into a matter refembling the lees of oil. This,
he thought, alfo accounted for the hypochondriac -dif-
pofirions to which Cromwell had from his infancy
been fubjecft. Though the bowels were taken out,
and the body filled with fpices, wrapped in a fourfold
cere-cloth, put firft into a coffin of lead, and then into
one of wood, yet the corruption was fo great that the
humour
Cromwell
II
Cronen-
burg.
• See Bri¬
tain, n9
190, 191.
C R O [23
humour wrought itfelf through the whole, and there
was a necefficy of interring the body before the fo-
lemnity of the funeral. A very pompous funeral was
, ordered at the public expence, and performed from
Somerfet-houfe, with a fplendor not only equal but
fuperior to that bellowed upon crowned heads. Some
have related that his body was depofited in Nafeby
field; others, that it was wrapped in lead, and funk in
the deepeft part of the Thames, to prevent any infiHt
that might afterwards be offered to it. But it feems
beyond doubt that his body was interred at Weftmin-
iter, as we are informed, that on the order to difinter
him after the rettoration, his corpfe was found in a
vault in the middle ifle of Henry VIIth’s chapel. In
the infide of the coffin, and on the bread of the corpfe
was laid a copper plate finely gilt, inclofed in a thin
cafe of lead : on one fide of this plate were engraven
the arms of England impaled with thofe of Oliver ;
and, on the reverfe, the following legend : “ Oliverius
Protettor Reipublicts Anglia, Scotia, et Hibernia, natus
2y Aprilis 1599, btauguratus 16 Decembris 1653, mor-
tuus 3 Scptctnbris aim. 1658, hie fitus ejl.”
Cromwell was of a robuft frame of body, and of a
manly, though not agreeable afpeft. His nofe being
remarkably red and Ihining, was often made the fub-
jeft of ridicule. He left only two Ions, Richard and
Henry : and three daughters; one married to general
Fleetwood, another to lord Fauconberg, and a third to
lord Rich. His mother lived till after he was protec¬
tor ; and contrary to her orders he buried her with
great pomp in Wellminfter Abbey. She could not
be perfuaded that ever his power or his perfon was
in fafety. At every noife ffie heard ffie would exclaim
that her fon was murdered ; and was never fatisfied
that he was alive, if ffie did not receive frequent vifits
from him. She was a decent woman ; and by her
frugality and induftry had raifed and educated a nu¬
merous family upon a fmall fortune. She had even
been obliged to fet up a brewery at Huntington, which
ffie managed to good advantage. Hence Cromwell,
in the invectives of that age, is often ftigmatized with
the name of brewer. Ludlow, by way of infult, men¬
tions the great acceffion which he would receive to his
royal revenues upon his mother’s death, who polfelfed
a jointure of 60 pounds a-year upon his eflate'. She
was of a good family, of the name of Stuart; and is by
fome fuppofed to have been remotely allied to the
royal family.
Cromwell (Richard), eldeft fon of Oliver Crom¬
well, was by his father appointed fucceffor to the pro-
teCtorffiip, but very foon depofed by the army*. They
difeharged his debts, took all the houfehold fluff,
plate, be. gave him a proteClion for fix months, and
fo he retired. He was by no means qualified to fiup-
port the ftation gained by the afpiring talents of his
father; he was of a moderate temper, and untainted
with that fanatical fpirit which his father had fo fuc-
cefsfully cultivated : on the reftoration he went a-
broad; but returned 1680 under the affumed name of
Clark, and fettled at Cheffiunt in Hertfordffiire, where
he lived privately, and died in 1712, aged 86.
CRONENBURG,a town of Germany, in the circle
of the upper Rhine, and in the landgravate of Hefle
Caffel, with a ftrong caftle. It is feated at the foot of
18 ] C R O
a high mountain, on a fertile foil, and is furrounded
with a double wall. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 50. t;.
Cronenburg, a ftrong fortrefs of Denmark, in the
ifle of Zealand, at the entrance of the found, where .
the Danes take toll of fuch {hips as are bound for the
Baltic. It was very richly furniffied, but pillaged by
the Swedes in 1658, who took away the furniture,
among which were fome ftatues of malfy filver. It is
built upon piles. E. Long. 12. 50. N. Lat. 56. 0.
CRONSLOT, a town and fortrefs of Ruflia, in a
little ifland of the fame name, fituated in the mouth of
the river Neva, near the entrance of the gulph of Fin¬
land. It has a good harbour, which is the ftation of
the Ruffian fleet, and where the great magazines of
naval ftores as well as docks and yards for building
fliips are. E. Long. 32. o. N. Lat. 60.
CRONSTAT, a town of Tranfylvania, near the
frontiers of Moldavia, fubject to the houfe of Auftria.
E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 47. o.
CROP, the higheft part or end of any thing cut off.
It is particularly ufed for the corn gathered off a field
in harveft. See Agriculture, Part II. SeCL ii.
v. vi.
CROSIER, or Crozier, a ffiepherd’s crook; a fym-
bol of paftoral authority, confifting of a gold or filver
ftaff, crooked at the top, carried occafionally before
biffiops and abbots, and held in the hand when they
give the folemn benedidlions. The cuftom of bearing
a paftoral ftaff before biffiops is very ancient. Regular
abbots are allowed to officiate with a mitre and crofier.
Among the Greeks none but a patriarch had a right
to the cfofier.
Crosier, in aftronomy, four ftars in the fouthern
hemifphere, in the form of a crofs, ferving thofe who
fail in fouth latitudes to find the antarcftic pole.
CROSLET, in heraldy, is when a croft is crofted
again at a fmall diftance from each of the ends. Up¬
ton fays it is not fo often borne by itfelf in arms, as o-
ther crofles are, but often in diminutives, that is, in
fmall croflets fcattered about the field. See Heral¬
dry, n° 26. examp. 10.
CROSS, in antiquity, a fpecies of puniffiment, or
rather the inftrument wherewith it was inflicted, con¬
fifting of two pieces of wood crofting each other.
This puniffiment was only infli<5ted on malefactors
and Haves, and thence called fervilc fuppUcitim. The
moft ufual method was to nail the criminal’s hands and
feet to this machine, in an ereft pofture; though there
are inftances of criminals fo nailed with their head
downward.
Invention of the Cross, a feftival obferved on May
3d, by the Latin church, in memory of the empreft
Helena’s (the mother of Conftantine) finding the true
crofs of Chrift on mount Calvary, where ffie caufed
ere61 a church for the prefervation of it.
Exaltation of the Cross, a grand feftival folemnized
on September 14th in commemoration of Heraclius’s
reftoring to mount Calvary the true crofs, that had
been carried off by Cofroes king of Perfia, upon taking
the city of Jerufalem.
Order of the Cross, an order of ladies inftituted in
1668, by the empreft Eleanora de Gonzagua, wife of
the emperor Leopold, on occafion of the miraculous
recovery of a little golden crofs, wherein were inclo¬
fed
burg. '
Croft.
C R Q [23
013; Crofs. fed two pieces of the true crofs, otit of the allies of a
 part of the palace that had been burnt down ; though
the fire burnt the cafe wherein it was inclofed, and
melted the cryftal, it appeared that the wood had not
received the lead damage.
Cross,, in heraldry. See Heraldry, n° 25.
The crofs is a.very ancient and honourable bearing;
and is frequently to be met with in the coats of arms
| of thofe whofe ancellors attended the warlike expe¬
ditions again It the Turks.
Cross, in mining, two nicks cut on the fuperficies
of the earth, thus +, which the miners make when
they take the ground to dig for ore. This crofs gives
the miners three days liberty to make and to let on
Hones. As many of thefe croffes as the miner makes,
lb many mears of ground he may have in the vein,
provided he fet on Hones w’ithin three days after ma¬
king his crofs or crofles. But if he make but one
crofs, and a flander-by makes the fecond, and a
Hranger makes the third, every one is ferved with
the next mear, according as they have firfi or lall,
fooner or later made their crofs, or croffes upon the
ground.
Cross, in coins, a name given to the right fide, or
face ; the other being called the pile or reverfe. It
has been a common error, that the reverfe was meant
by the crofs; becaufe at this time, with us, it is marked
with figures difpofed in that form : but the fiamping
the head of the prince in thefe kingdoms, on the right
fide of the coin, was preceded by a general cufiom of
Hriking on that part the figure of a crofs, while the
other, called the pile, contained the arms, or fome
other device.
CROSS-Brfr Shot, a bullet with an iron bar palling
through it, and Handing fix or eight inches out at
both lides : it is ufed at fea, for deHroying the ene-
my’s rigging.
CKOSS-Jack, pronounced cro-jiTck, a fail extended
on the lower yard of the mizen mail, which is hence
called the crofs-jack yard. This fail, however, has
generally been found of little fervice, and is therefore
very feldom ufed.
CKoss-Piece, a rail of timber extended over the
tuhidlafs of a merchant-lhip from the knight-heads to
the belfry. It is Huck full of wooden pins, which are
ufed to fafien the running rigging as occafion requires.
Ste Windlass.
Cross TVcrj, certain pieces of timber, fupported by
the cheeks and trellle-trees, at the upper ends of the
lower mafis, athwart which they are laid to fullain
the frame of the top.
Cross-5 //, in ornithology. See Loxia.
Cross Wort, in botany. See Valentia.
Cross, an Englilh artill, famous only for copying,
in the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. Of this ta¬
lent there is a ftory current, more to the credit of his
(kill than of his probity. - He is faid to have been em¬
ployed by Charles I. to copy the celebrated Madona
of Raphael in S‘ Mark's church at Venice ; and that,
having obtained leave of the Hate for that purpofe, he
executed his piece fo well as to bring away the origi¬
nal and leave his copy in the place of it. The decep¬
tion was not detedied until it was too late to recover
the lofs ; and this piece was bought in Oliver’s time
19 ] C R O
by the Spanilh ambaflador for his mafier, who placed Croflirv
it in the efcurial. r ^ t
CROSSEN, a handfome town of Silefia in Germany, rota U5'
and capital of a principality of the fame name. It is
fituated at the confluence of the rivers Bobar and
Oder, in a fertile country abounding in wine and
fruits. There is a bridge over the Oder which is for¬
tified. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 52. 5.
CROTALARIA, Rattle-wort ; a genus of the
decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
-plants. There are 11 fpecies, all of them natives of
warm climates. They rife from 18 inches to $ feet
in height, and are adorned with flowers of a blue or
yellow colour. The moH remarkable fpecies is the
retufa with fimple oblong wedged leaves. It is a na¬
tive of the illand of Ceylon, and fome other parts of
the Eafi Indies. The flowers are yellow, the pods
. fmooth, cylindrical, inflated, and placed horizontally :
they are filled with feeds, which, when dried, and
lhaken by the llightefi wind, emit a rattling noife:
and this, by the rude inhabitants of the countries
where the plant is native, is attributed to the devil,-
who is thought to deliver his oracles in this whimficai
manner.
CROTALUS, or Rattle-snake, in zoology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes ; the
characters of which are thefe : The belly is furnilhed
with fcuta, and the tail has both fcuta and fcales; but
the principal chara<Heriflic of this genus, is the rattle
at the end of the tail. The rattles conlifl of feveral
articulated cruHaceous, or rather horny, bags, which
make a confiderable rattling noife when the creature
moves, and ferves to warn people of their approach.
There are five fpecies ; and the bite of every one of
them is fo highly poifonous, that it generally kills in a
Ihort time. Of thefe we have no account that can be
depended upon, except that given by Mr Catelby of
the horridus, or American rattle-fnake. This grows
fometimes to the length of 8 feet, and weighs between
8 and 9 pounds. The colour of the head is brown
the eye red ; the upper part of the body of a yellow-
ilh-brown colour, tranfverfely marked with irregular
broad black liHs. The rattle is of a brown colour,
compofed of feveral horny, membranous, cells, of an
undulated pyramidal figure. Thefe are articulated
within one another in fuch a manner that the point of
the firfi cell reaches as far as the bafis of the protu¬
berant ring of the third, and fo on ; which articula¬
tion, being very loofe, gives liberty to the parts of the
cells that are inclofed within the outward rings to firike
againll the fides of them, and fo to caufe the rattling
noife which is heard when the fnake fliakes its tail.
This is the mofi ina<Hive and flow moving of all the-
the fnakes, and is never the aggreflbr except in what
it preys upon. The above gentleman is of opinion
that no remedy is yet difcovered for the bite of this
animal. He had frequently accefs to fee Indians
bit by it, and always thought that thofe who recove¬
red were cured -more through the force of nature,
or by reafon of the flightnefs of the bite, than by the.
remedies ufed. He tells us, that the Indians know
their defliny the moment they are bit; and if the
bite happens to be on any of the large veins, they ap¬
ply no remedies, as knowing them to be entirely ufe-
€ R O [ 2320 ] C R o
Crotchet lefs. He believes the reports of the fafcinating power
II of this ferpent, though he never had an opportunity
Crotona. 0p feeing jt> see piate LXXXIV.tig. IO.
CROTCHET, in mufic, one of the notes or cha¬
racters of time, marked thus , equal to half a mi¬
nim, and double of a quaver.
Crotchets are alio marks or characters, ferving
to inclofe a word or fentence which is diftinguiihed
from the reft, being generally in this form [ ].
CROTON, wild ricinus ; a genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of plants.
There are 21 fpecies; the only remarkable one of which
is the tinCtorium, or plant from which the French turn-
fole is made. This grows naturally in the Ibuth of
France : it is an annual plant, riling about 9 inches
high, with an herbaceous branching (talk, garnilhed
with irregular or rhomboidal figured leaves, which
are near two inches long, and an inch and a quarter
wide in ftieir wideft part. Thefe Hand upon flender
foot-ftalks near four inches long. The flowers are
produced in fhort fpikes from the fides of the (talks,
at the end of the branches; the upper part of the (pike
is compofed of male flowers, having many (lamina
which coalefce at the bottom ; the lower part hath
female flowers, which have each a roundilh, three-
cornered, germen ; thefe afterwards become a round-
illi capl’ule with three lobes, having three cells, each
including one roundiih feed. This flowers in July ; but
unlefs the plants are brought forward on a hot-bed,
they do not ripen feeds in this country. The feeds of
this plant (hould be fown in the autumn foon after they
are ripe, in a fmall pot filled with light earth, and
plunged into an old tan-bed in a frame, where they
may be fcreened from cold in the winter ; and in the
fpring following the pot fhould be removed to a frelh
hot-bed, where the plants will come up in a month’s
time. When they are grown large enough to be re¬
moved, they are then to be planted each in a fmall
pot, and plunged into a frefti hot-bed, being careful
to ftiade the glaifes daily, until the plants have taken
new root: then they (hould have air daily admitted
according to the warmth of the feafon, and but little
water given them. By this method only they can be
brought to flower well, and produce good feeds in
this country.
From this plant is made the turnfole ufed for colour¬
ing wines and jellies. It is made of the juice which
is lodged between the empalement and the feeds;
which, if rubbed on cloths, at firft appears of a lively
green, but afterwards changes to a bluifh purple co¬
lour. If thefe cloths are put into water, and after¬
wards wrung, they will dye the water to a claret co¬
lour. The rags thus dyed are brought to this country,
and fold in the druggift’s (hops under the name of turn-
fok.
The other fpecies of croton are natives of warmer
climates. From one of them, called the phyfic-nut
tree, is obtained a milky juice, faid to be applied to
green wounds with fuccefs. The nut, when ripe,
yields a confiderable quantity of oil, a fpoonful of
which fwallowed when frelh is of a purgative quality,
and is proper for abating dropfical fwellings.
CROTONA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, feated on the gulph of Taranto, with a bifhop’s
fee and a citadel. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 39. 10. Crotoy
CROTOY, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
Ponthieu. The fortifications are demoliflied. It is —
feated at he mouth of the river Somme. E. Long.
1. 45;. N. Lat. 50. IJ.
CROUCHED friars. See Croisiers.
CROUP, in medicine. See (the Index fubjoined
to) that article.
Croup of a Horfe, in the menage, the extremity
of the reins above the hips.
CROUPADE, in the menage, a leap, in which the
horfe pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to
his belly.
CROUZAS (John Peter de), a learned philofopher
and mathematician, was born in 1663 : having made
great progrefs in the mathematics and the philofophy
of Des Cartes, he travelled to Geneva, Holland, and
France ; was fuccefiively profeflbr in feveral univer-
fities ; and at length was chofen governor to prince
Frederic of Hefle-CaflTel, nephew to the king of Swe¬
den. He wrote many works, the moft efteemed of
which are, I. His Logic, the bed edition of which is
that of 1741, in 6 vols 8vo ; 2. A Treatife on Beauty;
3. A Treatife on the Education of Children, 2 vols
12mo ; 4. Several Treatifes on Philofophical and Ma¬
thematical Subjects, ire. He died at Laufanne in
1748.
CROW, in ornithology. See Corvus.
Crow, in mechanics, a kind of iron lever, with a
claw at one end, and a (harp point at the other ; ufed
for heaving or purchafing great weights.
Crow’s Bill, among furgeons, a kind of forceps,
for drawing bullets and other foreign bodies out of
wounds.
Crow’s Feet, in the military art, machines of iron,
having four points, each about three or four inches
long, fo made, that whatever way they fall, there is
(till a point up : they are thrown upon breaches, or
in pafles whpre the enemy’s cavalry are to march,
proving very troublefome, by running into the horfe’s
feet and laming them.
Crow-Fog^, on (hip-board, a complication of fmall
cprds fpreading out from a long block, like the fmaller
parts which extend from the back-bone of a herring*
(Plate LXXXII. fig. 12). It is ufed to fufpend the
ownings; or to keep the top-fails from ftriking vio¬
lently, and fretting againft the tops.
Crow-A/t/, is an invention fot catching wild-fowl
in the winter feafon, and may be ufed in the day-time.
This net is made of double thread, or fine pack-thread
the meflies (hould be two inches wide, the length about
ten yards, and the depth three; it muft be verged on
the fide with good (trong cord, and ftretched out very
(tiff on long poles prepared for that purpofe. When
you are come to the place where you would fpread
your net, open it, and lay it out at its full length and
breadth; then fallen the lower end of the net all
along the ground, fo as only to move it up and down;
the upper end of the net muft (land extended on the
long cord ; the further end thereof being ftaked firft
to the earth by a ftrong cord about five yards diftant
from the net. Place this cord in an even line with
the lower edge of the net. The other end muft be
at lead 25 yards diftant to reach into feme natural or
artificial
[ 2321 ]
w Ifowd artificial flicker, by the means of which you may lie
9 _ 9 concealed from the fowl, otherwife no good fuccefs
-rown- can be expected. The net muft be placed in fuch
exadl order that it rtiay give way to play on the fowl
on the leak pull of the cord, which mull be done
fmartly, lell the fowl Ihould prove too quick for you.
This net may be ufed for pigeons, crows, or other
birds on corn-fields newly (own ; as alfo in llubble-
fields, provided the Hubble conceals the net from the
birds.
CROWD, in a general fenfe, fignifies a number of
people aflembled in a place fcarce big enough to hold
them all.
To Crowd, fn the fea-language, is to carry an ex-
Itraordinary force of fail upon a fliip, in order to ac¬
celerate her courfe on fome important occafion ; as
in purfuit of, or flight from, an enemy ; to efcape any
immediate danger, <£rr.
CROWLAND, a town in Lincolnlhire, feated in
the Fenns, in a dirty foil, and had formerly an abbey
of very great note. There is no coming at it but by
[narrow caufeways, which will not admit a cart. It
has three ftreets, feparated from each other by water-
courfes, whofe banks are fupported by piles, and fet
with willow trees. Their chief trade is in filh and
fowl, which are in great plenty in the adjacent pools
and marlhes. W. Long. o. to. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CROWN, an ornament worn on the head by kings,
fovereign princes, and noblemen, as a mark of their
dignity.
In fcripture there is frequent mention of crowns,
and the ufe of them feems to have been very common
among the Hebrews. The high prieft wore a crown,
which was a fillet of gold placed upon the forehead,
and tied with a ribbon of hyacinth colour, or azure
blue. It feems alfo as if private priefts, and even
common Ifraelites, wore alfo a fort of crown, fince
God commands Ezekiel not to take off his crown, nor
aifume the marks of one in mourning. This crown
was no more than a ribbon or fillet, with which the
Jews and feveral people in the eaft girt their heads.
And indeed the firft crowns were no more than a ban¬
delet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we
Hill fee it reprefented on medals round the heads of
Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and kings of Syria. After¬
wards they confided of two bandelets ; by degrees
they took branches of trees of divers kinds; at length
they added flowers, infomuch that Claudius Saturni-
nus fays, there was not any plant whereof crowns had
not been made. The woods and groves were fearch-
ed to find different crowns for the feveral deities; and
they were ufed not only on the datues and images of
the gods, by the prieds in facrificiug, and by kings
and emperors, but alfo on altars, temples, doors of
houfes, facred veffels, victims, fhips, &c.
The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns,
dill feen on medals, viz. a crown of laurel, a radial
or radiating crown, a crown adorned with pearls and
precious Hones, and the fourth a kind of bonnet or
cap, fomething like the mortier.
The Romans had alfo various kinds of crowns,
which they didributed as rewards of military atchieve-
ments; as, 1. The oval crown, made of myrtle, and
bedowed upon generals, who were intitled to the ho-
Vol. III..
G R O
nours of the leffer triumph, called ovation. 2. The Crown,
naval or rodral crown, compofed of a circle of gold, Cro^.ne
with ornaments reprefenting beaks of fhips, and given 1
to the captain who firft grappled, or the foldier who
fil'd boarded an enemy’s fhip. 3. The crown called
in Latin vallaris, or cajlreufu, a circle of gold railed
with jewels or paltfades; the reward of him who firfl
forced the enemy’s entrenchments. 4. The mural
crown, a circle of gold indented and embattled ; given
to him who fird mounted the wall of a befieged place,
and there lodged a dandard. y. The civic crown,
made of the branch of a green oak, and given him
who had faved the life of a citizen. 6. The trium¬
phal crown, confiding at fird of wreaths of laurel,
but afterwards made of gold; proper to fuch generals
as had the honour of a triumph. 7. The crown cal¬
led obfid'tonalh, or graminea, made of grafs growing
on the place ; the reward of a general who had de¬
livered a Roman army from a fiege. 8. The ra¬
dial crown, given to princes at their tranflation among
the gods. We meet alfo with the corona aurea,
often bedowed on foldiers, without any other additio¬
nal term ; athletic crowns, and crowns of laurel, de-
dined to crown viiflims at the public games, poets,
orators, ire. All thefe crowns were marks of no¬
bility to the wearers; and upon competitions with
rivals for rank and dignities, often determined the
preference in their favour. See Plate LXXXII. fig.
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 2i, 22. For an account of
modern crowns, fee Heraldry, nQq2.
Crown is alfo ufed to fignify the poflelfions and
dignity of a king. The crown of England, accord¬
ing to Sir William Blackdone, is, by common law
and conditutional cudom, hereditary; and this in a
manner peculiar to itfelf: but the right of inheri¬
tance may from time to time be changed or limited
by a<5l of parliament, under which limitations the
crown dill continues hereditary. See Succession.
Pleas of the Crown. S^e Pleas.
Crown, in commerce, a general name for coins
both foreign and domedic, which are of, or very near,
the value of five fliillings derling.
CKOvtN-Office, an office belonging to the king’s
bench court, of which the king’s coroner or attorney
is commonly mader. In this office, the attorney-ge¬
neral and clerk of the crown feverally exhibit infor¬
mations for crimes and mifdemeanours at common
law, as in the cafe of batteries, confpiracies, libelling,
&c. on which the offender is liable to pay a fine to
the king.
Cro WN-GT^y}, denotes the fined fort of window-
glafs. See Glass.
CROWN-Scabs, in farriery. See there, § xxxvi. 2.
CROWN-Wheel of a Watch, the upper wheel next
the balance which by its motion drives the balance,
and in royal pendulums is called the fusing-wheel.
Crown Imperial, in botany. See Fritillaria.
CROWNE (John), a celebrated dramatic writer,
born in Nova Scotia, where his father was a minider.
Being impatient of the gloomy redraint of that coun¬
try, he came to England, where he was reduced to
enter into the fervice of an old lady ; of which he
was foon as weary as he had been of America. He
then had recourfe to his pen, which quickly procured
13 P him
C R U [ 2322 ] C R U
Croxai him favour at court; but this kind of fubfiftence pro-
1 ving precarious, he ventured to folicit Charles II. for
Crucifix. fome eftablifhment. Charles promifed to provide for
him, but infilled firft on having another comedy ; and
fuggefted to him the plan of a Spanilh play, from
which Crowne produced the comedy of Sir Courtly
Nice : but the hidden death of the king on the laft
day of the rehearfal, plunged him at once from his
pleafing expectations into difappointment and diftrefs,
and left him no refource but his wits. He died fome
time about the year 1703 ; and left behind him r 7 tra¬
gedies and comedies, fome of which are aCted with
great fuccefs. His chief excellency lay in comedy;
yet his tragedies are far from being contemptible.
His plots are for the molt part his own invention ; his
characters are in general ftrongly coloured and highly
finifhed; and his dialogue lively and fpirited, attentive¬
ly diverfified, and well adapted to the feveral fpeak-
ers. So that on the whole he may alfuredly be al¬
lowed to ftand at leaft in the third rank of our dra¬
matic writers.
CROXAL (Samuel), an ingenious Englifh divine,
who in his youth wrote the celebrated poem intitled
The Fair Circajftan. He had the livings of Hampton
in Middlefex ; and the united parifhes of S‘ Mary So-
merfet, and Sl Mary Mounthaw, in London ; both
which he held till his death in 1751. He publiflied
many other poems and tranflations, with an entire
Englilh edition of Efop's Fables. In confequence of
his attachment to Whig principles, he enjoyed fome
other preferments, and was chaplain in ordinary to
George II.
CROYDON, a Town in Surry, in England. Its
fituation is low', near the fpring-head of the river
Wandel, and it is in a manner furrounded with hills.
It is pretty large, and is chiefly noted for being the
feat of the archbilhop of Canterbury. It has a large
handfome church, an hofpital, and a free fchool. W.
Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 51. 22.
CRUCIAL incision, in furgery, an incifion made
in the form of a crofs.
CRUCIANELLA, petty madder ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants. There are five fpecies, natives of the fouth-
ern parts of Europe, but none of them poflefled of
any remarkable quality.
CRUCIBLE, a chemical veflel made of earth, and
fo tempered and backed as to endure the greateft fire.
They are ufed to melt metals, and to flux minerals,
ores, ire. See Chemistry, n° 86.
CRUCIFIX, a crofs upon which the body of Chrift
is faltened in effigy, ufed by the Roman catholics to
excite in their minds a ftrong idea of our Saviour’s
paflion.
They efteem it an eflential circumftance of the reli¬
gious worfhip performed at the altar; and on Good
Friday they perform the ceremony of adoring it, which
is done in thefe words, 0 crux avc,fpes unica; “ Hail,
thou crofs, our only hope.” The officiating prieft un¬
covers the crucifix, elevates it with both his hands,
and fays, Eece lignum cruets; u Behold the wood
of the crofs.” The people anfwer, in quo falus
mundi pependit; “ on which the Saviour of the world
fuffered death.” Then the whole congregation bow
with great reverence, and devoutly kifs the holy crucifixldi
wood. ||
CRUCIFIXION, a capital punifhment by nailing Crufca,
the criminal to a crofs. See Cross.
CRUCIFORM, in general, fomething difpofed
crofs-ways ; but more efpecially ufed by botanifls, for
flowers confifting of four petals difpofed in the form
of a crofs.
CRUDE, an epithet given to fomething that has
not pafled the fire, or had a proper degree of coc-
tion.
CRUDITY, among phylicians, is applied to undi-
gefted fubftances in the flomach ; to humours in the
body which are unconcoifted, and not prepared for ex~
pulfion ; and to the excrements.
CRUISE, in the fea language, fignifies to fail back
and fore within a certain fpace of the fea, as well to
annoy the enemy, as to protect our own trading vef-
fels.
CRUISERS, in the navy, are fmall men of war
made ufe of to and fro in the channel, and elfewhere,
to fecure our merchant fhips and veflels from the ene¬
my’s fmall frigates and privateers. They are gene¬
rally fuch as fail well, and are commonly well man¬
ned : and indeed the fafety of the trade in the chan¬
nel, and up and down the foundings, and other places,,
abfolutely requires the conflant keeping out fuch fhips
at fea.
CRUMENTATA, among zoologifts, animals fur-
nilhed with a pouch, or bag, wherein to receive their
young in time of danger; as the opofliim. See Di-
DELPHIS.
CRUOR, fometimes fignifies the blood in general ;
fbmetimes only the venous blood ; and fometimes ex-
travafated or coagulated blood; but is mofl frequently
ufed for the red globules of the blood, in contradiftinc-
tion to the limpid or ferous part.
CRUPPER, in the menage, the buttocks of a horfe,
the rump; alfo a thong of leather put under a horfe’s
tail, and drawn up by thongs to the buckle behind the
faddle, fo as to keep him from cafting the faddle for¬
wards on his neck.
CRUR^EUS, or Crureus, Mu/culus, in anatomy,
a flefhy mafs, covering almofl all the forefide of the
os femorif, between the two vafti, which likewife co¬
ver the edges of this mufcle on each fide. See Ana¬
tomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CRURAL, in anatomy, an epithet given to the ar¬
tery which conveys the blood to the crura or legs, and
to the vein by which this blood returns towards the
heart. See Anatomy, n° 387. g.
CRUS, in anatomy, all that part of the body con¬
tained between the buttocks and the toes.
CRUS ADO, in commerce, a Portuguefe coin, flruck
under Alphonfus V. about the year 1457, at the time
when pope Calixtus fent thither the bull for a croifade
againfl the infidels. This coin has a crofs on one fide,
and the arms of Portugal on the other.
CRUSCA, an Italian term fignifying bran, is in ufe
amongft us to denote that celebrated academy called
della Crufca, eftablifhed at Florence for purifying and
perfecting the Tufcan language. See Academy,
N0 10. The academy took its name from its office,
and the end propofed by it; which is, to refine the
language.
. /< -Crufta
if § II
. Cruth.
C R U
language, and as it were to fcparate the bran from
it. Accordingly, its device is a fieve ; and its motto,
_ II piu bet fior ne coglie ; that is, “ It gathers the fi-
neft flour thereof.” In the hall or apartment where
the academy meets, M. Monconis informs us, that
every thing bears an allufxon to the name and device :
the feats are in the form of a baker’s bafket ; their
backs like a ftiovel for moving of corn ; the cufliions
of grey fattin, in form of facks or wallets; and the
branches where the lights are placed refembling facks.
The vocabulary Della Crufca is an excellent Italian
dictionary, compofed by this academy,
CRUSTA lactea, in medicine, the fame with
Achor.
CRUSTACEOUS, an appellation given to animals
covered with fliells made up of feveral pieces, in con-
tradiftinflion to thofe confilting of a lingle piece.
CRUTH, or Growth, a kind of mufical inftru-
ment formerly in ufe among the common people in
Wales. It is of the fidicinal kind, fomewhat refem¬
bling a violin, 22 inches in length, and an inch and an
half in thicknefs. It has fix firings fupported by a
bridge, and is played on with a bow : the bridge dif¬
fers from that of a violin, in that it is flat and not
convex on the top; a circumftance from which it is
to be inferred, that the firings are to be ftruck at the
fame time, fo as to afford a fucceflion of concords.
The bridge is not placed at right angles with the fides
of the infirument, but in an oblique direction ; and,
which is further to be remarked, one of the feet of
the bridge goes through one of the found-holes, which
are circular, and refts on the infide of the back ; the
other foot, which is proportionably Ihorter, refting on
the belly before the other found-hole. Of the firings,
the four firft are conducted from the bridge down the
finger-board, as in a common violin ; but the fifth
and fixth, which are about an inch longer than the
others, leave the fmall end of the neck about an inch
to the right. The whole fix are wound up either by
wooden pegs in the form of the letter T, or by iron
pins, which are turned with a wreft like thofe of a
harp or fpinnet. Of the tuning, it is to be remarked,
that the fifth and fixth firings are the unifon and oc¬
tave of G ; the fourth and fifth, the fame of C ; and
the fecond and firft, the fame of D ; fo that the fecond
pair of firings are a fourth, and the third a fifth to the
firft.
Concerning the antiquity of this inftrument, there
is but little written evidence to carry it further back
than the time of Leland ; neverthelefs the opinion of
its high antiquity is fo ftrong among the inhabitants of
the country where it was uled, as to afford a probable
ground of conjeCture, that the cruth might be the pro¬
totype of the whole fidicinal fpecies of mufical inftru-
ments. Another evidence of its antiquity, but which
tends alfo to prove that it was not peculiar to Wales,
arifes from a difcovery lately made and communica¬
ted to the fociety of antiquarians, refpeCling the abbey*
church of Melrofe in Scotland, fuppofed to have been
built about the time of Edward II. It feems that a-
mong the outfide ornaments of that church there is
the reprefentation of a cruth, very little different from
the defcription above given. The inftrument is now
difufed, in fo much that Sir John Hawkins, from whom
CRY
we extract, tells us, that there is but one perfon in Crux
the whole principality of North Wales that can play t
upon it; and as he was at that time near 60 years of 3 ’
age, the fuccefiion of performers is probably near an
end.
CRUX, or S» Croix, one of the Caribbee iflands,
fituated about 60 miles fouth-eaft of Porto-Rico, and
fubjeft to France. W. Long. 64. o. N. Lat. 17. 30.
CRYMODES, among phyficians, a kind of fever
attended with a fhivering cold, and inflammation of
the internal parts of the body.
CRYPTOGAMIA, (from occultus, “ con¬
cealed,” and ya.p.<&, nuptla, “ nuptials”), the 24th
clafs in the Linnaean fyftem, comprehending thofe
plants whofe frudtification is concealed either through
minutenefs, or within the fruit. See Botany, p.1293,
1299 ; and the Scheme, p. 1292.
CRYPTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher,
or with fympathetic ink. See Cipher and Ink.
CRYSTAL, the name of a very large clafs of foflils ;
hard, pellucid, and naturally colourlefs ; of regularly
angular figures, compofed of fimple, not filamentous
plates; not flexible nor elaftic, giving fire with fieel;
not fermenting in acid menfirua, and calcining in a
ftrong fire.
The orders of pure cryftal are three ; the firft is
perfect columnar cryftals, with double pyramids, com¬
pofed of 18 planes, in an hexangular column, termi¬
nated by an hexangular pyramid at each end : the fe¬
cond order is that of perfect cryftals, with double py¬
ramids, without a column, compofed either of 12 or
of 16 planes, in two hexangular pyramids, joined
clofely bafe to bafe, without the intervention of any
column : the third order is that of imperfedt cryftals,
with fingle pyramids, compofed either of 12 or 10
planes, in an hexangular or pentangular column, affix¬
ed irregularly at one end to fome folid body, and ter¬
minated at the other by an hexangular’or pentangular
pyramid.
Thefe are all the general forms into which cryftal,
when pure, is found concreted : but under thefe there
are almoft infinite varieties in the number of angles,
and the length, thicknefs, and other accidents of the
columns and pyramids.
When cryftal is blended with metalline particles at
the time of its formation, it affumes a variety of fi¬
gures wholly different from thefe, conftituting a fourth
order, under the name of metalline cryftals : when
that metal is lead, the cryftal affumes the form of a
cube ; when it is tin, of a quadrilateral pyramid, with
a broad bafe; when iron, the cryftal is found concre¬
ted in rhomboidal figures: thefe cryftals are very
common about mines ; but the common fpars, which
are liable to be influenced in the fame manner by the
metals, and to appear in the very fame form, are to
be carefully diftinguifhed from them. There is One
very eafy left for this purpofe, which is, that all fpars
are fubjetft to be diffolved by aqua fortis, and effer-
vefce violently only on its touching them : but it has
no fuch effedls on cryftal.
The pebble-cryftal is common enough in all parts of
the world ; but that which is formed of hexangular
columns, affixed to a folid bafe at one end, and termi¬
nated by a hexangular column at the other, is infi-
13 P 2 nitely
[ 2323 3
CRY [ 2324 ] CRY
Cryftal. nitdy more fo : this, is what we call fprig or rock
  cryftal, and is the fpecies defcribed by moil authors
under the name of cryftal of the Jhops, or that kept
for medicinal ufes.
The origin and formation of cryftals, as to the time
and manner of them, deferve a very nice inquiry ;
iince many of the more compound loffile bodies are
formed chiefly either of cryftal, or of ipar, a body in
many things refembling it. The original formation
and coalefcencc of thole bodies of which fpar is the
balis, we know may have been but of yelterday, lince
we have evident proofs that fpar is concreting to this
day, and that fparry bodies are forming every mo.
ment. This is evident from the fparry ftala&ias in-
the arches of modern buildings, particularly in one fo
lately built as the new bridge at Weftminfter ; the
roofs of the arches of which were filled with thefe
fpars within a year after they were built. It is alfo
demonftrable that the fpars are not formed of matter
exfuding from the ftone, fince brick arches abound
equally with them ; and the brick vault which fup-
ports part of the grand terrace at London, was fome
time ago fo full of them that there was not room to
walk. Thefe obfervations fuffieiently dernonllrate
the growth of fpar ; but the vegetation of cry Hal re¬
mained dubious till Dr Hill Ihewed by fome experi¬
ments that cryftal, as well as fpar, is dilfolved in every
kind of water, even fuch as appears to be molt pure
and clear. This is alfo probable from an obfervation
of Neuman’s, who tells us, that he has feen leaves,
ftalks of plants, hay, ftraw, hogs briftles, ire. inclofed
in fprigs of cryftal. From the regular forms in which
thefe natural cryftals are found, the regular arrange¬
ment of falts into different figures takes the name of
cryftallizathn, and both are probably owing to the
* See Cry- fame caufe *■ Henckel gives us a remarkable account
fi aliiz at ion. 0f t|ie formation of cryftal out of human urine. He
once filled a large round glafs-veffel half way up with
the recent urine of a young lad, and tying a bladder
over the mouth of the veffel, fet it in a ftove for four
years together, never ftirring it during that whole
time. At the end of this time he found a number of
fmall white ftones growing to the infide of the glafs ;
they were of the fize of an oat-feed, of a prifrnatic
figure, and tolerably pellucid : they ftuck fo faft to the
fides of the glafs that they could not be walked off by
the lhaking about of the urine j and when taken out
had no faline tafte, and were not foluble even in hot
water.
Among the largeft and fineft cryftals we have any
account of, were thofe found in the mountains of
Grimfule between immenfe ftrata of ftone. They
were all as pure and limpid as the cleareft water, and
the largeft of them meafured near three feet in length,
and little lefs in circumference ; its weight was 250
pounds. Others were of 130, too, and fo on, till
they came to 10 pounds weight; but thefe were the
fmalleft found in that place. Neuman, however, tells
us of a piece mentioned in the Breflaw colleflions,
which weighed upwards of 400 weight. In the Im¬
perial collection at Vienna, there is a pyramidal cry¬
ftal vafe two ells in height, cut wholly out of one
piece. It is ufual with the largeft cryftals of the Ger¬
man mountains to be full of cracks and flaws, and to
be fo conftnuffed internally as to fliew all the prifma- Cryftal
tic colours; but the above mentioned ones were quite I
free from thefe blemilhes, and refembled columns of Cry a in^‘
the pureft glafs, only much clearer than any glafs can
be made. Cryftal is alfo found in many parts of Bri¬
tain and Ireland. About Briftol it is found of an ame-
thyftine tinge. In Silefia and Bohemia, in Germany,
it is found flamed with the colours of the ruby, lap-
phire, emerald, and topaz ; in which cafe jewellers
make great advantage of it, felling it under the name
of accidental fapphire, See.
Cryftal is frequently cut ; and luftres, vafes, and
toys, are made of it as of other beautiful ftones. For
this purpofe it is to be chofen perfectly clear and tranl-
parent. It is to be tried by aqua fortis, or by draw¬
ing it along a pane of glafs. The genuine cryftal will
not be aft’eCted by the acid, and will cut glafs almoft
like a diamond. When any piece of workmanlhip of
natural cryftal is become foul and dark, the following
method is to be ufed for recovering its brightnefs
without hurting the polilh. Mix together fix parts
of common water, and one part of brandy ; boil thefe
over a brilk fire, and let the cryftal be kept in it, in a
boiling ftate, a quarter of an hour ; then take it out,
and rub it carefully over with a brulh dipped in the
lame liquor; after this it is to be wiped with a nap¬
kin, and by that means its furface will be perfectly
cleaned, and rendered as bright as at firft, without
any injury to the points of the cutting, or the poliih of
the planes or facets, which would probably have hap¬
pened had the cleaning been attempted by mere rub¬
bing with a cloth.
Natural cryftal may be reduced by calcination into
a ftate proper for making glafs with alkaline falts, and
thus becomes a very valuable fritt. The method of
doing it is as follows: calcine natural cryftal in a cru¬
cible ; when it is red-hot throw it into cold water.
Repeat this eight times, covering the crucible that no
dull: or alhes may get in among the cryftal. Dry this
calcined mafs, and reduce it to an impalpable powder.
Colouring Crystal, for the imitation of gems.
See Doublet.
Crystal is alfo ufed for a factitious body, call in
glafs-houfes, called cryftal-glafs; being, in fa (ft, no
more than glafs carried, in the compofition and manu-
faefture, to a greater perfe(ftion than the common glafs.
The beft kind of glafs-cryftal is that called Venice-*-
cryftal, made at Moran near Venice. See Glass.
IJland Crystal. See Island Cryftal.
Crystal Dews. See Dew.
DifdiaclaftiC Crystal. See Disdiaclastic..
^ec^-CRYSTAL. See 'KocK-Cryftal.
CRYSTALLINE, in general, fomething compofed
of, or refembling, cryftal. See Crystal.
Crystalline Heavens, in ancient aftronomy, two
fpheres, imagined between the primum mobile and
the firmament, in the Ptolemaic fyftem, which fup-
pofes the heavens folid, and only fufceptible of a fingle
motion. See Astronomy, h? 72.
Crystalline Humour. See Anatomy, n° 406. p.
CRYSTALLlNiE, or Crystallines, in medi¬
cine, are puftules filled with water, and fo called on
account of their tranfparency. They are one of the
worft fymptoms attendant on a gonorrhoea. They
are
CRY [ 2325 ] CRY
. Cryflalliza- are lodged on the prepuce, without pain ; and though
ti°n. caufed by coition, have nothing of infection attending
them. The caul'e is fuppofed to be a contufion of the
lymphatic veflels in the part aiFeifted. Dr Cockburn,
who hath defcribed this cafe, recommends for the cure
a mixture of three parts of lime-water, and two of
rectified fpirit of wine, to be ul’ed warm, as a lotion,
three times a-day.
CRYSTALLIZATION, in general, fignifies the na¬
tural formation of any fubftance into a regular figure,
refembling that of natural cryftal. Hence the phrafes
of cryftallized ores, crylhtllized falls, ire. and even
the bafaltic rocks are now generally reckoned to be
effe&s of this operation. See Basaltes, and Vol¬
cano. The term, however, is molt commonly ap¬
plied to bodies of the faline kind, and their leparation
in regular figures from the water, or other fluid in
which they were diflTolved, is called their cryjlalliza-
* * See Che- tion *. The word cryftaUization is never applied to the
tniftry, freezing of water, or to the confolidation of metals
« » 74. after t]iey |iave 1>een meited . though it might certainly
be applied with as much jultice to thefe lubftances as
to any others; for all of them concrete info a certain
regular form, from which they never deviate, unlefs
dilturbed. When water freezes llowly, it always
forms regular cryftals of ice, which are conflantly of
the fame form. They are long, needle-like mafles,
flattened on one fide, and joined together in fuch a
manner, that the fmaller are inferred into the fides of
the greater ; and thus thefe compound cryftals have
the appearance of feathers, or branches of trees with
leaves. The moft remarkable circumftance attending
this cryftallization is, that the angle formed by the
infertion of the fmaller pieces into the larger is either
60, or 120 degrees. The figures aflumed by metals
of different kinds have not been fo exaflly inveftiga-
ted, except in the regulus of antimony, which is ob-
lerved always to take a ftellated form. Experience
alfo Ihews, that all kinds of earths, or other mineral
matters, are capable of alfiiming a cryftalline form,
and may eafily be made to do fo by taking away part
of the water which diflblves them.
Different falts aflume different figures in cryftalliza¬
tion, and are thus moft eafily diftinguilhed from one
another. The methods of reducing them into this
form, for fale, are mentioned under the article Che¬
mistry, n° 74. But befides the large cryftals pro^
duced in this way, each fait is capable of afluming a
very different appearance of the cryftalline kind, when
only a fingle drop of the faline folution is made ufe of,
and the cryftallization viewed through a microfcope.
For our knowledge of this fpecies of cryftallization we
are indebted to Mr Henry Baker, who was prefented
with a gold medal for the difeovery, in the year 1744.
Thefe microfcopical cryftals he diftinguiffles from the
large ones by the name of configurations; but this
term feems inaccurate, and the diftin&ion may well
enough be preferved by calling the large ones the
common, and the fmall ones the microfcopical cryftals
of the fait. His method of making thefe obfervations
he gives in the following words:
“ I difTolve the fubjeft, to be examined, in no
larger a quantity of rain or river water than I am cer¬
tain it is fufficient to faturate. If it is a body eafily
diflblvable, I make ufe' of cold water ; otherwife I CryMllza-
make the water warm, hot, or even boiling, accor- tlon-
ding as I find it neceflary. After it is perfedlly dif- ' '
folved, I let it reit for fome hours, till, if overcharged,
the redundant faline particles may be precipitated, and
fettle to the bottom, or Ihoot into cryftals ; by which
means I am moft likely to have a folution of the fame
ftrength at one time as at another ; that is, a folution
fully charged with as much as it can hold up, and no
more ; and by thefe precautions the configurations ap¬
pear alike, how often foever tried : whereas, if the
water be lefs faturated, the proportions at different
times will be llibjecft; to more uncertainty and if it
be examined before fuch feparation and precipitation
of the redundant falts, little more will be feen than a-
confufed mafs of cryftals.
“ The folution being thus prepared, I take up a
drop of it with a goofe quill cut in falhion of a fcoop,
and place it on a flat flip of glafs of about three quar¬
ters of an inch in width, and between three and four
inches long, fpreading it on the glafs with the quill, in
either a round or an oval figure, till it appears a quar¬
ter of an inch, or more, in diameter, and fo fliallow
as to rife very little above the furface of the glafs.
When it is fo difpofed, I hold it as level as I can over
the dear part of a. fire that is not too fierce, or over
the flame of a candle, at a diftance proportionable to
the beat it requires, (which experience only can di-
reeft), and watch it very carefully till I difeover the
faline particles beginning to gather and look white, or
of fome other colour at the extremities of the edges.
Then, (having adjufted the microfcope before-hand for
its reception, armed with the fourth glafs, which is the
fitteft for moft of thofe experiments), I place it under
my eye, and bring it exactly to the focus of the mag¬
nifier ; and, after running over the whole drop, I fix.
my attention on that fide where I obferve any increafe
or pufliing forwards of cryftalline matter from the cir¬
cumference towards the centre.
“ This motion is extremely flow at the beginning,
unlefs the drop has been overheated, but quickens as.
the water evaporates; and, in many kinds, towards
the conclufion, produces configurations with a fwift-
nefs inconceivable, compofed of an infinity of parts,
which are adjufted to each other with an elegance,
regularity, and order, beyond what the exadleft pen¬
cil in the world, guided by the ruler and compafles,
can ever equal, or the moft luxuriant imagination:
fancy.
“ When this aiftion once begins, the eye cannot be
taken off, even for a moment, without lofing fome-
thing worth obfervation : for the figures alter every
inftant till the whole procefs is over ; and, in many-
forts, after all feems at an end, new forms arife, dif¬
ferent entirely from any that appeared before, and
which probably are owing to fome fmall quantity of
fait of another kind, which the other feparates from,
and leaves to adt after itfelf has done : and in fome
fubjedts, three or four different forts are obfervable,
few or none of them being fimple and homogeneous.
“ When the configurations are fully formed, and
all the water evaporated, moft kinds of them are foon
deftroyed again by the moifture or adlion of the air-
upon them ; their points and angles lofe their Iharp-
nefis,.
CRY I 2326 ] CRY
Oi'yftalliza- nefs, become uneven and defaced, and moulder, as it
tion. were, away. But fome few are permanent, and be-
r ing inclofed between glaffes, may be preferved months,
or even years, entertaining objedts fpr the micro-
icope.
“ It happens oftentimes that a drop of faline folu-
tion can hardly be fpread on the flip of glafs, by rea-
fon of the glafs’s fmoothnefs, but breaks into little glo¬
bules, as it would do if the furface were greafy ; this
was very troublelbme, till I found a way of prevent¬
ing it, by rubbing the broken drop with my finger
over the clafs, fo as to leave the furface fmeared with
It; on which fmeared place, when dry, another drop
of the folution may be fpread very eafily in what form
one pleafes.
« It likewife fometimes happens, that when a heat¬
ed drop is placed properly enough for examination,
the obferver finds he can diflinguifti nothing : which
is owing to faline fleams that rife from the drop, co¬
ver and obfcure the object-glafs, and therefore muft
Immediately be wiped away with a foft cloth or lea¬
ther.
“ In all examinations by the microfcope of faline
folutions, even though made in the day-time, I always
employ the light of a candle, and advife every obfer¬
ver to do fo likewife : for the configurations being ex¬
ceedingly tranfparent, are rendered much more diftin-
guiftiable by the brown light a candle affords, than by
the more white and tranfparent day-light; and be-
lides, either by moving the candle or turning the mi¬
crofcope, fuch light may be varied or directed juft as
the objeift requires.”
In this manner were produced the beautiful cryftal-
lizations reprefented Plate LXXXV. They are vaft-
ly different from fuch cryftals of the fame falts as are
obtained by the common procelfes; but Mr Baker af-
fures us they are no lefs conftant and invariable than
they, and that he has repeated the experiments a
great number of times with the fame fuccefs.
Fig. I. (hews the microfcopical cryftals of nitre or
falt-petre. Thefe fhoot from the edges, with very
little heat, into flattilh figures of various lengths, ex¬
ceedingly tranfparent, and with ftrait and parallel
fides. They are fliewn in their different degrees of
progrefiion at the letters a, b, c, J, e; where a, repre-
fents how they firft begin. After numbers of thefe
are formed, they will often dilfolve under the eye, and
difappear entirely ; but if one waits a little, new flioots
will pufh out, and the procefs go on afrefh. Thefe
firft figures fometimes enlarge only without altering
their fliapes, and fometimes form in fuch fort as the
drop reprefents; but if the heat has been too great
they fhoot haftily into numerous ramifications very nu¬
merous and very beautiful, but very difficult to be
drawn ; and which Mr Baker therefore did not at¬
tempt. There feems all the while a violent agitation in
the fluid, and.moft commonly, towards the conclufion,
a few oftaedra (compofed of eight triangular planes,
or two quadrangular pyramids, joined bale to bafe),
make their appearance.
2. Blue vitriol, produces cryftals'round the edges,
very fhort at the beginning, but increafing gradu¬
ally, as reprefented at the-figures 1, 2, 3, which de¬
note their difference of form, and the progrefs of their
growth. Thefe cryftalline Ihoots are folid, regular, Cryftalli**.!
tranfparent, and reflect the light very beautifully from tlon-
their poliflied fides and angles. As the watery part
evaporates, numbers of long flendef bodies like hairs
are feen here and there, fome lying fide by fide, or
croffing each other as at 4, others forming ftar-like
figures with many radiations (j, j). This fait fhodts but
flowly, and therefore requires patience. At laft the
true cryftals begin to appear commonly in the middle
of the drop, and are very prettily branched, as at 6.
3. Dijlilledverdigreafe, diflolved as above directed,
and immediately applied to the microfcope, fhews a-
bundance of the regular figures 1, 2, 3, 4, y, 6, 7 :
but if the folution is fuffered to ftand for a few hours,
and a drop of it is then heated over the fire on a flip
of glafs, till it begins to concrete about the fides, and
then examined, fliarp-pointed, folid, figures, bifeifted
by a line cut through the middle, from which they are
cut away towards the edges* begin to appear, and
fliooting forwards (r, 1, 1). Thefe figures are often
ftriated very prettily from the middle line to the edges
obliquely, (2, 2); and frequently they arife in clufters;
and fliooting from a centre (3, 3). Thefe .figures are
a long time in growing; and whilft they are doing fo,
feveral regular cryftals appear forming in feveral parts
of the drop, of the moft lovely emerald colour, and
reflecting the light from their fides and angles, which
are moft exactly difpofed, and finely poliflied. No
cryftals are formed in the middle, till the water is
nearly evaporated ; and then they begin to form ha¬
ftily, for which reafon they muft be carefully attend¬
ed. Their common figure refembles two long/f crof¬
fing each other in an angle of about 6o°, and fliooting
branches every way : each of which again protrudes
other branches from one, and fometimes from both its
fides; making together an appearance like four leaves
of fern conjoined by their ftalks (5, 5). Separate
clufters of the fame fliarp pointed figures as thofe at
the edges of the drop, are alfo formed in the middle
of it (6). Sometimes alfo they put on another form,
like the leaves of dandelion, (7). Very beautiful fi¬
gures are likewife produced by a kind of combination
of fliarp points and branches, (8, 8). All thefe cry¬
ftals are of a moft beautiful green colour, but deeper
or lighter, according to the time of their production.
The deepeft are conftantly produced firft, and the
paler ones afterwards. Towards the end of the pro¬
cefs fome circular figures are formed, extremely thin,
and fo flightly tinged, with green lines radiating from
a centre, as to be almoft colourlefs (9, 9). When all
feems in a manner over, bundles of hair-like bodies
appear frequently fcattered here and there throughout
the drop, like thofe of blue vitriol already delcribed.
4. Alum. The microfcopical cryftals of this fait
prove more or lefs perfect according to the ftrength
of the folution and the degree of heat employed in
making the experiment. The Iblution of alum, how¬
ever faturated with the fait, will not be found over-
ftrong after Handing fome days; for in that time
many cryftals will have formed in it. This reparation
will often leave the remainder too weak for the pur-
pofe ; but by holding the vial over, or near the fire,
the cryftals will again diffolve. After it has flood about
half an hour, it may then be ufed. The drop, put on
the
CRY [ 2327 ] CRY
Hlfl jvnti glafs, and properly heated, exhibits commonly at
iiPtion. lirft a dark cloud which appears in motion fomewhere
# ~ near the edge, and runs pretty fwiftly both to the
right and left, until it is either (topped by' the inter¬
vention of regular cryftals, or elfe it proceeds both
!ways at once,, till having furrounded the whole drop,
the two ends rufh together, and join into one [a, a).
This cloudy part, which feems to be violently agitated
while it is running round, appears on a ftridt examina¬
tion to confilt of (alts, (hot into long and very (lender
lines, much finer than the fmalleft hair, eroding each
other at right angles. As they go along, rows of (olid
cryltals are produced from their internal edges. Thefe
are compofed of many oblique plain Tides, [b, b), and
which have all a tendency towards'the figures of the
regular cryftals to be deferibed prefently. But it fre¬
quently happens, that, in (bme parts of the drop, many
minute and circular figures are feen, riling at fome
little diftances from the edge, which enlarging them-
felves continually, appear at laft of a ftar-like form
(c, c). The cryftals in the middle feldom appear till
the fluid feems almoft wholly evaporated ; when, on a
fudden, many ftraight lines appear pulhing forwards,
whofe fides or edges are jagged, and from which o-
ther fimilar ftraight and jagged lines (hoot out at right
angles with the firft. Thefe again have other fmall
ones of the fame kind (hooting out likewife from them-
felves, and compofe altogether a moft beautiful and
elegant configuration (D). Each of thefe lines increa-
fing in breadth towards its end, appears fomewhat
club-headed (<?, r, e). Sometimes, inftead of fending
branches from their fides, many of thefe lines rife pa¬
rallel to each other, refembling a kind of palifadoe,
and having numberlefs minute tranfverfe lines running
between them (F). But the moft wonderful part of
all, though not producible without an exatft degree of
heat and right management, is the dark ground work
(G). It confifts of an infinity of parallel lines, having
others crofting them at right angles, and producing a
variety fcarce conceivable from lines difpofed in no o-
ther manner: the direction of the lines (which are ex-
quilitely ftraight and delicate) being fo frequently and
differently changed, that one would think it the refult
of long ftudy and contrivance. During the time this
ground work is framing, certain lucid points prefent
themfelvesto view inoft commonly on one fide. Thefe
grow continually larger, with radiations from a cen¬
tre, and become ftar-like figures as before-mentioned.
Some of them fend out long tails, which give them the
appearance of cornets : and at the end of all, a dark
lineation in various diretftions darts frequently through,
and occupies all, or moft of the fpaces between them,
making thereby no ill reprefentation, when viewed by
candle-light, of a dark Iky, illuminated with ftars and
comets. The regular cryftals are often formed in the
fame drop with the others (y).
5. Borax. If a drop of folution of borax is held too
long over the fire, it hardens on the flip of glafs in fuch
a manner that no cryftals can appear. The beft method
is to give it a bri(k heat for about a fecond, and then
applying it to the microfcope, the cryftals will quickly
form themfeives as reprefented in the figure.
6. Sal ammoniac begins with (hooting from the
edges great numbers of (harp, but tliick and broad fpi-
culae, from whofe fides are protruded as they rife, Cryflalliza-
many others of the fame (liape, but very (hort ; pa- tlon'
rallel to each other, but perpendicular to their main
ftem (1). Thefe (piculs arrange themfeives in all
directions; but for the moft part obliquely to the plane
from whence they rife, and many are frequently feen
parallel to one another (1,1). As they continue to
pulh forwards, which they do without increafing much
in breadth, fome (hoot from them the fmall Tpiculae
only (2) ; others divide in a lingular manner by the
fplitting of the ftem (3); and others branch out into
fmaller ramifications (4). Before the middle of the
drop begins to (hoot, feveral exceedingly minute bo¬
dies may be difeerned at the bottom of the fluid.
Thefe, in a little while rife to the top, and foon diltin-
guifli their (hape as at (5). Their growth is very
quick, and for fome time pretty equal; but at laft
fome branch gets the better of the reft, and forms the
figure (6). The other branches enlarge but little after
this, all the attraction feeming to be lodged in that one
that firft began to lengthen ■, and from this, more bran¬
ches being protruded, and they again protruding others,
the whole appears as at (8). It is not uncommon to
fee in the middle of the drop, fome cryftals, where in¬
ftead of the ftraight ftems above deferibed, there is
formed a kind of zig-zag, with fpiculae like thofe in the
other figures (7).
7. Salt of Lead, or faceharum faturni. A little of
this fait dillblved in hot water, which it immediately
renders milky, after (landing a quarter of an hour to
fubfide, is in a fit condition for an examination by the
microfcope. A drop of it then applied on a flip of
glafs and held over the fire to put the particles in
aCtion, will be feen forming round the edge a pretty
even and regular border of a clear and tranfparent
film or glewy fubftance (a a a a)-, which if too fudden
and violent a heat be given, runs over the whole area
of the drop, and hardens fo on the glafs as not to be
got off without great difficulty. But if a moderate
warmth be made ufe of, which likewife muft not be
too long continued, this border proceeds only a little
way into the drop, with a kind of radiated figure
compofed of fine lines, or rather bundles of lines, be¬
ginning from the centres in the interior edge of the
border, and fpreading out at nearly equal diftances
from each other every way, towards the exterior
(b b b b). From the fame centres are produced after¬
wards a radiation inwards, compofed of. parallelo¬
grams of different lengths and breadths; from one,
and fometimes both the angles of thefe, are frequent¬
ly feen (bootings fo exceedingly (lender, that they are
perhaps the beft polfible reprefentations of a mathe¬
matical line. The extremities of the parallelograms
are generally cut off at right angles; but they are
fometimes alfo feen oblique (c c cc). Centres with the
like radii iffuing from them, and fome of the glutinous
matter for their root, are fometiroes formed in the
drop, entirely detached from the edges; and in thefe
it is very frequent to find a kind of fecondar^ radii
proceeding from fome of the primary ones; and o-
thers from them again to a great number of grada¬
tions, forming thereby a very pretty figure (D).
8. Salt of Tin, produces at the edges of the drop a
number of oCtaedra, partly tranfparent, (landing on
long
Cryftalliza-
tion.
CRY
t 2328 ]
CRY
long necks, at fmall didances from each other, with all together like dreets, alleys, and fquares, (gg)- Cryftalliza
angular Ihoots between them (a a). At the fame
time, folid and regular opaque cubes will be feen
forming themfelves in other parts of the drop, (b b).
In the middle of the fame drop, and in feveral other
parts of it very different figures will alfo be formed;
particularly great numbers of flat, thin, tranfparent,
hexangular bodies (c c c) j fome among which are
When this crydallization begins, it forms with great
rapidity, affording the oblerver a very agreeable
entertainment: but its beauty is of very fhort dura¬
tion : in a few moments it diffolves and vanifhes like
melted ice, which renders the drawing of it very
difficult.
12. Sa/t of Jefuits bark. The few fhootings which
thicker (eJ, and a few appear more folid, and with this fait produces at the edge of the drop are of no re-
fix (loping fides rifing to a point, as if cut and polifhed
(dj. The figure (f) is compofed of two high pyra¬
mids united at their bafe. Some in this kind of form
are found truncated at one of their ends, and others at
both. Several of the hexagonal bodies may be ob-
ferved with Hoping fides, forming a fmooth, triangu¬
lar, rifing plane, whofe angles point to three inter¬
mediate fides of the hexagon (g).
9. Epfom Salt, begins to flioot from the edge in
jagged figures (a). From other parts differently fi¬
gured cryftals extend themfelves towards the middle,
fome of which have fine lines proceeding from both
ular figure (a). The whole area becomes quickly
filled with great numbers of rhombi, of different fizes,
extremely thin and tranfparent (b). Some of thefe
enlarge greatly and acquire a confiderable thicknefs,
forming themfelves into folids of many fides (c c).
Near the conclufion fome cryftals of fea-falt are form¬
ed (dd), and likewife a few odd triangular figures (e).
13. Salt of Liquorice, begins fhooting from the edge
with a fort of rhombic fpiculae (a). Some four
branched figures like thofe of vitriol, commonly appear,
but moulder away before their ramifications are com¬
pleted, leaving only their ftamina behind (b b). The
fides of a main ftem, in an oblique direction ; thofe on middle of the drop is ufually overfpread with great
one fide fhooting upwards in an angle of about 6o°, and
thofe on the other downwards in the fame obliquity
(c,f). Others produce jags from their fides nearly
numbers of parallelograms, fome exceedingly tranfpa¬
rent, being mere planes; having fometimes one,
fometimes more of the angles canted, in fuch a man-
perpendicular to the main ftem, thereby forming fi- ner as to produce pentagonal, hexagonal, and other
gures that refemble fome fpecies of the polipody (e);
but in others the jags are fhorter (d). Now and then
one of the rpain ftems continues fhooting to a confi¬
derable length, without any branchings from the fides;
but at laft fends out two branches from its extremity
(g). Sometimes a figure is produced having many
fine and minute lines radiating from a centre
The laft fhootings in the middle of the drop (h) are not
unlike the frame work for the flooring or roofing of a
a houfe, but with the angles oblique: and fometimes
a form of another kind prefents itfelf (i).
10 Scarborough Salt, begins to fhoot from the
edges: firft of all in portions of quadrilateral figures,
figures. Others have much thicknefs, and form paral¬
lelepipeds, prifms, (c). Some of the plane figures
now and then protrude an irregular kind of fhooting
which appears very pretty (d).
14. Salt of Wornrojood. The firft fhootings of this
fait from the edges of the drop appear of a confider¬
able thicknefs in proportion to their length: their fides
are deeply and fharply jagged or indented, being
made up of many fomewhat obtufe angles, and their
ends pointed with angles of the fame kind (a). But
other fhoots frequently branch out from thefe original
ones, and they again fend forth others making all toge¬
ther a very pretty appearance (b b). The cryftals of
much refembling thofe of common fait; but two of this fait are very different from each other, confifting
their angles, inftead of 90, are about ioo°. They
fhoot in great numbers round the borders of the drop,
having their fides as nearly parallel to one another as
the figure of the drop will allow : fome proceed but
a little way, others farther, before they renew the
fhoot (a a). In fome places they appear more point¬
ed and longer (b) ; and fometimes, inftead of the dia¬
gonal, one of the fides is feen towards the edge, and
the other fhooting into the middle (e). The middle
cryftals (d,f) feem to be of the vitriolic kind.
II. Glauber's Salt, produces ramifications from the
fide of the drop, like the growth of minute plants, but
extremely tranfparent and elegant (c). Some of
them, however, begin to fhoot from a centre at fome
diftancefrom the edge, and protrude branches from that
of fquares, rhombi, parallelograms, &c. (c).
15. Sa.lt of Tobacco. If a moderate degree of heat
is given to a folution of this fait, its firft fhootings will
be from the edges of the drop, in (lender tapering fi¬
gures, ending with very fharp points, but at confider¬
able diftances from one another. Along with thefe,
are formed other cryftals nearly of the fame kind,
but entirely detached, and farther within the drop,
having the thicker ends towards the centre of the
drop, and the fharp points turned towards its edge
(a). When a little more heat has been given, other
fpiculae are produced from the edge, whofe ends
fpread on either fide, and then terminate in a point:
and which have all along their fides triangular pointed
cryftals placed alternately fo as to reprefent a zig-
centre in a contrary direction (b). Sometimes they zag, with a line drawn through its middle {b'). The
fhoot from one, and fometimesfrom more fides of the
central point in different varieties (d). Other figures
are produced from different parts of the edge of the
drop (a,f, e) ; but the moft remarkable and beautiful
cryftallization forms laft of all near the middle of the
regular cryftals are produced in the middle of the
drop, and are either hexagons or rhombi (c). When
the moifture is nearly exhaled there are fometimes
feen to flioot from, or rather under the fpicul*, upon
the plane of the glafs, a reprefentation of leaves very
drop. It is compofed of a number of lines proceeding fmall at their firft appearance, but gradually increafing
from one another at right angles with tranfparent (d). A violent agitation may be difeovered in the
fpaces and divifions running between them, appearing fluid by the firft magnifier, during the whole procefs;
but
i
CllYS TAJL S ot SYLTS.
riafeiXSXV.
/3 Srt//yAyu<wr. /ASa/n^fffrmutei/ /S.SafofTotcuxv,
2fixnmr.
CRY [ 2329 ] C T E
(blliza- but efpecially at the beginning, and extremely minute
don. cryftals rifing from the bottom.
16. Salt of'Hartjhorn. On the application of a ve¬
ry fmall degree of heat, fait of hartfnorn {hoots near
the edges of the drop into folid figures fomewhat re-
fembling razors or lancets, where the blade turns into
the handle by a clafp (d). The cryftals of this fait are
produced with great velocity, and are fomewhat 0-
paque, {hooting from the edges of the drop, on both
lides a main ftem, and with a kind of regularity, rug¬
ged branches like thofe of fome forts of coral (a a).
But fometimes, inftead of thefe branches, {harp fpicu-
lae, fome plain, and others jagged, are protruded to a
confiderable depth on one fide only (b). As the fluid
exhales, fome one of the branching figures generally
extends to a great length, producing on one fide
{hoots that are rugged and irregular, and, on the o-
ther, curious regular branches refembling thofe of
fome plant (c).
17. Salt of Urine, {hoots from the edges of the drop
in long parallelograms like nitre (a a). But in other
places, along the fules of the drop folid angles are
formed, that feem to be the rudiments of common
fait (b). Some of the parallelograms increafe much
in fize, and fpread themfelves in the middle, fo as
to change their firft figure, and become three or four
times bigger than the reft: and thefe have a dividing
line that runs through their whole length from end to
end, whence iifue other fliort lines at fmail diftances,
oppofite to one another; all pointing with the fame
degree of obliquity towards the bafe (c c). Among
thele enlarged figures, fome few {hoot ftill forward
and tapering towards a point, but, before they form
one, fwell again, and begin as it were anew; and
thus they proceed feveral times before their figure is
quite finiflied (ddj. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, J, 6, are
the regular cryftals of this fait when it is allowed to
diflfolve inj'he air, and no heat at all is given.
18. Rheum, or the clear liquor which diftils from
the noftrils when people catch cold, is ftrongly fatura-
ted with fait. A drop of it on a flip of glal's will foon
cryftallize in a beautiful manner, either with, or with¬
out heat; but if heated to about the warmth of the
blood, and then viewed through the microfcope, many
lucid points will be feen rifing and increafing gradually,
till their form is {hewn to be quadrangular, with two
tranfparent diagonals croffing each other (dd). Thefe
diagonals {hoot foon after far beyond the fquare, pro¬
truding other lines at right angles from their fides;
and thus they go on to form the moft elegant and
beautiful cryftals. When a drop of rheum is fet to
cryftallize without any heat, inftead of branched cryf¬
tals over the whole area, fuch are formed only in the
middle; but, about the edges, plant-like figures are
produced {hooting feveral ftems from one point, and
refembling a kind of fea-mofs (E).
19. Camphire, though infoluble in water, diflblves
very readily in fpirit of wine. A drop of this folution
fpread upon a flip of glafs cryftallizes inftantly in the
beautiful manner reprefented in the figure.
20. Manna eafily diflblves in water, and a drop of
the folution is a very pretty objetft. Its firft fliootings
are radiations from points at the very edge of the
drop: the radiating lines feem opaque, but are very
Vox.. HI.
{lender (a a a). Amongft thefe arife many minute Cryftals
tranfparent columns, whole ends grow wider gradual- il
ly as they extend in length, and terminate at laft Ctefias' .
with fome degree of obliquity (b). Some few figures
radiating from a centre every way, and circumfcribed
by an outline, are produced within the drop {d d).
But the moft Ihrprifing and elegant configuration is
compofed of many clufters of radiations {hooting one
from another over great part of the drop, and ma¬
king all together a figure not unlike a certain very
beautiful fea-plant. The regular cryftals are repre¬
fented at (tf).
The above are the moft remarkable cryftallizations
defcribed by Mr Baker. He endeavours in fomfe
meafurq to account for them ; but neither he, nor any
other perfon, hath as yet been able to fay any thing
fatisfa^lory on the fubjetft. It hath never been {hewn
with any degree of plaufibility why falts fliould aflume
any regular figure at all; much Id’s why every one
Ihould have a form peculiar to itfelf. Sir Ifaac New¬
ton endeavoured to account for this, by fuppofing the
particles of fait to be diffufed through the folvent fluid
at equal diftances from each other ; and confequently
he thought the power of attradion between the 1'aline
particles could not fail to bring them together in re¬
gular figures, as foon as the diminution of the heat
fuffered them to ad upon each other. But it is cer¬
tain that fome other agent muft be concerned in this
operation than mere attradion, otherwife all falts
would cryftallize in the fame manner. Others there¬
fore have had recourfe to fome kind of polarity in the
particles of each fait, which determined them to ar¬
range themfelves in fuch a certain form. But unlefs
we give a reafon for this polarity, we only explain
cryftallization by itfelf when we give that as the caufe.
One thing which feems to have been entirely over¬
looked by thofe who attempt to inveftigate this fub-
jed is, that the faline particles do not only attrad one
another, but alfo fome part of the water which dif-
folves them. Did they only attrad each other, the
fait, inftead of cryftallizing, would fall to the bottom
as a powder. But inftead of this, a faline cryftal is
compofed of fait and water as certainly as the body of
an animal is compofed of flefti and blood, or a vege¬
table, of folid matter and fap; if a {'aline cryftal is
deprived of its aqueous part, it will as certainly lofe its
cryftalline form as if it was deprived of the faline
part. The moft probable conjedure therefore on this
fubjed would feem to be, that cryftallization is a fpe-
cies of vegetation, and is accomplifhed by the fame
powers to which the growth of plants and animals are
to be afcribed. See Vegetation.
CRYSTALS, in chemiftry, falts or other "matters
{hot, or congealed, in the manner of cryftal. See
Chemistry, n° 74.; and Crystallization.
CTESIAS, a native of Cnidos, who accompanied
Cyrus the fon of Darius in his expedition againft his
brother Artaxerxes; by whom he was taken prifon-
er. But curing Artaxerxes of a wound he received
in the battle, he became a great favourite at the court
of Perfia, where he continued pradifing phyfic for 17
years, and was employed in feveral negociations. He
wrote the Hiflory of Perfia in 23 books, and a Hif-
tory of the Indies: but thefe works are now loft, and
13 Q, all
CUB [ 233d ] CUB
CiefipfiQo all we have remaining of them is an abridgement
S compiled by Photius. The moft judicious among the
— 11 a‘ ancients looked upon Ctelias as a fabulous writer ; yet
feveral of the ancient hUiorians and modern Chriftian
writers have adopted in part his chronology of the Af-
fyrian kings.
CTESIPHON, a celebrated Greek architect, who
gave the defigns for the famous temple of Ephefus, and
invented a machine for bringing thither the columns to
be ufed in that noble ftru<5lure. He flourilhed 544 B. C.
CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and
niarteon of the fii it year are alfo called cubs. See
Ursus.
CUBA, a large, and very important ifland in the
Weft Indies, belonging to Spain. On the eaft-fide it
begins at 20. 20. N. Lat. touches the tropic of can¬
cer on the north, and extends from 74. to 85. 1$. W.
Long. It lies 60 miles to the weft of Hifpaniola, 2J
leagues north of Jamaica, 100 miles to the eaft of Ju-
catan, and as many to the fouth of Cape Florida; and
commands the entrance of the gulphs both of Mexi¬
co and Florida, as alfo the windward paflages. By
this fituation it may be called the key of the Weft In¬
dies. It was difcovered by Columbus in 1492, who
gave it the name of Ferdinando, in honour of king
Ferdinand of Spain ; but it quickly after recovered its
ancient name of Cuba. The natives did not regard
Columbus with a very favourable eye at his landing,
and the weather proving very tempeftuous, he foon
left this ifland, and failed to Hayta, now called Htfpa-
niola, where he was better received. The Spaniards,
however, foon became mailers of it. By the year
I jn, it was totally conquered; and in that time they
had deftroyed, according to their own accotmts, feve¬
ral millions of people. But the poflefljon of Cuba was
far from anfwering the expectations of the Spa-
nifh adventurers, whofe infatiable avarice could be fa-
tiated with nothing but gold. Thefe monfters finding
that there was gold upon the ifland, concluded that it
muft come from mines; and therefore tortured the
few inhabitants they had left, in order to extort from
them a difcovery of the places where thefe mines lay.
The miferies endured by thefe poor creatures were
fitch that they almofl unanimoufly refolved to put an
end to their own lives, but were prevented by one of
the Spanifh tyrants called Vafc« Porcellas. This
wretch threatened to hang himfelf along with them,
that he might have the pleafure, as he laid, of tor¬
menting them in the next world worfe than he had
done in this; and fo much were they afraid of the
Spaniards, that this threat diverted thefe poor fa-
vages from their defperate.refolution. In i jn, the
town of Havannah was built, now the principal place
on the ifland. The boufes were at firft built only of
wood ; and the town itfelf was for a long time fo in-
confiderable, that in 1536 it was taken by a French
pirate, who obliged the inhabitants to pay 700 ducats
to fave it from being burnt. The very day after the
pirate’s departure, three Spanifh fhips arrived from
Mexico, and having unloaded their cargoes, failed in
purfuit of the pirate fhip. But fuch was the cowar¬
dice of the officers, that the pirate took all the three
fhips, and returning to the Havannah, obliged the in¬
habitants to pay 700 ducats more. To prevent mif-
fortunes of this kind the inhabitants built their houfes Cuba,
of ftone ; and the place has fince been Itrongly forti-
fied. See Havannah.
According to the Abbe Raynal, the Spanifh fettle-
ment at Cuba is very important, on three accounts:
1. The produce of the country, which is confiderable.
2. As being the ftaple of a great trade ; and, 3. As
being the key to the Weft Indies. The principal pro¬
duce of this ifland is cotton. The commodity, how¬
ever, through negledt, is now become fo fcarce, that
fometimes feveral years pafs without any of it being
brought into Europe. In place of cotton, coffee has
been cultivated : but, by a fimilar negligence, that is
produced in no great quantity; the whole produce
not exceeding 30 or 35 thoufand weight, one-third of
which is exported to Vera Cruz, and the reft to Mad¬
rid. The cultivation of coffee naturally leads to that
of fugar; and this, which is the mofi valuable production
of America, would of itfelf be fufficient to give Cuba
that ftate of profperity for which it feems defigned by
nature. Although the Surface of the ifland is in gene¬
ral uneven and mountainous, yet it has plains fufficiently
extenfive, and well enough watered, to fupply the con-
fumption of the greateft part of Europe with fugar.
The incredible fertility of its new lands, if properly
managed, would enable it to furpafs every other nation,
however they may have now got the ftart of it: yet
fuch is the indolence of the Spaniards, that to this day
they have but few plantations, where, with the fineft
canes, they make but a finall quantity of coarfe fugar
at a great expence. This fer ves partly for the Mexican
market, and partly for the mother-country ; while the
indolent inhabitants are content to import fugar for
themfelves at the expence of5 near 220,000!. annual¬
ly. It has been expected with probability, that the
tobacco imported from Cuba would compenfate this
lofs ; for after furnifhing Mexico and Peru, there was
fufficient, with the little brought from Caracca and
Buenos Ayres, to fupply all Spain. But this trade too
has declined through the negligence of the court of
Madrid, in not gratifying the general tafle for tobac¬
co from the Havannah. The Spanifh colonies have art
univerfal trade in Ikins; and Cuba fupplies annually
about 10 or 12 thoufand. The number might eafily
be increafed in a country abounding with wild cattle
where fome gentlemen poffefs large traits of ground,
that for want of population dan fcarce be applied to
any other purpofe than that of breeding cattle. The
hundredth part of this ifland is not yet cleared. The
true plantations are all confined to the beautiful plains
of the Havannah, and even thofe are not what they
might be. All thefe plantations together may employ
about 25000 male and female flaves. The number
of whites, meftees, mulattoes, and free negroes, up¬
on the whole ifland, amounts to about 30000. The
food of thefe different fpecies confifts of excellent
pork, very bad beef, and caffava bread. The colony
would be more flourifliing, if its produitions had not
been made the property of a company, whofe exclu-
five privilege operates as a conftant and invariable
principle of difcourageme'nt. If any thing could fup¬
ply the want of an open trade, and atone for the
grievances occafioned by this monopoly at Cuba, it
would be the advantage which this ifland has for
CUC [ 2331 ] cue
fuch a long time enjoyed, in being the rendezvous
of ahnoit all the Spanifli veifels that fail to the new
world. This practice commenced almoli with the
colony itfelf. Ponce de Leon, having made an at¬
tempt upon Florida in IJI2, became acquainted with
the new canal of Bahama. It was immediately dif-
covered that this was the bell route the (hips bound
from Mexico to Europe could pofiibly take; and to this
the wealth of the ifland is principally, if not altoge¬
ther, owing.
CUBE, in geometry, a folid body confiding of fix
equal fides. See Geometry.
Cubk-Root of any Numbjr> or Quatitity, is fuch a
number or quantity, which, if multiplied into itfelf,
and then again the product thence ariling by that num¬
ber or quantity, being the cube-root, this lalt product
fltall be equal to the number or quantity whereof it is
the cube-root; as 2 is the cube-root of 8; becaufe
two times 2 is 4, and two times 4 is 8 ; and $ is
the cube-root of a? ^aab + ^abb + See Al¬
gebra, n° 8, 9.
CUBEBS, in the materia medica, a fmall dried fruit,
refemblrng a grain of pepper, but often fomewhat
longer, brought into Europe from the ifland of Java.
In aromatic warmth and pungency, they are far infe¬
rior to pepper.
CUBIC equation. See Algebra, n° 22.
CUBIDIA, a genus of fpars. The word is derived
from “a die;” and is given them from their be¬
ing of the (hape of a common die, or of a cubic fi¬
gure. Thefe bodies owe this fliape to an admixture
of lead, and there are only two known fpecies of the
genus. 1. A colourlefs cryftalline one, with thin
Hakes, found in the lead-mines of Yorkfliire, and fome
ether parts of the kingdom ; and 2. A'milky white
one with thicker crufis. This is found in the lead-
mines of Derbyfliire and Yorkfliire, but is ufually
fmall, and is not found plentifully.
CUBIT, in the menfuration of the ancients, a long
meafure, equal to the length of a man’s arm, from the
elbow to the tip of the fingers.
Dr Arbuthnot makes the Englilh cubit equal to 18
inches ; the Roman cubit equal to I foot 5.406 inches;
and the cubit of the feripture equal to r foot, 9.888
inches.
CUCKING-stool, an engine invented for punifli-
ing fcolds and unquiet women, by ducking them in
water ; called in ancient time a tumbrel, and fome-
times a trebuchet. In Domefday, it is called cathedra
flercoris : and it was in ufe even in the Saxons time,
by whom it was deferibed to be cathedra hi qua rix-
ofce mutiercs fedentes aquis demergebantur. It was
anciently alfo a punifliment inflicted upon brewers and
bakers tranfgreffing the laws ; who were thereupon
in fuch a ftool immerged over head and ears in Jlercore,
fome (linking water. Some think it a corruption
from due king-Jicol; others from choaking-Jfool, quia
hoc modo demerftc aquis fere fuffecantur. See Casti-
gatory.
CUCKOW, in ornithology. See Cucutus.
Cucko vr-Spit, the fame with froth-fpit. See Frot h-
fipit, and Cicada.
CUCUBALUS, berry-bearing chickweed ; a
genus of the trigyflia order, belonging to the decan-
dria clafs of plants. There are 13 fpecies, the mod Cucubalus
remarkable of which are, II
1. The beken, Swedifli lychnis, or gumfepungar, is C«cidus»
a native of leveral parts of Europe. The empale-
ment of its flower is curioufly wrought like a net¬
work, and is of a purplifli colour. The leaves have
fomewhat of the flavour of peafe, and proved of
great ufe to the inhabitants of Minorca in 1685,
when a (warm of locufts had defiroyed the har-
veft. The Gothlanders apply the leaves to eryfipe-
latous eruptions. Horfes, cows, (heep and goats, eat
this plant.
2. The notfliflora, or night-flowering lychnis, grows
naturally in Spain and Italy. It is a perennial plant,
rifing with an upright branching (talk, a foot and an
half high, garnilhed with very narrow leaves placed
oppofite. The upper part of the (talk branches very
much ; the flowers (land upon long naked foot-ftalks,
each fupporting three or four flowers which have long
tubes with ftriped empalements : the petals are large,
deeply divided at top, and of a pale-bluiftr colour. The
flowers are clofed all the day ; but when the fun leaves
them they expand, and then emit a vefy agreeable
feent. It may be propagated by feeds fown in the
fpring on a bed of light earth ; and when the plants
are fit to remove, they fliould be planted in a nurfery-
bed at about four inches difiance, where they may re¬
main till autumn. They may then be planted in the
borders where they are to remain, and will flower the
following year.
3. The otites, or catch-fly, is a native of Britain,
and other European countries. It hath a thick, flefhy,
perennial root, which ftrikes deep into the ground,
from whence rifes a jointed (talk three or four feet
high. At the joints there exfudes a vifeous clammy
juice, that (licks to the fingers when handled ; and the
fmall infers which fettle upon thofe parts of the (talks
are thereby fo faftened that they cannot get o(F. The
flowers are fmall, and of a greenifli colour. The
plant is propagated by feeds.
CUCULUS, the cuckow, in ornithology, a genus
belonging to the order of picor. This Angular bird
appears in our country early in the fpring, and makes
the (hortefi (lay with us of any bird of paflage ; it is
compelled here, as Mr Stillingfleet obferves, by that;
conftitution of the air which caufes the fig-tree put
forth its fruit. It is very probable that thefe birds, or
at lead part of them, do not quit this ifland during the
winter ; but that they feek (belter in hollow trees and
lie torpid, unlefs animated by unufually warm wea¬
ther. Mr Pennant gives two inftances of their being
heard in February; one in 1771, in the end of that
month ; the other in 1769, on the 4th day; but after
that, they were heard no more, being probably chilled
again into torpidity. There is a remarkable coinci¬
dence between the (bng of thefe birds and the mac-
karel’s continuing in full roe; that is, from about the
middle of April to the latter end of June. The cuc¬
kow is filent for fonle time after his arrival; his note
is a call to love, and ufed only by the male, who fits
perched generally on fome dead tree or bare bough)
and repeats his fong, which he lofes as foon as the
amorous feafon is over. His note is fo Uniform; that
his name in all languages feems to have been deri-
I3Q,2 ved
cue
Cucukis. ved from It; and in all countries it is ufed in the fame
reproachful fenfe :
The plain-fong cuckoo grey,
Whofe note full many a man doth mark,
And dares not anfwer nay. Shakefpcar.
The reproach feems to arife from the cuckow’s ma¬
king ufe of the bed or neit of another to depofit its
eggs in, leaving the care of its young to an improper
parent ; but Juvenal with more jultice gives the infa¬
my to the bird in whofe neft the fuppofititious eggs
Were laid :
Tu tibi tunc corruca places.
A water-wagtail, a yellow-hammer, or hedge-fpar-
row, is generally the nurfe of the young ctickows ;
who if they happen to be hatched at the lame time
with the genuine offspring, quickly deltroy them by
over-laying them, as their growth is loon fo greatly
fuperior. The reafon of this feeming want of natural
affection in the cuckow, hath been long a quelfion. It
feems moll probably to arife froiq the difference be¬
tween the fituation of the ftomach in the euckow and
in other birds. The ftomach of birds is lituated quite
in a different manner from what it is in other animals;
being almoft joined to the back, fecured by the bones
of the reins, and covered before by the inteftines, be¬
hind which it lies fecurely defended and concealed.
This fituation affords them a great facility and fecurity
of fitting on their eggs and young; fince the parts
which lie immediately upon them are loft, warm, and
pliable, and without danger from the compreffion,
which would be hazardous, if the weight of a large
and full ftomach was to reft upon them, as in the very
cafe of the cuckow. Befides, this fingular ftrudlure
fecures a warm covering to the egg in hatching, and
to the young as foon as hatched ; for their tender fto-
machs being defended from the impreflion of the cold
air by a thin bone or cartilage only, would foon lofe the
warmth neceffary to digeftion, if it were not fupplied
by the incubation of the mother from time to time.
The ftomach of a cuckow, on the contrary, lies far for¬
ward, juft under the integuments, and atftually covers
the inteftines, the very reverie of what takes place in
other birds. The cuckow’s ftomach is a large bag of
uncommon capacity, adhering by a cellular tiffue to hll
the parts that environ it, reaching all the way from the
breaft-bone to the vent. From 1'uch a ftruflure and fi¬
tuation of the ftomach, it naturally follows, that it is
as difficult for a cuckow as it is eafy for other birds to
fit upon her eggs and young; for the thin membranes
of its large ftomach charged fo long with the weight
of its whole body, together with the aliments contained
therein, would prove an intolerable compreffion both
to it and its tender young. It alfo follows from the
peculiar ftrudlure of this bird, that its young do not
ftand in need of being covered like thofe of other
birds ; their large and capacious ftomachs being better
fecured from cold by means of lying covered under the
mafs of inteftines.
This bird has been ridiculoufly believed to change
into a hawk, and to devour its nurfe on quitting the
neft ; whence the French proverb, “ Ingrat comme
un coucou.” But it feeds on no larger animals than
worms and infers. It grows very fat, and is faid to
be as good eating as a land-rail. The French and Ita-
c u c
lians eat them to this day. The Romans admired Cuculu*. ?
then) greatly as a food. Pliny fays that tiiere is no *—4
bird which can compare with them for delicacy.
The weight of the cuckow is little more than five
ounces: the length 14 inches; the breadth 25. The
bill is black, very ftrong, a little incurvated, and about
two thirds of an inch in length. The head, hind-
part of the neck, coverts of the wings and rump, are
of a dove colour ; darker on the head, and paler on
the rump. The throat and upper part of the neck
are of a pale grey ; the breaft and belly white, crol-
fed elegantly with undulated lines of black. The tail
confifts of ten feathers of unequal lengths ; the two
middle are black tipped with white ; the others are
marked with white fpots on each fide their ffiafts.
The legs are fhort; and the toes difpofed two back¬
wards, and two forwards, like thofe of the wood¬
pecker, though it is never obferved to run up the fides
of trees. The female differs in fome refpeifts. The
neck before and behind is of a brownilh-red,: the tail
barred with the fame colour, and black, and fpotted
on each fide the lhaft with white. The young bir^ds
are brown mixed with black, and in that ftate have
been deferibed by fome authors as old ones.,
Linnaeus enumerates no fewer than 22 fpecies of
this genus, which inhabit different parts-of the globe,
and are chiefly diftinguifhed by. the fhape of the tail,
and variations in colour. The moft remarkable are,
1. The Americanos, or cuckow of Carolina. It is a-
bout the fize of a blackbird: the bill a little hooked and
ftarp; the upper mandible black, the lower yellow; the
large wingrfeathers are reddilh ; the red! of the wing,
and all the upper part of the body, head and neck, is of
an alh-colour; all the under part of the body, from the
bill to the tail; white ; the tail long and narrow, com-
pofed of fix long and four Ihorter leathers,—the two
middletnoft alh-colnured, the reft black with their ends
white ; their legs fhort and ftrong, having two back
toes, and two before. Their note is very different
from the cuckow of this country, and not fo remark¬
able to be taken notice of. It is a folitary bird, fre¬
quenting the darkeft receffes of woods and fhady
thickets. They retire on the approach of winter.
2. The indicator, or honey-guide, is a native of A-
frica. The following defeription is given of it by Dr
Sparrman in the Pbilofophical Tranfa&ions for 1777.
“ This curious fpecies of cuckow is found ataconlider-
able diftance from the Cape of Good Hope, in the inte¬
rior parts of Africa, being entirely unknown at that
fettlement. The firft place I heard of it was in a wood
called the Groot-vaader’s Bofch, “ the Grand-father’s
Wood,” iituated in a defert near the river which the
Hottentots call T'kaut'kai. The Dutch fettlers there¬
abouts have given this bird the name of honiguyzer,
or “ honey-guide,” from its quality of difeovering
wild honey to travellers. Its colour has nothing ftri-
king or beautiful. Its fize is confiderably fmaller than
that of our cuckow in Europe : but in return, the in-
ftitnft which prompts it to feek its food in a firigular
manner is truly admirable. Not only the Dutch and
Hottentots, but likewife a fpecies of quadruped named
ratel, (probably a new fpecies of badger), are fre¬
quently- condiafted to wild bee-hives by this bird,
which, as it were, pilots them, to the very fpot. The
honey
[ 2332 1
cue [ 2333 ] cue
lujiticumber honey being its favourite food, its own intereft prompts
Ml. it to be indrumental in robbing the hive, as 1'ome feraps
tnj -pcumis. are commonly left for its fupport. The morning and
evening are its times of feeding, and it is then heard
calling in a Ihrill tone, cherr, cherr; which the honey-
hunters carefully attend to as the fumrnons to the
chace. From time to time they anfwer with a foft
Iwhiltle ; which the bird hearing, always continues its
note. As foon as they are in fight of each other, the'
bird gradually flutters toward the place where the
hive is fituated, continually repeating its former call
of cherr, cherr : nay, if it Ihould happen to have gain¬
ed a confiderable way before the men, (who may ea-
fily be hindered in the purfuit by bulhes, rivers, or the
like), it returns to them again, and redoubles its note,
• as it were to reproach them with their inaftivity.
At lalt the bird is obferved to hover for a few mo¬
ments over a certain fpot, and then filently retiring to
a neighbouring bulh or refting-place, the hunters are
fure of finding the bees nell in th^t identical fpot,
whether it be in a tree or in the crevice of a rock, or
(as is moft commonly the cafe) in the earth. Whilft
the hunters are bufy in taking the honey, the bird is
feen looking on attentively to what is going forward,
and waiting for its fiiare of the fpoil. The bee-
hunters never fail to leave a fmall portion for their
condu&or ; but commonly take care not to leave fo
much as would fatisfy its hunger. The bird’s appe¬
tite being whetted by this parfimony, it is obliged to
commit a iecond treafon, by difeovering another bee’s
nefi, in hopes of a better lalary. It is further obfer¬
ved, that the nearer the bird approaches the hidden
hive, the more frequently it repeats its call, and feems
the more impatient.
“ I have had frequent opportunities of feeing this
bird, and have been witnefs to the deftru&ion of fe-
veral republics of bees by means of its treachery. I
had, however, but two opportunities of Ihooting it,
which I did to the great indignation of my Hotten¬
tots. It is about feven inches in length, and is of a
rufty brown colour on the back, with a white brealt
and belly.” See Plate LXXXVI.
CUCUMBER, in botany. See Cucumis.
CUCUM1S, the Cucumber ; a genus of the fyn-
genefia order, belonging to the monoecia clafs of
plants. In this genus Linnaeus includes alfo the Me-
eon ; (fee that article). There are 11 fpecies, of
which the following are the moft remarkable.
1. The fativa, or common cucumber, hath roots
compofed of numerous, long, flender, white fibres
long flender (talks, very branchy at their joints,
I trailing on the ground, or climbing by their clafpers,
adorned at every joint by large angular leaves on
long ereft Jootitalks, with numerous monopetalous
bell-(haped flowers of a yellow colour, fucceeded by
oblong rough fruit. The varieties of this kind are,
(1.) f he common rough green prickly cucumber ; a
middle-fized fruit, about fix or feven inches long, ha¬
ving a dark-green rough rind, clofely fet with very
fmall prickles ; the plant is of the hardieft fort, but
Idoes not (hew its fruit early. (2.) The (hort green
prickly cucumber is about three or four inches long ;
the rind rather fmooth, and fet with fmall black
prickles. It is valuable chiefly for being one of the
earlieft and hardieft forts. (3.) The long green Cucumis,
prickly cucumber, grows from fix to nine inches in
length, and is rather thinly fet with prickles. And
as there is an early and late cucumber, it is confide-
rably the belt variety for the main crops, both in the
frames and hand-glafs, as well as in the open ground
for pricklers. Of this there is another variety with
white fruit. (4.) The early green clufter cucumber
is a (hortifli fruit, remarkable for growing in clufters,
and appearing early, (j.) The long fmooth green
Turky cucumber, is a fmooth green-rinded fruit, grow¬
ing from 10 to 15 inches in length, without prickles.
The plants are (trong growers, with very large leaves.
(6.) The long fmooth white Turky cucumber, is a
fmooth-rinded fruit, from 10 to 15 inches long, with¬
out prickles. (7.) The large fmooth green Roman
cucumber is a very large and long fmooth green fruit
produced from a ftrong growing plant. (8.) The
long white prickly Dutch cucumber, is a white fruit 8
or 10 inches long, fet with fmall black prickles ; the
plants are but bad bearers in this country.
2. The chata, or round-leaved Egyptian cucumber.
According to Mr Halfelquift, this grows in the fertile
earth near Cairo after the inundation of the Nile, and
not in any other place in Egypt, nor does it grow in
any other foil. It ripens with the water-melons.
The fruit is a little watery ; the flelh almoft of the
fame fubftance with the melons; it taftes (bmewhat
fweet and cool; but is far from being as cool as the
water-melons. This the grandees and Europeans in
Egypt eat as the moft pleafant fruit they find, and that
from which they have the lead to apprehend. It is
the moft excellent fruit of this tribe of any yet known.
The four firft varieties of the cucumis fativa are
thofe chiefly cultivated in this country. They are
raifed at three diflerent feafons of the year: 1. on
hot-beds, for early fruit; 2. under bell, or hand-glalfes,
for the middle crop ; 3. on the common ground,
which is for a late crop, or to pickle. The cucumbers
which are ripe before April are unwholefome ; being
raifed wholly by the heat of the dung without the af- «
fiftance of the fun. Thofe raifed in April are good,
and are raifed in the following manner.
Towards the latter end of January, a quantity of
frefli horfe-dung muft be procured with the litter a-
mong it; and a fmall proportion of fea-coal allies
Ihould be added to it. In four or five days the dung
will begin to heat j at which time a little of it may
be drawn flat on the outfide, and covered with two
inches thicknefs of good earth r this muft be covered
with a bell-glafs ; and after two days, when the earth
is warm, the feeds muft be fown on it, covered with
a quarter of an inch of frefli earth, ami the glafs then
fet on again. The glafs muft be covered with a mat
at night, and in four days the young plants will ap¬
pear. When thefe are feen, the reft of the dung muft
be made up into a bed for one or more lights. This
muft be three feet thick, beat clofe together, and co¬
vered three inches deep with fine frefti earth ; the
frame muft then be put on, and covered at night, or
in bad weather, with mats. When the earth is hot
enough, the young plants from under the bell muft be
removed into it, and fet at two inches diftance. The
glalfes muft be now and then a little raifed, to give
G U C [ 2334 •] CUC
Cncumis. air to the plants, and turned often, to prevent the
1 wet from the fleam of the dung from dropping down
upon them. The plants mufl be watered at proper
times j and the water ufed for this purpofe muft be
let on the dung till it becomes as warm as the air in
the frame : and as the young plants increafe in bulk,
they muft be earthed up, which will give them great
additional ftrength. If the bed is not hot enough,
fome frefh litter fhould be laid round its fides ; and if
too hot, fome holes fhould be bored into feveral parts
of it with a flake, which will let out the heat; and
*when the bed is thus brought to a proper coolnefs, the
holes are to be flopped up again with frefh dung.
When thefe plants begin to flioot their third, or rough
leaf, another bed muft be prepared for them like the
fit ft ; and when it is properly warm through the earth,
the plants of the other bed muft be taken up, and
planted in this, in which there muft be a hole in the
middle of each light, about a foot deep, and nine
inches over, filled with light and fine frefh earth laid
hollow in form of a bafon: in each of tbefe holes there
muft be fet four plants : thefe muft be, for two or
three days, fhaded from the fun, that they may take
firm root; after which they muft have all the fun
they can, and now and then a little frefh air, as the
weather will permit. When the plants are four or
five inches high, they muft be gently pegged down
towards the earth, in diredlions as different from one
another as may be ; and the branches afterwards pro¬
duced flionld be treated in the fame manner. In a
month after this the flowers will appear, and foon af¬
ter the. rudiments of the fruit. The glafles fhould
now be carefully covered at night; and in the day¬
time the whole plants fhould be gently fprinkled with
water. Thefe will produce fruit till about midfum-
mer ; at which time the fecond crop will come in to
fupply their place : thefe are to be raifed in the fame
manner as the early crop, only they do not require fo
much care and. trouble. This fecond crop fhould be
lowed in the end of March, or beginning of April.
, The feafon for fowing the cucumbers of the laft crop,
and for pickling, is towards the latter end of May,
when the weather is fettled : thefe are fown in holes
dug to a little depth and filled up with fine earth, fo
as to be left in the form of a bafon ; eight or nine
feeds being put into one hole. Thefe will come up
in five or fix days;, and till they are a week old, are
in great danger from the fparrows. After this they
require only to be kept clear of weeds, and watered
now and then. There fhould be only five plants left
at firft in each hole ; and when they are grown a little
farther up, the worft of thefe is to be pulled up, that
there may finally remain only four. The plants of
this crop will begin to produce fruit in July.
The cucumber is taken in great cities by the lower
people as nourifhment; but by the better fort is chiefly
■ufed as a refrigerant, or condiment, to accompany
animal food. They have a bland infipid juice, with¬
out acidity, or fweetnefs, approaching, as appears by.
their ripening; to a farinaceous matter. When ufed
green they, have no nourifhment, fo.they are only to
be ufed in the fummer feafon and by the fedentary.
Although cucumbers are neither fWeet nor acid, yet
they ace confiderably acefcent, and fo produce flatu¬
lency, cholera, diarrhoea, ire. Their, coldnefs and flu- Cucurbit
tulency may be likewife in part attributed to the firm- II
nefs of their texture. They have been difeharged Cucurbita.
with little change from the flomach, after being de¬
tained there for 48 hours. By this means, therefore,
their acidity is greatly increafed. Hence oil and pep¬
per, the condiments commonly employed, are very
ufeful to check their fermentation. We have lately
ufed another condiment, viz. the fkin, which is bitter,
and may therefore fupply place of aromatics ;
but fhould only be ufed when young.
Befides the above-mentioned fpecies which are pro¬
per for the table, this genus affords alfo two articles
for the materia medica.
1. The elaterium of the fhops, is the infpiflated fae-
cula of the juice of a kind of wild cucumber, called al¬
fo the afs’s cucumber, a fpecies of balfam apple. It
comes to 'this country from Spain and the fouthern
parts of France, where the plant is very common. It
is brought to us in fmall flat whitifh lumps or cakes
that are dry, and break eafily between the fingers. It
is of an acrid, bitter, and naufeous tafte, and has a
ftrong offenfive fmell when newly made : but thefe,
as well as its other qualities it lofes after being kept
fome time. Elaterium is a very violent purge and vo¬
mit, and is now very feldom ufed. The plant is com¬
monly called fpirting cucumber, from its calling out its
feeds with great violence, together with the vifeid juice
in which they are lodged, if touched when ripe: from
this circumftance it has obtained the appellation of noli
me tangere, or “ touch me not.”
2. The colocynthis, the colocynth, coloquintida, or
bitter apple of the fhops, is brought to us from Aleppo
arid the ifland of Crete. The leaves of the plant are
large, placed alternate, almoft round, and ftand upon
footflalks four inches long. The flowers are white ;
and are fucceeded by a fruit of the gourd kind, of the
fize of a large apple, and which is yellow when ripe.
The flielly or bulky outfide inclofes a bitter pulp inter-
fperfed with flattifh feeds. If a hole is made in one
of thefe ripe gourds, and a glafs of rum poured in,
and fuffered to remain 24 hours, it proves a power¬
ful purgative. The pulp itfelf dried and powdered is
commonly ufed as a purgative in this country, but is
one of the moft draftic and difagreeable we know. If
taken in a large dofe, it not only often 1 wrings away
blood, but produces colics, convulfions, ulcers in the
bowels, and fatal fuper-purgations. The moft effeo
tual corrector of thefe virulent qualities is to triturate
it finely with fugar, or fweet almonds.
CUCURBIT, the name of a chemical veflel em¬
ployed in diftillation, when covered with its head. Its
name comes from its lengthened fhape, by which it
refembles a gourd : fome cucurbits, however, are fhal-
low, and wide-mouthed. They are made of copper,
tin, glafs, and ftone-ware, according to the nature of
the fubftances to be diftilled. A cucurbit, provided
with its capital, conftitutes the veffel for diftillation cal¬
led an alembic. See Chemistry, n° 80. and Plate
LXXVII. fig. 5- 6.
CUCURBITA, the gourd, andTOMPiON ; a genus
of the fyngenefia order, belonging to the monoeeia clafs
of plants. There are five fpecies.
1. The lagenaria, or bottle gourd, rifes with thick
trailing
cue
ueurbita. trailing downy ftalks, branching into many fpreading
runners. Thefe extend along the ground fometimes
15 or 20 feet in length. The leaves are large, roun-
difti, heart-lhaped, indented, and woolly. The flowers
are large and white, fucceeded by long incurvated
whitifli yellow fruit, obtaining from about two to five
or fix feet in length, and from about nine to 24 inches
in circumference, having a ligneous and durable fliell.
2. The papo or pompion, commonly called pump¬
kin, hath fhong, trailing, rough ftalks, branching
into numerous runners. Thefe are much larger than
the former, extending from jo to 40 or 50 feet
each way. Thefe are garnilhed with large, round-
ifh, lobated, rough leaves, and yellow flowers. The
flowers are fucceeded by large, round, fmooth fruit,
of different forms and fizes ; fome as big as a
peck, others as big as half a bufhel meafure; fome
confiderably lefs, and others not exceeding the bulk
of an orange; ripening to a yellow, and fometimes
to a whitifh, colour. This fpecies is the moft hardy
of any, as well as the moft fcxtenfive in their growth.
Afingle plant, if properly encouraged, will overfpread
10 or 15 roods of ground, and produce a grea^: number
of fruit, which, when young, are generally a mixture
between a deep blue and pale white, but change as
they increafe in bulk.
3. The verrucofa, or warted gourd, hath trailing
ftalks very branchy, and running upon the ground 10
or rj feet each way ; large lobated leaves, and yellow
flowers, fncceeded by roundifh, knobby,warted white
fruit, of moderate fize.
4. The melopepo, ere<5t gourd, or fquafh. This
rifes with an eredi ftrong ftalk feveralfeet high, rare¬
ly fending forth fide-runners, but becoming bufhy up¬
ward. It is adorned with large lobated leaves ; and
the flowers are fucceeded by depreffed knotty fruit,
both white and yellow, commonly of a moderate fize.
5. The lignofa, ligneous fhelled gourd, often called
calabafh. This hath trailing ftalks, branching into
runners, which extend far every way ; the leaves are
large, lobated, and rough ; the flowers yellow, and are
fncceeded by roundifh fmooth fruit of a moderate fize,
with hard woody fliells. Of all thefe fpecies there are
a great many varieties, and the fruit of every fpecies
is obferved to be furprifingly apt to change its form.
Culture. All the fpecies of gourds and pompions,
with their refpedtive varieties, are raifed from feed
fown annually in April or the beginning of May, either
with or without the help of artificial heat. But the
plants forwarded in a hot-bed till about a month old,
produce fruit a month or fix weeks earlier on that ac¬
count, and ripen proportionably fooner. The firft
Ipecies particularly will fcarce ever produce tolerably
fized fruit in this country, without the treatment a-
bove-mentioned.
UJes. In this country thefe plants are cultivated
only for curiofity ; but in the places where they are
natives, they anfwer many important purpofes. In
both the Indies, bottle-gourds are very commonly cul¬
tivated and fold in the markets. They make the prin¬
cipal food of the common people, particularly in the
warm months of June, July, and Auguft. The Ara¬
bians call this kind of gourd charrah. It grows com¬
monly on the mountains in thefe defarts. The na-
c u c
uves boil and feafon it with vinegar; and fometimesj Cucutblta-
filling the fliell with rice and meat, make a kind of ce:c
pudding of it. The hard fliell is ufed for holding wa- CudJorth
ter, and fome of them are capacious enough to con- 1
tain 22 gallons; thefe, however, are very uncom¬
mon. The fruit of the pompion likewife conftituteS
a great part of the food of the common people during
the hot months, in thofe places where they grow. If
gathered when not much bigger than, a hen or goofe
egg, and properly feafoned with butter, vinegar, tec.
they make a tolerable good fatice for butcher’s meat,
and are alfo ufed in foups. In England they are feldom
ufed till grown to maturity. A hole is then made in
one fide, through which the pulp is fcooped out; after
being diverted of the feeds, it is mixed with fliced ap¬
ples, milk, fiigar, and grated nutmeg, and thus a kind
of pudding is made. The whole is then baked in the
oven, and goes by the name of a pumkin pye. For this
purpofe the plants are cultivated in many places of
England by the country people, who raife them upon
old dung hills. The third fpecies is alfo ufed in North
America.for culinary purpofes. The fruit is gathered
when about half grown, boiled, and eaten as fauce to
butcher’s meat. The fquafhes are alfo treated in the
fame manner, and by fome people efteemed delicate
eating.
CUCURBITACEAl, the name of the 34,b order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, confifting of
plants which refemble the gourd in external figure,
habit, virtues, and fenfible qualities. This order con¬
tains the following genera, viz. gronovia, melothria,
pafliflora, anguria, bryonia, cucumis, cucurbita, fevil-
lea, momordica, ficyos, trichofanthes.
CUCURUCU, in zoology, the name of a ferpent
found in America, growing 10 or 12 feet long. It is
alfo very thick in proportion to its length, and is of a
yellowifh colour, ftrongly variegated with black fpots,
which are irregularly mixed among the yellow, and
often have fpots of yellow within them. It is a very
poifonous fpecies, and greatly dreaded by the natives;
but its flefh is a very rich food, and much efteemed
among them, when properly prepared.
CUD, fometimes means the infide of the throat in
hearts; but generally the food that they keep there,
and chew over again. See Compaxative Ana¬
tomy, n° 88—90.
CUDWEED, in botany. See Gnaphalium.
CUDWORTH (Ralph), a very learned divine of
the church of England in the 17th century. In Janu¬
ary 16J 7 he was one of the perfons nominated by a
committee of the parliament to be confulted about the
Englifh tranflation of the Bible. In 1678 he publifhed
his True Intellectual Syjtevi of the Univerfe ; a work
which met with great oppofition. He likewife publi-
Ihed a treatife, intitled, Deus jujlifcatus: or, “ The di¬
vine goodnefs of God vindicated, againft the aflertions
of abfolute and unconditionate reprobation.” He em¬
braced the mechanical or corpufcular philofophy : but
with regard to the deity, fpirits, genii, and ideas, he
followed the Platonifts. He died at Cambridge in
1688. The late earl of Shaftelbury ftyles him an ex¬
cellent and learned divine, of higheft authority at home,
and fame abroad. His daughter Damaris, who mar¬
ried Sir Francis Mafliam of Oates in Eflex, was a lady
of
C 233J 1
c U J [ 2336 ] C U L
Cuenza of genius and learning: flie had a great friendlhip for
II Mr Locke, who refided feveral years at her houfe at
Cujas' Oates, where he did in 1704.
CUENZA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and in
, the territory of the Sierra, with a bifliop’s fee. It
was taken by lord Peterborough in 1706, but retaken
by the duke of Berwick. It is feared on the river
Xucar, in W. Long. 1. 4J. N. Lat. 40. 10.
CUFF (Henry), the unfortunate fecretary of the
unfortunate earl of Elfex, was born at Hinton S1
George in Somerfetlhire, about the year 1560, of a
genteel family, who were pofleffed of confiderable e-
Ilates in that county. In 15 76, he was entered of Tri¬
nity college, Oxford ; where he foon acquired confi¬
derable reputation as a Grecian, and difputant. He
obtained a fellowflfip in the above-mentioned college ;
but was afterwards expelled for fpeaking difrel'peft-
fully of the founder *. He was, however, foon after
admitted of Merton college ; of which, in 1586, he
was elected probationer, and, in 1588, fellow. In
this year he took the degree of mafter of arts. Some
time after, he was elected Greek profeflbr, and, in
1594, proclor of the univerfity.
When he left Oxford is uncertain ; nor are we bet¬
ter informed as to the means of his introducflion to the
earl of Effex. When that nobleman was made lord
lieutenant of Ireland, Mr Cuff was appointed his fe¬
cretary, and continued intimately connected with his
lordfliip until his confinement in the tower ; and he
is generally fuppofed to have advifed thofe violent
meafures which ended in their mutual deftrudtion. The
earl indeed confeffed as much before his execution, and
charged him, to his face, with being the author of all
his misfortunes. Mr Cuff was tried for high-treafon,
convicted, and executed at Tyburn on the 30th of
March 1601. Lord Bacon, Sir Henry Wotton, and
Camden, fpeak of him in very harlh terms. He was
certainly a man of learning and abilities.
He wrote two books ; the one intitled. The Diffe¬
rences of the Ages of Man’s Life ; the other, Dc Rebus
Geftis i/i Sanfio Concilia Nicano. The firft was pu-
blilhed after his death; the fecond is ftill in manufcript.
CUJAS (James), in Latin Cujacius, the belt civi¬
lian of his time, was born at Touloufe, of obfcure pa¬
rents, in 15:20. He learned polite literature and hif-
tory ; and acquired great knowledge in the ancient
laws, which he taught with extraordinary reputation
at Touloufe, Cahors, Bourges, and Valence, in Dau-
phine. Emanuel Pliilibert, duke of Savoy, invited
him to Turin, and gave him Angular marks of his e-
fteem. Cujas afterwards refufed very advantageous
offers from pope Gregory XIII. who was delirous of
having him teach at Bologna : but he chofe rather to
fix at Bourges, where he had a prodigious number of
fcholars ; whom he not only took great pleafure in
inftrudling, but affifted with his fubftance, which occa-
fioned his being called the Father of his Scholars. He
died at Bourges in 1590, aged 70. His works are in
high efteem among civilians.
CUJAVA, a territory of Great Poland, having on Cnjav*
the north the duchy of Pruflia, on the weft the pala- #
tinate of Kalilk, on the fouth thofe of Licici and Rava, IL1?.’.
and on the weft that of Ploczko. It contains two pa¬
latinates, the chief towns of which are Inowloez and
Breft ; as alfo Uladiflaw, the capital of the diftruft.
CUIRASSE, a piece of defenlive armour, made of
iron plate, well hammered, ferving to cover the body,
from the neck to the girdle, both before and behind.
Whence,
CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed with cuiraffes, as
moft of the Germans are : the French have a regi¬
ment of cuiraffiers; but we have had none in the Bri-
tifli army fince the revolution.
CULDEES, in church-hirtory, a fort of monkilh
priefts, formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Be¬
ing remarkable for the religious exercifes of preaching
and praying, they were called, by way of eminence,
cultores Deifrom whence is derived the word cut-
dees. They made choice of one of their own frater¬
nity to be their fpiritual head, who was afterwards
called the Scots bijhop.
CULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largeft meafure
of capacity for things liquid, containing 20 amphorae,
or 40 unite. It contained 143 gallons, 3 pints, Englifh
wine-meafure ; and was i 1.095 folid inches.
CULEMBACH, a diftridt or marquifate of the circle
of Franconia, in Germany. It is bounded on the weft
by the bilhopric of Bamberg ; on the fouth by the ter¬
ritory of Nuremberg ; on the eaft by the palatinate
of Bavaria and Bohemia ; and on the north by Voight-
land and part of the circle of Upper Saxony. It is
about 50 miles in length from north to fouth, and 30
in breadth from eaft to weft. It is full of forefts and
high mountains; the moft confiderable of the latter are
thofe of Frichtelberg, all of them covered with pine-
trees. Here are the fources of four large rivers, the
Maine, the Sala, the Eger, and the Nab. This mar¬
quifate is the upper part of the burgraviate of Nu¬
remberg.
Culembach, a town of Germany, in Franconia,
the capital of the marquifate of the fame name. It
has good fortifications, and is feated at the confluence
of two branches of the river Maine. It was pillaged
and burnt by the Huflites in 1430, and by the inhabi¬
tants of Nuremberg in 1573. E. Long. 11. 28. N. Lat.
50. 12.
CULIACAN, a province of North America, in the
audience of Gudalajara. It is bounded on the north
by New Mexico, on the eaft by New Bifcay and the
Zacatecas, on the fouth by Chiametlan, and on the weft
by the fea. It is a fruitful country, and has rich mines.
CULLIAGE, a barbarous and immoral practice,
whereby the lords of manors anciently affumed a right
to the firft night of their vaffals brides.
CULLEN, a parliament town in Scotland, fituated
on the fea-coaft of Banf-lhire. W. Long. 2. 12, and
N. Lat. 57. 38.
CULM, or Culmus, among botanifts, a ftraw, or
haulm;
* The founder of Trinity college was Sir Thomas Pope, who, it feems, would often take a piece of plate from a friend's houfe,
and carry it home, concealed under his gown; out of fun, no doubt. Cuff, being merry with fome of his acquaintance at ano¬
ther college, happened to fay, alluding to Sir Thomas Pope's ufual joke above mentioned, “ A pox on this beggarly houfe! why,
“ our founder hole as much plate as would build fuch another." This piece of wit was the caufe of his expulGon. The heads of
colleges in thofe days did not underhand humour. Anthony Wood was told this ftory by doAor Bathurft.
c U L [ 2337 ] CUM
Culmife- haulm ; defined by Linnaeus to be the proper trunk of
rous. the graffes, which elevates the leaves, flower, and
U fruit.
Culvenn. This fort of trunk is tubular, or hollow, and has
frequently knots, of joints, diftributed at proper di-
flances through its whole length. The leaves are long,
fleek, and placed either near the root in great num¬
bers, or proceed lingly from the different joints of the
ftalk, which they embrace at the bafe, like a fheath,
or glove.
The haulm is commonly garniflied with leaves :
fometimes, however, it is naked ; that is, devoid of
leaves, as in a few fpecies of cyprefs-grafs. Moll
graffes have a round cylindrical llalk; in fome fpecies
of fchoenus, fcirpus, cyprefs-grafs, and others, it is
triangular.
The ftalk is fometimes entire, that is, has no bran¬
ches ; fometimes branching, as in fchcenus aculeatus
& capenfis ; and not feldom confifts of a number of
fcales, which lie over each other like tiles.
Laftly, in a few gralfes, the ftalk is not interrupted
with joints, as in the greater part. The fpace con¬
tained betwixt every two knots, or joints, is termed
by botanifts intcrnodlum, and articulus culmi.
This fpecies of trunk often affords certain marks of
diftinftion, in difcriminating the fpecies. Thus in
the genus eriocaulon, the fpecies are fcarce to be di-
ftinguifhed but by the angles of the culmus, or ftalks.
Thefe in fome fpecies are in number 5, in others 6,
and in others ro.
CULMIFEROUS plants, (from culmus, a ftraw
or haulm) : plants fo called, which have a fmooth
jointed ftalk, ufually hollow, and wrapped about at
each joint with fmgle, narrow, fharp-pointed leaves,
and the feeds contained in chaffy hufks; fuch are oats,
wheat, barley, rye, and the other plants of the natu¬
ral family of the grasses.
CULMINATION, in aftronomy, the paffage of any
heavenly body over the meridian, or its greateft alti¬
tude for that day.
CULPRIT, a term ufed by the clerk of the arraign¬
ments,'when a perfon is indidled for a criminal mat¬
ter. See Plea to Indiiiment, par. n.
CULROSS, a parliament town in Scotland, fituated
on the river Forth, about 23 miles north-weft of Edin¬
burgh. W. Long. 3. 34. N. Lat. j6. 8.
CULVERIN, a long flender piece of ordnance or
artillery, ferving to carry a ball to a great diftance.
Menage derives the word from the Latin colubrina ;
others from coluber, fnake ■, either on account of the
length and flendernefs of the piece, or of the ravages
it makes.
There are three kinds of culverins, viz. the extra¬
ordinary, the ordinary, and the leaft fized. x. The
culverin extraordinary has $1 inches bore ; its length
32 calibers, or 13 foot; weighs 4800 pound ; its load
above 12 pound ; carries a Ihot si inches diameter,
weighing 20 pound weight. 2. The ordinary cul¬
verin is 12 foot long; carries a ball of 17 pound
S ounces ; caliber 51 inches; its weight 4500 pound.
3. The culverin of the leaft fize, has its diameter 5
inches ; is x 2 foot long ; weighing about 4000 pounds;
carries a Ihot 3!; inches diameter, weighing 14 pounds
-9 ounces.
Vol. Ill
CULVERTAILED, among (hipwrights, fignifies the Culv«t-
faftening or letting of one timber into another, fo that tailed
they cannot flip out, as the corlings into the beams of a Cumjnulrti
fhip. —  I
CUMBERLAND, Cumbria, fo denominated from
the Cumri or Britons who inhabited it; one of the
moft northerly counties in England. It was for¬
merly a kingdom extending from the vallum of Adrian
to the city of Dumbritton, now Dumbarton, on the
frith of Clyde in Scotland. At prelent it is a county
of England, which gives the title of duke to one of the
royal family. It is bounded on the north and north-
weft by Scotland ; on the fouth and fouth-eaft by part
of Lancafliire and Weftmoreland ; it borders on the
eaft with Northumberland and Durham ; and on the
weft is walked by the Irilh fea. The length from
north to fouth may amount to 55 miles, but the breadth
does not exceed 40. It is well watered with rivers,
lakes, and fountains ; but none of its ftreams are na¬
vigable. In fome places there are very high moun¬
tains. The air is keen and piercing on thefe moun¬
tains towards the north ; and the climate is moift, as
in all hilly countries. The foil varies with the face
of the country; being barren on the moors and moun¬
tains, but fertile in the vallies and level ground bor¬
dering on the fea. In general the eaftern parts of
the fhire are barren and defolate ; yet even the leaft
fertile parts are rich in metals and minerals. The
mountains of Copland abound with copper : veins of
the fame metal, with a mixture of gold and filver,
were found in the reign of queen Elizabeth among the
fells of Derwent; and royal mines were formerly
wrought at Kefwick, The county produces great
quantities of coal; fome lead; abundance of the mine¬
ral earth called black-lead; feveral mines of lapis ca-
laminaris; and an inconfiderable pearl-filhery on the
coaft near Ravenglafs.
Cumberland (Richard), a very learned Englilh
divine in the latter end of the 17th century, was fon
of a citizen of London, and educated at Cambridge.
In 1672, he publiflied his excellent “ Treatile of the
Laws of Nature and in 1686, “ An Effay toward
the Jewilh Weights and Meafures.” After the revo¬
lution he was nominated by king William to the bilhop-
ric of Peterborough, without the leaft folicitation on
his part. He purfued his ftudies to the laft ; and the
yvorld is obliged to him for clearing up feveral difficul¬
ties in hiftory, chronology, and philofophy. After the
age of 83, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Cop¬
tic language, of which he made himfelf mafter. He
was as remarkable for humility of mind, benevolence
of temper, and innocence of life, as for his extenfive
learning. He died in 1718.
CUMINUM, cumin; a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. There
is but one 1'pecies, viz. the cyminum. It is an annual
plant, perilhing foon after the feed is ripe. It rifes
9 or 10 inches high in the warm countries where it is
cultivated ; but feldom rifes above four in this country.
It has fometimes flowered very well here, but never
brings its feeds to perfe&ion. The leaves are divided
into long narrow fegments, like thofe of fennel, but
much fmaller: they are of a deep green, and generally
turned backward at their extremity : the flowers grow
13 R in
CUN [ 2.338 j CUP
Cunaeus in fmall umbels at the top of the ftalks: they are com-
. I pofed of five unequal petals, of a pale bluilh colour,
Cumngham vyjjjch are fUCceedecl by long, channelled, aromatic
~ feeds. The plant is propagated for fale in the ifland
of Malta. In this country the feeds muft be fown in
fmall pots, and plunged in a very moderate hot-bed to
bring up the plants. Thefe, after having been gra¬
dually inured to the open air, turned out of the pots,
and planted in a warm border of good earth, pre-
ferving the balls of earth to their roots, will flower
pretty well, and may perhaps even perfect a few
feeds in warm feafons. Tbefe feeds have a bit-
terifh warm tafle, accompanied with an aromatic fla¬
vour, not of the molt agreeable kind. They are
accounted good carminatives ; but not very often
made ufe of. An effential oil of them is kept in the
fhops.
CUNAlUS (Peter), born in Zealand, in 1586, was
diftinguiflied by his knowledge in the learned langua¬
ges, and his fkill in the Jewifh antiquities. He alfo
Itudied law, which he taught at Leyden, in 1615;
and read politics there till his death, in 1638. His
principal work is a treatife, in Latin, on the Republic
of the Hebrews.
CUNEIFORM, in general, an appellation given to
whatever refembles a wedge.
CuNEivoRM-i?o«(?, in anatomy, the feventh bone
of the cranium, called alfo os bajilare, and os fphsnoi-
des. See Anatomy, n0ij.
■ CUNEUS, in antiquity, a company of infantry drawn
up in form of a wedge, the better to break through
the enemy’s ranks.
CUNICULUS, in zoology. See Lepus.
CtJNXCULUS, in mining, a term ufed by authors in
diflinJHon from puteus, to exprefs the feveral forts of
paflages and cuts in thefe fubterranean works. The
ctiniculi are thofe direct pafiages in mines where they
walk on horizontally ; but the putei are the perpen¬
dicular cuts or defcents. The miners in Germany call
thefe by the name flollen, and fchacbts ; the firft
word expreffing the horizontal, and the fecond the
perpendicular cuts.
CUNILA, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the diandria clafs of plants. There
afe three fpecies, none of which has any remarkable
property.
CUNITZ (Mary), one of the greateft geniufes in
the 16th century, was born in Silefia. She learned
languages with amazing facility ; and underftood Po-
lifh, German, French, Italian, Latin, Greek, and He¬
brew. She attained a knowledge of the fciences with
equal eafe : fhe was (killed in hiftory, phyfic, poetry,
painting, mufic, and playing upon inllruments; and
yet thefe were only an amufement. She more parti¬
cularly applied herfelf to the mathematics, and efpe-
cially to aftronomy, which fhe made her principal ftudy,
and was ranked in the number of the mofl able aflro-
nomers of her time. Her Aftronomical Tqbles ac¬
quired her a prodigious reputation : fhe printed them
in Latin and German, and dedicated them to the em¬
peror Ferdinand III. She married Elias de Lewin,
M. D.; and died at Piftehen, in 1664.
CUNNINGHAM, one of the four bailiwicks in Scot¬
land j and one of the three into which the fhire of Air
is fub-divided.- It lies north-eaft of Kyle. Its chief Cuogola
town is Irwin. |
CUOGOLO, in natural hiftory, the name of a ftone Cllpel.
much ufed by the Venetians in glafs-making, and found '
in the river Fefino. It is a fmall ftone of an impure
white, of a fhattery texture, and is of the fhape of a
pebble.
CUP, a veftel of capacity of various forms and ma¬
terials, chiefly to drink out of. In the Ephem. Ger¬
man. we have a defcription of a cup made of a com ¬
mon pepper-corn by Ofwald Nerlinger ; which holds
1200 other ivory cups, having each its feveral handle,
all gilt on the edges; with room for 400 more.
Cvv-Calls, in natural hiftory, a name given, by
authors, to a very Angular kind of galls found on the
leaves of the oak, and fome other trees. They are
of the figure of a cup, or drinking-glafs, without its
foot, being regular cones adhering by their point or
apex to the leaf; and the top or broad part is hollow¬
ed a little way, fo that it appears like a drinking-glafs
with a cover, which was made fo fmall as not to clofe
it at the mouth, but fall a little way into it. This co¬
ver is flat, and has in the centre a very fmall protu¬
berance, refembling the nipple of a woman’s breaft.
This is of a pale green, as is alfo the whole of the gall,
excepting only its rim that runs round the top : this is
of a fcarlet colour, and that very beautiful. Befides
this fpecies of gall, the oak leaves furnifh us with fe¬
veral others, fome of which are oblong, fome round,
and others flatted; thefe are of various fizes, and ap¬
pear on the leaves at various feafons of the year.
They all contain the worm of fome fmall. fly ; and this
creature paffes all its changes in this its habitation, be¬
ing fometimes found in the worm, fometimes in the
nymph, and fometimes in the fly-ftate, in the cavity
of it.
CUPANIA, in botany ; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There is but one fpecies, a native of America, and
which pofleffes no remarkable property.
CUPEL, in metallurgy, a fmall veflel which abforbs
metallic bodies when changed by fire into a fluid fco-
ria; but retains them as long as they continue in their
metallic ftate. One of the moft proper materials for
making a veflel of this kind is the allies of animal
bones ; there is fcarcely any other fubftance which fo
ftrongly refifts vehement fire, which fo readily im¬
bibes metallic fcorias, and which is fo little difpofed to
be vitrified by them. In want of thefe, fome make
ufe of vegetable afhes freed, by boiling in water from
their faline matter, which would caufe them melt in
the fire.
The bones, burnt to perfect whitnefs, fo as that no
particle of coaly or inflammable matter may remain
in them, and well wafhed from filth, are ground into
moderately fine powder ; which, in order to its being
formed into cupels, is moiftened with juft as much wa¬
ter as is fuflicient to make it hold together when
ftrongly prefled between the fingers; fome direff glu¬
tinous liquids, as whites of eggs, or gum-water, in or¬
der to give the powder a greater tenacity: but the in¬
flammable matter, however fmall in quantity, which
accompanies thefe fluids, and cannot be eafily burnt-
out from the internal part of the mafs, is apt to revive
CUP [ 2339 ] CUP
Ij^npelktion 3 part of the matallic fcoria that has been abforbed,
~— and to occafion the vefle] to burft or crack. The cu¬
pel is formed in a brais ring, from three quarters of an
inch to two inches diameter, and not quite fo deep,
placed upon fome fmooth fupport: the ring being fill¬
ed with rooiftened powder, which is prefled clofe with
the fingers; a round-faced peftle called a monk, is
ftruck down into it with a few blows of a mallet, by
which the mafs is made to cohere, and rendered fuf-
ficiently compact, and a lhallow cavity formed in the
middle : the figure of the cavity is nearly that of a
fphere, that a fmall quantity of metal melted in it, may
run together into one bead. To make the cavity the
fmoother, a little of the fame kind of alhes levigated
into an impalpable powder, and not moiftened is com¬
monly fprinkled on the furface, through a fmall fine
fieve, made for this purpofe, and the monk again
ftruck down upon it. The ring, or mould, is a little
narrower at bottom than at top; fo that by prefling it
down on fome of the dry powder fpread upon a table,
the cupel is loofened, and forced upwards a little ; af¬
ter which it is eafily pulhed out with the finger, and is
then let to dry in a warm place free from dull.
CUPELLATION, the acft of refining gold or filver
by means of a cupel. For this purpofe another veflel,
called a muffle is made ufe of,' within which one or
1* See more cupels are placed*. The muffle is placed upon
^Muffle. a grate in a proper furnace, with its mouth facing the
door, and as clofe to it as may be. The furnace be¬
ing filled up with fuel, fome lighted charcoal is thrown
on the top, and what fuel is afterwards neceflary, is
fupplied through a door above. The cupels are let in
the muffle ; and being gradually heated by the fuccef-
five kindling of the fuel, they are kept red-hot for
fome time, that the moifture which they ftrongly- re¬
tain may be completely diflipated : for if any vapours
fliould ifliie from them after the metal is pul in, they
would occafion it to fputter, and a part of it to be
thrown off in little drops. In the fides of the muffle
are fome perpendicular flits, with a knob over the top
of each, to prevent any fmall pieces of coals or alhes
from falling in. The door, or fome apertures made
in it, being kept open, for the infpetftion of the cupels,
frelh air enters into the muffle, and pafles off through
thefe flits : by laying fome burning charcoal, on an iron
plate before the door, the air is heated before it's ad-
miflion; and by removing the charcoal or fupplying
more, the heat in the cavity of the muffle may be
fomewhat diminilhed or increafed more fpeedily than
can be effected by fupprefling or exciting the fire in
the furnace on the outfide of the muffle. The re¬
newal of the air alfo is neceflary for promoting the
fcorification of the lead.
The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead call in¬
to a fmooth bullet, that it may not fcratch or injure
the furface, is laid lightly in the cavity : it immediate¬
ly melts; and then the gold or filver to be cupelled
are cautioufly introduced either by means of a fmall
iron ladle, or by wrapping them in paper, and drop¬
ping them on the lead with a pair of tongs. The
quantity of lead fliould be at leaft three or four times
that of the fine metal: but when gold is very impure,
it requires 10 or 12 times its quantity of lead for cu-
pellation. It is reckoned that copper requires for its
leorification about ro times its weight of lead ; that Cupcllatioa
when copper and gold are mixed in equal quantities, H
the copper is fo much defended by the gold as not to Hpe in^'
be feparable with lefs than 20 times its weight of lead ;
and that when copper is in very fmall proportion, as
a 20th or 30th part of the gold or hlver, upwards of
60 parts of lead are neceflary for one of the copper.
The cupel mult always weigh at leaft half as much as
the lead and copper ; for otherwife it will not be ful-
ficient for receiving half the fcoria: there is little dan¬
ger, however, of cupels being made too fmall for the
quantity of a gold alfay.
The mixture being brought into thin fulion, the
heat is to be regulated according to the appearances ;
and in this confilts the principal nicety in the opera¬
tion. If a various coloured fliin rifes to the top, which
liquefying, runs off to the lides, and is there abforbed
by the cupel, vilibly flaining the parrs it enters if a
frelh fcoria continually fucceeds, and is abforbed near¬
ly as fall as it is formed, only a fine circle of it re¬
maining round the edge of the metal; if the lead ap¬
pears in gentle motion, and throws up a fume a little
way from its furface ; the fire is of the proper degree,
and the procefs goes on fuccefsfully.
Such a fiery brightnefs of the cupel as prevents its
colour from being diltinguilhed, and the fumes of
the lead riling up almoft to the arch of the muffle, are
marks of too ftrong a heat: though it mull be obfer-
ved that the elevation of the fumes is not always in
proportion to the degree of heat ; for if the heat
greatly exceeds the due limits, both the fumes and
ebullition will entirely ceafe. In thefe circumflances
the fire muft neceflarily be diminilhed : for while the
lead boils and fmokes vehemently, its fumes are apt to
carry off fome part of the gold; the cupel is liable to
crack from the hafty abforption of the fcoria, and part
of the gold and filver is divided into globules, which
lying difeontinued on the cupel after the procefs is fi-
nilhed, cannot ealily be collected : if there is no ebul¬
lition or fumes, the fcorification does not appear to go
on. Too weak a heat is known by the dull rednefs
of the cupel; by the fume not riling from the furface
of the lead ; and the fcoria like bright drops in languid
motion, or accumulated, or growing confillent all over
the metal. The form of the furface affords alfo an
ufeful mark of the degree of heat; the ftronger the
fire, the more convex is the furface, and the weaker,
the more flat: in this point, however, regard mull be
had to the quantity of metal; a large quantity being
always flatter than a fmall one in an equal fire.
Towards the end of the procefs, the fire mull be in¬
creafed ; for, greatell part of the fulible metal lead,
being now worked off, the gold and lilver will not
continue melted in the heat that was fufficient before.
As the lalt remains of the lead are feparating, the
rainbow colours on the furface become more vivid,
and varioufly interfeft one another with quick mo¬
tions. Soon, after, difappearing all at once, a hidden
luminous brightnefs of the button of gold and lilver
fliews the procefs to be finilhed. The cupel is then
drawn forwards towards the mouth of the muffle;
and the button, as foon as grown fully folid taken
out.
CUPELLING furnace. See Furnace.
13 R 2 CUPID,,
CUP [ 2340 ] CUR
Cupid CUPID, in pagan mythology, the god of love.
II There ieem to have been two Cupids ; the one the
Cupreflus. fon (Jp jUpiter and Venus, whofe delight it was to
raife fentiments of love and virtue; and the other
the fon of Mars and the fame goddefs, who in-
fpired bale and impure defires. The firlt of thefe,
called Eros, or true love, bore golden arrows, which
caufed real joy, and a virtuous affe&ion ; the other,
called Anteros, had leaden arrows that raifed a paflion
founded only on defire, which ended in fatiety and
difgnft. Cupid was always drawn with wings, to re-
prefent his inconftancy; and naked, to fliew that he
has nothing of his own. He was painted blind, to de¬
note that love fees no fault in the object beloved; and
with a bow and quiver of arrows, to ftiew his power
over the mind. Sometimes he is placed between
Hercules and Mercury, to fltew the prevalence of elo¬
quence and valour in love ; and at others is placed
near Fortune, to fignify that the fuccefs of lovers de¬
pends on that inconitant goddefs. Sometimes he is re-
prefented with an helmet on his head, and a fpear on
bis ftioulder, to fignify that love difarms the fierceft
men ; he rides upon the backs of panthers and lions,
and ufes their manes for a bridle, to denote that love
tames the moft favage beafts. He is likewife pidtured
riding upon a dolphin, uvfignify, that his empire ex¬
tends over the fea, no lefs than the land.
CUPOLA, in architedhne, a fpherical vault, or the
round top of the dome of a church, in the form of a
cup inverted.
CUPPING, in furgery, the operation of applying
cupping-ghiffes for the dilcharge of blood and other
iumours by the Ikin. See Surgery.
CUPRESSUS, the cypress-tree; a genus of the
monodelphia order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of
plants. There are fix Ipecies ; the moft remarkable
are the following: 1. The fempervirens, with an up¬
right ftraight Item, clofely branching all around, al-
moft from the bottom upwards, into numerous quad¬
rangular branches; rifing in the different varieties from
15 to 40 or 50 feet in height, and very ctolely garnilh-
ed with fmall, narrow, eredt evergreen leaves, pla¬
ced imbricatim ; and flowers and fruit from the fides
of the branches. 2. The thyoides, or evergreen Ame¬
rican cyprefs, commonly called white cedar, hath an
upright item, branching out into numerous two-edged
branches, rifing 20 or 30 feet high, ornamented with
flat ever-green leaves imbricated like arbor vitae, and
fmall blue cones the fize of juniper-berries. 3. The
dilticha, or deciduous American cyprefs, hath an eredt
trunk, retaining a large bulk, branching wide and re¬
gular ; grows 50 or 60 feet high, fully garnilhed with
finall, fpreading deciduous leaves, arranged diftichous,
or along two fides of the branches. All thefe fpecies
are railed from feeds, and will fometimes alfo grow
from cuttings ; but thofe raifed from feeds prove the
handfomeft plants. The feeds are procured in their
cones from the feedfmen, and by expofing them to a
moderate heat, they readily open, and dil’charge the
feeds freely. The feafon for lowing them is any time
in March; and they grow freely on a bed or border of
common light earth ; efpecially the firft and third
fpecies. The ground muft then be dug, well broken,
• and raked finooth, then drawing an inch of earth
evenly from off the furface into the alley, fow the Cuprum
feeds moderately thick, and direftly lift the earth over H ,
them, half an inch deep. If in April and May the ... .ur.!.?.aV
weather proves warm and dry, a very moderate wa¬
tering will now and then be neceffary, and the plants
will rife in fix or eight weeks. During the fummer
they muft be kept clear from weeds, and in dry wea--
ther they muft be gently watered twice a week. In
winter they muft be occafionally Iheltered with mats
in the time of hard frolt. In two years they will be
fit for tranfplanting from the feed-bed, when they may
be let in nurfery rows two feet afunder; and in three
or four years they will be fit for the Ihrubbery.
The wood of the firft fpecies is laid to refift worms,
moths, and putrefadtion, and to laft many centuries.
The coffins in which the Athenians were wont to bury
their heroes were made, fays Thucydides, of this
wood ; as were likewife the cherts containing the E-
gyptian mummies. The doors of S‘ Peter’s church
at Rome were originally of the fame materials. Thefe,
after lafting upwards of 600 years, at the end of which,
they did not difcover the fmalleft tendency to corrup¬
tion, were removed by order of pope Ehgenius IV.
and gates of brafs fubftituted in their place. The
fame tree is by many eminent authors recommended
as improving and meliorating the air by its balfamic
and aromatic exhalations ; upon which account many
ancient phyficians of the eaftern countries ufed to fend
their patients who were troubled with weak lungs to
the iiland of Candia, where thefe trees grew in great
abundance ; and where, from the falubrious air alone,
very few failed of a perfect cure. In the fame illand,
fays Miller, the cyprefs trees were fo lucrative a com¬
modity, that the plantations were called dos filiee % the
felling of one of them being reckoned a daughter’s:
portion. Cyprefs, fays Mr Pococke, is the only tree
that grows towards the top of mount Lebanon, and
being nipped by the cold, grows like a fmall oak.
Noah’s ark is commonly fuppofed to have been made
of this kind of wood.
CUPRUM Ammoniacale. See Chemistry,
n° 332. This preparation is recommended in fome
kinds of fpafmodic difeafes, given in the dofe of one
or two grains.
CUPRUM, or Copper. See Copper.
CURACOA, or Curassow, one of the larger An¬
tilles iflands, fubjetft to the Dutch ; fituated in W.
Long. 68. 30 N. Lat. 12. 30. This illand is little •
elfe than a bare rock, about ten leagues long, and five
broad; lying three leagues off the coaft of Venezuela.
It has an excellent harbour, but the entrance. is diffi¬
cult. The bafon is extremely large, and convenient
in every refpetft ; and is defended by a fort fkiifully
conftructed, and always kept in repair. The reafon
of forming a fettlement upon this barren fpot was to
carry on a contraband trade with the Spanilh colonies
on the continent; but after fome time the method of
managing this trade was changed. CurafTow itfelf
became an immenfe magazine, to which the Spaniards
reforted in their boats to exchange gold, filver, va¬
nilla, cocoa, cochineal, bark, (kins and mules, for ne¬
groes, linen, filks, India ftuffs, fpices, laces, ribbands,
quick-filver, fteel, and iron-ware. Thefe voyages,
though continual, did not prevent a number of Dutch
Hoops.-
CUR [ 2341 ] CUR
Curate floops from paffing from Curaffow to the continent.
II But the modern fubftitution of regilier-fhips infiead
Clirb' of galleons, has made this communication leis frequent;
but it will be revived whenever, by the intervention
of war, the communication with the Spanifh main (hall
be cut off. The difputes between the courts of Lon¬
don and Verfailles alfo prove favourable to the trade
of CuraiTow. At thefe times it furniihes provifions
to the fouthern parts of Sl Domingo, and takes off all
its produce. Even the French privateers, from the
windward iflands, repair in great numbers to Curaf¬
fow, notwithftanding the diltance. The reafon is,
that they find there all kinds of neceffary ftores for
their veifels ; and frequently Spanilh, but always Eu¬
ropean goods, which are univerfally ufed. Englifli
privateers feldom cruize in thefe parts. Every com¬
modity without exception, that is landed at Curaifow,
pays one per cent, port-duty. Dutch goods are never
taxed higher: but thofe that are flopped from other
European ports pay nine percent, more. Foreign
coffee is fubjedt to the fame tax, in order to promote
the fale of that of Surinam. Every other production
of America is fubjeCl only to a payment of three per
cent.; but with an exprefs ftipulation that they are to
be conveyed direCtly to feme port belonging to the
republic.
CURATE, the loweft degree in the church of Eng¬
land ; he who reprefents the incumbent of a church,
parfon or vicar, and officiates divine fervice in his
Read : and in cafe of pluralities of livings, or where a
clergyman is old and infirm, it is requifite there fliould
be a curate to perform the cure of the church. He is
to be licenfed and admitted by the bifliop of the diocefe,
or by an ordinary having epifcopal jurifdidlion : and
when a curate hath the approbation of the bifhop, he
ufually appoints the falary too ; and in fuch cafe, if he
be not paid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the
ecclefiaflical court, by a fequeftration of the profits of
the benefice; but if the curate is not licenfed by the
biftiop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where
he muft prove the agreement, l$c. A curate having
no fixed eftate in his curacy, not being inftituted and
inducted, may be removed at pleafure by the bifliop or
incumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well
as temporary, who are appointed where tithes are im¬
propriate, and no vicarage endowed: thefe are not
removeable, and the improprietors are obliged to find
them, fome whereof have certain portions of the
tithes fettled on them. Every clergyman that offi¬
ciates in a church, (whether incumbent or fuhfiitute),
in the liturgy is called a curate. Curates muft fublcribe
the declaration according to the aft of uniformity, or
are liable to imprifonment, l$c.
CURATOR, among civilians, a perfon regularly ap¬
pointed to manage- the affairs of minors, or perfons
mad, deaf, dumb, ire. See Law.
CURB, in the menage, a chain of iron, made fail
to the upper part of the branches of the bridle in a hole
called the eye, and running, over the horfe’s beard.
It confifts of thefe three parts; the hook, fixed to the
eye of the branch ; the chain of SS*s or links ; and
the two rings, or mailes. Large curbs, provided
they be round, are always moft gentle : but care is to
bs taken, that it reft in its proper place, a little above
the beard, otherwife the bit-mouth will not have the Curh
effeft that may be expefted from it. 1
Engliffi watering bits have no curbs ; the Turkilh Cufdlin&
bits, called genettes, have a ring that ferves inftead of
a curb. See Genettes.
Curb, in farriery. See there,. § xxviii. r.
CURCAS, a name given in Egypt to an efculent
root, approaching to the tafte and virtues of the colo*
cafia. It is alfo a name ufed in Malabar for a fmall
fruit of the ftiape and fize of an hazel nut. Both
thefe things have the credit of being ftrong provoca¬
tives ; and it is very probable that the curcas of the
Eaft Indies may be the fruit called bel by Avicenna,
and faid to poffefs the fame virtues. Garcias has been
led into a very great error by this fimilarky of names
and virtues^ and fuppofes the curcas of Egypt the
fame with that of the Eaft Indies.
CURCULLIO, in zoology, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera. The feelers are
fubclavated, and reft upon the fnout, which is promi¬
nent and horny. There are no lefs than ninety-five
fpecies, principally diftinguilhed by their colour.
CURCUMA, turmeric ; a genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of plants.
The fpecies are,
I. The rotunda, with a round root, hath a flefliy-
jointed root like that of ginger, but rounder ; which,
fends up feveral fpear-ffiaped oval leaves, which rife
upwards of a foot high, and of a fea-green colour.
From between thefe arifes the flower-ftalk, fupporting
a loofe fpike of flowers of a pale-yellowifti colour, in-
clofed in feveral different fpathae, or ffieaths, which
drop off. The flowers are never fucceeded by feeds
in this country. 2. The longa, hath long fleftiy roots
of a deep yellow colour, which fpread under the fur-
face of the ground like thofe of ginger; they are about
the thicknels of a man’s finger, having many round
knotty circles, from which arife four or five large fpear-
fhaped leaves, {landing upon long foot-ftalks. The
flowers grow in loofe fcaly fpikes on the top of the
foot-ftalks, which arife from the larger knobs of the
roots, and grow about a foot high ; they are of a yel-
lowifh-red colour, and ffiaped lomewhat like thofe of
the Indian reed.
Thefe plants grow naturally in India, from whence
the roots are brought to Europe for ufe. They are
very tender ; fo will not live in this country unlefs kept
conftantly in a ftove. They are propagated by part¬
ing the roots. The root communicates a beautiful but
perifliable yellow dye, with alum, to woolen, cotton, or
linen. In medicine it is efteemed aperient, and emme-
nagogic ; and of Angular efficacy in the jaundice.
CURDISTAN, a country of Afia, feated between
the Turkifli empire and Perfia, lying along the eaft.
ern coaft of the river Tigris, and comprehends great
part of the ancient Affyria. Some of the inhabitants
live in towns and villages, and others rove from place
to place, having tents like the wild Arabs, and are
alfo robbers like them. Their religion is partly Chrif-
tian, and partly Mahometanifm j but they are very
loofe in regard to either.
CURDLING, the coagulating any fluid body, efpe-
cially milk.
It is faid, that at Florence they curdle their milk
for
CUR [ 2342 ] CUR
Coretes for the making of cheefe with artichoke-flowers,
II inftead of the rennet tiled among os for that pur-
Curia- pole.
CURETES, in antiquity, a fort of priefts, or peo¬
ple, of the ifle of Crete ; called alfo Corybantes. See
Corybantes, and Crete. TheCuretes are laid to
have been originally of mount Ida, in Phrygia; for
which reafon they were alfo called id at daily li. See
Dactyli.
Lucian and Diodorus Siculus reprefent them as very
expert in calling of darts; though other authors give
them no weapons but bucklers and pikes: but all agree
in furnilhing them with tabors, and caftanetta’s; and
relate that they ufed to dance much to the noife and
clalhing thereof. By this noife, it is laid they pre¬
vented Saturn from hearing the cries of young Jupi¬
ter, whereby he was faved from being dellroyed.
Some authors, however, give a different account
of the Curetes: according to Pezron, and others, the
Curetes were, in the times of Saturn, fsfc. and in the
countries of Crete and Phrygia, what the druids were
afterwards among the Gauls, ire. i. e. they were
priefts who had the care of what related to religion,
and the worlhip of the gods.
Hence, as in thofe days it was fuppofed there was
no communication with the gods but by divinations,
auguries, and the operations of magic; the Curetes
palfed for magicians and enchanters: to thefe they ad¬
ded the lludy of the liars, of nature, and poely; and
■fo were philofophers, allronomers, tec.
Voflius, de Idolat. diflinguifhes three kinds of Cu¬
retes ; thofe of iEtolia, thofe of Phrygia, and thofe of
Crete who were originally derived from the Phry¬
gians. The firll, he fays, took their name from
tonfure; in regard, from the time of a combat where¬
in the enemy feized their long hair, they always kept
it cut: thofe of Phrygia and Crete, he fuppofes, were
lb called from young rjian; in regard they were
young, or becaufe they nurfed Jupiter when he was
young.
CURFEW, or Courfew, a fignal given in cities
taken in war, tec. to the inhabitants to go to bed.
Pafquin fays, it was fo called, as being intended to
advertife the people to fecure themfelves from the
robberies and debaucheries of the night.
The moll eminent curfew in England was that ella-
blilhed by William the Conqueror, who appointed,
under fevere penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell
at eight o’clock in the evening, every one fhould put
out their lights and fires, and go to bed: whence, to
this day, a bell rung about that time is called a cur¬
few-bell.
CURIA, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the fe-
nate-houfe. There were feveral curise in Rome; as
the curia calabra laid to be built by Romulus, the
curia hojlilia by Tullus Hollilius, and the curia pom-
peia by Pompey the Great.
Curia, alfo denoted the places where the curias
ufed to affemble. Each of the 30 curias of old Rome
had a temple or chapel affigned to them for the com¬
mon performance of their facrifices, and other offices
of their religion ; fo that they were not unlike our
parilhes. Some remains of thefe little temples feem
to have fubiilted many ages after on the Palatine hill,
where Romulus firll built the city, and always refi- Curh
ded. »
Curia, among the Romans, alfo denoted a por- l,rfan-
tion, or divilion of a tribe. In the time of Romulus,
a tribe confilled of ten curias, or a thoufand men ; each
curia being one hundred : that legillator made the firll
divifton of his people into thirty curias. Afterwards,
curia, or domus curiahs, became ufed for the place
where each curia held its affemblies. Hence, alfo,
curia paffed to the fenate-houfe ; and it is from hence
the moderns come to ufe the word curia, court, for a
place of jultice, and for the judges, tec. there affem-
bled.
Curia, in our ancient cultoms.—It was ufual for
the kings of England to fummons the bilhops, peers,
and great men of the kingdom, to fome particular
place, at the chief fellivals in the year: and this af-
fembly is called, by our hillorians, curia; becaufe
there they confulted about the weighty affairs of the
nation : whence it was fometimes alio called, ftlstnnii
curia, geueralis curia, augujlalis curia, and curia pub-
lie a, See. See Witena-ZV/oL
Curia Baronum. See CovRT-Baron.
Curia Claudenda, is a writ that lies againll him who
Ihould fence and enclofe the ground, but refufes or
defers to do it.
CURIATII, three brothers of Alba, maintained the
interell of their country againll the Romans who had
declared war againll thofe of Alba. The two armies
being equal, three brothers on each fide were chofen
to decide the contell: the Curiatii by thofe of Alba,
and the Horatii by the Romans. The three firll were
wounded, and two of the latter killed: but the third,
joining policy to valour, ran away ; and having thus
tired the curiatii, he took them one after another and
killed them all three.
CURING, a term ufed for the preferving filh, flelh,
and other animal fubltances, by means of certain ad¬
ditions of things, to prevent putrefadlion. One great
method of doing this, is by fmoking the bodies with
the fmoke of wood, or rubbing them with fait, nitre,
tec.
CURLEW, in ornithology. See Scolopax.
CURNOCK, a meafure of corn, containing four
bulhels, or half a quarter.
CURMI, a name given by the ancients to a fort of
malt liquor or ale. It was made of barley, and was
drunk by the people of many nations in Head of wine,
according to Diofcorides’s account: he accufes it of
caufing pains in the head, generating bad juices, and
difordering the nervous fyllem. He alfo fays, that
in the wellern part of Iberia, and in Britain, Inch a
fort of liquor was in his time prepared from wheat in-
llead of barley. See Ale.
CURRANS, or Currants, the fruit of a fpecics
of groffularia. See Grossularia.
The white and red fort are mollly ufed ; for the
black, and chiefly the leaves, upon firll coming out,
are in ufe to flavour Englilh (pints, and counterfeit
French brandy. Currants greatly affuage drought,
cool, and fortify the llomach, and help digellion; and
the jelly of black currants is faid to be very efficacious
in curing inflammations of the throat.
Currants, allb fignify a fmaller kind of grapes,
brought
CUR [ 2343 ] CUR
brought principally from Zant and Cephalonia. They
are gathered off the bufhes, and laid to dry in the fun,
and ib put up in large butts. They are opening and
pe&oral; but are more ufed in the kitchen, than in
medicine.
CURRENT, in navigation, a certain progreflive
movement of the water of the fea, by which all bo¬
dies floating therein are compelled to alter their courfe,
or velocity, or both, and fubmit to the laws impofed
on them by the current.
In the fea, currents are either natural and general,
as arifing from the diurnal rotation of the earth about
its axis; or accidental and particular, caufed by the
waters being driven againlt promontories, or into
gulphs and llraits, where, wanting room to fpread,
they are driven back, and thus dilturb the ordinary
flux of the fea. Currents are various, and directed
towards different parts of the ocean, of which fome
are conftant, other periodical. The molt extraordi¬
nary current of the fea, is that by which part of the
Atlantic or African ocean moves about Guinea from
Cape Verd towards the Curvature or bay of Africa,
which they call Fernando Poo; viz. from welt to
ealt, contrary to the general motion. And fuch is the
force of the current, that when Ihips approach too
near the Ihore, it carries them violently towards that
bay, and deceives the mariners in their reckoning.
There is a great variety of fhifting currents which
do not lall, but return at certain periods; and thefe
do, moll of them, depend upon and follow the anni-
verfary winds or monfoons, which by blowing in one
place may caufe a current in another. Varenius in¬
forms us, that at Java, in the ftreights of Sun da, when
the monfoons blow from the weft, viz. in the month
of May, the currents fet to the eaftward, contrary to
the general motion. Between the illand of Celebes
and Madura, when the weftern monfoons fet in,
viz. in December, January, and February, or when
the winds blow from the north-weft, or between
the north and weft, the currents fet to the fouth-
eaft, or between the fouth and eaft. At Ceylon,
from the middle of March to Odiober, the currents
fet to the fouthward, and in the other parts of the
year to the northward : becaufe at this time the
louthern monfoons blow, and at the other the north¬
ern. Between Cochin China and Malacca, when
the weftern monfoons blow, viz. from April to Au-
guft, the currents fet eaftward againft the general
motion ; but the reft of the year they let weftward ;
the monfoon confpiring with the general motion.
They run fo ftrongly in thefe leas, that unexperien¬
ced failors miftake them for waves that beat upon the
rocks, known ufually by the name of breakers. So for
fome months after the 15th of February,, the currents
fet from the Maldives towards India on the eaft, againft
the general motion of the fea. On the Ihore of China
and Cambodia, in the months of Odlober, November,
and December, the currents fet to the north-weft, and
from January to the fouth-weft, when they run with
fuch rapidity about the Ihoals of Parcel, that they feem
fwifter than an arrow. At Pulo Condore, upon the
coaft of Cambodia, though the monfoons are Ihifting,
yet the currents fet ftrongly towards the eaft, even
when they blow to a contrary point. Along the coafts
of the bay of Bengal, as far as the Cape Romania, at Curriers
the extreme point of Malacca, the current runs fouth- ^ II
ward in November and December. When the mon- uirylll‘g:'.
foons blow from China to Malacca, the fea runs fwiltly
from Pulo Cambi to Pulo Condore on the coaft of
Cambodia. In the bay of Sans Bras, not far from the
Cape of Good Hope, there is a current particularly
remarkable, where the fea runs from eaft to weft to
the landward ; and this more vehemently as it is op-
pofed by winds from a contrary direction. The caufe
is undoubtedly owing to fome adjacent Ihore which is
higher than this. In the ftraits of Gibraltar, the cur¬
rents almoft conftantly drive to the eaftward, and carry
Ihips into the Mediterranean : they are alio found to
drive the fame way into Sr George’s channel.
The fetting or progreflive motion of the current
may be either quite down to the bottom, or to a cer¬
tain determinate depth. As the knowledge of the di¬
rection and velocity of currents is a very material ar¬
ticle in navigation, it is highly neceflary to difcover
both, in order to afcertain the Ihip’s fituation and
courfe with as much accuracy as poflible. The moft
fuccefsful method which has been hitherto praCtifed
by mariners for this purpofe is as follows. A com¬
mon iron pot, which may contain four or five gallons,
is fufpended by a fmall rope fattened to its ears or
handles, fo as to hang direCtly upright, as when pla¬
ced upon the fire. This rope, which may be from
70 to 100 fathoms in length, being prepared for the
experiment, is coiled in the boat, which is hoided out
of the Ihip at a proper opportunity, when there is
little or no wind to ruffle the furface of the fea. The
pot being then thrown overboard into the water, and
immediately finking, the line is flackened till about 70
or 80 fathoms of the line run out ; after which the
line is faftened to the boat's ftern, by which (he is ac¬
cordingly reftrained, and rides as at anchor. The
velocity of the current is then eafily tried by the log
and half-minute glafs, the ufual method of difcovering
the rate of a Ihip’s failing at fea. The courfe of the
ftream is next obtained by the compafs provided for
this operation. Having thus found the fetting and
drift of the current, it next remains to apply this ex¬
periment to the purpofes of navigation ; for which
fee Navigation, fe<ft. vi.
CURRIERS, thofe who drefs and colour leather
after it comes from the tan-yard. See Tanning.
CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with
oil, tallow,
The chief bufinefs is to foften and fupple cow and
calve-Ikins, which make the upper-leathers and quar¬
ters of Ihoes, covering of faddles, coaches, and other
things which muft keep out water. 1. Thefe Ikins,
after coming from the tanner’s yard *, having many * See Totp
flefhy fibres on them, the currier foaks them fome n>nS-
time in common water. 2. He takes them out and
ftretches them on a very even wooden horfe ; then
with a paring-knife, he fcrapes off ail the fuperfluous
flelh, and puts them in to foak again. 3. He puts
them wet on a hurdle, and tramples them with his
heels, till they begin to grow foft and pliant. 4. He
foaks thereon train-oil, which by its undiuous quality
is the beft liquor for this purpofe. 5. He fpreads them
on large tables,, and fattens them at the ends. There,
with
CUR [ 2344 ] CUR
Curfing with the help of an inftrument called a pummel, which
II is a thick piece of wood, the under-fide of which is
l1rtate~ full of furrows crofling each other, he folds, fquares,
and moves them forwards and backwards feveral
times, under the teeth of this inftrument, which breaks
their too great ftiffnefs. This is what is properly cal¬
led currying. The order and number of thefe ope¬
rations is varied by different curriers, but the material
part is always the fame. 6. After the Ikins are cur¬
ried, there may be occalion to colour them. The co¬
lours are black, white, red, yellow, green, ire, the
other colours are given by the ikinners, who differ
from curriers in this, that they apply their colours on
the flelh-fide; the curriers on the hair fide. In order to
whiten Ikins, they are rubbed with lumps of chalk, or
white lead, and afterwards with pumice-ftone. 7.
When a Ikin is to be made black, after having oiled
and dried it, he paffes over it a puff dipt in water
impregnated with iron ; and after his firft wetting,
he gives it another in a water prepared with foot,
vinegar, and gum-arabic. Thefe different dyes gra¬
dually turn the Ikin black, and the operations are re¬
peated till it be of a fhining black. The grain and
wrinkles which contribute to the fupplenefs of calves
and cows leather, are made by the reiterated folds gi¬
ven to the fkin in every direction, and by the care ta¬
ken to ferape off all hard parts on the colour-fide.
CURSING and Swearing ; an offence againftGod
and religion, and a fin of all others the moft extrava¬
gant and unaccountable, as having no benefit or ad¬
vantage attending it. By the laft ftatute againft this
crime, 19 Geo. II. which repeals all former ones, every
labourer, failor, or foldier, profanely curfing or fwear-
ing, lhall forfeit 1 s.; every other perfon under the
rank of a gentleman, 2 s.; and every gentleman or
perfon of fuperior rank, 5 s. to the poor of tfie parifh ;
and, on a fecond conviction, double ; and, for every
fubfequent offence, treble the fum firft forfeited, with
all charges of conviction : and, in default of payment,
lhall be fent to the houfe of correction for 10 days.
Anyjuftice of the peace may conviCt upon his own
hearing, or the teftimony of one witnefs: and any
conftable, or peace-officer, upon his own hearing, may
fecure any offender and carry him before a juftice,
and there conviCt him. If the juftice omits his duty,
he forfeits J 1. and the conftable 40 s. And. the aCt is
to be read in all pariffi-churches and public chapels,
the Sunday after every quarter-day, on pain of J 1. to
be levied by warrant from any juftice. Befides this
pnnilhment for taking God’s name in vain in common
difeourfe, it is enaCted, by flat. 3 Jac. I. c. 21. that if
in any ftage-play, interlude, or (hew, the name of the
holy Trinity, or any of the perfons therein, be jeft-
ingly or profanely ufed, the offender (hall forfeit 101.;
one moiety to the king, and the other to the informer.
CURSITOR, a clerk belonging to the court of
chancery, whofe bufinefs it is to make out original
writs. In the ftatute 18 Edw. III. they are called
clerks of courfe, and are 34 in number, making a cor¬
poration of themfelves. To each of them is allowed
a divifion of certain counties, into which they iffue out
the original writs required by the fubjeCl.
CURTATE distance, in aftronomy, the diftance
of a planet from the fun to that point, where a per¬
pendicular let fall from the planet meets with the Cnrtatioti
ecliptic. N
CURTATION, in aftronomy, is the interval be- —-I—
tween a planet's diftance from the fun, and the cur¬
tate diftance.
CURTEYN, curtana, was the name of Edward the
confeflbr’s fword, which is the firft fword carried be¬
fore the kings of England at their coronation ; and it
is faid the point of it is broken as an emblem of mercy.
CURTIN, Curtain, or Court in, in fortification,
is that part of the rampart of a place which is betwixt
the flanks of two baftions, bordered with a parapet
five feet high, behind which the foldiers ftand to fire
upon the covered way and into the moat.
CURTIUS (Quintus), a Roman gentleman an. Rom,
392. Underftanding by the oracle, that a certain gulf
in the forum, which boded misfortune to the city, could
only be flopped by throwing the moft precious thing
they had into it; Curtius, confidering of it, thought
his own merit above all others, and leaped into the
abyfs, which (it is faid) fuddenly clofed up.
Cubtius (Quintus), a Latin hiftorian who wrote
the Life of Alexander the Great in 10 books, of which
the two firft are not indeed extant, but are fo well
fupplied by Freinffiemius, that the lofs is fcarcely re¬
gretted. Where this writer was born, or even when
he lived, are points no one pretends to know: by his
ftyle he is fuppofed to have lived in or near the Au-
guftan age ; while fome are not wanting, who ima¬
gine the work to have been compofed in Italy about
300 years ago, and the name of Quintus Curtius to be
ficlitioufly added to it. Cardinal du Perron was fo great
an admirer of this work, as to declare one page of it
to be worth 30 of Tacitus : yet M. le Clerc, at the
end of his Art of Criticifm, has charged the writer
with great ignorance, and many contradictions.
CURVATURE of « Line, is the peculiar manner
of its bending or flexure, by which it becomes a curve
of fucb and mch peculiar properties.
CURVE, in geometry, a line which running on
continually in all directions, may be cut by one right
line in more points than one. See Conic Sections,
and Eductions.
CURVET, or Corvet, in the menage, an air in
which the horfe’s legs are raifed higher than in the
demi volt; being a kind of leap up, and a little for¬
wards, wherein the horfe raifes both his fore-legs at
once, equally advanced, (when he is going ftraight
forward, and not in a circle), and as his fore-legs are
falling, he immediately railes his hind-legs, equally ad¬
vanced, and not one before the other : fo that all his
four legs are in the air at once ; and as he fets them
down, he marks but twice with them.
CURVILINEAR, or Curvilineal, is faid of fi¬
gures bounded by curves, or crooked lines.
■ CURVIROSTRA, in ornithology. See Loxia.
CURULE chair, in Roman antiquity, a chair ad¬
orned with ivory, wherein the great magiftrates of
Rome had a right to fit and be carried.
The curnle magiftrates were the sediles, the prse-
tors, cenfors, and confuls. This chair was fitted in a
kind of chariot, whence it had its name. The fena-
tors who had borne the offices of aediles, praetors, ire.
were carried to the fenate-houfe in this chair, as were
alfo
C U S [ 2345 ] c u s
v-iiHiCurzela alfo thofe who triumphed, and fuch as went to admi-
! | S nilter juftice, frc. See ^Edile, ir<;.
■ihrCqfcuta. CURZOLA, an ifland in the gulph of Venice, lying
Tv| on the coait of Dalmatia: it is about 20 miles long,
and has a fmalltown of the fame name, with a bifliop’s
fee. It belongs to the Venetians. E. Long. 17. 15.
N. Lat. 43. 6.
CUSA (Nicholas de), a learned cardinal, born of
mean parentage, and named from Cufa, the place of
his birth. He was made a cardinal in 1448 ; and be-
ing appointed governor of Rome by pope Pius II. du¬
ring his abfence at Mantua, he was the chief concer-
ter and manager of the war againft the Turks. He
founded a church, and a noble library of Greek and
Latin authors, at Cufa ; and left many excellent
works behind him, which were colledted and publifti-
ed in three volumes at Bafil in 1565. In thefe he has
made no fcruple to detect the lying traditions and fo-
phiftries of the Roman church.
CUSCO, a large and-handlbme town of South A-
merica, in Peru, formerly the refidence of the Incas.
It is feated at the foot of a mountain, and is built in a
fquare form, in the middle of which there is the belt
market in all America: four large ftreets terminate in
this fquare, which are all as ftraight as a line, and re¬
gard the four quarters of the world. The Spaniards
tell us wonderful things of the richnefs of the Inca’s
palace, and of the temple of the fun ; but more fober
travellers, judging from what remains, think moft of
them to be fabulous. At prefent it contains eight large
parilhes, and five religious houfes, the bell of which
belongs to the Jefuits; and the number of the inhabi-
| . tants may be about 50,000, of which 3-4ths are the
original natives, Americans. From this town there is
a very long road, which runs along the Cordeleim ;
and, at certain diftances, there are fmall houfes for
refling-places, fome parts of which are fo artificially
Wrought, that it is furprizing how a people, who had
no iron tools, could perform fuch workman fhip. There
are ftreams of water run through the town, which
are a great convenience in fo hot a country, where it
never rains. It is 375 miles eafl of Lima. W. Long.
74. 37. S. Lat. 13. o.
CUSCUTA, dodder ; a genus of the digynia or¬
der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. There
are two fpecies; one of which is a native of Britain,
viz. the Europsea, dodder, hell-weed, or devil’s-guts.
This is a very fingular plant, almoll deflitute of leaves,
parafitical, creeping, fixing itfelf to whatever is next
to it. It decays at the root, and afterwards is nou-
rifhed by the plant which fupports it. Hops, flax,
and nettles, are its common fupport; but principally
the common nettle. Its bloffoms are white. As foon
as the fhoots have twined about an adjacent plant, they
fend out from their inner furface a number of little
veficles or papillae, which attach themfelves to the
bark or rind of the plant. By degrees the longitudi¬
nal veffels of the ftalk, which appear to have accom¬
panied the veficles, fhoot from their extremities, and
make their way into the fofter plant, by dividing the
veffels and infinuating themfelves into the tendereft
part of the ftalk; and fo intimately are they united
with it, that it is eafier to break than to difengage
them from it. The whole plant is bitter. It affords
Vol. III.
a pale reddifh colour. Cows, flieep, and fwine, eat Cufpidated
it ; horfes refufe it; goats ate not fond of it. II
CUSPIDATED, in botany, are fuch plants whole CuJ^itanJ
leaves are pointed like a fpear. a --
CUSTOM, a very comprehenfive term, denoting
the manners, ceremonies, and falhions, of a people,
which having turned into a habit, and paffed into ufe,
obtain the force of laws ; in which fenie it implies
fuch ufages, as, though voluntary at firlt, are yet by
practice become neceffary.
Cuftom is hence, both by lawyers and civilians, de¬
fined lex non fcripta, “ a law or right not written,”
eftabliflied by long ufage, and the confent of our an-
ceftors : in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to the lex
fcripta, or “ the written law.” See Law, Part II.
n° 38,—41.
Custom and Habit, in the human ceconomy. The
former is often confounded with the latter. By cuf
tom we mean a frequent reiteration of the fame
a£l; and by habit, the effedt that cuftom has on the
mind or body. This curious fubjedt falls to be con-
fidered firft in a moral, and fecondly in a phyfical,
light.
I. Influence of Cuflom and Habit on the Mind, &c.
Cuftom hath fuch influence upon many of our feel¬
ings, by warping and varying them, that its operati¬
ons demand the attention of all who would be ac¬
quainted with human nature. The fubjedl, however, Kaims’s E~
is intricate. Some pleafures are fortified by cuftom ; lements of
and yet cuftom begets familiarity, and confequently Criticifm.
indifference :
[If all the year were playing holidays.
To fport would be as tedious as to work : Shakefp.
But when they feldom come, they wifh’d-for come,
And nothing pleafeth, but rare accidents.]
In many inftances, fatiety and difguft are the confe-
quences of reiteration: again, though cuftom blunts
the edge of diftrefs and of pain ; yet the want of any
thing to which we have been long accuftomed is a fort
of torture. A clue to guide us through all the intri¬
cacies of this labyrinth, would be an acceptable pre¬
lent.
Whatever be the caufe, it is certain that we are
much influenced by cuftom : it hath an effedt upon
our pleafures, upon our adlions, and even upon our
thoughts and fentiments. Habit makes no figure du¬
ring the vivacity of youth : in middle age it gains
ground ; and in old age governs without control. In
that period of life, generally fpeaking, we eat at a
certain hour, take exercife at a certain hour, go to
reft at a certain hour, all by the direction of habit:
nay, a particular feat, table, bed, comes to be effen-
tial; and a habit in any of thefe cannot be controlled
without uheafinefs.
Any flight or moderate pleafure, frequently reite¬
rated for a long time, forms a peculiar connedtion be¬
tween us and the thing that caufes the pleafure. This
connedtion, termed habit, has the effedt to awaken our
defire or appetite for that thing when it returns not
as ufual. During the courfe of enjoyment, the plea¬
fure rifes infenfibly higher and higher till a habit be
eftabliflied ; at which time the pleafure is at its height.
It continues not, however, ftationary : the fame cu-
13 S ftomary
C U S [ 2346 ] c u s
Cuftom and ftomary reiteration which carried it to its height,
habit. brings it down again by infeniible degrees, even Jow-
er than it was at hril ; but of that circum(tance after¬
ward. What at prefent we have in view, is to prove
by experiments, that thoi'e things which at fir ft are
but moderately agreeable, are the aptell to become
habitual. Spirituous liquors, at firlt fcarce agreeable,
readily produce an habitual appetite : and cuitom pre¬
vails fo far, as even to make us fond of things origi¬
nally difagreeable, fuch as coffee, affa-foetida, and to¬
bacco.
A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably
confined, becomes however fo agreeable by cuftom,
that a failor in his walk on fhore confines bimfelf com¬
monly within the fame bounds. The author knew a
man who had relinquifhed the fea for a country-life :
in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial
mount with a level fummit, refembling molt accurately
a quarter-deck, not only in fhape but in fize; and
here he generally walked. In Minorca governor
Kane made an excellent road the whole length of the
illand ; and yet the inhabitants adhere to the old road,
though not only longer bin extremely bad. Play or
gaming, at firft barely amufing by the occupation it
affords, becomes in time extremely agreeable; and is
frequently profecuted with avidity, as if it were the
chief bufinefs of life. The fame oblervation is appli¬
cable to the pleafures of the internal fenfes, thofe of
knowledge and virtue in particular : children have
fcarce any fenfe of thefe pleafures; and men very
little who are in the ffate of nature without culture :
our tafte for virtue and knowledge improves fiowly ;
but is capable of growing ftronger than any other ap¬
petite in human nature.
To introduce an a(5!ive habit, frequency of a&s is
not fufficient without length of time : the quickeft fuc-
ceflion of a&s in a fhort time, is not fufficient; nor a
flow fucceffion in the longeft time. The effect muft
be produced by a moderate fbft action, and a long fe-
ries of eafy touches, removed from each other by fhort
intervals. Nor are thefe fufficient without regularity
in the time, place, and other circumftances of the ac¬
tion : the more uniform any operation is, the fooner
it becomes habitual. And this holds equally in a paf-
fivc habit; variety in any remarkable degree, pre¬
vents the effect: thus any particular food will icarce
ever become habitual, where the manner of dreffing
is varied. The circumftances then requifite to aug¬
ment a moderate pleafure, and at the long-run to
form a habit, are weak uniform adts, reiterated du¬
ring a long courfe of time, without„any confiderable Cuftom and'
interruption : every agreeable caufe that operates in babit. ||
this manner, will grow habitual.
dffettion and averfion, as diltinguifhed from pafllon
on the one: hand, and on the other from original dif-
pofition, are in reality habits refpedting particular ob¬
jects, acquired in the manner above let forth. The
pleafure of focial intercourfe with any perfon, muft
originally be faint, and frequently reiterated, in order
to eftablifh the habit of affedtion. Affedlion thus ge¬
nerated, whether it be friendfhip or love, feldom fwelk
into any tumultuous or vigorous paffion ; but is how¬
ever the ftrongeft cement that can bind together two
individuals of the human fpecies. In like manner, a
flight degree of difguft often reiterated with regula¬
rity, grows into the habit of averfion, which com¬
monly fubfifts for life.
Objedfs of tafte that are delicious, far from tending
to become habitual, are apt by indulgence to produce
fatiety and difguft : no man contradls a habit of fu-
gar, honey, or fweet-meats, as he doth of tobacco.
Thefe violent delights have violent ertds.
And in their triumph die. The fweeteft honey
Is loathfome in its own delicioufnels.
And in the tafte confounds the appetite ;
Therefore love mod’rately, long love doth fo ;
Too fwift arrives as tardy as too flow.
Romeo atid Juliet, aft 2. fc. 6.
The fame obfervation holds with refpedl to all objedls
that being extremely agreeable raife violent paffions:
fuch paffions are incompatible with a habit of any fort;
and in particular they never produce affedlion nor a-
verfion : a man who at firft fight falls violently in
love, has a ftrong defire of enjoyment, but no affedlion
for the woman (a) : a man who is furprifed with aw
unexpedled favour, burns for an opportunity to exert
his gratitude, without having any affedlion for his be-
nefadlor : neither does defire of vengeance for an
atrocious injury, involve averfion.
It is perhaps not eafy to fay why moderate plea¬
fures gather ftrength by cuftom : but two caufes con¬
cur to prevent that effedl in the more intenfe plea¬
fures. Thefe, by an original law in our nature, m-
creafe quickly to their full growth, and decay with no
lefs precipitation * ; and cuftom is too flow in its ope- *SeeEMO«
ration to overcome that law. The other caufe is not tion ani
lefs powerful: exquifite pleafure is extremely fati- p,^fions>
guing; occafioning, as a naturalift would fay, great
expenee of animal fpirits; and of fuch the mind can¬
not
(4) Violent love without affedtion is finely exemplified in the following ftory. When Conftantinople was taken by the Turks,
Irene, a young Greek of an illufti ious family, fell into-the hands of Mahomet II. who was at that time in the prime of youth? and!
glory. His favage heart being fubdued by her charms, he Ihut himfeif up with her, denying accefs even to his minifters. Love
obtained filch afcendant as to make him frequently abandon the army, and fly to his Irene. War relaxed, for victory was no
longer the monarch's favourite paffion. The foldiers, accuftomed to, booty, began to murmur, and the infedtion fpread even a-
mong the commanders. The Bafha Muftapha, confulting the fidelity he owed his mafter, was the firft who durft acquaint him of
the dtfeourfes held publicly to the prejudice of his glory.
I he fultan, after a gloomy filence, formed his refolution. He ordered Muftapha to aflemble the troops next morning; and
then with precipitation retired to Irene’s apartment Never before did that princefs appear fo charming; never before did the
prince beftow fb many warm carefles. To give a new luftre-to.her beauty, he exhorted her women next morning to bellow their
utmoft art and care on her drefs He took her by the hand, led her into the middle of the arrnyj and pullihg off her vail, de¬
manded of the bafhas with a fierce look, whether they had ever beheld fuch a beauty? After an awful paufe, Mahomet with one hand
laying hold of the young Greek by her beautiful locks, and with the other pulling out his feimitar, fevered the head from, the- body
at one ftroke. Then turning to his grandees, with eyes wild and furious, “ This fword,"' fays he, “ when.it is my will, knows
to cut the bands of love.” However ftrange it may appear, we learn from experience;, that defire of enjoyment may coufilt.
with the moft brutal avetfioii, dfrefled both to the fame woman. Of this we have a noted example in the firft book of Sully’s
Memoirs; to which we chufe to refer the reader, for it is too grofs to be tranferibed.
C U S [ 2347 ] c u s
latiCaftomaml not bear fo frequent gratification, as to fuperinduce a
»H|f habit. habit: if the thing that raifes the pleafure return be-
r# fore the mint! have recovered its tone and relifti, dif-
guit eniue.s jin (lead of pleafure.
A habit; never fails to admonifli us of the wonted
time of gratification, by railing a pain for want of the
object, and a defire to have it. The pain of want is
| always firlt felt: the defire naturally follows; and
upon prefenting the objetfi, both vanilh infiantaneoully.
Thus a man accuftomed to tobacco, feels, at the end
of the ufual interval, a confufed pain of want* which
at firlt points at nothing in particular, though it loon
fettles upon its accultomed objccfi:: and the fame may
be obferved in perfons addicted to drinking, who are
often in an uneafy reftlefs Itate before they think of
the bottle. In pleafures indulged regularly, and at
equal intervals, the appetite, remarkably obfequious to
cuttom, returns regularly with the ufual time of gra¬
tification ; not fooner, even though the objedi be pre-
fiented. This pain of want arlfing from habit, feems
directly oppolite to that of fatiety and it muft ap¬
pear lingular, that frequency of gratification fhould
produce elfedls fo oppofite, as are the pains of excefs
and of want.
The appetites that refpeft the prefervation and pro¬
pagation of our fpecies, are attended with a pain of
.want limilar to that occafioned by habit: hunger and
thirft are uneafy fenfations of want, which always pre¬
cede the defire of eating or drinking; and a pain for
want of carnal enjoyment, precedes the defire of an
objebl. The pain being thus felt independent of an
objeft, cannot be cured but by gratification. Very
different is an ordinary paflion, in which defire pre¬
cedes, the pain of want: fuch a paffipn cannot exill
but while the object is in view; and therefore, by re¬
moving the object out of thought, it vanilheth with its
I1 •Reference defire and pain of want*.
at[ufra. The natural appetites above mentioned, differ from
habit in the following particular : they have an unde¬
termined direction toward all objects of gratification
in general; whereas an habitual appetite is directed
to a particular objedl: the attachment we have by ha¬
bit to a particular woman, differs widely from the na¬
tural paflion which comprehends the whole fex ; and
the habitual relilli for a particular dilh, is far from be¬
ing the fame with a vague appetite for food. That
difference notwithftanding, it is ftill remarkable, that
nature hath enforced the gratification of certain natu¬
ral appetites eflential to the fpecies, by a pain of the
fame fort with that which habit produceth.
The pain of habit is lefs under our power than any
other pain that arifes from want of gratification : hun¬
ger and thirft are more eafily endured, efpecially at
firft, than an unufual intermiflion of any habitual plea¬
fure : perfons are often heard declaring, they would
forego fleep or food, rather than tobacco. We mull
not however conclude, that the gratification of an ha¬
bitual appetite affords the fame delight with the gra¬
tification of one that is natural: far from it; the pain
of want only, is greater.
The flow and reiterated afts that produce a habit,
firengthen the mind to enjoy the habitual pleafure in
greater quantity and more frequency than originally;
and by that means a habit of intemperate gratification
is often formed: after unbounded atfs of intemperance, Cuflomand
the habitual relifli is foon reitored, and the pain for habit,
want of enjoyment returns with frelh vigour.
The caules of the prefent emotions hitherto in view,
are either an individual, fuch as a companion, a cer¬
tain dwelling-place, a certain-amulement j or a parti¬
cular fpecies, 1'uch as coffee, mutton, or any other
food. But habit is not confined to fuch. A conftant
train of trifling diverfions, may form fuch a habit in
the mind, that it cannot be eafy a moment without
amufement : a variety in the objects prevents a habit
as to any one in particular ; but as the train is uniform
with refpetft to amulement, the habit is formed accor¬
dingly ; and that fort of habit may be denominated a
generic habit, in oppofition to the former, which is a
Jpecific habit. A habit of a town-life, of country-fports,
of folitude, of reading, or of bufinefs, where fufficient-
ly varied, are inftances of generic habits. Every fpe-
cific habit hath a mixture of the generic ; for the ha¬
bit of any one fort of food makes the tafte agreeable,
and we are fond of that tafte wherever found. Thus
a man deprived of an habitual objetfi, takes up with
what molt refembles it ; deprived of tobacco, any
bitter herb will do, rather than want : a habit of
punch, makes wine a good relburce : accultomed to
the fweet fociety and comforts of matrimony, the man
unhappily deprived of his beloved object, inclines the
fooner to a fecond. In general, when we are deprived
of a habitual objedt, we are fond of its qualities in any
other object.
The reafons are afligned above, why the caufes of
intenfe pleafure become not readily habitual: but novCr
we difcove)', that thele reafons conclude only againft
fpecific habits. In the cafe of a weak pleafure, a ha¬
bit is formed by frequency and uniformity of reitera¬
tion, which, in the cafe of an intenle pleafure, pro¬
duceth fatiety and dilguft. But it is remarkable, that
fatiety and difguft have no effedt, except as to that
thing fingiy which occafions them : a furfeit of honey
produceth not a loathing of fugar ; and intemperance
with one woman produceth no difreliflt of the fame
pleafure with others. Hence it is eafy to account for
a generic habit in any intenfe pleafure : the delight
we had in the gratification of the appetite, enflames
the imagination, and makes us, with avidity, fearch
for the lame gratification in whatever other objedl it
can be found. And thus uniform frequency in grati¬
fying the fame paflion upon different objefts, produceth
at length a generic habit. In this manner, one ac¬
quires an habitual delight in high and poignant fauces,
rich drefs, fine equipages, crowds of company, and in
whatever is commonly termed pleafure. There con¬
curs at the fame time, to introduce this habit, a pe¬
culiarity obferved above, that reiteration of adts en¬
larges the capacity of the mind, to admit a more plen¬
tiful gratification than originafly, . with regard to fre¬
quency as well as quantity.
Hence it appears, that though a fpecific habit can¬
not be formed but upon a moderate pleafure, a gene¬
ric habit may be formed upon any fort of pleafure,
moderate or immoderate, that hath variety of objects.
The only difference is, that a weak pleafure runs na¬
turally into a fpecific habit; whereas an intenfe plea¬
fure is altogether averfe to fuch a habit. In a word,
13 S 2 it
c u s
[ 2348 ]
c u s
Cuftom and it is only in fingular cafes that a moderate plealure
habit. produces a generic habit; but an intenfe pleafure can-
not produce any other habit.
The appetites that refpeft the prefervation and pro¬
pagation of the fpecies, are formed into habit in a pe¬
culiar manner ; the time as well as meafure of their
gratification are much, under the power of cuftom
ferves well to be pondered by the young and the amo- Cuflom and |
rous, who, in forming the matrimonial ibcitty, are too hat>it j
often blindly impelled by the animal plealure merely, 1
eniiamed by beauty. It may indeed happen after the
pleafure is gone, and go it muft with a fwift pace,
that a new connexion is formed upon more dignified
and more lafting principles: but this is a dangerous
which, introducing a change upon the body, occafions experiment; for even fuppofing good fenfe, good
a proportional change in the appetites. Thus, if the temper, and internal merit of every fort, yet a new
body be gradually formed to a certain quantity of food
at llated times, the appetite is regulated accordingly;
and the appetite is again changed, when a different
habit of body is introduced by a different prablicc.
Here it would feem, that the change is not made upon
the mind, which is commonly the cafe in pafiive habits,
but upon the body.
When rich food is brought down by ingredients of
a plainer tafle, the compofition is fufceptible of a fpe-
cific habit. Thus the fweet tafle of fugar, rendered
lefs poignant in a mixture, may, in courfe of time,
produce a fpecific habit for fuch mixture. As mode¬
rate pleafures, by becoming more intenfe, tend to ge¬
neric habits; fo intenfe pleafures, by becoming more
moderate, tend to fpecific habits.
The beauty of the human figure, by a fpecial re¬
commendation of nature, appears to us fupreme, amid
the great variety of beauteous forms beftowed upon
animals. The various degrees in which individuals
enjoy that property, render it an objeft, fometimes
of a moderate, fometimes of an intenfe paflion. The
moderate paffion, admitting frequent reiteration with¬
out diminution, and occupying the mind without ex-
haufling it, turns gradually flronger till it becomes a
habit. Nay, inflances are not wanting, of a face at
firft difagreeable, afterward rendered indifferent by
familiarity, and at length agreeable by cuflom. , On
the other hand, confummate beauty, at the very firft
glance, fills the mind fo as to admit no increafe. En-
* Reference joy ment leffens the pleafure * ; and if often repeated,
at fupra. ends commonly 'in fatiety and difguft. The impref-
fions made by confummate beauty, in a gradual fuc-
ceflion from lively to faint, conflitute a feries oppofite
to that of faint impreffions waxing gradually more
lively, till they produce a fpecific habit. But the mind,
when accuftomed to beauty, contrails a relifh for it in
general, though often repelled from particular objcdts
by the pain of fatiety : and thus a generic hvbit is"
formed, of which inconftancy in love is the neceffary
tonfequence ; for a generic habit, comprehending e-
very beautiful object, is an invincible obflrudlion to a
fpecific habit, which is confined to one.
But a matter which is of great importance to the
connection upon fuch qualifications is rare ly formed :
it commonly, or rather always happens, that fuch qua¬
lifications, the only folid foundation of an indilTcluble
connection, are rendered altogether invifible by fati¬
ety of enjoyment creating difguft.
One effeCt of cuftom, different from-any that have
been explained, muft not be omitted, becaufe it makes
a great figure in human nature : though cuftom aug¬
ments moderate pleafures, and leffens thofe that are
intenfe, it has a different effeCt with refpeCl to pain ;
for it blunts the edge of every fort of pain and diltrefs,
faint or acute. Uninterrupted mifery, therefore, is
attended with one good effeCl : if its torments be in-
ceffant,, cuftom hardens us to bear them.
The changes made in forming habits, are curious.
Moderate pleafures are augmented gradually by reite¬
ration, till they become habitual ; and then are at
their height : but they are not long ftationary ; for
from that point they gradually decay, till they vanifh
altogther. The pain occaiioned by want of gratifica¬
tion, runs a different courfe : it increafes uniformly ;
and at lart becomes extreme, when the pleafure of
gratification is reduced to nothing.
-It fo falls out.
That what we have we prize not to the worth,
While we enjoy it ; but being lack’d and loft.
Why then we rack the value ; then we find
The virtue that poffeflion would not Ihcw us
Whilit it was ours.
Alud ado about nothing, aft 4. fc. 2.
The effeCt of cuftom with relation -to a fpecific habit,
is difplayed through all its varieties in the ufe of to¬
bacco. The tafte of that plant is at firft extremely
unpleafant: our difguft leffens gradhally, till it vanifli
altogether ; at which period the tafte is neither agree¬
able nor difagreeable : continuing the ule of the plant,
vve begin to relifli it; and our relifti improves by ufe,
till it arrive at perfection : from that period it gradu¬
ally decays, while, the habit is in a flare of increment,
and confequently the pain of want. The refult is, that
when the habit has acquired i
greateft vigour, the
a ^ relifh is gone; and accordingly we often fmoke and
youth of both fexes, deferves more than a curfory take fnuff habitually, without fo much as being con-
view. Though the pleafant emotion of beauty differs feious of the operation. We muft except gratification
widely from the corporeal appetite, yet when both
are direCled to the fame objeCt, they produce a very
*' See Em o- ftrong complex paffion * : enjoyment in that cafe muft
tiqns and be exquifite; and therefore more apt to produce fa-
PaJJions, tjety ;n any other cafe whatever. This is a ne-
n ** ver-failing effeCt, where confummate beauty in the
one party, meets with a warm imagination and great
fenfibility in the other. What we are here explain¬
ing, is true without exaggeration ; and they muft he
infenfible upon whom it makes no impreffion : it de-
after the pain of want; the pleafure of which gratifi¬
cation is the greateft when the habit is the moft vi¬
gorous : it is of the fame kind with the pleafure one
feels upon being delivered from the rack, the cauffe ttf
which is explained elfewhere*. This pleafure how- *SecEMo-.
ever is but occafionally the effeCt of habit; and how- tions and:
ever exquifite, is avoided as much as poffible becaufe A#w>-
of the pain that precedes it.
With regard to the pain of want, we can difeover
no difference between a. generic and a fpecific habit;
but
C U S [ 2349 ] c u s
rftjiftom and but thefe habits differ widely with refpeft to the pofi-
>: l: habit. tive pleafure. We have had bccafion to obferve, that
the pleat'ure of 4 fpecific habit decays gradually till it
turn imperceptible: the pleafure of a generic habit on
the contrary, being fnpported by variety of gratifica¬
tion, fuffers little or no decay after it conies to its
height. However it may be with other generic ha¬
bits, the obfervation certainly holds with refpeift to the
pleafures of virtue and of knowledge : the pleafure of
doing good has an unbounded fcope, and may be fo
varioufly gratified that it can never decay ; fcience is
equally unbounded; our appetite for knowledge ha¬
ving an ample range of gratification, where difcove-
ries are recommended by novelty, by variety, by uti¬
lity, or by all of them.
In this intricate enquiry, we have endeavoured, but
without fuccefs, to difcover by what particular means
it is that cuftom hath influence upon us: and now no-
■ 1 thing feems left, but to hold our nature to be fo fra¬
med as to be fufceptible of 'inch influence. And fup-
pofing it purpofcly fo framed, it will not be difficult to
find out fevc-ral important final caufes. That the power
of cuftom is a happy contrivance for our good, cannot
have efcaped any one who refle&s, that bulinefs is our
province, and pleafure our relaxation only. Now fa-
tiety is neceflTary to check exquifite pleafures, which
otherwife would engrofs the mind and unqualify us
for bufinefs. On the other hand, as bnfinefs is fome-
times painful, and is never pleafant beyond modera¬
tion, the habitual increafe of moderate pleafure, and
the converfion of pain into pleafure, are admirably
contrived for difappointing the malice of Fortune, and
for reconciling us to whatever courfe of life may be
our lot:
How nfe doth breed a habit in a man!
This fhadowy defert, unfrequented woods,
I better brook than flouriftiing peopled towns.
Here I can fit alone, unfeen of any,
And to the nightingale’s complaining notes
Tune my diftrefles, and record my woes.
Two Gentlemen of Verona, ad fc. 4.
As the foregoing difiinftion between intenfe and
moderate, hold in pleafure only, every degree of
pain being foftened by time, cultom is a catholicon for
pain and diftrels of every fort; and of that regulation
the final caufe requires no illuftfation.
Another final caufe of cuftom will be highly relifhed
by every perfon of humanity, and yet hr.s in a great
meafure been overlooked; which is, that cuftom hath
a greater influence than any other known caufe, to
put the rich and the poor upon a level: weak plea¬
fures, the (hare of the latter, become fortunately
ftronger by cuftom s while voluptuous pleafures, the
ffiare of the former, are continually lofing ground by
fatiety. Men of fortune, who poflTefs palaces, fump-
tuous gardens, rich fields, enjoy them lefs than paffen-
gers do. The goods of Fortune are not unequally
diftributed : the opulent poflefs what others enjoy.
And indeed, if it be the effect of habit, to produce
the pain of want in a high degree while there is little
pleafure in enjoyment, a voluptuous life is of all the
leaft to be envied. Thofe who are habituated to high
feeding, eafy vehicles, rich furniture, a crowd of va¬
lets, much deference and flattery, enjoy but a fmall Cuftom and
ffiare of happinefs, while they are expofed to manifold
diftrefles. To fuch a man, euflaved by eafe and ~
luxury, even the petty inconveniences in travelling, of
a rough road, bad weather, or homely fare, are feri-
ous evils: he lofes his tone erf mind, turns peevilh, and
would wreak his refentment even upon the common
accidents of life. Better far to ufe the goods of For¬
tune with moderation : a man who by temperance
and activity hath acejuired a hardy conftitution, is, on
the one hand, guarded againft external accidents ;
and, on the other, is provided with great variety of
enjoyment ever at command.
We fliall dole this branch of the fubjedl with an
article more delicate than abftrufe, viz. what authority'
cuftorn ought to have over our tafte in the fine arts.
One particular is certain, that we cheerfully abandon
to the authority of cuftom things that nature hath left'
indifferent. It is cuftom, not nature, that hath efta-
bliflied a difference between the right hand and the
left, fo as to make it aukward and difagreeable to ufe
the left where the right is commonly ufed. The va¬
rious colours, though they affed us differently, are all
of them agreeable in their purity : but cuftom has re¬
gulated that matter in another manner ; a black Ikin
upon a human being, is to us difagreeable ; and a
white Ikin probably not lefs fo .to a negro. Thus
things, originally indifferent, become agreeable or dif¬
agreeable by the force of cuftom. Nor will this be
furprifing after the difeovery made above, that the
original agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of an objed,
is, by the influence of cuftom, often converted into the
oppofite quality.
Proceeding to matters of tafte, where there is na¬
turally a preference of one thing before another ; it
is certain, in the firft place, that our faint and more
delicate feelings are readily fufceptible of a bias from
cuftom ; and therefore that it is no proof of a defec¬
tive tafte, to find thefe in fome meafure influenced*
by cuftom : drefs and the modes of external behavi¬
our, are regulated by cuftom in every country : the
deep red or vermilion with which the ladies in France
cover their cheeks, appears to them beautiful in fpite
of nature; and ftrangers cannot altogether be jufli-
fied in condemning that pradice, confidering the law¬
ful authority of cuftom, or of thefajhion as it is cal¬
led : it is told of the people who inhabit the Ikirts of
the Alps facing the north, that the fwelling they uni-
verfally have in the-neck is to them agreeable. So far
has cuftom power to change the nature of things, and
to make an objed originally difagreeable, take on an
oppofite appearance.
But as to every particular that can be denominated
proper or improper, right or wrongj cuftom has little
authority, and ought to have none. The principle of
duty takes naturally place of every other; and it ar¬
gues a fhameful weaknefs or degeneracy of mind, to
find it in any cafe fo far fubdued as to fubmit to cuf¬
tom.
II. Effetts of Cuftom and Habit in the animal Oecono-
my. Thefe may be reduced to five heads, j. On
the fimple folids. 2. On the organs of fenfe. 3. On
the moving power. 4. On the whole nervous power.
5. On the fyftem of blood-velfels.
I. Effetftc
C U S [ 2350 ] ' c u s
Cuftomand I. Effetts on the fimple folids. Cuftom determines
 habu* the degree of flexibility of which they are capable.
By frequently repeated flexion, the feveral particles of
Cullen's lec- which thefe folids conliil are rendered more fupple
tures on the anci moveable on each other. A piece of catgut, e. g.
u > Me . on tjje rtretcii, and having a weight appended
to its middle, will be bended thereby perhaps half an
inch ; afterwards, by frequent repetitions of the fame
weight, or by increaftng the weight, the flexibility
will be rendered double. The degree of flexibility has
a great effeft in determining the degree of ofcillation,
provided that elafticity is not affedted ; if it go beyond
this, it produces flaccidity. Again, cuftom determines
the degree of tenfion ; for the fame elaftic chord that
now olcillates in a ceitain degree of tenfion, will,
by frequent repetition of thefe ofcillations, be fo far
relaxed, that the extenfion muft be renewed in order
to produce the fame tenfioa, and conlequently the
fame vibrations, as at firft. This appears in many in-
ftances in the animal oeconomy, as when different
xnufcles concur to give a fixed point, or tenfion to each
other: and thus a weakly child totters as it walks; but
by giving it a weight to carry, and by thus increafing
the tenfion of the fyftem, it walks more fteadily. In
like manner the fulnefs of the fyftem gives ftrength,
by diftending the veflels every where, and fo giving
tenfion : hence a man, by good nourilhment, from
being weak, acquires a great increafe of ftrength in a
' few days ; and, on the other hand, evacuations weak¬
en by taking off the tenfion.
2. EffeCis on the Organs of Sen/}. Repetition gives
greater degree of fenfibility, in fo far only as it ren-
ers perception more accurate. Repetition alone gives
lafting impreflions, and thus lays the foundation of me¬
mory ; for tingle impreflions are but retained for a
fljort time, and are foon forgot. Thus a perfon, who
at prefent has little knowledge of cloths, will, by fre¬
quently handling them, acquire a tkill of difeerning
them, which to others feems almoft impoflible. Many
are apt to miftake this for a nicer fenfibility, but they
are much miftaken; for it is an univerfal law, that the
repetition of impreflion renders us lets acute. This is
well illuftrated by the operation of medicines; for all
medicines which adt on the organs of fenfe muft, after
fome time, be increafed in their dofe, to produce the
fame effedls as at firft. This affords a rule in praciice
with regard to thefe medicines; it becoming necef-
lary, after a certain time, to change one medicine
even for a weaker of the fame nature. Thus medi¬
cines, which even have no great apparent force, are
found, by long ufe, to deltroy the fenfibility of the
fyftem to other impreffions. But to this general rule,
that, by repetition, the force of impreflions is more
and more diminilhed, there are fome exceptions.
Thus perfons, by a ftrong emetic, have had their fto-
machs rendered fo irritable, that i-20th of the firft
dofe was fufficient to produce the fame effedl. This,
however, oftner takes place when the vomit is repea¬
ted evtry day ; for if the fame vomit be given at pret¬
ty confiderable intervals, the general rule is obferved
to hold good. Thus two contrary effedls of habit are
to be noted ; and it is proper to obferve, that the
greater irritability is more readily produced when the
hrft impreflion is great, as in the cafe firft given of
the ftrong emetic. This may be farther illuftrated by Cuftomand
the effedl of fear, which Ts commonly oblerved to be habit. ®
diminiftied on repetition ; which can only be attributed ”
to cuftom: while, on the other hand, there are in-
ftances of perfons, who, having once got a great
fright, have for ever after continued Haves to fears
excited by impreflions of the like kind, however flight;
which muft be imputed entirely to excels of the firft
impreflion, as has been already obferved. To this
head allb belongs the affociation of ideas, which is the
foundation of memory and all our intellectual facul¬
ties, and is entirely the effedl of cuftom; with regard
to the body alfo, thefe aflbeiations often take place.
And fometimes, in producing effedts on the body,
affociations feemingly oppofite are formed, which,
through cuftom, become abfolutely neceffary ; e. g.
a perfon long accuftomed to fleep in the neighbour¬
hood of a great noife, is fo far from being incommod¬
ed on that account, that afterwards fuch noife becomes
neceflary to produce fleep. It will be of ufe to at¬
tend to this in medical pradtice ; for we ought to al¬
low for, however oppolite it may feem at the time,
whatever ufually attended the purpofe we defigned to
effedl. Thus, in the inftance of fleep, we muft not
exclude noife when we want to procure reft, or any
caufes which may feem oppofite to fuch an effect,
provided cuftom has rendered them neceflary.
3. EffeCls on the Moving Fibres. A certain degree
of tenfion is neceffary to motion, which is to be deter¬
mined by cuftom ; e. g. & fencer, accuftomed to one
foil, cannot have the lame lleadinefs or adlivity with
one heavier or lighter. It is neceflary alfo that every
motion fhould be performed in the fame fituation, or
pofture of the body, as the perfon has been accuftom¬
ed to employ in that motion. Thus, in any chirur-
gical operation, a certain pofture is recommended ;
but if the operator has been accuftomed to another,
fuch a one, however aukward, becomes neceffary
afterwards to his right performance of that opera¬
tion.
Cuftom alfo determines the degree of ofcillation, of
which the moving fibres are capable. A perfon accu¬
ftomed to ftrong mufcular exertions is quite incapable
of the more delicate. Thus writing is performed by
fmall mufcular contradlions; but if a perfon has been
accuftomed to ftronger motions with thefe mufcles, he
will write with much lefs lleadinefs.
This fubjedl of tenfion, formerly attributed to the
fimple fibres, is probably more ftridlly applicable to the
moving : for, befides a tenfion from flexion, there is
alfo a tenfion from irritation and fympathy; e. g. the
tenfion of the llomach from food, gives tenfion to the
whole body. Wine and fpiritous liquors give tenfion ;
e. g. a perfon that is fo affedled with tremor as fcarce-
ly to hold a glafs of any of thefe liquors to his head,
has no fooner fwallowed it, than his whole body be¬
comes fteady ; and after the fyftem has been accu¬
ftomed to fuch ftimuli, if they are not applied at the
ufual time, the whole body becomes flaccid, and, of
confequence, unfteady in its motions.
Again, cuftom gives facility of motion. This feems
to proceed from the diftenfion which the nervous
power gives to the moving fibres themfelves. But in
whatever manner it is occafioned, the effedl is obvi¬
ous.
C XT S
om atid ous; for any new or unufual motion is performed with
abit. great difficulty.
It is i'uppoled that fenfation depends on a commu¬
nication with the fenforium commune, by means of or¬
gans lufficiently diftended with nervous influence. We
have found, that lenflbility is diminiflied by repetition.
And we have now to obferve, that in fome eafes it
may be increafed by repetition, owing to the nervous
power iti'elf flowing more ealily into the part on ac¬
count of cuftom. Attention to a particular objedt may
all’o determine a greater influx into any particular part,
and thus the fenhbility and irritability of that particu¬
lar part may be encreafed.
But with regard to facility of motion, the nervous
power, no doubt, flows molt eafily into thofe parts to
which it has been accuftomed : yet facility of motion
does not entirely depend on this, but in part allb on
the concurrence of the adtion of a great many muf¬
fles ; e.g. Winflow has obferved, that, in performing
any motion, a number of mufcles concur to give a fixed
point to thole intended chiefly to adt, as well as to others
that are to vary and modify their adtion. This, how¬
ever, is aflifted by repetition, and the freer influx;
as by experience we know the proper attitude for
giving a fixed point in order to perform any adtion
with facility and fteadinefs.
Cuftom gives a fpontaneous motion alfo, which feems
to recur at ftated periods, even when the exciting
canfes are removed. Thus, if the ftomach has been
accuftomed to vomit from a particular medicine, it will
require a much fmaller dofe than at firft, nay, even
the very fight or remembrance of it will be fufficient
to produce the effedt; and there are not wanting in-
ftances of habitual vomiting, from the injudicious ad-
miniftration of emetics. It is on this account that all
fpafmodic afledtions fo eafily become habitual, and are
fo difficult of cure ; ~as we mnft not only avoid all the
exciting caufes, even in the fmalleft degree, but alfo
their alfbciations.
Cuftom alfo gives ftrength of motion : ftrength de¬
pends on ftrong ofcillations, a free and copious influx
of the nervous power, and on denfe folids. But in
what manner all thefe circumftances have been brought
about by repetition, has been already explained. The
effedl of cuftom, in producing ftrength, may be thus
illuftrated : a man that begins with lifting a calf, by
continuing the lame pradtice every day, will be able
to lift it when grown to the full fize of a bull.
All this is of confiderable importance in the practice
of phyfic, though but too little regarded ; for the reco¬
very of weak people, in great meafure, depends on
the ufe of exercife, fuited to their ftrength, or rather
within it, frequently repeated and gradually increafed.
Farther, it is neceflary to obferve, that cuftom regu-
lates the particular celerity with which each motion is
to be performed : for a perfon accuftomed, for a con-
derable time, to one degree of celerity, becomes in¬
capable of a greater ; e. g. a man accuftomed to flow
walking will be out of breath before he can run 20
paces. The train, or order, in which our motions are
to be performed, is alfo eftablilhed by cuftom ; for if
a man hath repeated motions, for a certain time, in any
particular order, he cannot afterwards perform them
in any other. Cuftom allb very frequently aflbciates
c u s
motions and fenfations : thus, if a perfon has been in Cuflom and
ufe of aflbciating certain ideas with the ordinary fti- hablt*
mulus which in health excites urine, without thefe
ideas the ufual inclination will fcarce excite that excre¬
tion ; and, when thefe occur, will require it even in
the abfence of the primary exciting caufe: e. g. it
is very ordinary for a perfon to make urine when go¬
ing to bed ; and if he has been, for any length of time,
accuftomed to do fo, he will ever afterwards make
urine at that time, though otherwife he would often
have no fuch inclination : by this means fome fecre-
tions become, in a manner, <iibje<ft to the will. The
fame may be laid of going to /tool : and this affords
us a good rule in the cafe of coftivenefs; for by en¬
deavouring to fix a ft.ited time for this evacuation, it
will afterwards, at fuch time, more readily return. It
is farther remarkable, that motions are infeparably af-
fociated with other motions: this, perhaps, very often
proceeds from the neceflary degree of tenfion ; but it
alfo often depends merely on cuftom, an inftance of
which we have in the uniform motions of our eyes.
4. Effefis on the whole Nervous Power. We have
found, that, by cuftom, the nervous influence may be
determined more eafily into one part than another,
and therefore, as all the parts of the fyftem are ftrong-
ly connedled, thejenfibility, irritability, and ftrength
of any particular part, may be thus increafed. Cu¬
ftom alfo has the power of altering the natural tem¬
perament, and of inducing a new one. It is alfo in
the power of cuftom to render motions periodical, and
periodically fpontaneous. An inftance of this we have
in fleep, which is commonly faid to be owing to the
nervous power being exhaufted, the neceflary confe-
quence of which is fleep, e. g. a reft of the voluntary
motions to favour the recruit of that power : but if
this were the cafe, the return of fleep fliould be at dif¬
ferent times, according as the caufes which diminilh
the nervous influence operate more or lefs powerful¬
ly ; whereas the cafe is quite otherwife, thefe returns
of fleep being quite regular. This is no lefs remark¬
able in the appetites, that return at particular periods,
independent of every caufe but cuftom. Hunger, e. g.
is an extremely uneafy fenfation ; but goes off of it-
felf, if the perfon did not take food at the ufual time.
The excretions are farther proofs of this, i. ..going
to ftool, which, if it depended on any particular irri¬
tation, Ihould be at longer or fhorter intervals accord¬
ing to the nature of the aliment. There are many
other inftances of this difpofition of the nervous influ¬
ence to periodical motions, as the ftory of the idiot of
Stafford, recorded by Dr Plot, (Spectator, n? 447.)
who, being accuftomed to tell the hours of the church-
clock, as it ftrnck, told them as exactly when it did not
ftrike by its being out of order. Montaigne tells us
of fome oxen that were employed in a machine for
drawing water, who, after making 300 turns, which
was the ufual number, could be ftimuiated by no whip
or goad to proceed farther. Infants, alfo, cry for and
expetft the bread at thofe times in which the nurfe
has been accuftomed to give it.
Hence it would appear, that the human oeconomy
is fubjeeft to periodical revolutions, and that thefe hap¬
pen not oftener may be imputed to variety ; and this
feems to be the reafon why they happen oftener in the
body
[ 2.35I 1
C U S [ 2352 ] G U S
Guftom and body than mind, beeaufe that is fubje£t to greater va-
habit riety. We fee frequent inflances of this in difeafes,
Cjc and in their crifes; intermitting fevers, epilepfies,
u omS' aithmas, &c. are examples of periodical affedtions :
and that critical days are not fo Itrongly marked in
this country as in Greece, and fome others, may be
imputed to the variety and inffability of our climate ;
but perhaps ifill more to the lefs fenfibility and irrita¬
bility of our fyflem ; for the exhibition of medicine
has little effedt in dilturbing the crifes, though it be
commonly affigned as a caufe.
We are likewife fubjedt to many habits independent
of ourfelves, as from the revolutions of the celeftial
bodies, particularly the fun, which determines the bo¬
dy, perhaps, to other daily revolutions befides fleeping
and waking. There are alfo certain habits depending
on the feafons. Our connedfions, likewife, with re-
fpedt to mankind, are means of inducing habits. Thus
-regularity from aflbciating in bufmefs, induces regular
habits both of mind and body.
There are many difeafes, which, though they arofe
at firft from particular caufes, at laft continue merely
through cnftom or habit. Thefe are chiefly of the
nervous fyltem. We Ihould, therefore, ftudy to coun-
teradf fuch habits; and accordingly Hippocrates, among
other things for the cure of epilepfy, orders an entire
change of the manner of life. We likewife imitate
this in the chincough ; which often refifts all remedies
till the air, diet, and ordinary train of life, are chan¬
ged.
J. Effects on the Blood-vefJ'eh. From what has been
faid on the nervous power, the diltribution of the fluids
muft neceflfarily be varioufly affedled by cuftom, and
with that the diftribution of the different excretions;
for though we make an eflimate of the proportion of
the excretion to one another, according to the climate
and feafons, they muft certainly be very much varied
by cuftonr.
On this head we may obferve, that blood-letting
has a manifeft tendency toincreafe the quantity of the
blood; and if this evacuation be repeated at ftated
times, fuch fymptoms of repletion, and fuch motions
are excited at thefe times, as render the operation
neceffary. The fame has been obferved in fome
fpontaneous haemorrhages. Thefe, indeed, at firft,
may have fome exciting caufes, but afterwards they
feem to depend chiefly on cuftom. The ,beft proof
of this is with regard to the menftrual evacuation.
There is certainly fomething originally in females,
that determines that evacuation to the monthly pe¬
riods. Coriftant repetition of this, comes to fix it,
independent.of ftrong caufes, either favouring or pre¬
venting repletion ; e. g. blood-letting will not impede
it, nor filling the body induce it: and, indeed, fo
much is this evacuation connedted with periodical mo¬
tions, that it is little in our power to produce any ef¬
fect by medicines but at thofe particular times. Thus
if we would relax the uterine fyftem, and bring back
this evacuation when fupprefled, our attempts would
bb vain and fruitlefs, unlefs given at that time when
the menfes fliould have naturally returned.
CUSTOMS, in political oeconomy, or the duties,
toll, tribute, or tariff, payable to the king upon mer¬
chandize exported and imported, form a branch of the
perpetual taxes. See Tax. The confiderations up- Cuftoms.
on which this revenue (or the more ancient part of ”|
it, which arofe only from exports), was in veiled in *
the king, were faid to be two: 1. Becaufe he gave
the fubjeft leave to depart the kingdom, and to carry
his goods along with him. 2. Becaufe the king wa*
bound of common right to maintain and keep up the
ports and havens, and_ to protect the merchant from
pirates. Some have imagined they are called with
us cujloms, becaufe they were the inheritance of the
king by immemorial ufage and the common law, and
not granted him by any ftatute: but Sir Edward Coke
hath clearly Ihewn, that the king’s firft claim to them
was by grant of parliament 3 Edw. I. though the re¬
cord thereof is not now extant. And indeed this is
in exprefs words confeffed by ftatute 25 Edw. I. c. 7.
wherein the king promifes to take no cuftoms from
merchants, without the common aflent of the realm,
“ faving to us and our heirs, the cuftoms on wool,
“ Ikins, and leather, formerly granted to us by the
“ commonalty aforefaid.” Thei'e were formerly cal¬
led hereditary eujloms of the crown; and were due
on the exportation only of the faid three commodities,
and of none other : which were ftyled the flaple com¬
modities of the kingdom, becaufe they were obliged
to be brought to thofe ports where the king’s ftaple
was eftablilhed, in order to be there firft rated, and
then exported. They were denominated in the bar¬
barous Latin of our ancient records, cujlurna, (an ap¬
pellation which feems to be derived from the French
word couftum, or coutum, which fignifies toll or tri¬
bute, and owes its own etymology to the word
conj], which fignifies price, charge, or, as we have
adopted it in Englilh, cojl') ; not confuetudines, which
is the language of our law whenever it means merely
ufages. The duties on wool, flieep-lkins or woolfells,
and leather, exported, were called cujiuma antiqua
five viagna: and were payable by every merchant,
as well native as ftranger; with tliis difference, that
merchant-ftrangers paid an additional toll, viz. half
as much again as was paid by natives. The cuftuma
parva et nova were an impoft of 3d. in the pound, due
from merchant-ftrangers only, for all commodities as
well imported as exported; which was ufually called
the alien’s duty, and was firft granted in 31 Edw. I.
But thefe ancient hereditary cuftoms, efpecially thofe
on wool and woolfells, came to be of little account,
when the nation became fenfible of the advantages of
a home manufadture, and prohibited the exportation
of wool by ftatute ri Edw. III. c. 1.
Other cuftoms payable upon exports and imports
were diftinguilhed into fubfidies, tonnage, poundage,
and other imports. Subfidies were fuch as were im-
pofed by parliament upon any of the ftaple commodi¬
ties before mentioned, over and above the cuftuma
antiqua efmagna : tonnage was a duty upon all wines
imported, over and above the prifage and butlerage
aforefaid : poundage was a duty impofed ad valorem,
at the rate of 12 d. in the pound, on all other mer¬
chandize whatfoever: and the other imports were
fuch as were occafionally laid on by parliament, as.
circumftances and times required. Thefe diftindtions
are now in a manner forgotten, except by the officers
immediately concerned in this department; their pro¬
duce
ht'l/tckji.
Momtnent.
CVS t 2353 ] CUT
duce being in effect all blended together, under the To inftance in the article of foreign paper. The Cuftona
one denomination of the cujloms. merchant pays a duty upon importation, which he Cl]*tte|.
By thefe we underftand, at prefent, a duty or does not receive again till he fells the commodity,    
fublidy paid by the merchant, at the quay, upon perhaps at the end of three months. He is therefore
all imported as well as exported commodities, by equally entitled to a profit upon that duty which he
authority of parliament; unlefs where, for particu- pays at the cuftom-houfe, as to a profit upon the ori-
lar national reafons, certain rewards, bounties, or ginal price which he pays to the manufacturer abroad ;
drawbacks, are allowed for particular exports or im* and confidersit accordingly in the price he demands of
ports. The cuftoms thus impofed by parliament, are the ftationer. When the ftationer fells it again, he re-
chiefly contained in two books of rates, let forth by quires a profit of the printer or bookfeller upon the
parliamentary authority; one figned by Sir Harbottle whole fum advanced by him to the merchants: and
Grimefton, fpeaker of the houfe of commons in Charles the bookfeller does not forget to charge the full pro-
the fecond’s time; and the other an additional one portion to the ftudent or ultimate confumer; who
figned by Sir Spenfer Compton, fpeaker in the reign therefore does not only pay the original duty, but the
of George the firft; to which alfo fubfequent ad- profits of thefe three intermediate traders, who have
ditions have been made. Aliens pay a larger pro- fucceffively advanced it for him. This might be car-
portion than natural fubjedts, which is what is now ried much farther in any mechanical, or more com-
generally underltood by the aliens duty; to be ex- plicated, branch of trade.
empted from which is one principal caufe of the fre- CvsiOM-Houfe, an office eftablifhed by the king’s
quent applications to parliament for adts of naturaliza- authority in the maritime cities, or port-towns, for
tion. the receipt and management of the cuffoms and duties
Thefe cuftoms are then, we fee, a tax immediate- of importation and exportation, impofed on merchan-
ly paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the difes, and regulated by books of rates,
confumer. And yet thefe are the duties felt leaft by CUSTOS brevium, the principal clerk belonging
the people; and, if prudently managed, the people to the court of common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to
hardly confider that they pay them at all. For the receive and keep all the writs made returnable in that
merchant is eafy, being fenfible he does not pay them court, filing every return by itfelf; and, at the end
for himfelf; and the confumer, who really pays of each term, to receive of the prothonotaries all the
them, confounds them with the price of the commo- records of the nifi prius, called the pofleas.
dity : in the fame manner as Tacitus obferves, that Cusros Rotulorum, an officer who has the cuftody
the emperor Nero gained the reputation of abolifhing of the rolls and records of the feffions of peace, and al-
the tax of the fale of Haves, though he only transfer- fo of the commiffion of the peace itfelf.
red it from the buyer to the feller; fo that it was, as He ufually is fome perfon of quality, and always a
he exprefles it, “ remijfum magis fpecie, quam vi: juftice of the peace, of the quorum, in the county
« quia, cutn venditor pendere juberetur, in partempre- where he-is appointed.
“ tii emptoribus accrefcebat.” But this inconvenience Cusxos Spiritualium, he that exercifesthe fpiritual
attends it on the other hand, that thefe imports, if too jurifditftion of a diocefe, during the vacancy of any
heavy, are a check and cramp upon trade; and efpeci- fee, which, by the canon-law, belongs to the dean
ally when the value of the commodity bears little or no and chapter; but at prefent, in England, to the arch¬
proportion to the quantity of the duty impofed. This bilhop of the province, by prefcription.
in confequence gives rife alfo to fmuggling, which Gustos Temporalium, was the perfon to whom a
then becomes a very lucrative employment: and vacant fee or abbey was given by the king, as fupreme
its natural and moft reafonable punifliment, viz. con- lord. His office was, as fteward of the goods and
fifcation of the commodity, is in fuch cafes quite inef- profits, to give an account to the efcheator, who did
factual; the intrinfic value of the goods, which is all the like to the exchequer.
that the fmuggler has paid, and therefore all that he CUT-a-feather, in the fea-language. If a (hip
can lofe, being very inconfiderable when compared has too broad a bow, it is common to fay, /he ■willnot
with his profpeft of advantage in evading the duty, cut a feather; that is, ffie will not pafs through the
Recourfe muft therefore be had to extraordinary pu- water fo fwift, as to make it foam or froth,
niffiments to prevent it; perhaps even to capital ones: Cxsr-Water, the ffiarp part of the head of a ffiip be-
which deftroys all proportion of punifliment, and puts low the beak. It is fo called becaufe it cuts or divides
murderers upon an equal footing with fuch as are the water before it comes to the bow, that it may not
really guilty of no natural, but merely a politive of- come too fuddenly to the breadth of the Ihip, which
fence. would retard her.
There is alfo another ill confequence attending high CUTANEOUS, in general, an appellation given
imports on merchandize, not frequently eonfidered, to whatever belongs to the cutis, or {kin.
but indifputably certain ; that the earlier any tax is CUTICLE, the fcarf-lkin. See Anatomy, n° 73.
laid on a commodity, the heavier it falls upon the CUTICULAR, the fame with Cutaneous.
confumer in the end : for every trader, through whofe CUTIS, the fldn. See Anatomy, n® 75.
hands it palfes, muft have a profit, not only upon the CUTTER, a fmall vertel, commonly navigated in
raw material and his own labour and time in prepar- the channel of England. It is furnifhed with one
ing it, but alfo upon the very tax itfelf, which he ad- mart, and rigged as a /loop. Many of thefe veflels
vances to the government; otherwife he lofes the are ufed in an illicit trade, and others are employed
ufe and intereft of the money which he fo advances, by government to take them ; the latter of which are
Vol. III. *3 T either
CUT [ 2354 ] CYC
Cutter either under the diredtion of the admiralty or cuftom-
I. houfe. See a reprefentation of a cutter of this fort in
Cuttin£‘ the plate referred to from the article Vessjel.
Cutter, is alfo a fmall boat ufed by fhips of war.
Cutter of the Tallies, an officer of the exchequer,
whofe bufmefs is to provide wood for the tallies, to
cut or notch the fum paid upon them; and then to
caft them into court, to be written upon. See Tally.
CUTTING wood, a particular kind of fculp-
ture, or engraving; denominated from the matter
wherein it is employed. See Engraving.
It is ufed for various purpofes; as, for initial or fi¬
gured letters, head and tail-pieces of books; and even
for fchemes and other figures, to fave the expences of
engraving on copper: and for prints, and itamps for
paper, callicoes, linens, be. See Printing.
The invention of cutting in wood, as well as that in
copper, is afcribed to a goldfmith of Florence ; but it
is to Albert Durer, and Lucas, they are both indebted
for their perftdlion.
One Hugo de Carpi invented a manner of cutting
in wood* by means whereof, the prints appeared as
if painted in clair-obfcure : In order to this, he made
three kinds of (lamps for the fame delign ; which were
drawn, after one another, through the prefs for the
fame print: they were fo conducted, as that one ferv-
ed for the grand lights, a fecond for the demi-teints,
and a third for the outlines, and the deep fhadows.
The art of cutting in wood, was certainly carried
tp a very great pitch about 150 years ago ; and might
even vie, for beauty and juftnefs, with that of engra¬
ving in copper: at prefent it is in a low condition, as
having been long negle&ed, and the application of ar-
tills wholly employed on copper, as the more eafy
and promifing province ; not but that wooden cuts
have the advantage of thofe in copper on many ac¬
counts; chiefly for figures and deviles in books; as
being printed at the fame time, and in the fame prefs
as the letters: whereas, for the other, there is re¬
quired a particular impreffion.
The cutters in wood begin with preparing a plank
or block, of the fize and thicknefs required, and very
even and fmooth on the fide to be cut: for this, they
ufually take pear-tree, or box; though the latter is
the beft, as being the clofefi, and leaft liable to be
worm-eaten.
On this block they draw their defign wjth a pen,
or pencil, jufl: as they would have it printed. Thole
who cannot draw their own defign, as many tfiere are
cannot, make ufe of a defign furnilhed them by ano¬
ther ; faftening it upon the block with pafte made of
flower and water, with a little vinegar ; the firokes
or lines turned towards the wood.
When the paper is dry, they wafh it gently oyer
with a fponge dipped in water; which done, they
take off the pap^r by little and little, flill rubbing it a
little firfi, with the tip of the finger; till at length
there be nothing left on the block, but the firokes of
ink that form the defign, which mark out fo much of
the block as is to be fpared, or left Handing.
The reft they cut off, and take away very curtouf-
ly with the points of very fharp knives, or little chif-
fels, or gravers, according to the bignefs or delicacy,
of the work; for thev need no other inllruments.
CUTTLE-fish. See Sepia. The bone of the Cuttle
cuttle-filh is hard on one fide, but foft and yielding on U i
the other; fo as readily to receive pretty neat impref- ^ amen.
fions from medals, be. and afterwards to lerve as a
mould for calling metals, which thus take the figure
of the original: the bone is likewife frequently em¬
ployed for cleaning or polilhing filver. This filh con¬
tains in a certain dillindl veffel a fluid as black as ink :
which it is faid to fhed when purfued, and thus to
conceal itfelf by difcolouring the water. The parti¬
cular qualities of this liquor are not yet determined.
Dr Leigh fays, he law a letter which had been writ¬
ten with it ten years before, and which ftill continued.
Some report that the ancients made their ink from it,
and others, that it is the bafis of China, or Indian-ink:
but both thefe accounts appear to have little foundati¬
on. Pliny, fpeaking of the inks made ufe of in his
time, after obferving that the cuttle-filh is in this re-
fpedl of a wonderful nature, adds, exprefsly, that
ink was not made from it.
CYANUS, in botany. See Centaurea.
CYATHUS, xvaflor, from the verb xjum, to pour out.
It was a common meafure among the Greeks and Ro-
mons, both of the liquid and dry kind. It was equal
to an ounce, or the twelfth part of a pint. The cya-
thus was made with an handle like our punch-ladle.
The Roman topers were ufed to drink as many cyathi
as there were mufes, i. c. nine ; alfo as many as
there were letters in the patron’s name. Thus, they
had modes of drinking fimilar to the modern health¬
drinking, or toafting. Pliny fay, that the cyathus of
the Greeks weighed 10 drachms; and Galen fays
the fame; though elfewhere he fays, that a cyathus,
contains 12 drachms of oil, 13 drachms and one fcruple
of wine, water, or vinegar, and 18 drachms of honey,
Galen fays, that among the Veterinarii the cyathus
contained two ounces.
CYAXARES, king of the Medes, after his father
Phraortes, an. mind, my, befieging Niniveh, he was
forced to return to defend his own country againft the
Scythians, who defeated him. However, he defeat- , |
ed them afterward ; and then made himfelf mailer of
Alfyria ; entered into Lidya, which had Iheltered the
Scythians ; and died, after 40 years reign.
CYBELE, in Pagan Mythology, the daughter of
Ccelus and Terra, and the wife of her brother Saturn,
was alfo called the mother of the gods, Ops, Rhea, Vef- .
ta, Dyndimina, Bereqyntha, the good goddefs, Sec. un-
which different characters Ihe had different reprefen-
tations, and different facrifices.
CYBELICUM marmor, a name given by the. an-,
dents to a fpecies of marble dug in a mountain of that,
name in Phrygia. It was of an extremely bright,
white, with broad veins of bluifli black.
CYCLAMEN, Sowbread; a genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. There are but two fpecies; which, however,
produce many beautiful varieties. They are low her¬
baceous, flowery perennials of the tuberous rooted
kind, with numerous, angular, heart-fhaped, fpotted,
marbled leaves; with many flelhy foot-ftalks fix inches
high, carrying monopetalous, five-parted reflexed
flowers of various colours. All the varieties are ex*
tremely ornamental, and fome of the flowers very
fragrant.
4 Cycle
4 Cycloid.
—
CYC [ 2355 ] CYC
fragrant. They may be planted in any of the com¬
mon borders, but require to be flieltered from hard
frorts by being covered with mats. They ftiould alio
have a light dry foil, otherwife their roots are apt to
rot. The fpecies are propagated by feeds, and the
particular varieties by dividing their roots.
The root of the cyclamen has, when freih, an ex¬
tremely acrimonious, burning tafie, which it lofes al-
moil entirely on being dried. It is recommended as
an errhine ; in cataplafms for fcorrhous and cancerous
tumours ; as internally as a cathartic, detergent, and
aperient. It operates very flowly, but with great vi¬
rulence, inflaming the fauces and inteftines.
CYCLE, in chronology, a certain period or feries
of numbers, which regularly proceed from the firft to
the laft, and then return again to the firft, and fo cir¬
culate perpetually. See Astonomy, nQ 303,—308.
Cycle <f Jndiftion, a period of 15 years, in ufe a-
mong the Romans. It has no connection with the cse-
leftial motion, but was inftituted, according to Baro-
nius, by Conftantine; who having reduced the time
which the Romans were obliged to ferve to 15 years,
he was, confequently, obliged every 15 years to im-
pofe, or indiciri, according to the Latin expreflion,
an extraordinary tax for the payment of thofe who
were difcharged; and hence arol'e this cycle, which,
from the Latin word indie ere, was ftyled indicliou.
Ibid.
Cycle of the Moon, called alfo the golden number,
and the Metonic cycle from its inventor Melon the A-
thenian, is a period of 19 years, which when they
are completed, the new moons and full moons return
on the fame days of the month, fo that on whatever
days the new and full moons fall this year, 19 years
hence they will happen on the very fame days of the
month, though not at the fame hour, as Meton and
the fathers of the primitive church thought; and there¬
fore, at the time of the council of Nice, when the me¬
thod of finding the time for obferving the feaft of
Eafter was eftablilhed, the numbers of the lunar-cycle
were inferted in the calendar, which, upon the ac¬
count of their excellent ufe, were let in golden let¬
ters, and the year of the cycle called the golden num¬
ber of that year. Ibid, n® 304.
Cycle of the Sun, a revolution of 28 years, which
being elapled, the dominical or Sunday-letters return
to their former place, and proceed in the fame order
as before, according to the Julian calendar. See A-
STRONOMY, n° 303.
CYCLISUS, in furgery, an inftrument in the form
of a half moon, ufed in feraping the fkull, in cafe of
fractures of that part.
CYCLOID, a curve on which the do<5trine of pen-
dolums, and time-meafuring inftruments, in a great
meafure depend; Mr Huygens demonftrated, that from
whatever point or height a heavy body, ofcillating on
a fixed centre, begins to del'cend, while it continues
to move in a cycloid, the time of its falls or ofcillations
will be equal to each other. It is likewife demonftra-
ble, that it is the curve of quickeft defeent, i. e. a
body falling in it, from any given point above, to
another, not exactly under it, will come to this point
in a kfs time than in any other curve paffing through
thofe two points.
CYCLOPAEDIA, or Encyclopedia, denotes the Cyclopasdia
circle or compafs of arts and fciences. A cyclopaedia, _ . ^
fay the authors of the French Encyclopsedia, ought to Cyc °PtenTi>
explain as much as polfible the order and connection
of human knowledge.
CYCLOPS, in fabulous hiftory, the fons of Neptune
and Amphitrite; the principal of whom were Brontes^
Steropes, and Pyracmon ; but their whole number a-
mounted to above an hundred. Jupiter threw them
into Tartarus as foon as they were born ; but they
were delivered at the interceflion of Tellus, and be*
came the afliftants of Vulcan. They were of prodigi¬
ous ftature, and had each only one eye, which was
placed in the middle of their foreheads.
Some mythologifts fay, that the Cyclops fignify the
vapours raifed in the air, which uccafion thunder and
lightning; on which account they are reprefented as
forging the thunder-bolts of Jupiter. Others repre-
fent tliem as the firft inhabitants of Sicily, who were
cruel, of a gigantic form, and dwelt round mount
AEtna.
CYCLOPTERUS, the sucker, in ichthyology, a
genus belonging to the order of amphibia names. The
head is obtufe, and furnilhed with faw-teeth; there are
four rays in the gills; and the belly-fins are connedied
together in an orbicular form. The fpecies are,
1. The lumpus, or lump-fifli, grows to the length of
19 inches, and weighs feven pounds; the fhape of the
body is like that of the bream, deep and very thick,
and it fwims edge-ways. The back is fliarp and ele*
vated ; the belly flat, of a bright crimfon colour : a-
long the body there run feveral rows of fliarp bony
tubercles, and the whole flun is covered with fmall
ones. The pedloral fins are large and broad, almoft
uniting at their bale. Beneath thefe is the part by
which it adheres to the rocks, ire. It confifts of an
oval aperture, furrounded with a flefliy, mufcular, and
obtufe foft fubftance; edged with many fmall thread^
ed appendages which concur as fo many clafpers: the
tail and vent-fins are purple. By means of this part it
adheres with vaft force to any thing it pleafes. As a
proof of its tenacity, it hath been known, that in fling¬
ing a fifli of this fpecies juft caught, into a pail of wa*
ter, it fixed itfelf fo firmly to the bottom, that on ta¬
king the fifli by the tail, the whole pail by that mean*
was lifted, though it held fome gallons, without once
making the fifli quit its hold. Thefe filh refort in
multitudes during fpring to the coaft of Sutherland
near the Ord of Gaithnefs. The feals which fwarm
beneath, prey greatly upon them leaving the Ikins ;
numbers of which thus emptied, float afhore at that
feafon. It is eafy to diftinguifli the place where the
feals are devouring this or any other undtuous fifli, by
a fmoothnefs of the water immediately above the
fpot; this fact is now eftabliflied: it being a tried pro¬
perty of oil to ftill the agitation of the waves, and
render them fmooth. Great numbers of lump-fifli are
found in the Greenland feas during the months of
April and May, when they refort near the fliore to
fpawn. Their roe is remarkably large, which the
Greenlanders boil to a pulp and eat. They are ex¬
tremely fat, which recommends them the more to the
natives, who admire all oily food : they call them ni- '
pifets, or cat-fifb, and take quantities of them during
13 T 2 the
Cyder.
C Y D [ 2356 ] G Y D
the feafon. The filh is fometimes eaten in England,
' being ftewed like carp ; but is both flabby and inlipid.
2. The liparis takes the name of fea-Jnail from the
foft and unftuous texture of its body, reiembling that
of the land-In ail. It is almolt tranl'parent, and foon
diflblves and melts away. It is found in tl\e lea near
the mouths of great rivers, and hath been feen full of
Ipawn in January. The length is five inches; the
colour a pale brown fometimes finely Itreaked with a
darker. Beneath the throat is a round depreflion of a
whitilh colour like the impreflion of a feal, furrounded
by twelve fmall pale yellow tubera by which probably
it adheres to the Hones like the other fpecies.
3. The letter fucking-fifli is found in difterent parts
of the Britilh feas. It is about four inches in length ;
the Ikin without fcalts, flippery, pnd of a dulky colour.
It hath alfo an apparatus for adhering to Hones and
rocks fimilar to the others.
CYDER, or Cider, an excellent drink made of
the juice of apples, efpecially of the more curious table
kinds; the juice of thefe being efleemed more cordial
and pleafant than that of the wild or harlh kinds. In
making this drink it hath long been thought neceflary,
in every part of England, to lay the harder cyder-
fruits in heaps for fome time before breaking their
pulps ; but the Devonlhire people have much impro¬
ved this practice. In other counties the method is to
make thefe heaps of apples in a houfe, or under fome
covering inclofed on every fide. This method hath
been found defedlive, becaufe, by excluding the free
air, the heat foon became too violent, and a great
perfpiration enfued, by which in a fhort time the
lofs of juices were fo great, as to reduce the fruit to
half their former weight, attended with a general rot-
tennefs, rancid fmell, and dil'agreeable talte. In the
South-hams, a middle way has been purfued, to a-
void theinconveniencies and lofs attending the above.
They make their heaps of apples in an open part of an
orchard, where,- by the means of a free air and lefs
perfpiration, the defined maturity is brought about,
with an inconfiderable wafie of the juices and decay
of the fruit, entirely free of ranknefs ; and though
fome apples rqt, even in this manner, they are very
few, and are Hill fit for ufe; all continue plump and
full of juices, and very much heighten the colour of
cyders, without ill tafie or fmell.
In purfuing the Devonlhire method, it is to be ob-
ferved, 1. That all the promifcuous kinds of apples
that have dropped from the trees, from time to time,
are to be gathered up and laid in a heap by them-
felves, and to be made into cedar after having fo lain
about ten'days.
2. Such apples as are gathered from the trees, ha¬
ving already acquired fome degree of maturity, are
likewife to be laid in a heap by themfelves for about a
fortnight.
3. The latter hard fruits, which are to be left on the
trees till the approach of frofi is apprehended, are to
be laid in a feparate heap, where they are to remain
a month or fix weeks, by which, notwithttanding
frott, rain, toe. their juices will receive fuch a matu¬
ration, as will prepare them for a kindly fermentation,
and which they could not have attained on the trees
by means of the coldnefs of the feafon.
It is obfervable, that the riper and mellower the Cyder,
fruits are at the time of collecting them into heaps, the
fhorter fhould be their continuance there; and on the
contrary, the harlher, immaturer, and harder they are,
the longer they fliould rett.
Thefe heaps Ihould be made in an even and open
part of an orchard, without any regard to covering
from rain, dews, or what elfe may happen during the
apples Haying there; and whether they be carried in
and broke in wet or dry weather, the thing is all the
fame. If it may be objected that during their having
lain together in the heap, they may have imbibed great
humidity, as well from the air as from the ground,
rain, dews, toe. which are mixed with their juices;
the anfwer is, this will have no other effeiH than a
kindly diluting, natural to the fruit, by which means a
fpeedier fermentation enfues, and all heterogeneous
humid particles are thrown off.
The apples are then ground, and the pummice is
received in a large open-mouthed veflel, capable of
containing as much thereof as is fufficient for one ma¬
king, or one cheefe. Though it has been a cuHom to
let the pummice remain fome hours in the veffel appro¬
priated to contain it, yet that practice is by no means
commendable ; for if the fruits did not come ripe from
the trees, or otherwife matured, the pummice, re¬
maining in the vat too long, will acquire fuch harlh-
nefs and coarfenefs from the Ikins as is never to be
got rid of; and if the pummice is of well ripened fruit,
the continuing too long there will occafion it to con-
tracf a lharpnefs that very often is followed with want
of fpirit and pricking; nay, fometimes it even be¬
comes vinegar, or always continues of a wheyilh co¬
lour ; all which proceeds from the heat of fermentation
that it almoH inHantly falls in on lying together ; the
pummice therefore Ihould remain no longer in the
vat, than until there may be enough broke for one
prefling, or that all be made into a cheefe, and prefled
the fame day it is broken.
Plate LXXXVI. fig. 2. is a perfpeftive view of the
cyder-prefs and apple-mill.
A, B, the bottom, or lower beam; C, D, the upper
beam ; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, the uprights; 4, 4, e, e, fpurs ;
Z, 2, 12, braces, or .profs pieces ; a, t>, capitals ; X,
blocks ; g, the ferew ; E, the back, or receiver ; E,
the cheefe, or cake of pummice, placed on the Hage
or bafon; G, the flage or bafon ; 10, 10, beams that
fupport the pieces of which the bafon is compofed ;
ir, perpendicular pieces for fupporting thefe beams j
H, the buckler ; R, S, a circular trough of the
apple-mill; T, L, V, compartments, or divifions,.
for different forts of apples^ M, the mill-ffone ;
L, M, axis of the mlll-Hone ; N, the fpring-tree
bar.
Cyder-S/uV//, a fpirituous liquor drawn from cyder
by diflillation, in the lame manner as brandy from
wine. The particular flavour of this fpirit is not the
moH agreeable, but it may with care be diVeffed
wholly of it, and rendered a perfetHly pure and infipid
Ipirit upon rediification. The traders in fpirituous li¬
quors are well enough acquainted with the value of
fuch a fpirit as this : they can give it the flavours of
fome other kinds, and fell it under their names, or
mix it in large proportion with the fqreign brandy,
rum,
Plate LXXXVL.
j
C Y L [ 2357 ] C Y N
rum, and arrack, in the Tale, without any danger of
a difcovery of the cheat.
CYDONIA, the quince ; fo called from Cydon, a
town of Crete, famous for its abounding with this
fruit. Linnaeus has joined this genus to the apple and
pear ; but as there is fuch a remarkable difference
between the fruits, we follow Mr Miller, who treats
the quince as a genus by itfelf.
Species. 1. The oblonga with an oblong fruit,
lengthened at the bafe. 2. The maliforma, with oval
leaves woolly on their under fide, and lenthened at
their bafe. 3. The lufitanica with obverfe oval leaves,
woolly on their under fide. There are lome other
varieties of this fruit propagated in fruit-gardens, and
in the nurferies for fale; one of which is a foft eatable
fruit, another very afiringent, and a third with a very
fmall fruit cottony all over, which is fcarce worth
keeping. Thefe Mr Miller fuppofes to be feminal va¬
riations, but the three others to be diftinft fpecies.
The Portugal quince is the molt valuable : its pulp
turns to a fine purple when Hewed or baked, and be¬
comes much fofter and lei's aultre than the others ; fo
is much fitter for making marmalade. The trees are all
ealily propagated, either by layers, fuckers, or cuttings,
which mult be planted in a moilt foil. Thole railed
from fuckers are feldom fo well rooted as thole which
are obtained from cuttings or layers, and are liibjeiff
to produce fuckers again in greater plenty ; which is
not fo proper for fruit-bearing trees. Thefe trees
require very little pruning; the chief thing to be
obferved is, to keep their Items clear from fuckers,
and cut off fuch branches as crofs each other: like-
wife all upright luxuriant fhoots from the middle
of the tree Ihould be taken off, that the head may
not be too much crowded with wood, which is of
ill confequence to all fruit-trees. Thefe forts may
alfo be propagated by budding or grafting upon
ftocks railed by cuttings; fo that the belt forts may
be' cultivated this way in greater plenty than by
any other method. Thefe are alfo in great efteem to
bud or graft pears upon ; which for fummer or autumn
fruits are a great improvement to them, efpecially
thofe defigned for walls and efpaliers; for the trees
upon thefe ftocks do not Ihoot fo vigoroufly as thofe
upon free-ftocks, and therefore may be kept in lefs
compafs, and fooner produce fruit: but hard winter-
fruits do not fucceed fo well upon thefe ftocks, their
fruit being fubjetft to crack, and are commonly ftony,
efpecially all the breaking pears : therefore thele
ftocks are only fit for melting pears and a moift
foil.
CYGNUS, or Swan, in ornithology. See Anas.
Cygnus, in aftronomy, the Swan, a conftellation of
the northern hemifphere. See Astronomy, n° 206.
CYLINDER, in geometry, a lolid body fuppofed to
be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram.
Rolling or Loaded Cylinder. See Mechanics,
n° 52.
CYLINDROID, in geometry, a folid body, ap¬
proaching to the figure of a cylinder, but differing from
it in fome refpecfs, as having the bafes elliptical, but
parallel and equal.
CYLINDRUS, in natural hiftory, the name of a ge¬
nus of Ihell-filh, of which there are many elegant and
precious fpecies. See two fpecimens on PlateLXXXIII.
fig. 4.
CYMA, in botany, the tender ftalks which herbs _
fend forth in the beginning of the fpring, particularly
thole of the cabbage kind.
Cyma, or Cymatium, in architedhire, a member
or moulding of the corniche, the profile of which is wa¬
ved, that is concave at top, and convex at bottom.
See Plate XXIX. fig. 7.
CYMBAL, y.v^a.’Kovy a mufical inftrument in ufe a-
mong the ancients. The cymbal was round, made of
brafs, like our kettle-drums, and as fome think, in their
form, but fmaller, and of different ufe. Ovid gives
cymbals the epithet of genialia, becaufe they were
ufed at weddings and other diverfions. The Jews had
their cymbals, or at leaft inftruments which tranlla-
tors render cymbals; but as to their matter and form,
critics are ftill in the dark. The modern cymbal is
a mean inftrument, chiefly in ufe among vagrants,,
gypfies, tsfc.
CYMENE, in botany, a name given by the ancient
Greeks to a plant with which they ufed to dye woolen
things yellow, and with which the women of thofer
times ufed alfo to tinge the hair yellow, that being the
favourite colour in thofe ages. The eymene of the’
Greeks is evidently the fame plant with the lutea herba
of the Latins; or what we call dyer's weed. See Re¬
seda.
CYNANCHE, a fpecies of quinzy, in which the
tongue is inflamed and fwelled, lb that it hangs out
beyond the teeth.
CYNANCHUM, bastard dogsbane ; a genus of
the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs
of plants. There are fix fpecies, of which the follow¬
ing are the molt remarkable. 1. The acutum, com¬
monly called Montpelier fcammony; and, 2. The
monfpeliacum, or round-leaved Montpelier (cammq-
ny. They abound with a milky juice like the
{‘purge, which iflues out wherever they are broken ;
and this milky juice when concreted, has frequently
been fold for fcammony. Thefe plants propagate ft*
fall by their creeping roots, that few people care to
admit them into gardens.
CYNANTHROPIA, in medicine, the diftemper oc-
cafioned by the bite of a mad dog, See (the Index
fubjoined to) Medicine.
CYNARA, the artichoak- ; a genus of the poly*
gamia sequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs
of plants. Of this genus there are four fpecies, but
only two are cultivated for ufe.
1. The fcolynius, or garden artichoak, hath large,
thick, perennial roots, crowned by a conliderable clu-
fter of large pennatifid, ereift leaves, two or three feet
long. In the middle are upright ftalks riling a yard
high, on the top of which is a large round fcaly head,
eompofed of numerous,.oval, calycinal fcales, inclofing
the florets, fitting on a broad flelhy receptacle, which,,
with the flelhy bafe of the fcales, is the only eatable
part of the plant. The varieties of this fpecies are,,
(r.) The conical green-headed French artichoak, ha¬
ving the fmall leaves terminated by fpines, a tall ftalkr
the head fomewhat conical, and of a light green co¬
lour, with the fcales pointed at top, opening and turn¬
ing outward. (2.) The globular-headed re&, Dutch
artichoak;,
Cynara.
C Y N [ 235S ] C Y N
Cynarus artichoak, having leaves without fpines, a ftrong ftalk,
l the head large, globular, a little comprefled at top,
-■ and of a reddilh-green colour ; broad obtufe fcales
emerginated at top, growing clofe, and turning in¬
ward. Of thefe varieties the lalt is defervedly the
ntoft efteemed, both on account of its fuperiority in
fize, and the agreeablenefs of its flavour. Both varie¬
ties are perennial in their root: but the leaves and
fruit-item die to the ground in winter, and their roots
remaining fend up frelh leaves and Items every fum-
mer, producing a fupply of artichoaks for 20 years if
required. The flowers and feed of all the plants of
this genus are produced in the centre of the head, the
fcales of which are the proper calix of the flower.
Which con lilts of numerous fmall bluilh florets, fucceed-
ed by downy feeds fitting naked on the receptacle.
2. The cardunculus, or cardoon, greatly refembles
the artichoak, but is of larger and more regular
growth ; the leaves being more upright, taller, broad¬
er, and more regularly divided ; and the ftalks of the
leaves blanched are the only eatable parts of the plant.
Culture. Both the varieties of the artichoak are
propagated by flips or fuckers, arifing annually from
the Itool or root of the old plants in fpring, which are
to be taken from good plants of any prefent plantation
in March, or the beginning of April, and planted in
the open quarter of the kitchen-garden, in rows five
feet afunder.; and they will produce artichoaks the
fame year an autumn. It Ihould, however, be remark¬
ed, that though artichoaks are of many years duration,
the annual produce of their fruit will gradually lelfen
in the lize of the eatable parts after the third or fourth
year, fo that a frelh plantation Ihould be made every
three or four years. The cardoon is a very hardy
plant, and profpers in the open quarters of the kitchen-
garden. It is propagated by feed fowed annually in
the full ground, in March ; either in a bed for tranf-
plantation, or in the place where they are deligned
to remain. The plants are very large, fo rauft Hand
at conftderable diltances from one another. By this
means you may have fome fmall temporary crops be¬
tween the rows, as of lettuce, fpinach, endive, cab¬
bage, favoy, or broccoli plants. In the latter end of
September, or in October, the cardoons will be grown
very large, and their foot-ftalks have acquired a thick
fubftance ; you muft then tye up the leaves of each
plant, to admit of earthing them up clofely all round
for blanching, which will take up fix or eight weeks;
and thus the plants will come in for ufe in November
and December, and continue all winter.
CYNAlAS of Theft'aly, the fcholar of Demoftherves,
flouriflied 275 years before Chrift. Pyrrhus had fo
high an efteem for him, that he fent him to Rome to
folicit a peace ; and fo vail was his memory, that the
day after his arrival, he faluted aH the fenators and
knights by name. Pyrrhus and he wrote a treatife
of War, quoted by Tully.
CYNICS, a fe<Sl of ancient philofophers, who va¬
lued themfelves upon their contempt of riches and
Rate, arts and fciences, and every thing, in fliort, ex¬
cept virtue or morality.
The cynic philofophers owe their origin and infti-
tution to Antifthenes of Athens, a difciple of Socrates,
who, being alked of what ufe his pliilolbphy had been
to him, replied, “ It enables me to live with myfelf.” Cynic 1
Diogenes was the moft famous of his difciples, in i i
whole life the fyftem of this philofophy appears in jts cyn<)fnr"<f
greateft perfection : he led a moft wretched life, a tub
having ferved him for a lodging, which he rolled be¬
fore him where ever he went; y'et he was, neverthe-
lefs, not the more humble on account of his ragged
cloak, bag, and tub: for, one day, entering Plato’s
houfe, at a time that there was a Iplendid entertain¬
ment there for feveral perfons of dillindtion, he jump¬
ed up upon a very rich couch, in all his dirt, faying,
“ I trample on the pride of Plato.” “ Yes, (replied
Plato), but with great pride, Diogenes.” He had the
utmoft contempt for all the human race, for he walked
the .ftreets of Athens, at noon-day, with a lighted lan-
thorn in his hand, telling the people, “ He was in
fearch of a man.” Amongft many excellent maxims
of morality, he held fome very pernicious opinions ;
for he ufed to fay, that the uninterrupted good fortune
of Harpalus, who generally palfed for a thief and a
robber, was a teftimony againft the gods. He re¬
garded chaftity and modelty as weaknefles; hence
Laertius obferves of him, that he did every thing
openly, whether it belonged to Ceres or Venus, though
he adds that Diogenes only ran to an excefs of impu¬
dence to put others out of conceit with it: but impu¬
dence was the rharabteriftic of thefe philofophers, who
argued, that what was right to be done, might be done
at all times, and in all places. The chief principle of
this fe£t, in common with the ftoics, was, that we
Ihould follow nature ; but they differed from the ftoics
in their explanation of that maxim, the cynics being
of opinion that a man followed nature, that gratified
his natural motions and appetites ; while the ftoics un-
derftood right reafon, by the word nature.
Cynic Spafm, a kind of convulfion, wherein the
patient imitates the bowlings of dogs.
CYNOCEPHALUS, in zoology, the trivial name
of a fpecies of Simia.
CYNOGLOSSUM, hound’s tongue; a genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria
clafs of plants. Their are eight fpecies, none of them
remarkable for their beauty. The root of one of
them, viz. the officinale, or common greater hound’s
tongue was formerly ufed in medicine, and fuppofed
to poffefs narcotic virtues; but it is difcarded from the
prefent pra<5tice. The fmell of the whole plant is
very difagreeable. Goats eat it; Iheep, horfes, and
fwine refufe it.
CYNOREXY, an immoderate appetite, to the de¬
gree of a difeafe ; called alfo fames canina, and bu¬
limy.
CYNOSURA, in aftronomy, a denomination given
by the Greeks to urfa minor, or “ the little bear,” by
which lailors fteer their courfe. The word is formed
of xvvocrHfct, q. d. the dog's tail. This is the conftella-
tion next our pole, confifting of feven ftars ; four
whereof are difpofed like the four wheels of a cha¬
riot, and three lengthwife reprefeming the beam ;
whence fome give it the name of the chariot, or
Charles’s viain.
CYNOSURUS, in botany, a genus of the triandria
dyginia clafs. There are ten fperies, four of which
are natives of Britain, viz. the cfiftatUs, or crefted
dog-tail
GYP [ 2350 ] C Y P
dog-tail grafs; the echinatus, or rough dog-tail grafs;
the cserukus, or blue dog-tail grafs ; and the paniceus,
or bearded dog-tail grafs.
CYPERUS, in botany, a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are 20 Ipecies, the only remarkable are the
round and the long fweet cyperus. The former is a
native of the Ealt Indies, and grows by the fides of
rivulets, ditches, and the like. The root is knotty,
wrapped round with fibrous ftrings not eafy to break,
of a brown colour without, and grey within ; of a
pleafant fcent, efpecially when Irelh, and well dried ;
the leaves-are green, and refemble thofe of the reed
and leek. The latter, commonly called Englijh, or
Flemijh cyprefs, grows in the water, and along banks
and river fides. Its root is as thick as an olive, full
of little knots or fpecks, of an oblong figure, grey
colour ; fweet, and fomewhat lharp taite, and almoft
without fmell when it is newly taken out of the ground.
The roots of both plants are eileemed cordial, diure¬
tic, and cephalic, refrlters of poifons, and expellers of
wind. Long cyprefs is much ufed by perfumers and
glovers.
CYPRiEA, in zoology, a genus of infedls belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teliacea. It is an animal
of the limax or fnail kind ; the fliell is one involuted,
fubovated, pbtufe, fmooth valve. The aperture on
each fide is linear, longitudinal, and teethed. There
are forty-four fpecies, diftinguiflied by the form of
their fiiells. The pediculus, or common gowrie, is re-
prefented Plate LXXXII. fig. 14.
This genus is called cypraa, and venerea, from its
being peculiarly dedicated to Venus; who was faid to
have endowed a Ihell of this genus with the powers
of a remora, fo as to impede: the courfe of the fhip
which was fent by Periander tyrant of Corinth, with
orders to cafirate the young nobility of Corcyra.
CYPRESS. See Cupressus.
CYPRIANUS (Thafcius-Caecilius), a principal fa¬
ther of the Chriftian church, was born at Carthage in
Africa, at the latter end of the fecond or beginning of
the third century. We know nothing more of his pa¬
rents than that they were heathens; and he himfelf
continued fuch till the laft 12 years of his life. He
applied himfelf early to the ftudy of oratory; and
fome of the ancients, particularly Laftantius, inform
us, that he taught rhetoric in Carthage with the high-
eft applaufe. Cyprian’s converfion is fixed by Pear-
fdn to the year 246-; apd was at Carthage, where, as
S* Jerome obferves, he had often employed his rhe-
toric in the defence of paganifm. It was brought a-
bout by one CaecHius, a prieft of the church of Car¬
thage, whole name Cyprian afterwards took ; and be¬
tween whom there ever after fubfifted fo clofe a
friendlhip, that Cscilius at his death committed to Cy¬
prian the care of his family. Cyprian was alfo a
married man himfelf; but asfbon as he was convert¬
ed to the faith, he refolved upon a ftate of continence.
Which was thought a high degree of piety, as not' be-
itlg yet become general. Being now a Chriftian, he
was to give the ufual proof of the fincerit^ofhis con¬
verfion; and that was by writing againft paganifm
and in-defence of Chriftianity. With this view he
compofed his piece De Gratia Dei, or “ concerning
the grace of God,” which he addrefled to Donatus.
It is a work of the fame nature with the Apologetic
of Tertuliian, and the Otftavius of Minutins Felix. He
next compofed a piece De Ido lor um Vanitate, or “ up¬
on the vanity of idols.” Cyprian’s behaviour, both
before and after his baptifm, was fo highly pleafing
to the bilhop of Carthage, that he ordained him a.
prieft a few months after. It was rather irregular to
ordain a man thus in his very noviciate ; but Cyprian
was fo extraordinary a perfon, and thought capable
of doing fuch lingular fervice to the church, that it-
leemed allowable in his cafe to difpenfe a little with
the form and difeipline of it. For belides his known
talents as a fecular man, he had acquired a high re¬
putation of fandtity lince his converfion ; having not*
only leparated himfelf from his wife, as we have ob-
ferved before, which in thofe days was thought an ex¬
traordinary aft of piety, but alfo configned over all
his goods to the poor, and given himfelf up entirely
to the’thingsof God. It was on this account no doubt,
too, that when the bifhop of Carthage died the year
after, that is, in the year 248, none was judged fo
proper to fucceed him as Cyprian. The quiet and re-
pofe wlpch the Chriftians had enjoyed during the laft
40 years, had, it feems, greatly corrupted their man¬
ners ; and therefore Cyprian’s firft care, after his ad¬
vancement to the bilhopric, was to correft diforders'
and reform abufes. Luxury was prevaient among
them ; and many of their women were not fo ftrift
as they fhould be, efpecially in the article of drefs.
This occafioned him to draw up his piece De habita-
virginum, or “ concerning the drefs of young wo¬
men in which, befides what he fays on that parti¬
cular head, he inculcates many leflbns of modefty and»
fobriety. In the year 249, the emperor Decius be*-
gan to ilfue out very fevere edifts againft the Chri¬
ftians, which particularly afffefted thofe upon the coaft'
of Africa ; and in the beginning of 250, the heathens,
in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, infifted
loudly upon Cyprian’s being thrown to the lions: a
common method of deftroying the primitive Chrifti—
ans. Cyprian upon this withdrew from his church at
Carthage, and fled into retirement, to avoid the fury-
of the perfeemions. He wrote in the place of his re¬
treat, pious and inftfuftive letters to thofe who had
been his hearers; and alfo to the libeltatici, a name-
by which thofe pufillanimous Chriftians were-called,
who procured certificates of the heathen magiftrates,
to fliew that they had complied with the emperor’s
orders in facrificing to idols. At his return to Car--
thage he held feveral councils on the repentance of
thofe who had fallen during this perfecutian, and other
points of difeipiine ; he oppofed the fchernes of Na-
vatus and Novatianus ; and contended for the rebap-
tifing of thofe who had- been baptifed by heretics. At
laft he died a martyr in the perfection of Valerian1'
and Gallienus, in 258. Cyprian wrote 81 letters, and
leveral treatifes. The beft edition of his works are
thofe of Pamelius in 1568 ; of Riga-hiusin 1648; and-
of Oxford in 1682. His works have alfo been tranf-
lated into Englifh by Dr Marfhall.
CYPRINUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies, be¬
longing to the order of abdominales. The month is
toothlefs; there are three rays in the gills'; the body
is
Cyptianus
IT
Cypriuus.
C Y P [ 2360 ] GYP
Cyprinus. is fmooth and white ; and the belly-fins have fre-
quently nine rays. There are 31 ipecies, principally
diftinguifhed by the number of rays in the vent-fin.
The moft remarkable are,
1. The carpio, or carp. This was introduced into
England about the year 1514, by Leonard Mafchal, to
whom we are alfo indebted for that excellent apple the
fcpin. Ruflia wants thefe fifh at this day. Sweden has
them only in the ponds of people of fafhion. They
chiefly abound in the rivers and lakes of Polilh Pruffia,
where they are fometimes taken of a vail fize. They
are there a great article of commerce, and fent in well-
boats to Sweden and Ruffia. The merchants purchafe
fhem out of the waters of the noblefle of the country,
who draw a good revenue from this article. The
ancients do not feparate the carp from the fea-fifh.
They are fometimes found in the harbour of Dantzic
between the town and a place called Mela.
Carp are very long-lived. Gefner brings an in-
ftance of one that was near too years old. They
grow allb to a very great fize ; fome authors fpeak
of carp weighing 200 pounds weight, and five feet in
length. The carp is a prodigious breeder : its quan¬
tity of roe has been fometimes found fo great, that
when taken out and weighed againlt the fifh itlelf, the
former has been found to preponderate. From the
fpawn of this fifh, caviare is made for the Jews, who
hold the flurgeon in abhorrence. The carp is ex¬
tremely cunning, and on that account is fometimes fty-
led the river-fox. They will fometimes leap over the
nets and efcape that way ; at other times they will
immerfe themfelves fo deep in the mud as to let the
net pafs over them. They are alfo very fhy in taking
a bait; yet at the fpawning-time they are fo fimple
as to fuffer themfelves to be tickled, handled, and
caught by any body that will attempt it. This fifh is
apt to mix its milt with the roe of other fifh ; from
which is produced a fpurious breed, as has been ob-
ferved in the offspring of the carp and tench, which
bore the greateft refemblance to the firft. The fame
hits alfo been obferved of the carp and bream.
In Polifh Pruflia, and many other parts of Germany,
the fale of carp conftitutes a part of the revenue of the
nobility and gentry : fo that the proper management
-of that fifh is reduced to a kind of fyilem, founded on
the experience of feveral generations; of the me¬
thods there pra&ifed, we have an account in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfadtions for 1771, art. 37. communica¬
ted by Mr J. Reinhold-Forfter; who fays, he has feen
carp treated and maintained according to thofe me¬
thods, “ above a yard long, and of 25 pounds weight
but had no opportunity of afcertaining their age. “ In
the pond, however, at Charlotrenburg, (he adds), a
palace belonging to the king of Pruffia, I faw more
than two or three hundred carp, between two and
three feet long; and I was told by the keeper they
were between 50 and 60 years ftanding. They were
tame, and came to the fhore in order to be fed ; they
fwallowed with eafe a piece of white bread, of the
fize of half a halfpenny roll.”—Mr Forfler, in this pa¬
per, alfo vouches a moft extraordinary circumftance,
namely, the poffibility of the carp’s not only living for
a confiderable time out of water, but of its growing
fat in its new element. Tlte author has feen the ex¬
periment fuceefsfully tried, and attended to the whole Cypr'mos.
procefs, in a nobleman’s houfe where he then refided, **
in the principality of Anhalt-Deflau. The fifh being
taken out of the water, is wrapped up in a large quan¬
tity of wet tnofs, fpread on a piece of net, which is,
then gathered into a purfe ; in fuch a manner, how¬
ever, as to allow him room to breathe. The net is
then plunged into water, and hung up to the cieling
of a cellar. At firft the dipping muft by repeated e-
very three or four hours ; but afterwards the carp
need only to be plunged into the water once in about
fix or feven hours. Bread foaked in milk is firft gi¬
ven him in fmall quantities. In a fhort time, the fifh
will bear more, and grow fat under this feemingly un¬
natural treatment. Mr Daines Barrington, in a note,
confirms a part of the preceding account, by menti¬
oning the practice of a certain fifh-monger near Glare-
market, who, in the winter, frequently expofes a
bufhel at leaf! of carp and tench, for fale, in the fame
dry veffel, for fix or feven hours; many of which are
not fold, and yet continue in health, though breathing
nothing but air, during the time above mentioned, for
feveral days fucceffively.
2. The barbus, or barbel, is fo extremely coarfe as
to be overlooked by the ancients till the time of the
poet Aufonius, who gives it no great character. They
frequent the ftill and deep parts of rivers, and live in
fociety, rooting like fwine with their nofes in the loft
banks. It is lb tame as to fufter itfelf to be taken by
the hand ; and people have been known to take num¬
bers by diving for them. In fummer they move a-
bout during night in fearch of food; but towards au¬
tumn, and during winter, confine themfelves to the
deepeft holes. The barbel is about the length of three
feet, and will weigh 18 pounds; the belly white; the
dorfal fin is armed with a remarkably ftrong fpine,
Iharply ferrated, with which it can inflift a very le-
vere and dangerous wound on the incautious handler,
and even do much damage to nets. They are the
worft and coarfe ft of frelli-water filh, and feldom eat
but by the poorer fort of people, who fometimes boil
them with a bit of bacon to give them a relilh. Their
roe is very noxious, affecting thofe who unwarily eat
of it with a naufea, vomiting, purging, and a flight
fwelling.
3. The tinea, or tench, was treated with the fame
difrefpect by the ancients as the barbel ; but is now
in much more repute. It has by fome been called the
phyfician of the fifh, and its flime has been faid to be
of fo healing a nature, that the wounded fiihes apply
it as a ftyptic. In this country it is reckoned a whole-
fome and delicious food ; but the Germans are of a
different opinion. By way of contempt they call it
the Jhoemaker. Gefner even fays, that it is infipid
and unwholefome. It does not commonly exceed
four or five pounds in weight, though fome have been
known to weigh ten or twenty. They love ftill wa¬
ters, and are rarely found in rivers: they are very
foolifh and eafily caught. The tench is thick and fhort
in proportion to its length. The colour of the back is
dufky ; the #orfal and ventral fins of the fame colour t
the head, fides, and belly, of a greenifh caft, moft
beautifully mixed with gold, which is in its greateft
fplendor when the fifh is in the higheft feafon.
4. The
C Y P [ 2361 ] GYP
iqvEyprimis. 4. The gudgeon is generally found in gentle ftreams,
‘ and is of a fmall fize, the largeft not exceeding half a
pound weight. They bite eagerly; and are affembled
by raking the bed of the river ; to this 1'pot they im¬
mediately crowd in flioals, in expectation of food.
5. The brama, or bream, is an inhabitant of lakes,
■ or the deep parts of ftill rivers. It is a filh that is
very little efteeined, being extremely infipid.
6. The rutilus, or roach, is a common filh, found in
many of the deep ftill rivers of this country. They
are gregarious, keeping in large Ihoals. It has never
been known to exceed five pounds in weight.
7. The leucifcus, or dace, like the roach is gregari¬
ous, haunts the fame places, is a great breeder, very
lively, and during fummer is very fond of frolicking
near the furface of the water. It never exceeds the
weight of a pound and an half: the fcales are fmaller
than thofe of the roach.
8. The cephalus, or chub, is a very coarfe filh and
full of bones. It frequents the deep holes of rivers;
and in fummer commonly lies on the furface beneath
the lhade of fome tree or bulh. It is very timid, fink¬
ing to the bottom on the leaft alarm, even at the paf-
fing of a lhadow ; but they will foon refume their
former fituation. It feeds on worms, caterpillars,
grafs-hoppers, and other coleopterous infeCts that hap¬
pen to fall into the water ; and it will even feed
on cray-filh. It will rife to a fiy. Some of this kind
have been known to weigh eight or nine pounds.
9. The alburnus, or bleak. Thefe filh are very
common in many of our rivers, and keep together in
large Ihoals. At certain feafons thefe filh feem to be
in great agonies : they tumble about near the furface
of the water, and are incapable of fwimmlng far from
the place ; but in about two hours they recover and
difappear. Filh thus affeCted, the Thames filhermen
call mad bleaks. They feem to be troubled with a
fpecies of gordius, or hair-worm, which torments them
fo, that they rife to the furface and then die. The
bleak feldom exceeds five or fix inches in length.
Artificial pearls are made with the fcales of this filh,
and probably alfo with thofe of the dace. They are
beat into a fine powder, then diluted with water, and
introduced into a thin glafs bubble, which is after¬
wards filled with wax. The French were the in¬
ventors of this art.
During the month of July there appear in the
Thames, near Blackwall and Greenwich, innumer¬
able multitudes of fmall filh, known to the Londoners
by the name of white bait. They are efteemed very
delicious when fried with fine flour, and occafion,
during the feafon, a vaft refort of the lower order of
epicures to the taverns at the places where they are
taken at. There are various fuppolitions concerning,
thefe filhes, all of which terminate in reckoning.them
the fry of fome other fifli. Mr Pennant thinks they
are of the carp kind, though he cannot determine the
fpecies to which they belong.. They have a greater
fimilarity to the bleak than to any ocher, but he thinks
they cannot be the young fry of this fpefies; becaufe
die bleak is found in many of the Britilh ftreams, but
the white bait only in the Thames. The ufual length
of this filh is only two inches.
jo. The auratus, or golden filh, are now quite na-
Vol. III.
turalized in Britain, and breed as freely in the open Cyprcpe-
waters as the common carp. They were firft intro- dlum-
duced into England about the year 1691, but were not c ”us
generally known till 1728, when a great number—■ ■
were brought over, and prefented firft to Sir Matthew
Dekker, and by him circulated round the neighbour¬
hood of London, from whence they have been diftri-
buted to moft parts of the country. They come ori¬
ginally from China. The moft beautiful kinds are ta¬
ken in a fmall lake in the province of Che-kyang.
Every perfon of falhion keeps them for amufement,
either in porcelaine veffels, or in the fmall bafons that
decorate the courts of the Chinefe houfes. The beau¬
ty of their colours, and their lively motions give great
entertainment, especially to the ladies, whole plea-
fures, by reafon of the cruel policy of that country,
are extremely, limited. In form of the body, the
golden filhes bear a great refemblance to the carp.
They have been known in this illand to arrive at the
length of eight inches; but in their native place they
are faid to grow to the fize of the largeft herring.
The colours vary greatly ; fome are marked with a
bright blue, with brown, and with bright filver ; but
the general colour is gold, of a moft amazing fplen-
dor.
CYPREPEDIUM, the lady’s slipper, in botany ;
a genus of the diandria order, belonging to the gy-
nandria clafs of plants. There are three fpecies ; of
which only one, viz. the calceolus, is a native of Bri¬
tain. It grows in rough ground, in different parts of
the illand. The other fpecies are natives of America.
None of them are eafily propagated in gardens, and
therefore mult be tranfplanted from thofe places where
they are natives.
CYPRUS, an illand fituated in the Levant, or moft
eafterly part of the Mediterranean fea, between 33
and 36 degrees of eaft longitude, and 30 and 34
of north latitude. In ancient times this illand was
known by the names of Acamis, Ceraftis, Afpalia,.
Amathus, Macaria, Cryptos, Colinia, Sphecia, Paphia,
Salaminia iErofa, and Cyprus. The etymologies of
thefe names are neither very eafily found, nor are
they of much importance. The name by which it
was moft generally known is that of Cyprus, faid to
be derived from cypres, the name of a Ihrub with
which the illand abounded; but what kind of Ihrub
that was, is ftill difputed.
Cyprus, according to Eratofthenes, was firft difco-
vered by the Phoenicians, two or three generations be¬
fore the days of Afterius and Minos kings of Crete ;
that is, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s computation,
2006 years before the Chriftian Asra. - It was at that-
time fo full of wood that it could not be tilled, and
the Phoenicians firft cut down that-wood for melting
copper, with which the ifland abounded; and after¬
wards, when they began to fail without fear on the
Mediterranean, that is, after the Trojan war, they:
built great navies of the wood produced on the illand.
Jofephus,. however, informs us, that the dependents'
of Citthn, the fon of Javan, and grandlbn of Japhat,
were the original inhabitants of Cyprus. According
to his account, Cittim, feeing his brother Tarlhilh fet¬
tled in Cilicia where he built the city of Tarfus, fet¬
tled with his followers in this oppofite illand; and ei-
13 U ther
Cypr'ftS.
C Y P [ 2362 ] C Y It
ther he or his defcendents laid the foundations of the
city oi Citium, which, according to Ptolemy was the
mod ancient in the iiland. As Cyprus was too narrow
to contain the great numbers who attended him, he
left here asanany as might ferve to people the coun¬
try, and with the relt palled over into Macedon.
The ifland of Cyprus was divided among feveral
petty kings till the time of Cyrus the Great. He fub-
dued them all; but left each in poffelfion of his king¬
dom, obliging themonly to pay him an annual tribute,
and to fend liipplies of men, money, arid fliips when
required. The Cyprian princes lived thus fubjeft to
the Perfians till the reign of Darius Hyftafpes, when
they attempted to lhake olf the yoke, but with bad fuc-
cefs; their forces being entirely defeated, and them-
lelves again obliged to fubmit. They made another
more fuceefsful attempt about the year before Chrift
557; but, however, could never totally free them-
felves from their fuhjedtion. It is very probable that
they fubmitted to Alexander the Great, though hifto-
rians are ftlenr as to that event. On the death of the
Macedonian conqueror, the dominion of Cyprus was
difputed by Antigonus and Ptolemy the fon of Lagris.
At laft Antigonus prevailed, and the whole iiland fub-
- mitted to him about 304 years before Chrift. He arid his
fon Demetrius kept polfeflion of it for 11 years, when
it was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly poffelTed by
him and his defcendents till 58 years before Chrift,
when it was molt unjuftly feized by the Romans. In
the time of Auguftus, it began to be ranked among the
proconfular provinces, and to be governed^ by magi-
ftrates lent thither by the fenate. In the year 648, it
was-conquered by the Saracens; but recovered by the
Romans in 9J7. They held it, however, but for a
very fhort time, and the barbarians kept polTeffion of
it till the time of the croifades. It was then reduced by
the croifaders; and Richard I. of England gave it to
the princes of the Lulignan family, who held it till the
year 1570. They divided it into 12 provinces, in
each-of which was a capital city from which the pro¬
vince was denominated. So conliderable was the iiland
at this time, that belides the cities above mentioned,
and others of lefs note, it contained 800 villages. In
1570, it was taken by the Turks, and thofigh it hath
ever fince continued under their tyrannical yoke, is
ftill fo confiderable as to be governed by a beglerbeg,
and (even fangiacs under him.
The air in this illand is for the moft part very un-
wholefome, on account of the many fens and marlhes
with which the country abounds. The foil is an ex¬
cellent fertile clay; and would produce all the necef-
faries of life in abundarice, if properly cultivated.
There are no rivers in the country ; but that defeH is
fupplied by abundance of fprings. By reafon of the
uncultivated ftate of the country, they are alfo great¬
ly infefted with poifonous reptiles of various kinds.
The people are extremely ignorant, and lafeivious, as
indeed they are remarked to have been from the 're-
moteft antiquity. Anciently the worlhip of Venus
was eftablilhed in this illand, whence her title among
the poets of the Cyprian queen ; and fucb an inclina¬
tion had the inhabitants to become the votaries of this
goddefs, both iri theory and praflice, that the young
women ufed to proftitute themfelves in her temple in
order to raife themfelves portions. Nor are their fuc-
ceflbrs faid to be much better at this day. The ex¬
ports of the illand are filks, wool, umber, and wine ;
the imports are French and Venetian broad cloths;
and fometimes a few bales of Englifli manufadlure,
cutlery wares, fugar, tin. Lead, 13c.
Knights o/’Cyprus, an order inftituted by Guy de
Lulignan, titular king of Jerufalem, to whom Rich¬
ard I. of England, after conquering this illand, made
over his right.
CYRANO (Bergerac), a French author, born in
Gafcony, about the year 1620. He firft entered into
the army, where his natural courage engaged him fre¬
quently in duels in the quality of a fecond: which,
with other ralh aiftions, procured him the title of the
Intrepid. Bdt the little profpeH he faw of prefer¬
ment made him renounce the trade of war for the
exercife of wit. His comic hiftories of the ftates and
empires in the fun and moon, Ihew him well acquaint¬
ed with the Cartelian philofophy and to have a lively
imagination. Our lord Orrery clalfes him with
Swift for his turn of humour, which he fays the latter
adopted and purfued.
CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, cor-
refponding to the prefent kingdom and defert of Barca
and Tripoli. It was originally inhabited by a number
of barbarous nations, differing little from great gangs of
robbers. Afterwards fome colonies from Greece fet¬
tled here, and Cyrenaica became fo powerful a ftate,
that it waged war with Egypt and Carthage, often
with fuccefs. In the time of Darius Hyftafpes, Arce-
filaris, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica was driven
from the throne ; on which his mother Pheretima ap¬
plied for afliftance to the king of Cyprus. Her fon af¬
terwards returning to Barca, the chief city of Cyrene,
was there alfaftinated, together with his father-in-law.
Pheretima finding herfelf difappointed by the king of
Cyprus, applied to Darius Hyftafpes, and by the alfifi¬
ance of the Perfians reduced Barca. Here Ihe beha¬
ved with the utmoft cruelty, caufing all thofe who
had been concerned in her fon’s death to be impaled,
and the breads of their wives to be cut off and af¬
fixed near them. She is faid to haVe been afterwards
devoured by worms; which was looked upon as a di¬
vine judgement for her exceffive cruelty. N The pri-
foners in the mean time were fent to Darius, who fet¬
tled them in a diftritft of BaHria, from therii called
Barca. Cyrenaica, however, feems to have remain¬
ed free till the time of Alexander the Great, who con¬
quered it along with Egypt. Soon after his death the
inhabitants recovered their liberty; but were in a fhort
time reduced by Ptolemy king of Egypt. Under thefe
kings it remained till Ptolemy Phyfcon made it over to
his baftard fon Apian, who in the 658 'h year of Rome
left it by will to the Romans. The fenate permitted all
the cities to be governed by their own laws ; and tins
immediately filled the country with tyrants, thofe who
were moft potent in every city or diftridl, endeavour¬
ing to afliime the fovereignty of it. Thus the kingdom
was thrown into great confufion ; but Lucullus in a
good meafiire* reftored the public tranquillity on his
coming thither during the firft Mithridatic war. It was
found impoflible, however, totally to fupprefs thefe
difturbances till the country was reduced to the form
of
Cyprus- 1
8
Cyrenaica. j
c Y T [ 4.363 ] C Z A
yrenaics a Romntr province, which happened about 20 years
|| after the death of Apian, and 76 before .Chrift. Upon
ytherea. a revolt,the city of Gyrene was ruined by the Romans;
" “but they afterwards rebuilt it. In procefs of time it
fell to the Arabs; and then to the Turks, who are the
prefeut mailers of it.
CYRENAICS, a feet of ancient philofophers, fo cal¬
led from their founder, Ariftippus of Cyrene, a difciple
of Socrates.
The great principle of their doctrine was, that
the fupreme good of man in this life is pleafure ;
whereby they not only meant a privation of pain, and
a tranquillity of mind, but an alfemblage of all men-
tual and fenfual pleafures, particularly ttie laft.
CYRIL (S1) bilhop of Jerufalem, fucceeded Maxi¬
mus in 3 jo. He was afterward depofed for the crime
of expoling to fale the treafures of the church, and ap-
plying the money to the fupport of the poor during a
great famine. Under Julian he was reltored ,to his
lee, and was firmly eftablilhed to all his old honours
and dignities under Theodofius; in which he conti¬
nued unmolefted to his death in 386. The remains
of this father confilt only of 23 catechefes, and one let¬
ter to the emperor Conftantius.
Cyrill (Sl) patriarch of Alexandria, fucceeded
Theophilus, his uncle, in 412. Scarce was he inltal-
led, when he began to exert his authority with great
vigour; he drove the Novatians and Jews from Alex¬
andria, permitting their wealth and-fynagogues to-be
taken from them. This proceeding highly difpleafed
Oreftes, the governor of the city, who law that if the bi-
fhop’s authority was not foon fupprelfed it might grow
too ftrong for that of the magiftrate. Upon which a
kind of civil war broke out between Oreftes and the
bilhop; many tumults were raifed, and fome battles
fought in the very llreets of Alexandria. S' Cyrill alfo
diftinguilhed himfelf by his zeal agaipll Neftorius hi¬
lltop of Conllantinople, who, in fome of his homilies,
had aflerted that the virgin Mary ought not to be cal¬
led the mother of God. The difpute ap firlt proved
unfavourable to Cyrill, whofe opinion was not only
condemned, but himfelf depri ved of his bilhopric and
thrown into prifon. But he was foon after releafed,
and gained a complete vidtory over Neftorius, who in
431 was depofed from his fee of Conftantinople. Cyrill
returned to his fee at Conftantinople, where he died
in 444. S' Cyrill alfo wrote again!! Theodorus of
Mopfuefta, Diodorus of Tarfus, and Julian the apof-
tate. He compofed commentaries on S' John’s gofpel,
and wrote feveral other books. His works were pu-
blilhed in Greek and Latin in 1638, 30 fix volumes folio.
CYRUS I. and II. kings of Perfia. See (Hiflory of)
Persia.
CYST, the bag, or tunic, including all ineyfted tu¬
mors, as the feirrhus, atheroma, fteotoma, melice-
res, be.
CYSTIC, in anatomy,a name given to two arteries
and two veins.
Cystic duct. See Anatomy, nQ 358, e.
CYTHEREA, a name of Venus, fo called from Cy-
thera an ifland of Greece, where poets fay Ihe was
formed of the froth of the fea. She had a fumptuous
temple there confecrated to her under the name of
Venus Urania.
CYTISUS, TREE TREFOIL ; a genus of the decan- CytifuS
dria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of plants. H
There are 11 fpecies, of which the molt remarkable Czackthum
are, 1. The laburnum, or large deciduous cytilus, hath
a large upright tree-ftem, branching into a full-l’pread-
ing head, 20 or 30 feet high, having fmooth greenilh
branches, oblong ot(al entire leaves, growing by threes-
on long llender foot-ftalks ; and from the (ides of all
the branches, numerous yellow flowers colledited into
long fpikes, hanging loofeiy downward, and appear¬
ing in May. 2. The felfilifolius, often called cytifus
fecundus clufu, have a low Ihrubby ftem dividing into
numerous creel: brownjfh branches, forming a bufhy
head five or fix feet high, garnilhed with linall oval
leaves growing by threes ; fome on very Ihort foot-
ftalks, others fitting clofe ; and bright yellow flowers
in Ihort erebf fpikes at the ends of the branches, ap¬
pearing in June. 3. The nigricans grows with a Ihort
Ihrubby ftem, dividing low into many eretft flender
branches, forming a bulhy head four or five feet higlt,
with oblong, oval, trifoliate leaves, and yellow flow¬
ers, terminating all the branches in upright fpikes, ap¬
pearing in July. 4. The hirfutus, or hairy evergreen
Neapolitan cytifus, riles with an upright Ihrubby grey
ftem, fending out many ereeft greenilh hairy branches,
forming a fine head fix or eight feet high, clofely gar¬
nilhed with fmall hairy trifoliated leaves on fhort foot-
ftalks, and yellow flowers from the fides of the branches
in-Aloft pendulous fpikes, appearing in June. 5. The
Auftriacus, Auftrian, or Tartarian evergreen cytifus,
hath a Ihrubby ftem, dividing low into many greenilh
branches, forming a bufhy head three or four 'feet
high, having fmooth whitilh-green leaves, and bright
yellow flowers in clofe umbellate heads at the ends of
the branches, having a duller of leaves under each
head. Thefe flowers appear in May,
Culture, &c. All the forts are hardy, and will pro-
fper in any common foil and expolure ; though, as the
hirfutus is fdmetimes affeded by fevere froft, it Ihouid
have a dry foil, and a fomewhat flickered fituation.
They may all be propagated by feeds or cuttings, and
all the culture they require in the nurfery is to have
the ground kept clear from weeds, and dug annually
between the rows. Though they are generally con-
fidered only as ornamental Ihrubs, yet the firft fpecies,
if originally trained to a ftem, and fuffered to Hand,
will grow to the fize of pretty large timber trees.
They grow naturally on the Alps, the mountains of
Dauphine, and the highlands of Scotland ; and the
timber being very hard, and taking a fine polilh, is
frequently uied for making chairs, tables, bed-fteads,
and other furniture ; and is laid to equal the fineft ma-
hogony in beauty., A fpecies of cytifus, called by
Linnseus cytifus cajan, is known in die Weft Indies,
where it is a native, by the name of the pigeon-pea,
from the feeds being the common food of thefe birds
in that part of the world. Thefe feeds are alfo fome-
times ufed as food for the human fpecies; and as they
are of a very binding quality, afford a wholefome nou-
rilhment during the wet feafon, when dyfenteries are
fo frequent.
CZACKTHURN, a ftrong town of Germany, in
Auftria, and near the frontiers- of Hungary. It is
feated between the rivers Drave and Muhir, in E.
Long.
Czar
Czenftokow
e z e [ 2364 ] 'c z o
Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 46. 24.
CZAR, a title of honour aflumed by the great dukes,
or, as they are now llyled, emperors of Rujfia.
Beckman makes no doubt but they took this title,
by corruption, from C as far, emperor; and accordingly
they bear an eagle, as the fymbol of their empire, and
the word Cxfar in their arms.
CZASLAU, a town of Bohemia, and capital of a
circle of the fame name. Here is the higheft tower
in all Bohemia ; and near this place the king of Pruflia
gained a vidlory over the Auftrians in 1742. It is
feated on the river Crudenka, in E. Long. IJ. 33.
N. Lat. 49. 50.
CZENSTOKOW, a town of Poland in the palati¬
nate of Cracovia, with a fort, in which they keep a
rich treafure, called “ the treafure of the virgin Ma¬
ry.” The pilgrims flock hither fo much for the fake
of a convent near it, that it is called the Loretto of
Poland. The town is fituated on the river Warte, in
E. Long. 19. 15. N. Lat. 50. 48.
CZERNIC, a town of Carniola, in Auftria, fituated
in E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 12. It is remarkable
for its lake, for a particular defcription of which fee
the article Zirchnitzer.
CZERNIKOU, a confiderable town of Mufcovy,
and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a cafile.
It is feated on the river Dezna, in E. Long. 32. 13.
N. Lat. 51. 20.
CZONGRODT, a town of upper Hungary, and
capital of a territory of the fame name, at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Teifle and Keres. E. Long. 2cv
57. N. Lat. 46. 50.
END OF THE THIRD VOLUME.
81
82
83
84
83
86
87
88
89
9°
Directions for placing the
Plate LXVII. To face
LXVIII.
LXIX.
LXX. 7
LXXI. 5
LXXII. 7
LXXIII. 5
LXXIV. 7
LXXV. 5
LXXVI.
Page 1560 ,
1590
1604
1736
1764
1816
Plates in this Volume.
91 LXXVII. To face Plate 1830
92 LXXVIII. - - - 1952 .
93 LXXIX. -‘ - - - 1990
94 LXXX. .... 2020
95 LXXXI. - - - 2044
96 LXXXII. - - - 2063
97 LXXX1II. - - - 2171
98 LXXXIV. - - - 2204
99 LXXXV. - - - 2328
1 bo LXXXVI. - - - 2356
N. B. Errata, Omissions, &c. noticed and fdpplied in the APPENDIX at the end of the Work-